THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1921-22


Table of Contents

PREFACE

With this issue, the thirtieth of the series, the Year-book takes on a new form, the demy-octavo size of page having given way to the royal octavo, which not only is more satisfactory from the point of view of economy of space, but is more suitable for the display of tabular matter.

The present issue also introduces a change in the year-number of the book. Hitherto the book has been designated by the year of compilation, though in recent years it has not appeared until early in the following year. For the future the book will bear the year of publication, and to preserve the continuity of the series the present number is called the 1921-22 issue.

With this issue also a decided advance has been made towards the attainment of the ideal set up some years ago, but kept in abeyance through war and post-war conditions, of making the Year-book a full and authoritative book of reference on all branches of the Dominion's activities, and all aspects of her social and economic characteristics and progress. Unfortunately, even this issue suffers from the disabilities imposed by the present financial position.

The book has been largely rearranged, and now consists of thirty-six sections, several of which have been entirely rewritten, while very few have not been partially recast. Attention is particularly drawn to the following sections in this connection:—

II.History, Constitution, and Administration.
IV.Statistical Organization.
IX.Justice.
XVII.Forestry.
XXVII.Insurance.
XXVIII.Friendly Societies.
XXIX.Building Societies.
XXX.Mortgages.
XXXII.Industrial Disturbances.

Other sections also contain new features, among which may be mentioned the articles dealing with the following subjects:—

  • Government Departments and their Permanent Heads (p. 35).

  • Sexes of children born (p. 64).

  • Infantile mortality (p. 92).

  • Deaths from puerperal causes (p. 104).

  • Medical examination for Expeditionary Force (p. 125).

  • Health Act, 1920 (p. 128).

  • Medical and dental inspection of school-children (p. 133).

  • Naval defence (p. 182).

  • Farm machinery and employees (p. 310).

  • Consumption of wheat (p. 315).

  • Wheat control and guarantee (p. 317).

  • Census statistics of poultry (p. 341).

  • Census statistics of bees (p. 343).

  • Edible fishes of New Zealand (p. 356).

For the information of those desiring more detailed statistics on various subjects than can be given in the Year-book, an appendix has been added giving the list of subjects dealt with in detail in other publications of the Census and Statistics Office, together with a schedule of the principal parliamentary reports containing statistical information.

The book generally contains information for the calendar years ending 1920 and the financial years to the 31st March, 1921; but an appendix, which appears for the first time, is added showing for various items later statistical information than was available at the time the appropriate section went to press. The appendix includes figures of population as ascertained at the census of the 17th April, 1921, for each urban area; county, borough, and town district in the Dominion.

Frequent use has again been made of diagrams to illustrate many of the more important features; these generally enable the progress of events and the characteristics of movement to be more readily grasped than do the numerical tables themselves.

                                                                                                                                                               MALCOLM FRASER,
                                                                                                                                                                              Government Statistician.

Census and Statistics Office,
                   -Wellington, N.Z., 1st March, 1922.

Chapter 1. SECTION I.—DESCRIPTIVE.

NEW ZEALAND.—LOCATION AND BOUNDARIES.

THE Dominion of New Zealand consists of two large and several small islands in the South Pacific. These may be classified as follows:—

  1. Islands forming the Dominion proper, for statistical and general practical purposes:—

    • North Island and adjacent islets

    • South Island and adjacent islets.

    • Stewart Island and adjacent islets.

    • Chatham Islands.

  2. Outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand, as proclaimed in 1847:—

    • Three Kings Islands.

    • Auckland Islands.

    • Campbell Island.

    • Antipodes Islands.

    • Bounty Islands.

    • Snares Islands.

  3. Islands annexed to New Zealand:—

    • Kermadec Islands.

    • Cook Islands.

    • Niue (or Savage) Island.

    • Palmerston Island.

    • Penrhyn (or Tongareva) Island.

    • Manahiki Island.

    • Rakaanga Island.

    • Pukapuka (or Danger) Island.

    • Suwarrow Island.

The proclamation of British Sovereignty over New Zealand, dated the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34° 30′ S. lat.; on the south 47° 10′ S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0′ E. long.; on the west, 166° 5′ E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In April, 1842, by Royal Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. By Proclamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, lying between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude, were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then Colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation bearing date the 10th June, 1901, the Cook Group of islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary-lines mentioned in the following schedule, were included:—

A line commencing at a point at the intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich, and proceeding due north to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; and thence due east to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich.

By mandate of the League of Nations the New Zealand Government also now administers the former German possession of Western Samoa; and, jointly with the Imperial Government and the Government of Australia, holds the League's mandate over the Island of Nauru.

AREA.

The total area of the Dominion of New Zealand, exclusive of the territories administered under mandate, is 103,861 square miles. The areas of the principal islands are as follows:—

 Square Miles.
North Island and adjacent islets44,130
South Island and adjacent islets58,120
Stewart Island and adjacent islets662
Chatham Islands372
          Total Dominion proper103,284
“Outlying” islands284
“Annexed” islands293
       Grand total103,861

MOUNTAINS.

The mountainous character of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics. In the North Island mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first-named can be classed as extinct. Other dormant volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, both of which have, in recent years, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The South Island contains much more mountainous country than is to be found in the North. Along almost its entire length runs the mighty chain known as the Southern Alps, rising to its culmination in Mount Cook (or Aorangi, “the Sky-piercer,” in Maori nomenclature). No fewer than six peaks of the Southern Alps attain a height of over 10,000 ft. Owing to the snow-line being low in New Zealand, many large and beautiful glaciers exist. The Tasman Glacier (Southern Alps), which has a total length of over eighteen miles and an average width of one mile and a quarter, is the largest. On the west coast the terminal face of the Franz Josef Glacier is but a few hundred feet above sea-level.

A list showing the altitude of all peaks over 7,000 ft., and also the mountain-range of which they form part, is appended:—

Name.Range.Height in Feet.
CookSouthern Alps12,349
TasmanSouthern Alps11,467
Malte BrunSouthern Alps10,421
SeftonSouthern Alps10,390
HaidingerSouthern Alps10,178
De la BecheSouthern Alps10,058
AspiringSouthern Alps9,960
TapuaenukuKaikoura9,467
Elie de BeaumontSouthern Alps9,279
EarnshawSouthern Alps9,200
Ruapehu..9,175
ArrowsmithSouthern Alps9,171
Tutoko PeakDarran9,042
BurnsSouthern Alps8,984
The Nun's VeilSouthern Alps8,975
HopkinsSouthern Alps8,800
Brodrick's PeakSouthern Alps8,777
KaitarauSeaward Kaikoura8,700
ChristinaDarran8,675
SealySouthern Alps8,651
EvansSouthern Alps8,580
GlenmarySouthern Alps8,524
DechanSouthern Alps8,500
WhakariSeaward Kaikoura8,500
EdwardSouthern Alps8,459
PolluxSouthern Alps8,341
ThumbsTwo Thumbs8,338
JukesSouthern Alps8,289
TyndallSouthern Alps8,282
AlbaSouthern Alps8,268
BrewsterSouthern Alps8,264
Egmont..8,260
CastorSouthern Alps8,256
Percy SmithSouthern Alps8,249
RobertsSouthern Alps8,239
HuxleySouthern Alps8,201
AnstedSouthern Alps8,157
Dun FiunarySouthern Alps8,147
TyndallSouthern Alps8,116
HumphriesSouthern Alps8,028
Glacier DomeSouthern Alps7,810
Double ConeRemarkables7,688
FranklynSpenser7,671
EdisonSouthern Alps7,669
TraversSt. Arnaud7,666
St. MarySouthern Alps7,656
Ben NevisRemarkables7,650
TaylorSouthern Alps7,641
FoxTwo Thumbs7,604
UnaSpenser7,540
Ngauruhoe..7,515
RollestonSouthern Alps7,453
ErosSouthern Alps7,452
EllaSpenser7,438
SomnusBarrier7,424
St. BernardKaikoura7,416
MusgraveTwo Thumbs7,379
NeaveSouthern Alps7,350
CosmosBarrier7,340
Faerie QueenSpenser7,332
MaitlandSouthern Alps7,291
PaskeSpenser7,260
HumboldtSpenser7,240
JollieSouthern Alps7,232
EnysSouthern Alps7,202
PottsSouthern Alps7,197
ArkBarrier7,190
Minaret PeaksSouthern Alps7,189
HuttSouthern Alps7,180
DillonKaikoura7,132
MarshmanSouthern Alps7,116
DoraSpenser7,100
SinclairTwo Thumbs7,022
BallanceSouthern Alps7,008

HOT SPRINGS.

The hot springs of the North Island form one of the most remarkable features of New Zealand. They are found over a large area, extending from Tongariro, south of Lake Taupo, to Ohaeawai, in the extreme north—a distance of some three hundred miles; but the principal seat of hydrothermal action appears to be in the neighbourhood of Lake Rotorua, about forty miles north-north-east from Lake Taupo. By the destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces at Lake Rotomahana during the eruption of Mount Tarawera on the 10th June, 1886, the neighbourhood was deprived of attractions unique in character and of unrivalled beauty; but the natural features of the country—the numerous lakes, geysers, and hot springs, some of which possess remarkable curative properties in certain complaints—are still very attractive to tourists and invalids. The vast importance of conserving this region as a sanatorium for all time has been recognized by the Government, and it is dedicated by Act of Parliament to that purpose.

There are also several small hot springs in the South Island, the best-known being those at Hanmer.

A full account of the springs in the Rotorua, Te Aroha, and Hanmer districts was given in the 1905 number of the Year-book, with analyses of the waters of some of the principal springs.

RIVERS.

The rivers of New Zealand were discussed in the 1914 issue of this book in an article (pages 948 to 956) supplied by R. Speight, Esq., M.Sc., F.G.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum. Considerations of space in the present book prevent more than a list of the more important rivers being given. These are as follows, the lengths shown being in most cases only approximate. Very few of these rivers are navigable by vessels of any size.

 Miles.
NORTH ISLAND.
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—
     Piako60
     Waihou (or Thames)90
     Rangitaiki95
     Whakatane60
     Waiapu55
     Waipaoa50
     Wairoa50
     Mohaka80
     Ngaururoro85
     Tukituki65
Flowing into Cook Strait—
     Ruamahanga70
     Hutt35
     Otaki30
     Manawatu (tributaries: Tiraumea and Pohangina)100
     Rangitikei115
     Turakina65
     Wangaehu85
     Wanganui (tributaries: Ohura, Tangarakau, and Maunganui-te-ao)140
     Waitotara50
     Patea65
Flowing into Tasman Sea—
     Waitara (tributary: Maunganui)65
     Mokau75
     Waikato (tributary: Waipa)220
     Wairoa95
     Hokianga40
 Miles.
SOUTH ISLAND.
Flowing into Cook Strait—
     Aorere45
     Takaka45
     Motueka75
     Wai-iti30
     Pelorus40
     Wairau (tributary: Waihopai)105
     Awatere70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—
     Clarence (tributary: Acheron)125
     Conway30
     Waiau (tributary: Hope)110
     Hurunui90
     Waipara40
     Ashley55
     Waimakariri (tributaries: Bealey, Poulter, Esk, and Broken River)93
     Selwyn55
     Rakaia (tributaries: Mathias, Wilberforce, Acheron, and Cameron)95
     Ashburton67
     Rangitata75
     Opihi50
     Pareora35
     Waihao45
     Waitaki (tributaries: Tasman, Tekapo, Ohau, Ahuriri, and Hakataramea)135
     Kakanui40
     Shag45
     Taieri125
     Clutha (tributaries: Kawarau, Makarora, Hunter, Manuherikia, and Pomahaka)210
Flowing South into Foveaux Strait—
     Mataura120
     Oreti105
     Aparima65
     Waiau (tributaries: Mararoa, Clinton, and Monowai)115
Flowing into the Tasman Sea—
     Cleddau and Arthur20
     Hollyford50
     Cascade40
     Arawata45
     Haast (tributary: Landsborough)60
     Karangarua30
     Fox25
     Waiho20
     Wataroa35
     Wanganui35
     Waitaha25
     Hokitika (tributary: Kokatahi)40
     Arahura35
     Taramakau (tributaries: Otira and Taipo)45
     Grey (tributaries: Ahaura, Arnold, and Mawhera-iti)75
     Buller (tributaries: Matakitaki, Maruia, and Inangahua)105
     Mokihinui30
     Karamea45
     Heaphy25

LAKES.

In a further article in the 1915 issue of the Year-book Mr. Speight dealt at length with the lakes of the Dominion. A summary of the statistics of the chief lakes of New Zealand is here given:—

Lake.Length, in Miles.Greatest Breadth, in Miles.Area in Square Miles.Drainage Area, in Square Miles.Approximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet per Second.Height above Sea-level, in Feet.Greatest Depth, in Feet.
NORTH ISLAND.
Taupo25172389955,0001,211534
Rotorua7 1/263215842091584
Rotoiti10 3/42 1/41426500913230
Tarawera6 1/26 1/21575..     1,032285
Waikaremoana126 1/4211287722,015846
Wairarapa104271,250..     ..     ..     
SOUTH ISLAND.
Rotoiti522 3/486..     1,997228
Rotorua72 1/28146..     1,470..     
Brunner5416145..     280357
Kanieri51 3/4811..     422646
Coleridge1131870..     1,667680
Tekapo124325805,0002,323..     
Pukaki105315156,0001.588..     
Ohau103234245,0001,720..     
Hawea205485185,7001,062..     
Wanaka30475960..     922..     
Wakatipu5231121,16213,0001,0161,242
Te Anau3361321,32012,660694906
Manapouri12656416..     5961,458
Monowai1211251700600..     
Hauroko203251951,800611..     
Poteriteri17217162..     96..     
Waihola4 1/21 1/83 1/32,200..     (Tidal)..     
Ellesmere1610107 1/2745..     (Tidal)..     

GEOLOGY.

The geological structure of New Zealand, so far as it has yet been determined, is, owing to its complexity, difficult to summarize. For a fuller account than can be given here the reader is referred to the article in the 1914 Year-book, pages 943 to 947, and to the various works on geology mentioned therein.

The oldest fossiliferous rocks are the Ordovician argillites (“slates”) of northwest Nelson and Preservation Inlet. At Baton River Silurian fossils, at Reefton Devonian fossils, and in the limestone near Nelson Carboniferous or Permo-Carboniferous fossils, show that these systems are all represented in the Palæozoic sequence. Included in it are marble, sandstone, shale, greywacke, quartzite, schist, and gneiss. The auriferous lodes of the South Island are almost always found cutting through rocks of Palæozoic age.

Rocks belonging to the Mesozoic periods occur over a large area in both Islands. The Trias-Jura system of greywacke and argillite forms the main mountain-ranges, but contains few workable mineral deposits. It is fossiliferous in only a few localities, and cannot be easily subdivided.

While all these foregoing rocks were being deposited the New Zealand area was probably the foreshore of a great continent, but after the Trias-Jura sediments were deposited far-reaching changes, involving the breaking-up and disappearance of the continental land, took place. The New Zealand area was necessarily involved in these earth-movements, and as the result the existing strata were folded, broken, and raised above sea-level. After extensive denudation of its surface had taken place New Zealand was again, probably several times, depressed and elevated either in whole or in part. During the periods of subsidence Cretaceous and Tertiary strata were laid down. These contain all the workable coal-seams of the Dominion.

Pleistocene and Recent deposits are well represented by fluviatile, glacial, marine, and wind-blown material.

Plutonic rocks of various types, but mainly granitic, occupy a large area in the western parts of the South Island, and occur also in North Auckland. Volcanic rocks, chiefly of Tertiary age, are found in scattered areas throughout the eastern part of the South Island, and occur extensively in the North Island, where volcanic activity still continues on a small scale.

SEISMOLOGY.

The following article by the former Government Seismologist, the late Mr. George Hogben, C.M.G., M.A., F.G.S., has been revised and brought up to date by Mr. C. E. Adams, D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer and Seismologist.

The Wellington earthquake of 23rd January, 1855, received a full notice in Sir Charles Lyell's classic work “The Principles of Geology,” and probably largely on that account the attention of the scientific world was attracted to this feature of the natural phenomena of New Zealand. But since that earthquake, during which the level of the land in the neighbourhood of Wellington Harbour was raised about 5 ft., there has been no shock in the New Zealand region proper which has at all approached the destructive phase. Indeed, of about 1,800 earthquakes recorded as having origins in or near New Zealand, that of 1848 is the only other earthquake comparable in intensity to that of 1855; and the average intensity of all the earthquakes thus recorded is between III and IV on the Rossi-Forel scale—or, in other words, just sufficient to make pictures hung on walls move a little, and to cause doors and windows to creak or rattle slightly. In about twelve or fifteen instances the force has been sufficient near the origin to overturn some chimneys (for the most part badly constructed ones), and in a very few buildings to crack walls or ceilings of faulty design. In about thirty other earthquakes such phenomena have been noted as the stopping of clocks, without any damage. The great majority of shocks have passed unperceived by the ordinary observer, and have been recorded only by means of instruments. In short, earthquakes in New Zealand are rather a matter of scientific interest than a subject for alarm. Their scientific interest is largely due to the light they throw upon questions connected with the movements taking place in the earth's crust. Most people know now that the crust of the earth is not the stable thing that the ancients supposed it to be, but is constantly rising here, and falling there, and wrinkling itself into folds that cause most of our mountains and valleys and other striking surface features. All the great movements that appear at the surface are due to the repacking of the rocks below, especially, as the earthquakes seem to show, at a depth of fifteen to twenty miles.

This repacking is caused by change of pressure, which makes the rocks either “creep” or fold, or, in most cases, both creep and fold. When a movement takes place suddenly an earthquake is experienced. Apparently the change of pressure arises generally in one or other of two ways:—

  1. The enormous amount of earthy material carried by rivers into the sea lessens the pressure on the rocks below the land surface, and increases the load on the sea-bed; this would tend to cause a side thrust and creep at a lower depth towards the direction of the rocks underlying the land surface.

  2. The unequal contraction of different layers of the crust is due to unevenness in their rate of cooling; this gives rise to crumpling or folding of the rocks.

Nearly all the earthquakes in New Zealand seem to be due to the second of these causes. Indeed, the facts of the earthquake of 1855 and several of the instrumental records of recent years give tolerably clear evidence of tilting of the surface that has taken place about lines that are parallel to the general direction of the main mountain ranges and to the chief known geological faults.

The origins of the New Zealand seismic region will be seen to arrange themselves in groups as follows:—

Group I.—Earthquakes felt most strongly on south-east coast of North Island; epicentra form a strip 180 miles from the coast, parallel to the axis of New Zealand, and to axis of folding of older Cainozoic rocks in Hawke's Bay. Chief shocks: 17th August, 1868; 7th March, 1890; 23rd and 29th July, 1904; 9th August, 1904 (intensity IX on R.-F. scale); 8th September, 1904; prob. 23rd February, 1863 (IX, R.-F.); &c.

According to Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., the geological evidence shows that New Zealand rose considerably in the older Pliocene period, and was then probably joined to the Chatham Islands. At a later period subsidence occurred, followed again by elevation in the Pleistocene period, with oscillations of level since. The seismic origins of this group are at the foot of a sloping submarine plateau, about two hundred miles wide, which culminates to the east-south-east in the Chatham Islands. This elevation is separated from the New Zealand coast by a trough from 1,000 to 2,000 fathoms in depth, which is widest and deepest between these origins and the mainland.

Group II.—

  1. South-east of Otago Peninsula. Shocks: 20th November, 1872, &c.

  2. A strip south-east of Oamaru. Shocks: February, 1876; April, 1876, &c.

  3. Many short and jerky, but generally harmless, quakes felt in Christchurch, Banks Peninsula, and mid-Canterbury. Chief shocks: 31st August, 1870; 27th December, 1888 (VII, R.-F.); &c. Focus of 1888 shock, sixteen miles long, from west-south-west to east-north-east, twenty-four to twenty-five miles below surface, being deepest ascertained origin in New Zealand region.

These origins form a line parallel to the general axis of the land. It is quite possible that the loading of the sea-floor by the detritus brought down by the rivers of Canterbury and Otago is a contributing cause of the earthquakes of this group.

Group III.—Wellington earthquakes of January, 1855, and Cheviot earthquakes of November, 1901.

The origin of the earthquake of 1855 was probably the fault that forms the eastern boundary of the Rimutaka Range and the western boundary of the Wairarapa Valley.

The origin of the earthquake of 1901 was probably in or near the southern continuation of this fault.

The great earthquakes of October, 1848, probably came from the same region as those of January, 1855. The chief shocks of both series did extensive damage to property, and caused the formation of large rifts in the earth's surface; they are the only seismic disturbances since the settlement of the Dominion that can be assigned to degree X on the Rossi-Forel scale.

Group IV.—

  1. Region about twenty-five to thirty miles in length, and, say, ten miles or less in width, running nearly north-north-east from middle of Lake Sumner, about twenty miles below the surface, whence proceed most of the severer shocks felt from Christchurch to the Amuri, and a large number of minor shocks. Chief earthquakes: 1st February, 1868; 27th August to 1st September, 1871; 14th September and 21st October, 1878; 11th April, 1884; 5th December, 1881 (VII, R.-F.), when Christchurch Cathedral spire was slightly injured; 1st September, 1888 (IX, R.-F.), when upper part of same spire fell, and still more severe damage was done in the Amuri district.

  2. A small shallow origin not more than five to ten miles below the surface, a few miles south of Nelson. Earthquake: 12th February, 1893 (VIII to IX, R.-F.); chimneys thrown down and buildings injured.

  3. Origin in Cook Strait, north-north-east of Stephen Island, about ten miles wide, and apparently traceable with few interruptions nearly to mouth of Wanganui River; depth, fifteen miles or more. More than half the earthquakes recorded in New Zealand belong to this region; earthquake of 8th December, 1897 (VIII to IX, R.-F.), and other severer ones come from south-south-west end. Probably the first recorded New Zealand earthquake, felt by Captain Furneaux on the 11th May, 1773, belonged to this region.

  4. An origin near Mount Tarawera, with a large number of moderate or slight shocks, most, but not all, volcanic and local in character—e.g., those of September, 1866, and those of June, 1886, which accompanied and followed the well-known eruption of Mount Tarawera.

These origins of Group IV, (a), (b), (c), (d), are nearly in a straight line on the map; on or near the same line are the origins of earthquakes felt in the Southern Lake District (15th December, 1883, &c.), the volcanoes Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, Tongariro, Tarawera, and White Island. It is evident that this line, which, like the rest, is parallel or nearly so to the general axis, is a line of weakness or of unstable equilibrium. Hence the adjusting movements that have caused earthquakes may have, from time to time, relieved the pressure of the rocks that restrained overheated steam and other volcanic agents from bursting out, and so may have led to volcanic eruptions; just as the series of earthquakes in Guatemala and in the Caribbean Sea in April and May, 1902, were the signs of movements in the great folds of that part of the earth's crust, in the course of which, the pressure in the Antillean Ridge being relieved, the volcanic forces below Mount Pelée in Martinique, and Mount Souffrière in St. Vincent, caused the disastrous eruptions of that year.

Group V.—Off the coast near Raglan and Kawhia. Chief shock: 24th June, 1891 (VII to VIII, R.-F.). The line joining this origin to that of the earthquake of 1st February, 1882, is parallel to the other lines of origins (Groups I to IV); but we have no data to establish any connection between them.

Since 1888 there has been established in New Zealand a system of observing local earthquakes as recorded by galvanometers at selected telegraph - stations—about eighty in number—distributed throughout the extent of the Dominion.

Whenever a shock occurs and is felt by an officer in charge of one of these stations, he fills up a form giving the New Zealand mean time of the beginning of the shock, its apparent duration and direction, and the principal effects observed by him. Some of the officers exhibit considerable care and skill in making up these returns, and the data have been used to determine principal origins of earthquakes within the New Zealand region.

Two seismographs are installed in New Zealand; they are Milne horizontal pendulums with photographic registration. One is installed at the Hector Observatory, Kelburn, Wellington, under the charge of Mr. C. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S., and the other at the Magnetic Observatory, Christchurch, under the charge of Mr. H. F. Skey, B.Sc.

An improved type of seismograph—the Milne-Shaw—is under order for the Hector Observatory: the instrument is magnetically damped, and is very much more sensitive than the ordinary type of Milne seismograph.

The records of these stations are sent to the General Secretary of the Seismological Committee of the British Association, to the Station Centrale Sismologique, Strasbourg, France, and to the principal observatories of the world, and thus form part of the general system of earthquake-observation being conducted throughout the world for the last thirty years.

CLIMATE.

The following article on the climate of New Zealand has been prepared by Lieut.-Colonel D. C. Bates, Dominion Meteorologist.

The climate of New Zealand is spoken of in popular and general terms as equable, mild, and salubrious; but such a summary does not convey an adequate idea of variations that exist in a country stretching, as it does, north and south for nearly a thousand miles, and distinctly differentiated by lofty mountain-chains. Another fact which must also be borne in mind is that the greater part of the North Island is controlled by a different system of circulation from that which dominates conditions in the parts about Cook Strait and the South Island. The former is subject to ex-tropical disturbances, and the latter more to westerly or antarctic “lows.” which travel along the latitudes of the “forties,” with their prevailing westerly winds,

The climate of the Auckland Province, speaking generally, combines degrees of warmth and humidity agreeable by day and comfortable by night. North of Auckland City conditions are almost subtropical, and in summer balmy easterly breezes prevail, and are responsible for delightful conditions. In winter the winds are more north and west, while changes to the south-west or south-east mostly account for the rainfall. Cumulus clouds are frequently formed in the afternoons, and, while tempering the heat of the day, also cut down sunshine records somewhat, but add considerably to the beauty of the land- and sea-scape. Southward of Auckland the climate is more varied, the west coast experiencing more rain, while the central parts are warmer in the day and considerably colder at night. In the winter months frosts, which are unknown farther north, now and then occur in the hours of darkness. Eastward from Rotorua (the great health resort and centre of the thermal region) is to be found one of the most genial climates in the world, and Tauranga and Opotiki have charms all their own, especially for their weather and the fruits which ripen to perfection in these regions.

AUCKLAND.

The monthly and annual means of the temperature, rainfall, and sunshine of Auckland are shown in the following table:—

Month.Mean Temperatures for 56 Years.Mean Rainfall for 68 years.Mean Sunshine for 11 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr. min.
January73.758.966.52.5710.3213 58
February74.359.667.12.989.6175 7
March72.057.765.03.0411.1170 41
April67.854.661.23.3413.9137 53
May62.750.556.74.4618.4128 50
June59.247.853.54.7919.4115 50
July57.646.051.85.1320.9118 2
August58.246.052.24.2719.5136 4
September60.748.454.73.6317.6139 10
October63.550.757.33.5916.4161 29
November67.053.360.23.2814.6186 13
December70.956.763.92.8011.5214 8
          Year65.652.559.243.88183.21,897 25
ROTORUA.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 32 Years.Mean Rainfall for 35 Years.Mean Sunshine for 9 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr. min.
January75.552.363.93.999.6249 53
February74.952.263.43.978.8188 18
March71.849.460.63.689.6191 0
April66.045.455.64.3510.8157 16
May60.040.750.35.4512.4143 19
June55.638.246.85.0312.8119 16
July54.237.045.55.1813.129 10
August56.137.546.75.0313.4139 35
September59.640.850.25.1914.4156 35
October63.944.054.04.8513.9185 28
November68.346.757.54.0712.7215 7
December72.849.661.13.619.7228 47
          Year64.944.554.654.40142.02,103 44

The Hawke's Bay Province is one of the richest in New Zealand, and is favoured with a pleasant climate, being sheltered from westerly winds, though occasionally they are of the warm and dry (Foehn) type. It is rather dry, but ex-tropical disturbances are occasionally responsible for heavy downpours. Though the number of days with rain is less than, and sunshine above that of other parts, the rainfall is still a good one, and fairly regular throughout the year, though some seasons have been notably dry. The meteorological records of Napier show reliable normals for the coastal districts. Inland the country is rather mountainous and less mild.

NAPIER.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 29 Years.Mean Rainfall for 16 Years.Mean Sunshine for 14 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr. min.
January75.957.066.41.666.5275 20
February74.556.765.62.426.7207 33
March71.254.763.03.7291217 1
April67.250.458.72.507.8195 17
May61.746.354.04.249.5161 14
June58.042.350.12.648.1162 36
July56.541.649.03.9610.3148 15
August57.942.150.03.1210.8187 35
September62.345.253.71.868.3216 17
October66.448.757.52.529.0234 5
November69.651.860.72.078.1245 18
December73.155.364.22.067.0276 22
          Year66.249.357.732.77101.22,526 53

Wellington, the capital city, as disclosed by its meteorological records, has a mean climate for the whole Dominion. Wellington occupies a central position, and is situated near Cook Strait, which divides the two main Islands. It has a somewhat changeable but temperate climate, and, though occasionally subject to disturbances from warmer regions, is usually controlled by the terrestrial wind-currents which have a westerly direction round the world in the latitude of the “forties.” It is popularly regarded as a rather windy spot, for high winds are frequently experienced, although they hardly ever reach hurricane force. Its windiness is largely owing to local configuration, for places quite near Wellington experience very little wind; and to compensate for this rather disagreeable element is a bountiful sunshine, averaging 2,027 hours per annum. There is a plentiful rainfall, amounting the nearly 50 in.

Between Wellington and Taranaki, following the Taranaki Bight, is probably one of the most fertile and agreeable regions in Australasia; but inland, though very productive, conditions are not so favourable.

Taranaki has a rather heavy rainfall, and in most parts of this region the grass is always green. Its climate is mild, and cattle winter in the open. Wanganui and Manawatu districts (which lie between Wellington and Taranaki) have less rainfall than either Wellington or Taranaki.

WELLINGTON.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 56 Years.Mean Rainfall for 59 Years.Mean Sunshine for 14 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr. min.
January69.455.862.53.3210.4228 11
February69.255.762.53.289.0207 17
March66.854.260.53.2711.3182 6
April62.851.357.03.9713.2150 50
May58.347.352.84.7716.6130 28
June54.744.349.54.9517.2103 51
July53.142.347.75.7618.3103 15
August54.442.848.64.4717.1140 41
September57.445.751.64.0815.2159 42
October60.348.354.34.1214.1177 38
November63.450.456.93.4712.9203 43
December66.953.860.33.1912.0239 21
          Year61.449.355.348.65167.32,027 3

It may be useful to make a comparison between the records of Wellington and those of Camden Square, London.

CAMDEN SQUARE, LONDON.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 35 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.
January43.534.038.8
February45.634.440.0
March50.135.642.9
April57.439.448.4
May64.945.255.1
June70.951.061.0
July74.154.464.3
August72.653.763.2
September67.449.858.6
October57.543.950.7
November49.738.944.3
December45.135.840.5
          Year58.243.050.6
MOUMAHAKI.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 14 Years.Mean Rainfall for 16 Years.Mean Sunshine for 14 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr. min.
January70.053.361.63.209.7235 36
February70.853.362.12.918.1184 52
March69.652.461.03.779.3180 4
April64.448.256.34.0313.1149 45
May59.144.151.64.1714.6119 3
June55.142.548.84.4214.9100 52
July53.740.947.34.2416.4109 4
August55.541.848.73.6814.7140 16
September58.844.851.84.0114.1148 7
October61.847.054.34.5314.9163 5
November64.649.156.83.5612.8170 17
December68.250.959.53.4611.9232 23
          Year62.647.455.045.98154.51,933 24

Nelson and Marlborough are highly favoured regions with regard to sunshine and shelter from marine winds. Long ago Bishop Selwyn said, “No one knows what the climate is till he has basked in the almost perpetual sunshine of Tasman's Gulf, with a frame braced and invigorated to the full enjoyment of heat by the wholesome frost or cool snowy breeze of the night before.”

Pastoral and agricultural industries are thriving, and the Province of Nelson is also famous for its fruit cultures—apples especially being celebrated for their variety, colour, and flavour. The rainfall about Nelson is very reliable, and averages from 35 in. to 45 in. per annum. Marlborough is also a sunny province, and its rainfall averages from 25 in. to 30 in.

NELSON.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 31 Years.Mean Rainfall for 38 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January75.553.864.62.788.1
February74.653.964.12.819.5
March71.451.461.32.998.8
April66.547.457.02.979.7
May60.342.551.33.1610.0
June56.238.947.53.8210.1
July54.737.746.23.5611.1
August56.738.647.63.0710.5
September60.842.451.53.7212.2
October64.945.055.03.2511.8
November69.048.458.72.8911.3
December72.051.461.82.668.8
          Year65.245.955.637.68121.9

The climate of Westland is influenced by its position with regard to the prevailing westerly winds, its proximity to the sea from which these winds blow, and the mountainous character of its eastern half. The rainfall, as might be expected is heavy, and ranges from about 70 in. per annum in the north on the coast to as much as 200 in. in the mountainous country. The weather-changes are chiefly due to atmospheric depressions, with lowest pressures passing south of the Dominion. Cyclones centred in the north, while bringing heavy rains to the North Island and the east coast, portions of the South, do not, as a rule, affect Westland, as easterly winds, which then prevail, are not conducive to cloud-formation in this province. Sunshine at Hokitika averages 1,871 hours a year, and, though not so abundant as in east coast districts, is a good average amount considering the rainfall. Westland is noted for a clear, beautiful atmosphere during fair-weather periods.

HOKITIKA.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 34 Years.Mean Rainfall for 42 Years.Mean Sunshine for 8 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hrs. min.
January67.953.760.89.9912.6192 24
February68.453.360.87.3511.0177 26
March66.251.358.79.6713.7177 27
April62.747.254.99.2515.0130 37
May58.342.550.49.8215.4141 55
June54.939.147.09.8015.5101 44
July52.936.744.89.0816.3109 20
August54.638.146.39.2315.8153 32
September57.842.450.19.3016.6135 26
October59.845.752.711.6618.8162 6
November62.348.455.310.6317.4171 45
December66.352.259.210.4415.8217 41
          Year60.945.8 153.3116.22183.91,871 23

The chief health resort of the South Island, Hanmer Spa, is situated on a small plateau in the northern portion of the Canterbury Land District. On account of its altitude, 1,120 ft., it enjoys an invigorating climate, with a mean annual temperature of only about one degree below that of Christchurch. Owing to its elevated position and nearness to the mountains Hanmer is in some winter seasons subject to rather severe snowstorms, such as are never experienced on the Canterbury Plains. The mean annual rainfall is 38.15in., and the mean total sunshine 1,992 hours.

The district of Canterbury comprises a variety of topographical features. A plain stretches over a hundred miles from north-east to south-west, with a maximum width of about forty miles from the east coast to the foothills to the westward. The latter merge into the mountainous country culminating in the main range of the Southern Alps, which divide the provinces of Canterbury and Westland, and afford a protection from the heavily moisture-laden north-westerly winds. The rainfall of the Canterbury Plains is in consequence much restricted, the average being about 26 in. There is, however, a remarkable progressive increase from east to west, as is shown by the records. At Christchurch the mean is 25.13 in.; at Mount Torlesse Station (near Springfield), 39.86 in. The climate of Canterbury might almost be described as Continental in type, with large extremes of temperature between summer and winter and day and night. Except in the three summer months frosts are numerous, and even in the early spring and late autumn they are at times severe enough to damage vegetation of a tender nature. In summer, day temperatures of over 90° in the shade are sometimes experienced. With regard to both climate and soil the Plains have proved most suitable for agricultural farming, and much of the district is capable of growing splendid cereal and root crops. The prevailing winds in Canterbury are north-east and south-west, while north-westerlies are not, as often supposed, of frequent occurrence. They are most common in the springtime, and, being dry and warm, they have a somewhat enervating effect, though in winter-time they come as a welcome change from the keen temperatures then generally ruling. The bright sunshine, as recorded at Lincoln, shows a daily average for the year of 5.8 hours.

LINCOLN.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 23 Years.Mean Rainfall for 40 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January70.752.661.62.189.3
February69.352.660.91.727.8
March66.450.058.22.3710.0
April61.845.153.42.019.5
May56.140.148.12.3011.2
June50.936.043.42.4111.7
July49.934.942.42.9013.5
August52.236.244.22.0111.5
September57.240.548.81.9810.0
October62.243.652.91.649.2
November66.047.456.71.9710.6
December69.851.460.62.1310.3
          Year61.044.252.625.62124.6

Otago, the southernmost part of New Zealand, is very diversified as regards both its physical features and its climate. Inland, in Central and North Otago, the climate is dry and clear—hot in summer and cold in winter. The rainfall for this district averages from 13 in. to 20 in. Near the coast, in the Dunedin district, the rainfall is more plentiful, averaging from 30 in. to 40 in. per annum, a good deal of which falls in light drizzling rains.

There are continuous rainfall records from various parts of Dunedin for sixty-nine years, of which the median rainfall is 33.5 in. and the mean in the table following may be regarded as too high.

DUNEDIN.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 55 Years.Mean Rainfall for 63 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January66.449.557.03.4114.3
February65.749.456.62.7211.3
March62.947.855.32.9212.7
April60.344.751.62.7412.8
May53.341.047.03.2613.7
June49.338.443.13.1312.8
July47.536.941.53.0413.0
August49.937.743.13.1813.0
September53.940.747.02.7712.7
October59.042.750.83.0014.1
November61.444.953.13.2914.2
December64.547.955.33.5014.5
          Year57.843.550.136.96159.1

QUEENSTOWN

Queenstown, on Lake Wakatipu, amongst the mountains, at an elevation of over 1,000 ft., furnishes the following averages:—

Month.Mean Temperatures for 9 Years.Mean Rainfall for 31 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January70.449.960.12.768.8
February70.249.659.91.805.6
March66.447.957.12.517.3
April59.143.851.52.957.8
May51.838.645.22.677.5
June45.933.739.72.416.9
July43.331.837.51.965.9
August47.333.840.61.766.1
September54.338.746.52.537.5
October59.842.150.93.619.0
November63.244.553.82.838.8
December68.049.258.62.498.0
          Year58.342.050.130.2889.2

INVERCARGILL.

At Invercargill, the chief town of Southland, the averages are as follow:—

Month.Mean Temperatures for 11 Years. IMean Rainfall for 27 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January65.848.357.04.2315.7
February65.747.656.62.7711.6
March64.446.055.23.6014.2
April59.142.750.94.3816.5
May53.537.745.64.6617.5
June49.736.242.93.5115.9
July48.434.041.23.4515.9
August52.136.144.13.3514.7
September56.739.047.83.0513.8
October59.542.851.14.6517.2
November61.043.652.34.5417.8
December63.846.255.04.3115.7
          Year58.341.750.046.50186.5

The average rainfall of Southland is between 40 in. and 50 in., but towards Queenstown the rainfall is between 30 in. and 40 in. The rainfall is well distributed throughout the year, but there is less wind in winter than in summer.

Stewart Island has a wonderfully mild and moist climate, especially on its eastern side, with an average rainfall of 65.18 in.

RAINFALL, FOR THE YEAR 1920.

Throughout the greater part of the Dominion the total rainfall during 1920 was in excess of the average. Deficiencies, however, occurred in portions of the Gisborne and Hawke's Bay districts and the extreme north of the North Island, and also in most of Westland and Otago, in the South Island. Following is a short summary for each month of the weather and the chief atmospheric systems which were in evidence:—

January.—During January beneficial rains fell, particularly between the 18th and 24th, when a small westerly low-pressure area and subtropical disturbance were in evidence. Unsettled conditions were also experienced generally from the 1st to the 4th, and between the 9th and 15th, the result of two somewhat intense westerly “lows.” On the 14th and 15th snow fell on the higher levels in both the North and the South Islands, and light falls were experienced on some of the low-lying country in the east coast districts of the South Island, a most unusual occurrence for midsummer. The aggregate month's rainfall was generally considerably above the average, but Otago and scattered places in the Gisborne and Westland districts recorded a deficiency. Both sunshine and temperature were below the average, but except for occasional high winds the month was a fairly calm one.

February.—February proved a fair and warm month, though dull and misty conditions were somewhat frequent. Heavy rains occurred in most parts on the 8th and 9th and between the 25th and 28th, and, except in the Gisborne and Napier districts and the West Coast and southernmost portions of the South Island, the total rainfall for the month was considerably above the average, at many places more than double. The ruling disturbances were a subtropical low, the centre of which passed in the vicinity of Cook Strait in the evening of the 9th, and a similar low acting in conjunction with one southward of the Dominion from the 24th to the close of the month.

March.—The total rainfall was generally considerably below the normal, except at a few isolated stations, particularly in the Northern and East Coast districts, where an excess was recorded owing to heavy rains about the 18th and 19th and between the 25th and 28th. These two unsettled periods were the result of an intense westerly low-pressure area and an ex-tropical cyclone respectively, the centre of the latter apparently passing northwards of the Dominion. Severe floods were experienced in the North Auckland district about the 27th. For the greater portion of the month fair weather ruled, and was favourable to vegetable growth in most parts of the Dominion.

April.—April proved a dull and wet month, most parts of the Dominion experiencing a total rainfall considerably above the mean of previous years. The Gisborne and Hawke's Bay districts, and scattered places on the Canterbury Plains, were the only parts recording a deficiency. During the first six days anticyclonic pressure dominated, and fine weather prevailed generally. On the 7th and 8th a small westerly disturbance ruled in conjunction with a depression in the North, and a severe southerly gale raged about Cook Strait. Considerable rain also fell, especially over the North Island. Westerly low-pressure areas were somewhat frequent, though not of marked intensity, and were responsible for copious rainfall, particularly in districts having a westerly aspect.

May.—The May rainfall was below the average in all but the northern and southernmost districts and in parts of North Canterbury. The weather, however, was very unsettled, particularly during the latter half of the month, when some very intense and extensive westerly disturbances accounted for a prevalence of strong west to south-west winds and squally, showery conditions. From, the 10th to the 13th, while a cyclone passed in the North, dull misty weather was experienced with occasional heavy rain in the northern and East Coast districts. Anticyclonic conditions ruled between the 4th and 9th, and this was the only period during which fair weather prevailed over the whole Dominion.

June.—The rainfall for the month was below average in the West Coast and southern half of the South Island and about Cape Egmont in the North Island; in all other parts it was in excess, the greatest difference above the mean being in the northernmost districts. Dull, misty, and wet weather was experienced from the 5th to the 11th, when disturbances of moderate intensity were in evidence both north and south of the Dominion. On the 5th and 6th very heavy rains occurred over most of the North Island, causing high floods in the central parts. Between the 19th and 27th a very intense and extensive westerly storm area ruled, and this proved the most unsettled period during the month; rain fell generally, and snow occasionally, on the high country of the South Island. Fair weather was general during the first four and the last three days of the month, and between the 12th and 18th. Some severe frosts were recorded about the middle of the month.

July.—The July rainfall totals were generally above the average in the southern half of the South Island, but nearly all other parts of the Dominion recorded a deficiency. The first half of the month was characterized by unsettled, mild, dull, and wet weather, chiefly the effect of a prolonged westerly low-pressure area. On the 17th an anticyclone overspread the Dominion, and continued until the close of the month. During this period fair weather ruled, though at times easterly winds brought cold, changeable conditions along the east coast of the North Island. The latter half of the month was remarkable for the number of frosts in places where they are unusual, and many stations reported the hardest frosts experienced for many years.

August.—August was generally cold and unsettled, being more wintry in character than the two previous months. The most severe storm was the result of an intense westerly low-pressure area, the trough of which passed on the 26th, the barometer-reading on that date at the Bluff being as low as 28.54 in. West to south-west gales were experienced about this time, and very heavy seas occurred on the West Coast of the South Island. Minor disturbances of both antarctic and tropical origin were frequent during the month. Rainfall, in consequence, was above the average over most of the South Island and in all but the middle districts of the North.

September.—With the exception of a few isolated places along the western coast and about Foveaux Strait all parts of the Dominion recorded a total rainfall above the average. The greatest difference was in the East Coast districts of the South Island, where, in places, as much as three times the average amount fell. The first week, when an anticyclone ruled, proved the only period during which fair weather prevailed over the Dominion as a whole. The remainder of the month was extremely changeable, and at times very cold and stormy. The heaviest rains were experienced about the 21st and 22nd and the 28th and 29th. On the former two days floods occurred in the Kaikoura district, and in the latter period severe floods were reported in the East Coast districts south of Banks Peninsula. The chief disturbances were of tropical origin, and well-defined westerly low-pressure areas, which are usually frequent at this season, were notable by their absence. As a result easterly and south-easterly winds were more prevalent than usual, particularly in and southwards of Cook Strait. Though regarded as the first month of spring, September this year was of a wintry character, and vegetable growth made very little progress.

October.—Between the 6th and 12th and the 18th and 23rd anticyclones accounted for fair weather in most parts of the Dominion. During the remainder of the month conditions were dominated by a succession of depressions in higher latitudes, and as a result dull, unsettled, and windy weather was the rule, particularly in all the West Coast districts. Rainfall was above the average in Taranaki and Manawatu and in parts of Hawke's Bay in the North Island, and in the western half of the South. Elsewhere precipitation was below normal. Heavy rain fell over most of the North Island between the 25th and 28th, and severe floods occurred at this time in the West Coast and central districts. At Inglewood, in Taranaki, a fall of 7.34 in. was recorded on the 25th. Thunderstorms were experienced in various parts about the 15th and 16th, while a rather intense westerly disturbance was in evidence. At Waitakaro, in Gisborne district, 1.27 in. of rain fell in one hour during a thunderstorm.

November.—During November pressure was almost continuously below normal in the South owing to frequent disturbances passing in higher latitudes, while anticyclone centres invariably moved north of the Dominion. As a consequence, strong winds between north-west and south-west prevailed, and the weather proved very changeable and often boisterous, with heavy rains in districts with a westerly aspect. The total rainfall was considerably above the average in the West Coast and southern half of the South Island, and slightly above in the Taranaki and Auckland districts of the North. Elsewhere it was generally below, the greatest deficiency being experienced in the Gisborne and Napier districts. Thunderstorms occurred on several occasions in various parts of the Dominion, and some stations recorded damage to fruit crops through the accompanying hail squalls.

December.—The aggregate rainfall for December was above the mean in the western half of the South Island and in the Taranaki and Auckland districts of the North Island, while in all the East Coast districts a considerable deficiency occurred. Strong northerly and westerly winds and changeable conditions were experienced during the first half of the month, when westerly low-pressure areas dominated. Between the 15th and 17th high easterly winds and stormy weather prevailed in the Auckland Peninsula, while a cyclone centre passed northwards of New Zealand. Good general rains fell on the 27th, which were especially welcome to the East Coast districts, coming after a period of warm, dry, and windy conditions. The weather on the whole was fair, but vegetation required more rainfall in districts with an easterly aspect. Temperatures were invariably high during the last week.

The following tables show the difference, above or below the mean, for each month in the year:—

NORTH ISLAND RAINFALL, 1920.
Monthly Means compared with the Averages for Fifteen Previous Years.
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.
+5.475.82..     5.70..     6.81..     4.974.485.18..     ..     
Av.3.172.904.233.864.694.395.294.283.844.393.633.24
..     ..     3.07..     3.86..     2.89..     ..     ..     3.432.65
Mean Number of Days with Rain, compared with the Averages for Fifteen Previous Years.
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.

+ Above the average.

−Below the average.

+12.310.9..     ..     15.4..     ..     16.4..     ..     13.8..     
Av.10.08.511.212.814.415.517.114.814.615.113.711.2
..     ..     8.710.9..     13.68.6..     13.911.9..     8.2
SOUTH ISLAND RAINFALL, 1920.
Monthly Means compared with the Averages for Fifteen Previous Years.
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.
+..     3.55..     4.97..     ..     ..     4.384.75..     4.26..     
Av.3.752.673.483.303.493.923.853.193.893.833.453.74
3.68..     2.03..     3.402.21245..     ..     3.07..     2.63
Mean Number of Bays with Bain, compared with the Average for Fifteen Previous Years.
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.

+ Above the average.

−Below the average.

+..     ..     ..     12.514.7..     ..     13.513.4..     15.8..     
Av.12.39.111.512.012.013.213.412.513.414.113.912.8
11.38.67.6..     ..     9.810.0..     ..     10.5..     7.8

RAINFALL CURVES.

TEMPERATURE CURVES.

TEMPERATURE, RAINFALL, ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, AND WIND THROUGHOUT NEW ZEALAND, AS OBSERVED AT NINETEEN STATIONS. FOR THE YEAR 1920.
The observations were taken at 9 a.m.
Stations.Months.Temperature in Shade.Rainfall.Mean Height of Barometer.Prevailing Winds.
Highest.Lowest.Mean Max. Temp.Mean Min. Temp.Mean Temp. for Month.Wet Days.Fall.
  °Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
Auckland (lat. 36° 50′ S.; long. 174° 50′ 4′ E.; alt. 125 ft.)—January75.048.070.057.963.9104.5529.97NE, SW.
February77.552.072.461.667.0104.5929.94SW, NE.
March75.050.570.157.964.0104.1830.01SW, S.
April72.043.565.655.060.3136.1230.08SW, NE.
May65.538.060.049.554.7205.5929.87SW, SE.
June63.538.558.648.953.7148.5530.07SW, SE.
July62.036.057.044.750.8103.7330.13SW, SE.
August62.039.057.346.151.7196.0029.86NE, W, SE.
September63.540.059.648.353.9195.0830.00SW, NE.
October68.044.562.951.957.4112.9430.12SW, NE.
November72.047.064.953.559.4163.6729.95SW.
December73.550.068.657.262.9123.1729.94SW, NE.
Waihi (lat. 37° 28′ S.; long. 175° 52′ E.; alt. 340 ft.)—January80.536.472.851.262.0175.9529.991NE, W.
February82.739.674.257.265.71712.6329.960NE, SW.
March79.042.371.453.662.5106.3230.025SW, W.
April73.330.766.746.756.7148.9330.099SW, NE.
May67.926.659.344.251.7186.1529.842SW, W.
June65.423.758.643.350.92114.4930.101W, NE.
July65.721.556.837.046.9135.3230.143SW, NE.
August63.023.556.438.747.5219.5829.890SE, NW, S.
September65.622.660.239.349.7168.4329.999SW, NE.
October75.032.065.943.654.7104.4830.124W.
November77.840.467.249.958.5154.7329.950W.
December84.937.274.354.264.2139.4929.936W, NW.
Tauranga (lat. 37° 42′ S.; long. 176° 22′ E.; alt. 100 ft.)—January78.039.570.751.661.1147.72..     W, NW. NE, SW.
February84.041.573.356.865.01510.52..     NE, E.
March77.543.071.552.261.8132.87..     SW, NE.
April73.536.566.647.657.1137.37..     SW, NE, S.
May66.528.559.941.150.5123.60..     SW.
June63.531.559.242.450.81712.16..     SW, E.
July61.030.057.637.747.692.51..     S, SW.
August62.028.057.638.848.2187.36..     SW, SE.
September68.529.560.040.550.2185.02..     SW, NW.
October71.535.564.645.655.183.87..     SW, NE.
November77.036.567.548.057.7113.85..     SW, W.
December87.037.072.651.662.172.08..     SW, NE.
Te Aroha (lat. 37° 32′ S.; long. 175° 42′ E.; alt. 46 ft.)January85.040.076.658.667.6103.86..     N, NW, S
February83.048.078.662.270.494.84..     SE, W.
March80.042.073.457.865.685.00..     NW, SE.
April75.030.068.650.259.496.79..     NE, N.
May66.030.060.043.451.7164.68..     S, NW.
June64.027.059.243.251.2167.67..     NW.
July62.027.056.638.147.383.14..     NW, S.
August63.030.057.840.849.3145.20..     S, NE.
September70.028.062.541.552.0104.07..     NE, NW, S.
October72.030.063.844.454.173.87..     NE, W
November70.040.064.747.055.8122.48..     SW.
December77.040.069.550.459.9143.82..     N, W.
Rotorua (lat. 38° 9′ S.; long. 176° 15′ E.; alt. 932 ft.)—January79.039.075.051.363.1125.30..     N.
February84.042.01.656.469.0128.51..     N, NE.
March87.041.077.051.564.263.87..     SW.
April78.034.74.446.70.5107.30..     NE, SE, SW.
May71.030.069.040.154.5102.98..     SW, W.
June66.030.064.141.452.71011.10..     S, NE.
July61.025.058.336.047.271.61..     SW, S.
August61.028.058.037.447.7115.80..     W, S.
September62.029.060.339.349.8156.95..     S, W.
October69.032.066.444.855.693.38..     SE, SW.
November78.236.067.447.057.2103.42..     SW, W.
December86.138.472.351.862.0102.79..     W, NE, NW.
Taihape (lat. 39° 40′ S.; long. 175′ 49′ E.; alt. 2,080 ft.)—January75.434.065.648.156.8195.03..     W, NW.
February77.840.868.852.160.4142.91..     W, NE.
March73.639.064.548.456.4111.89..     W, NW.
April71.032.059.545.752.6112.82..     NW, SW.
May57.829.049.338.543.9254.57..     W. SW, NW.
June57.829.049.839.444.6143.52..     NE
July59.825.548.435.041.7102.21..     NE, SW.
August56.828.047.935.441.6172.07..     NE, SE.
September60.028.251.837.544.6174.86..     SW, NE.
October64.535.057.442.549.9164.92..     W, NW.
November70.631.857.943.250.5183.32..     NW, W
December77.835.466.447.957.171.79..     NW W, NE.
Greenmeadows (Napier) (lat. 39° 32′ S.; long. 176° 53′ E.; alt. 70 ft.)—January85.044.071.855.063.481.8729.969NW.
February84.047.072.757.465.0101.8029.968NE, SW.
March82.044.572.654.463.561.030.009W, NW.
April75.040.067.349.458.371.3730.056W, SW, NW.
May70.035.059.742.551.161.5729.779W, SW.
June65.537.057.643.150.3113.5030.102W.
July65.033.055.740.448.034.1230.135W.
August65.030.555.539.847.6112.9329.910W, SW.
September73.032.059.242.851.092.3529.996W, SW.
October77.037.564.947.156.073.7430.062NW.
November85.038.571.450.460.940.5829.803W.
December92.545.075.555.365.451.3929.880NW.
Moumahaki (Taranaki) (lat. 39° 44′ S.; long. 174° 40′ E.: alt. 270 ft.)—January79.040.071.548.760.1125.62..     NW, SW.
February83.042.074.751.463.0104.74..     N, NW.
March80.040.071.849.460.6112.65..     NW.
April76.032.068.746.957.8125.27..     NW.
May67.032.057.940.349.1234.20..     NE, N, NW.
June65.030.056.238.547.3104.92..     N, NE.
July60.026.054.537.446.083.77..     N, NE.
August63.029.055.338.446.8164.54..     W, NE, SE.
September66.029.058.940.249.5133.43..     NE.
October73.029.062.443.352.8136.39..     NW.
November79.033.464.345.554.9122.77..     NW, W.
December81.045.467.751.159.491.37..     NW. W.
Palmerston North (lat. 40° 21′ S.; long 175° 37′ E.; alt. 100 ft.)—January79.035.069.950.960.493.91..     W.
February85.041.073.154.163.6103.90..     W, E
March80.541.067.249.658.492.57..     W, SE.
April74.532.563.846.255.0113.65..     W, NW.
May64.027.557.541.649.5112.41..     W.
June62.026.055.339.747.5154.38..     SE.
July60.026.053.337.145.292.44..     E, NW.
August60.525.052.536.544.5142.63..     SE, W.
September68.030.058.438.048.2102.16..     W.
October72.533.560.745.753.2165.77..     W, NW.
November71.033.062.447.955.1174.72..     W, NW.
December78.036.067.750.058.881.23..     W.
Wellington (lat. 41° 16′ S.; long. 174° 46′ E.; alt. 10 ft.)—January76.144.666.253.659.9125.9129.982NW, S.
February79.843.769.857.063.475.9229.963N, NW.
March74.945.567.354.961.172.1329.989N.
April70.038.361.652.657.1158.7730.059N, S.
May62.630.850.344.750.5132.2729.784S.
June60.131.654.642.148.3135.7530.093S, N.
July60.628.654.341.547.9112.4230.134S, N, NW.
August60.430.252.141.846.9244.7329.904S.
September63.333.455.644.049.8153.6029.984N, S.
October64.134.259.248.653.9123.4130.050N, S.
November67.738.861.049.655.3152.7029.776NW, N.
December74.745.166.254.460.361.6729.860NW, N.
Brightwater (lat. 41° 23′ S.; long. 173° 9′ E.; alt. 89 ft.)—January79.039.069.252.861.0126.89..     N.
February80.046.072.755.764.287.39..     N.
March76.040.070.049.059.562.69..     SW.
April70.035.064.147.655.8125.60..     NE.
May63.027.058.238.248.211144..     SW, S.
June62.029.057.036.746.8123.43..     S, SW.
July67.028.055.936.045.971.89..     SW.
August60.026.056.035.845.9114.11..     SW.
September63.030.058.640.249.4104.17..     N, NE.
October69.032.064.342.953.693.67..     NE.
November74.034.064.344.354.3142.64..     SW
December87.040.073.650.862.252.13..     SW, N.
Nelson (lat. 41° 16′ 17′ S.; long. 173° 18′ 46′ E.; alt. 34 ft.)—January78.037.068.853.761.2137.26..     N.
February80.050.072.157.864.997.68..     NE, N.
March74.043.069.552.060.753.05..     SW.
April69.042.063.351.257.2136.58..     NE.
May66.029.056.540.648.591.46..     SW.
June58.035.054.640.547.593.83..     E.
July61.030.053.238.46.0 1.70..     SE.
August59.031.053.939.26.5115.32..     SE.
September63.034.057.343.750.5114.20..     NE, SW.
October70.040.062.547.054.783.52..     NE, N, SW.
November73.037.064.746.655.6112.25..     SW.
December87.042.071.151.961.572.20..     N, NE.
Hokitika (lat. 42° 41′ 30′ S.; long 170° 40′ E.; alt. 12 ft.)—January72.035.063.348.756.0169.2629.973SW, NW.
February77.044.068.154.161.1125.1529.963SW, NW.
March71.041.064.048.456.2147.6730.017E, N.
April67.036.559.349.154.21721.3230.062E.
May65.029.551.938.044.9188.6229.822E, SW.
June57.031.547.439.343.3185.5330.069E, NW.
July57.529.552.938.545.71410.4230.141NE, SW.
August59.527.053.936.545.21313.3929.836NE, E.
September62.032.057.242.749.9186.9829.971NE, E
October63.035.558.945.752.32013.5930.028SW, W.
November61.033.057.644.751.12517.1729.836SW.
December69.542.062.349.76.01310.8629.936SW, W, NW.
Christchurch (lat. 43° 31′ 30′ S.; long. 172° 38′ 50′ E.; alt. 25 ft.)—January85.238.067.350.558.992.7429.893NE, SW.
February87.942.167.952.860.483.4629.936NE. SW.
March83.838.068.248.958.630.1229.922NE.
April76.335.062.047.954.9112.30.009SW, NE.
May65.926.153.737.745.718 29.772SW.
June58.329.951.339.145.28 30.045NE, SW.
July67.024.852.636.744.6 1.4230.102SW, NE.
August66.626.049.435.142.2142.1229.907SW, NE.
September64.331.153.140.146.6153.6729.976SW, NE.
October75.134.262.446.154.3111.2029.976NE, SW.
November83.134.765.545.655.5121.7529.668SW, NE.
December84.54070.049.859.971.4529.781NE, SW, NW.
Timaru (lat. 44° 25′ S.; long. 171° 18′ E.; alt. 40 ft.)—January84.434.667.748.358.0112.03..     SE, E.
February89.038.070.450.760.593.24..     E, SE.
March82.041.669.547.958.741.62..     NE, SW.
April80.035.463.145.354.2121.47..     SW, E.
May68.029.257.238.547.890.62..     SW.
June57.025.649.933.841.872.50..     SW.
July62.427.053.336.444.8101.24..     SW.
August63.226.450.834.542.6114.31..     SW.
September67.029.453.537.445.496.03..     SW, SE.
October79.035.664.544.254.391.45..     E, SE.
November90.234.666.643.555.0151.89..     SE, SW.
December89.838.673.148.660.841.39..     NE, E.
Waimate (lat. 44° 44′ S.; long. 171° E.; alt. 200 ft.)—January81.036.064.846.455.6132.34..     NE, SW.
February87.038.067.149.058.083.53..     NE.
March80.037.066.345.756.081.20..     NE.
April80.037.062.544.353.4110.86..     NE, SE.
May67.029.054.838.746.8120.98..     SW.
June58.028.050.434.242.3111.47..     SW, NE.
July65.027.052.836.344.691.33..     SW.
August65.028.049.434.341.8134.32..     SW.
September61.029.052.737.645.1136.45..     NE, SE, SW.
October75.035.061.642.652.1101.24..     NE, SE.
November85.035.063.443.453.4182.72..     NE, SW.
December83.036.069.248.558.851.96..     NE.
Gore (lat. 46° 6′ S.; long. 168° 57′ E.; alt. 233 ft.)—January80.032.064.442.053.2142.52..     SW.
February91.532.071.345.858.580.55..     SW, NE.
March81.035.065.642.854.2141.54..     SW, E.
April82.034.061.443.652.5155.12..     E, SW.
May63.026.052.334.343.3216.03..     E, SW, W.
June62.024.047.831.139.4100.48..     NE, E.
July60.025.047.134.240.6192.75..     E, NE.
August59.021.046.929.438.1171.22..     E, NE.
September65.025.054.835.545.1152.64..     E, NE, SW.
October74.028.061.138.249.6131.83..     SW, NW.
November71.031.058.140.149.1256.14..     SW, NW.
December78.032.064.444.654.5152.06..     SW, NW.
Dunedin (lat. 45° 62′ S.; long. 170° 31′ E.; alt. 300 ft.)—January76.036.063.347.055.1111.3829.895SW, NE.
February90.040.069.050.259.680.9429.937NE, SW.
March77.039.066.047.456.7110.8429.897NE, SW.
April84.036.061.645.553.581.4730.005SW.
May68.032.052.739.045.8163.8929.749SW.
June63.031.053.437.945.671.2430.023NE, N.
July66.031.052.539.946.2111.4930.088SW, N.
August65.027.048.036.942.4224.2129.903SW.
September61.032.052.739.446.0175.2930.003NE, SW.
October75.036.060.843.252.0131.5729.939NE, SW.
November70.034.059.943.151.5224.2729.635SW, NE.
December80.040.065.948.957.4131.8629.768SW, NE.
Invercargill (lat. 46° 25′ S.; long. 168° 21′ E.; alt. 18 ft.)—January73.035.062.246.354.2152.96..     SW.
February88.035.067.248.457.890.48..     W, N.
March79.035.063.545.354.4184.29..     NE, NW.
April75.030.061.142.952.0134.65..     NE, E.
May64.027.053.137.945.5216.30..     E, SW.
June62.026.052.233.843.0140.97..     E, NE.
July61.025.051.537.944.7204.04..     NE, E.
August60.022.048.932.240.5182.37..     E, NE.
September63.028.055.137.446.2171.99..     E, SW.
October75.027.061.339.450.3182.10..     NE.
November70.033.057.942.150.0246.88..     SW, E, NE.
December76.035.063.46.354.7203.84..     NE, SW.
COMPARATIVE TABLE, 1920.
Stations.Temperature in Shade.Rainfall.Mean Height of Barometer.Prevailing Winds.
Highest and Date.Lowest and Date.Mean Max. Temp. for Year.Mean Min. Temp. for Year.Mean Temp. for Year.Days on which Rain fell.Total Fall.
 °Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
Auckland77.5 Feb. 2036.0 July 163.952.758.316458.1729.980SW, NE.
Waihi84.9 Dec. 721.5 July 2465.346.655.918596.5030.005W, SW, NE.
Tauranga87.0 Dec. 2628.0 Aug. 2365.146.155.615568.93..     SW, NE.
Te Aroha85.0 Jan. 3 and 3027.0 June and July65.948.157.013355.42..     NW, S.
Rotorua87.0 Mar. 225.0 July 2568.645.356.912263.01..     SW, W.
Taihape77.8 Feb. 6, Dec. 2625.5 July 2457.342.850.017939.91..     W, NW.
Greenmeadows (Napier)92.5 Dec. 2630.5 Aug. 2365.348.156.78726.9229.972W, NW.
Moumahaki83.0 Feb. 9 and 1726.0 July 2463.644.253.914949.67..     NW, NE.
Palmerston N.85.0 Feb. 7 and 925.0 Aug. 2261.844.853.313939.77..     W, NW.
Wellington79.8 Feb. 928.6 July 2560.348.754.515049.2829.965N.S.
Brightwater87.0 Dec. 2626.0 Aug. 1863.744.253.911746.05..     SW, N.
Nelson87.0 Dec. 2529.0 May 2162.346.954.611449.05..     SW, NE.
Hokitika77.0 Feb. 2727.0 Aug. 1658.144.651.3198129.9629.971E, SW.
Christchurch87.9 Feb. 924.8 July 2760.344.252.212125.5329.916NE, SW.
Timaru90.2 Nov. 2625.6 June 2661.642.452.011027.79..     SW, E, SE.
Waimate87.0 Feb. 727.0 July 2459.641.750.613128.40..     NE.SW.
Gore91.5 Feb. 621.0 Aug. 15, 17, 22, 2357.938.548.218632.88..     SW, E.
Dunedin90.0 Feb. 627.0 Aug. 1458.843.251.015928.4529.903SW, NE.
Invercargill88.0 Feb. 622.0 Aug. 1558.140.849.420740.87..     NE, E.

Chapter 2. SECTION II. —HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND ADMINISTRATION.

EARLY HISTORY.

THE history of New Zealand prior to the seventeenth century is shrouded in mythology and tradition. When the country was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had discovered these islands many centuries previously. Papers written in 1874 by Mr. (afterwards Sir) William Fox and Sir Donald McLean state that at what time the discovery of New Zealand was made by the Maoris, and from what place they came, are matters of tradition only, and that much has been lost in the obscurity enveloping the history of a people without letters. Nor is there anything on record respecting the origin of the Maori people themselves, beyond the general tradition of the Polynesian race, which seems to show a series of successive migrations from west to east, probably by way of Malaysia to the Pacific. Little more can now be gathered from their traditions than that they were immigrants, and that they probably found inhabitants on the east coast of the North Island belonging to the same race as themselves—the descendants of a prior migration, whose history is lost. The tradition runs that, generations ago, the Maoris dwelt in a country named Hawaiki, and that one of their chiefs, after a long voyage, reached the northern island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a flattering description of the country he had discovered, this chief, it is said, persuaded a number of his kinsfolk and friends to set out with a fleet of double canoes for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remembered, and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the people of the principal canoes after their arrival in New Zealand; and from these traditional accounts the descent of the numerous tribes has been traced. The position of the legendary Hawaiki is unknown, but many places in the South Seas have been thus named in memory of the motherland. The Maoris speak a very pure dialect of the Polynesian language, the common tongue, with more or less variation, in all the eastern Pacific islands.

DISCOVERY BY EUROPEANS.

It was on the 13th December, 1642, that Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutch navigator, discovered New Zealand. Tasman left Batavia on the 14th August, 1642, in the yacht “Heemskercq,” accompanied by the “Zeehaen” (or “Sea-hen”) fly-boat. After having visited Mauritius and discovered Tasmania, named by him “Van Diemen's Land,” in honour of Anthony van Diemen, Governor of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, he steered eastward, and sighted the west coast of the South Island of New Zealand, described by him as “a high mountainous country.”

Tasman, under the belief that the land he saw belonged to a great polar continent, and was part of the country discovered some years before by Schouten and Le Maire, to which the name “Staten Land” had been given, gave the same name “Staten Land” to New Zealand; but within about three months afterwards Schouten's “Staten Land” was found to be merely an inconsiderable island. Upon this discovery being announced, the country that Tasman had called “Staten Land” received the name of “New Zealand,” by which it has ever since been known. Tasman sailed along the coast to a bay, where he anchored. To this he gave the name of “Murderers' Bay” (since termed “Massacre,” or “Golden,” Bay), on account of an unprovoked attack on a boat's crew by the Natives, and the massacre of four white men. Thence he steered along the west coast of the North Island, and gave the name “Cape Maria van Diemen” to the north-western extremity thereof. After sighting the islands of the Three Kings ho finally departed without having set foot in the country.

There is no record of any visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until the time of Captain Cook, who, after leaving the Society Islands, sailed in search of a southern continent then believed to exist. He sighted land on the 6th October, 1769, at Young Nick's Head, and on the 8th of that month cast anchor in Poverty Bay. After having coasted round the North Island and the South and Stewart Islands—which last he mistook for part of the South Island—he took his departure from Cape Farewell on the 31st March, 1770, for Australia. He visited New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Several other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century, amongst whom may be mentioned—

  • M. de Surville, in command of the “Saint Jean Baptiste,” who sighted the north-east coast on the 12th December, 1769, only two months after Cook's arrival at Poverty Bay.

  • M. Marion du Fresne—1772.

  • Captains Vancouver and Broughton—1791.

  • Captain Raven—1792 and 1793.

  • Alejandro Malaspina and José de Bustamente y Guerra—1793.

  • Lieutenant Hanson—1793.

SETTLEMENT AND COLONIZATION.

So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand to their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven, of the “Britannia,” landed a sealing-party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over twelve months before being called for by the “Britannia.”

The next few years saw the establishment of whaling-stations at several points on the coast, and in 1814 the first missionaries—Messrs. Hall and Kendall—arrived in New Zealand. After a short stay they returned to New South Wales, and on the 19th November of that year again embarked in company with Mr. Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the New South Wales Government, who preached his first sermon in New Zealand on Christmas Day, 1814. He returned to Sydney on the 23rd March, 1815, leaving Messrs. Hall, Kendall, and King, who formed the first mission station at Rangihoua, Bay of Islands.

In 1825 three separate attempts were made to found colonies in various parts of New Zealand, but none of these was successful, and for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling-stations. A number of Europeans gradually settled in different parts of the country, and married native women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonization arrived in Port Nicholson on the 22nd January, 1840, and founded the town of Wellington. During the few succeeding years the settlements of Nelson, Taranaki, Otago, and Canterbury were formed by immigrants sent out by associations in the United Kingdom.

BRITISH SOVEREIGNTY.

As early as 1833 a British Resident (Mr. Busby) was appointed, with headquarters at Kororareka (now called Russell), on the Bay of Islands. Seven years later—namely, on the 29th January, 1840—Captain William Hobson, R. N., arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Natives, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. A compact called the Treaty of Waitangi, to which in less than six months 512 names were affixed, was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes. The seat of Government was established at Waitemata (Auckland), and a settlement formed there.

The record of formal Government of New Zealand under the British Crown begins with the following Proclamation issued by Captain Hobson on the 21st May, 1840:—

Proclamation.

In the name of Her Majesty VICTORIA, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. By WILLIAM HOBSON, Esquire, a Captain in the Royal Navy, Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand.

WHEREAS by a treaty bearing date the sixth day of February, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and forty, made and executed by me, William Hobson, a Captain in the Royal Navy, Consul and Lieutenant-Governor in New Zealand, vested for this purpose with full powers by Her Britannic Majesty of the one part, and the Chiefs of the Confederation of the United Tribes of New Zealand, and the separate and independent Chiefs of New Zealand not members of the Confederation, of the other, and further ratified and confirmed by the adherence of the principal Chiefs of this Island of New Zealand (commonly called the “Northern Island”), all rights and powers of sovereignty over the said Northern Island were ceded to Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland absolutely and without reservation:

Now, therefore, I, William Hobson, Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand, in the name and on behalf of Her Majesty, do hereby proclaim and declare to all men that from and after the date of the above-mentioned treaty the full sovereignty of the Northern Island of New Zealand vests in Her Majesty Queen Victoria, her heirs and successors for ever.

Given under my hand, at Government House, Russell, Bay of Islands, this twenty-first day of May, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and forty.

                                                                                                                                      WILLIAM HOBSON,
                                                                                                                                                Lieutenant-Governor.

By His Excellency's command.
          WILLOTGHBY SHORTLAND, Colonial Secretary.

From the date of the Proclamation until the 3rd May, 1841, New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales, and on the latter date it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated the 16th November, 1840.

CONSTITUTION.

The Government of the colony was first vested in a Governor, who was responsible only to the Crown; there was an Executive Council and a Legislative Council with advisory powers only.

On the 30th June, 1852, an Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament, and published in New Zealand by Proclamation on the 17th January, 1853. Under it the constitution of a General Assembly was provided for, to consist of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives.

The first session of the General Assembly was opened on the 27th May, 1854, but the members of the Executive were not responsible to Parliament. During the session of that year there were associated with the permanent members of the Executive Council certain members of the House of Representatives, who, however, held no portfolios. The first Ministers under a system of responsible government were appointed in the year 1856.

On addresses from both Houses of the General Assembly, His Majesty the King, by Order in Council dated 9th September, 1907, and by Proclamation issued 10th September, 1907, was graciously pleased to change the style and designation of the Colony of New Zealand to “The Dominion of New Zealand”; the change taking effect from Thursday, the 26th September, 1907.

By Letters Patent dated 11th May, 1917, the designation of Governor and Commander-in-Chief which had hitherto been held by the Royal representative in New Zealand, was altered to “Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief.”

THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.

Prior to the establishment of responsible government the Executive Council for New Zealand consisted, in addition to the Governor, of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, and the Colonial Treasurer, seniority being in the order named. The Governor, or in his absence the senior member present, was to preside, and two members exclusive of the Governor or member presiding were to form a quorum. The Governor was commanded to in all things consult and advise with the Executive Council, and not to exercise the powers and authorities vested in him except by and with the concurrence and advice of the Executive Council, unless in cases of an urgent and pressing nature which would not admit of delay. In such cases he was, with all convenient speed, to bring the measures so adopted by him before the Executive Council for their revision and sanction. Nothing in these instructions, however, was to prevent the Governor exercising any or all of the powers and authorities vested in him, without the advice and concurrence of the Executive Council in cases not considered of sufficient importance to require their assistance or advice, or in cases which were of such a nature that in his judgment material prejudice might be sustained by consulting the Executive Council thereupon. No questions were to he brought before the Council except those proposed by the Governor, who in any case in which he saw sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the major part or the whole of the Council was further empowered to exercise the powers vested in him in opposition to such opinion.

The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of the 11th May, 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of the 24th April, 1919 (p. 1213). The relationship between the powers of the Governor-General and the Executive Council is indicated in paragraphs V and VII of the Instructions, which read as follows:—

V. Governor-General to take Advice of Executive Council.

In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General shall be guided by the advice of the Executive Council but, if in any case he shall see sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the said Council, he may act in the exercise of his said powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Us without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case it shall be competent to any member of the said Council to require that there be recorded upon the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

VII. Regulation of Power of Pardon.

The Governor-General shall not pardon or reprieve any offender without first receiving in capital cases the advice of the Executive Council, and in other cases the advice of one at least of his Ministers; and in any case in which such pardon or reprieve might directly affect the interests of Our Empire, or of any country or place beyond the jurisdiction of the Government of the Dominion, the Governor-General shall, before deciding as to either pardon or reprieve, take those interests specially into his own personal consideration in conjunction with such advice as aforesaid.

The present Executive Council consists of twelve members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

Prior to the establishment of responsible government the Legislative Council of New Zealand consisted of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Colonial Treasurer, and the three senior Justices of the Peace. The Governor was to preside at all meetings of the Council, and, in his absence, the senior member present; four members in addition to the Governor or the member presiding to form a quorum. No law or Ordinance was to be enacted by the Legislative Council which was not first proposed by the Governor, and no question was to be debated unless submitted by him for that purpose. The laws and Ordinances of the Council were to be designated “Ordinances enacted by the Governor of New Zealand with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council thereof.” No laws whatsoever were to he made to continue for less than two years except only in cases of unforeseen emergency requiring provision for temporary service, and the Governor was specially enjoined not to propose or assent to Ordinances or laws dealing with certain matters, some of which were,—

  • Restricting public worship, although not conducted according to the Church of England.

  • Reducing revenue or infringing prerogative or affecting the salaries or allowances of public officers without special leave.

  • Issuing bills of credit or other negotiable securities in lieu of money on the credit of the colony, or paper currency, or any coin save the legal coin of the realm.

  • By which persons not of European birth or descent might be subjected or liable to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of European birth or descent would not also be subjected.

  • Raising money for public or private lotteries.

  • Naturalizing aliens without leave.

  • Divorcing persons joined together in holy matrimony.

  • Granting money, land, or other donation or gratuity to the Governor.

The Legislative Council assembled for its first session at Auckland on the 24th May, 1854, and comprised fourteen members.

The Councillors had been designated a year earlier by the Governor, and their names submitted to Her late Majesty Queen Victoria for the Royal approval; and they were gazetted in New Zealand in December, 1853. Until 1868 the rule was that the appointment of members should be made by an instrument under the Royal sign-manual, but the rule was not strictly observed after 1861. An Act of the Imperial Parliament in 1868 validated any appointments of Councillors that might have been made irregularly in the past, and provided that future appointments should be made by the Governor (not by the Sovereign).

Until 1891 members were appointed for life, and the Speaker was appointed by the Governor; but since that year appointments have been for seven years only, members, however, being eligible for reappointment. The Council elects its own Speaker, who holds office for five years. A Chairman of Committees is elected every session, and holds office till the election of Ms successor. Speaker and Chairman are both eligible for re-election. The Imperial Act under which the earliest appointments were made did not fix a minimum number of members, though it provided that the first appointees should be not less than ten in number. The number actually summoned was sixteen, of whom only fourteen attended and were enrolled. The number increased irregularly for thirty years. In 1885 and 1886 it stood at fifty-three, but has not since reached that limit. The number on the roll at present is forty-one.

Provision for an elected Legislative Council is contained in the Legislative Council Act, 1914, which was originally intended to come into operation at the first general election of members of the Lower House after the end of 1915. The introduction of the new system has, however, been postponed from time to time, and at present the position is that the Act is to be brought into operation at a date to be specified by Proclamation. Under the system outlined in the Act the Dominion is to be divided into four electoral divisions, two in the North Island and two in the South, and the number of members is to be forty, divided between the two Islands on a population basis. The Governor-General is empowered to appoint not more than three Maori members to the Council.

The qualifications for membership of the Legislative Council are the same as for the House of Representatives, referred to below, with the proviso that a person may not at the same time be a member of both Houses.

Before the year 1892 the honorarium of Councillors was understood to be for the session, not for the year, and formed the subject of a special vote every session, the amount varying in different sessions. By the Payment of Members Act, 1892, the honorarium was made annual, not sessional, and was fixed at £150 a year. The amount was raised in 1904 to £200, and in 1920 to £350. Besides the honorarium, members are allowed travelling-expenses actually incurred in going to and from Parliament.

Subject to certain exemptions, members not attending the Council are liable to be fined.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty—seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are now designated “Members of Parliament.” The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation, passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty-three; in 1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four; in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy; and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act, 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Legislature Act, 1908, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South.

The North Island at present returns forty-five European members, and the South Island thirty-one. The elections are triennial, except in the case of a dissolution by the Governor-General. Quinquennial Parliaments instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act, 1879.

Every registered elector of either sex who is free from any of the disqualifications mentioned in the Legislature Act, 1908, is eligible for membership. All contractors to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly, in any one financial year, as well as the public servants of the Dominion, are incapable of being elected as, or of sitting or voting as, members.

The payment made to members of the House of Representatives is £500 per annum, subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. The travelling-expenses to and from Wellington are also allowed. The present rate of payment came into force in 1920, prior to which members received £300 per annum.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon after as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution, but receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

THE FRANCHISE.

The three cardinal principles of the franchise in New Zealand are (1) one man one vote, (2) female suffrage, and (3) adult suffrage.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the last-mentioned, the following classes of persons not being entitled to register as electors or to vote:—

  • An alien;

  • A person of unsound mind;

  • A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of His Majesty's dominions, or convicted in New Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act, 1908, as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence.

To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in the Dominion, and for one month in the electoral district for which he claims to vote.

The system of “one man one vote” has been in operation since 1889, and women's suffrage since 1893. The qualifications for registration are the same for both sexes.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION.

Side by side with the general government of the country, but subordinate to it, there has existed a system of local government since the early years of New Zealand's annexation as a British colony. The history of local government divides naturally into two periods representing two distinct systems—viz., the provincial, which was in operation up to 1876, and the county, which superseded the provincial in that year.

THE PROVINCES.

On the 23rd December, 1847, a Charter was signed dividing the colony into two provinces—New Ulster and New Munster—and this was proclaimed in New Zealand on the 10th March, 1848. The Province of New Ulster consisted of the whole of the North Island with the exception of that portion adjacent to- Cook Strait and lying to the south of a line commencing at the centre of the mouth of the Patea River and running thence due east to the east coast. The Province of New Munster consisted of the portion of the North Island excluded from New Ulster and the whole of the South and Stewart Islands. Each province had a Lieutenant-Governor, an Executive Council, and a Legislative Council, while the Governor-in-Chief for the whole colony was also Governor of each province. Provision had also been made for a House of Representatives in each province, but this portion of the Charter was suspended for five years, and before it came into operation a new Constitution was obtained.

Under the new Constitution the Provinces of New Ulster and New Munster were abolished and the colony was divided into six provinces—Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago. Each province was to be presided over by an elective Superintendent, and to have an elective Provincial Council empowered to legislate, except on certain specified subjects. The franchise amounted practically to household suffrage. In each case the election was for four years, but a dissolution of the Provincial Council by the Governor could take place at any time, necessitating a fresh election both of the Council and of the Superintendent. The Superintendent was chosen by the whole body of the electors of the province, and each member of the Provincial Council by the electors of a district. The boundaries of the new provinces were gazetted on the 2nd April, 1853, and the boundaries of the electoral districts on the 14th May following, the first general elections for the House of Representatives and the Provincial Councils being held during 1853 and the beginning of 1854. The Provincial Governments, afterwards increased to nine. later reduced to eight by the merging of Southland with Otago, and again increased to nine by the formation of Westland Province, remained as integral parts of the Constitution of the colony until the 1st November, 1876, when they were abolished by an Act of the General Assembly, that body having been vested with the power of altering the Constitution Act.

EARLY BOROUGHS AND TOWN DISTRICTS.

Even before the division of New Zealand into the two provinces of New Ulster and New Munster, local government had its inception, Wellington having been created a borough in 1842 under the authority of the Municipal Corporations Ordinance of that year. The Ordinance was disallowed by the Home Government, but was re-enacted, with necessary alterations, in 1844. Wellington, which lost its status on the original Ordinance being disallowed, did not become a borough again until 1870,. Auckland (constituted in 1851) remaining the only borough in New Zealand for several years.

Wellington, which had been the first borough in the country, also became the first town district, with a form of government not differing greatly from that of a municipality. Gradually the more important towns adopted the status of boroughs, while the less important remained town districts. In Otago, however, between 1865 and 1875, several small towns were created boroughs under the authority of an Ordinance of the Otago Provincial Council, nineteen of the thirty-six boroughs in existence at the date of the abolition of the provinces being in Otago, all formed under the provisions of the Ordinance referred to.

THE ROAD AND HIGHWAY DISTRICTS.

Another form of local government which came into existence in the provincial days was that of the road districts, or, as they were called in certain parts of the country, highway districts. As the names imply, the road and highway districts were formed for the purpose of extending and maintaining roads. Each district was controlled by an elected Board, which had power to levy rates. The first Road Boards were formed in 1863, and by 1875 their number had risen to 314.

THE COUNTIES.

Among the instructions given Captain Hobson on his appointment as the first Governor of New Zealand was one directing that the colony was to be divided into counties, hundreds, and parishes. In accordance with this instruction, the boundaries of the County of Eden, in which Auckland—the then capital—is situated, were proclaimed in 1842, and some years later the county was divided into hundreds. Very little further was done towards giving effect to the instructions, and the first administrative county was Westland, separated from Canterbury Province in 1867. and granted a system of local government in the following year.

It was not until the abolition of the provinces in 1876 that a scheme of division of the whole country into counties was introduced. The Counties Act, 1876, which, in conjunction with the Municipal Corporations Act of the same year, provided a comprehensive scheme of local government in lieu of the provincial governments, divided New Zealand into sixty-three counties. With the exception of six, which were exempted from the operations of the Act, each county was placed under the control of an elected Chairman and Council, possessed of fairly full powers of local government—considerably less, however, than those formerly enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. The Counties Act specially excluded boroughs from the counties within which they geographically lie, and a similar provision has since been made in the case of town districts having a population of over 500.

EXTENSION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

Since the abolition of the provinces and the passing of the Counties and Municipal Corporations Acts of 1876 there has been considerable extension of local government. Many of the road districts have merged with the counties within which they lie, while others have become boroughs and town districts. On the other hand, counties, boroughs, and town districts have increased in numbers, while several entirely new classes of local districts, formed for definite purposes—as, for instance, land drainage, or electric-power supply—have come into existence. In most cases the Boards of these districts have borrowing and rating powers.

The numbers of local districts of each class in the Dominion at present are as follows:—

Counties129
Boroughs117
Town districts—
        Not forming parts of counties35
        Forming parts of counties32
Road districts82
River districts51
Land-drainage districts61
Harbour districts42
Hospital districts43
City and suburban drainage districts3
Tramway districts2
Local railway districts3
Water-supply districts7
Electric-power districts11

Chapter 3. SECTION III.—OFFICIAL.

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND.

JELLICOE, His Excellency, Admiral of the Fleet, the Right Honourable John Rushworth, Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B.. O.M., G.C.V.O.

Private Secretary—Captain Arthur R. W. Curtis, M.C.

Official Secretary—A. Cecil Day, C.B.E.

Military Secretary and Aide-de-Camp—Captain P. R. M. Mundy, D.S.O., M.C.

Aide-de-Camp—Lieutenant R. Gordon Southey, M.C.

Honorary Aides-de-Camp—Colonel H. Hart, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.; Colonel C. W. Melville, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.; Colonel R. Young, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.; Colonel A. E. Stewart, C.M.G., D.S.O.; Lieutenant-Colonel Hugh Stewart. C.M.G.; Lieutenant-Colonel R. C. Allen, D.S.O.

Honorary Physician—Colonel E. J. O'Neill, C.M.G., D.S.O., M.B.

Honorary Surgeon—Brigadier-General Sir D. J. McGavin, Kt., C.M.G., D.S.O.. M.D.

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1921.

His Excellency the GOVERNOR -GENERAL

Right Hon. W. F. Massey, P.C., Prime Minister, Minister of Railways, Minister of Finance, Minister of Stamp Duties, Minister of Mines, Minister in Charge of Land and Income Tax, State Advances, and Imperial Government Supplies Departments.

Hon. Sir F. H. D. Bell, K.C.M.G., K.C., Attorney-General, Commissioner of State Forests, Minister in Charge of Valuation Department, Minister of Marine, and Leader of the Legislative Council.

Hon. Sir William Fraser, K.C.V.O., Member of the Executive Council without Portfolio.

Hon. D. H. Guthrie, Minister of Lands, Minister in Charge of Land for Settlements. Discharged Soldiers Settlement, Scenery Preservation, and Repatriation Departments.

Hon. W. Nosworthy, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Immigration, and Minister in Charge of Tourist and Health Resorts and Legislative Departments.

Hon. J. G. Coates, M.C., Minister of Public Works, Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, Native Minister, Minister in Charge of Public Trust, Native Trust, Roads, Public Buildings, and Government Life and Accident Insurance Departments.

Hon. E. P. Lee, Minister of Justice, Minister of External Affairs, Minister of Industries and Commerce, and Minister in Charge of Police and Prisons Departments.

Hon. C. J. Parr, C.M.G., Minister of Education, Minister of Public Health, Minister in Charge of Hospitals and Charitable Aid, and Mental Hospitals Departments.

Hon. G. J. Anderson, Minister of Labour, Minister in Charge of Printing and Stationery, Pensions, and State Fire Insurance Departments.

Hon. Sir R. H. Rhodes, K.B.E., Minister of Defence and Minister in Charge of War Pensions.

Hon. W. Downie Stewart, Minister of Customs, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister in Charge of High Commissioner, Audit, Museum, Registrar-General, Census and Statistics, Electoral, Laboratory, and Advertising Departments, and the National Provident Fund.

Hon. Dr. M. Pomare, C.M.G., Member of the Executive Council representing the Native Race and Minister in Charge of Cook Islands.

Clerk of the Executive Council—F. D. Thomson, B.A., C.M.G.

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND, SEPTEMBER, 1921.
Speaker—Hon. W. C. F. CARNCROSS.
Chairman of Committees—Hon. OLIVER SAMUEL.
Name.Provincial District.Date of Appointment.
* Life member.
Alison, Hon. Ewen WilliamAuckland7 May, 1918.
Baillie, Hon. William Douglas Hall*Wellington8 March, 1861.
Barr, Hon. JohnCanterbury22 January, 1921.
Bell, Hon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon, K.C.M.G.Wellington21 May, 1919.
Buchanan, Hon. Sir Walter, Kt.Wellington23 June, 1915.
Campbell, Hon. James PalmerAuckland2 September, 1921.
Carncross, Hon. Walter Charles FrederickTaranaki17 March, 1917.
Carroll, Hon. Sir James, K.C.M.G.Auckland2 September, 1921.
Clark, Hon. Edward HenryOtago25 June, 1920.
Cohen, Hon. MarkOtago25 June, 1920.
Collins, Hon. Colonel William Edward, C.M.GWellington14 July, 1921.
Earnshaw, Hon. WilliamWellington25 June, 1920.
Fleming. Hon. David ThomasOtago7 May, 1918.
Fraser, Hon. Sir William, K.C.V.O.Wellington27 November, 1919
Garland, Hon. George JosephAuckland7 May, 1918.
Geddis, Hon. William JohnHawke's Bay7 May, 1918.
Gow, Hon. James BurmanAuckland7 May, 1918.
Grimmond, Hon. JosephWestland7 May, 1918.
Hall-Jones, Hon. Sir William, K.C.M.G.Wellington6 October, 1920.
Hardy, Hon. Charles Albert CreeryCanterbury..25 June, 1920.
Harris, Hon. Major BenjaminAuckland15 February, 1918.
Hawke, Hon. Archibald FotheringhamOtago7 May, 1918.
Hislop, Hon. Thomas WilliamWellington2 September, 1921.
Izard, Hon. Charles HaywardWellington7 May, 1918.
Louisson, Hon. CharlesCanterbury7 May, 1918.
MacGregor. Hon. JohnOtago14 July, 1921.
McIntyre, Hon. William HendersonNelson2 September, 1921.
Mackenzie, Hon. Sir Thomas, G.C.M.G.Otago12 March, 1921.
Michel, Hon. Henry LeslieWestland7 May, 1918
Mitchclson, Hon. Sir Edwin, K.C.M.G.Auckland25 June, 1920.
Moore, Hon. RichardCanterbury14 July, 1921.
Nerheny, Hon. Patrick JosephAuckland25 June, 1920.
Patuki, Hon. John TopiOtago7 May, 1918.
Samuel, Hon. OliverTaranaki14 July, 1921.
Scott, Hon. RobertOtago25 June, 1920.
Sinclair, Hon. Sir John Robert, Kt.Otago7 May, 1918.
Smith, Hon. Colonel George John, C.B.E.Canterbury25 June, 1920.
Snodgrass, Hon. William Wallace, M.B.E.Nelson2 September, 1921.
Stewart, Hon. WilliamAuckland7 May, 1918.
Thomson, Hon. George MalcolmOtago7 May, 1918.
Triggs, Hon. William HenryCanterbury7 May, 1918.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, SEPTEMBER, 1921.
Speaker—Hon. Sir F. W. LANG, Kt.
Chairman of Committees—A. S. MALCOLM.
Name.Electoral District.
For European Electorates.
Anderson, Hon. George JamesMataura.
Atmore, HarryNelson.
Bartram, Frederick NatleyGrey Lynn.
Bitchener, JohnWaitaki.
Bollard, Richard FrancisRaglan.
Brown, John VigorNapier.
Burnett, Thomas DavidTemuka.
Campbell, Hugh McLeanHawke's Bay.
Coates, Hon. Joseph Gordon, M.C.Kaipara.
Craigie, JamesTimaru.
Dickson, James McCollChalmers.
Dickson, James SamuelParnell.
Dixon, EdwinPatea.
Edie, JohnBruce.
Field, William HughesOtaki.
Forbes, George WilliamHurunui.
Fraser, PeterWellington Central.
Glenn, William SpiersRangitikei.
Guthrie, Hon. David HenryOroua.
Hamilton, AdamWallace.
Hamilton, John RonaldAwaru.
Hanan, Hon. Josiah AlfredInvercargill.
Harris, AlexanderWaitemata.
Hawken, Oswald JamesEgmont.
Herries, Hon. Sir William Herbert, K.C.M.G.Tauranga.
Hockly, Frank FranklinRotorua.
Holland, Henry EdmundBuller.
Horn, JamesWakatipu.
Howard, Edwin JohnChristchurch South.
Hudson, Richard PhineasMotueka.
Hunter, Sir George, KtWaipawa.
Isitt, Leonard MonkChristchurch North.
Jennings, William ThomasWaitomo.
Jones, DavidKaiapoi.
Kellett, EdwardDunedin North.
Lang, Hon. Sir Frederic William, Kt.Manukau.
Lee, Hon. Ernest ageOamaru.
Luke, Sir John Pearce, Kt., C.M.G.Wellington North.
Lysnar, William DouglasGisborne.
McCallum, RichardWairau.
McCombs, JamesLyttelton.
McLeod, Alexander DonaldWairarapa.
McNicol, ArchibaldPahiatua.
Malcolm, Alexander ScottClutha.
Mander, FrancisMarsden.
Massey, Right Hon. William Ferguson, P.C.Franklin.
Masters, RobertStratford.
Mitchell, Colonel George, D.S.O.Wellington South.
Myers, Hon. Arthur MielzinerAuckland East.
Nash, James AlfredPalmerston.
Newman, Alfred KingcomeWellington East.
Newman, EdwardManawatu.
Nosworthy, Hon. WilliamAshburton.
Parr, Hon. Christopher James, C.M.G.Eden.
Parry, William EdwardAuckland Central.
Poland, HughOhinemuri.
Potter, Vivian HaroldRoskill.
Reed, Vernon HerbertBay of Islands
Rhodes. Hon. Sir Robert Heaton, K.B.E.Ellesmere.
Rhodes, Thomas WilliamThames.
Savage, Michael JosephAuckland West.
Seddon, Thomas Edward YoudWestland.
Sidey, Thomas KayDunedin South.
Smith, Robert WilliamWaimarino.
Smith, Sydney GeorgeTaranaki.
Statham, Charles ErnestDunedin Central.
Stewart, Hon. William DownieDunedin West.
Sullivan, Daniel GilesAvon.
Sykes, George RobertMasterton.
Thacker, Henry Thomas JoyntChristchurch East.
Veitch, William AndrewWanganui.
Wilford, Thomas MasonHutt.
Williams, Kenneth StuartBay of Plenty.
Witty, GeorgeRiccarton.
Wright, Robert AlexanderWellington Suburbs.
Young, James AlexanderWaikato.
For Maori Electorates.
Tau HenareNorthern Maori.
Ngata, Hon. Apirana TurupaEastern Maori.
Pomare, Hon. Dr. Maui, C.M.G.Western Maori.
Uru, John Hopere WharewitiSouthern Maori.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.

LIST OF PRINCIPAL DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND NAMES OF PERMANENT HEADS.
Department.Permanent Head.
Title.Name.
LegislativeClerk of ParliamentsA. F. Lowe.
TreasurySecretaryColonel G. F. C. Campbell, C.M.G., V.D.
Friendly SocietiesRegistrarR. E. Hayes.
National Provident FundSuperintendent
Land and Income TaxCommissioner of TaxesD. G. Clark, O.B.E.
PensionsCommissionerG. C. Fache, O.B.E.
NavalNaval AdviserCommodore A. G. Hotham, C.M.G., R.N.
Post and TelegraphSecretaryR. B. Morris.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerR. W. McVilly, M.V.O.
Public WorksUnder-Secretary and Engineer-in-ChiefF. W. Furkert, A.M.I.C.E., A.M.I.M.E.
NativeUnder-SecretaryG. C. B. Jordan.
JusticeUnder-Secretary
PatentRegistrarJ. C. Lewis.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralW. C. MacGregor, K.C.
PrisonsController-GeneralC. E. Matthews.
PoliceCommissionerJ. O'Donovan. M.V.O.
Stamp DutiesCommissionerP. C. Corliss
Land Transfer and Deeds RegistrySecretary
MinesUnder-SecretaryA. H. Kimbell.
External AffairsSecretaryJ. D. Gray.
Internal AffairsUnder-SecretaryJ. Hislop, M.V.O., O.B.E.
ElectoralChief Electoral Officer
Public Service SuperannuationSecretaryW. M. Wright.
Registrar-General'sRegistrar-GeneralW. W. Cook.
Census and StatisticsGovernment StatisticianM. Fraser, O.B.E.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralColonel R. J. Collins, C.M.G., I.S.O.
Printing and StationeryGovernment PrinterM. F. Marks.
ImmigrationUnder-SecretaryH. D. Thomson.
Mental HospitalsInspector-GeneralF. Hay, M.B., C.M.
HealthDirector-GeneralT. H. A. Valintine, C.B.E., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., D.P.H.
Tourist and Health ResortsGeneral ManagerB. M. Wilson.
DefenceGeneral Officer Commanding N.Z. Military ForcesMajor-General Sir E. W. C. Chaytor, K.C.M.G., K.C. V.O., C.B. (D.), N.Z. Staff Corps.
RepatriationDirectorJ. R. Samson.
CustomsComptrollerW. B. Montgomery, O.B.E.
Marine and Inspection of MachinerySecretary of Marine, Chief Inspector of Machinery, and Chief Surveyor of ShipsR. Duncan.
LabourSecretaryF. W. Rowley.
Lands and SurveyUnder-SecretaryT. N. Brodrick, O.B.E., I.S.O.
ValuationValuer-GeneralF. W. Flanagan.
AgricultureDirector-GeneralC. J. Reakes, C.B.E., M.R.C.V.S., D.V.Sc. Melb.
Industries and CommerceSecretaryJ. W. Collins.
EducationDirectorJ. Caughley, M.A.
State Forest ServiceDirectorL. McIntosh Ellis, B.Sc. (F.), C.S.F.E.
State Fire InsuranceGeneral ManagerC. R. C. Robieson.
State AdvancesSuperintendentColonel G. F. C. Campbell, C.M.G., V.D.
Government InsuranceCommissionerJ. H. Richardson, C.M.G. F.F.A., F.I.C.A., F.I.A., N.Z.
Public TrustPublic TrusteeJ. W. Macdonald.
Native TrustNative TrusteeW. E. Rawson.
Cook IslandsSecretaryG. C. B. Jordan.

By an Act passed during the year 1912, and intituled the Public Service Act, 1912, the Public Service of New Zealand was placed under the direct and sole control of a Commissioner and two Assistant Commissioners, who are appointed for a term of seven years, are responsible only to Parliament, and can be dismissed from office only for misbehaviour or incompetence.

The Act, which became operative on the 1st April, 1913, applies to all members of the Public Service with the exception of the Controller and Auditor-General, officers of the Railway Department, members of the Police and Defence Forces, Judges and Magistrates, officers of the House, certain officers of the Legislative Departments, and persons paid only by fees or commission, as well as any officer to whom the Governor-General in Council declares the Act shall not apply.

By the Post and Telegraph Act of 1918 the Post and Telegraph Department was exempted from the control of the Commissioner, with the exception that the Commissioner makes all appointments.

          Public Service Commissioner: W. R. MORRIS, C.M.G., I.S.O. Assistant Commissioners: (1) P. D. N. VERSCHAFFELT; (2) (vacant).

NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL REPRESENTATIVES ABROAD.

High Commissioner for New Zealand in London—Hon. Sir James Allen, K.C.B., New Zealand Offices, 415 Strand, London W.C. 2.

New Zealand Trade Commissioner for Australia and Government Agent, Melbourne—H. J. Manson, Dominion Chambers, 59 William Street, Melbourne.

New Zealand Government Agent, Sydney—W. R. Blow, London Bank Chambers, corner of Pitt and Moore Streets, Sydney.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agent, Adelaide—D. Hawes, Pirie Street, Adelaide.

Honorary New Zealand Representative in India—R. L. B. Gall, care of Messrs. Landale and Clark (Limited), P.O. Box 112, Calcutta.

New Zealand Government Agent, Vancouver—W. A. James, Mercantile Buildings, 318 Homer Street, Vancouver.

Resident Agent for New Zealand, San Francisco—H. Stephenson Smith, 311 California Street, San Francisco.

TRADE REPRESENTATIVES OF BRITISH COUNTRIES IN NEW ZEALAND.

UNITED KINGDOM.

H.M. Trade Commissioner—R. W. Dalton, 11 Grey Street, Wellington. Imperial Trade Correspondent—W. T. Monkman, Bond Street, Dunedin.

CANADA.

Trade Commissioner—W. A. Beddoe, Customs Street, Auckland.

FOREIGN CONSULS.

CONSULS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES RESIDING IN, OR WITH JURISDICTION OVER, NEW ZEALAND, SEPTEMBER, 1921.

Argentine Republic.—Consul-General: H. B. Caceres, Wellington. Vice-Consul: H. H. Bayward, Wellington.

Belgium.—Acting-Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): H. Segaert, Sydney. Consuls: A. M. Ferguson, Auckland: G. F. Johnston, Wellington: Sir J. J. Kinsey, Christchurch; G. L. Denniston, Dunedin. Vice-Consul: C. R. J. Ward, Christchurch.

Brazil.—Vice-Consul: A. H. Miles, Wellington.

Chile.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Manuel Gundelach, Sydney. Consuls: E. A. Craig, Auckland; J. Montgomery, Christchurch; H. L. Nathan, Wellington; J. A. Roberts, Dunedin.

China.—Consuls: Lin Shih Yuan, Wellington; Pan Cheng-Fou, Samoa (acting).

Denmark.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Otto Wadsted, San Francisco. Consul for North Island: Hon. Sir F. H. D. Bell, K.C.M.G., Wellington (Principal Consulate). Consul for South Island: H. B. Sorensen, Christchurch. Consul: Michael Myers, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: Robort Millar, Auckland; W. E. Perry, Hokitika; O. H. Möller, Dunedin; Charles Dahl, Palmereton North.

Finland.—Consul-General for British Empire: Captain Anders J. L. Norrgren, London.

France.—Consul: E. T. de Beauregard, Auckland. Consular Agents: George Humphreys, Christchurch; O. R. Bendall, Wellington; S. E. D. Neill, Dunedin; Gordon Hay-Mackenzie, Samoa.

Greece.—Vice-Consul for New Zealand: J. F. Dyer, Wellington.

Honduras.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Frederic Walsh, Sydney.

Italy.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji: Commander G. St. Martin, Melbourne. Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): A. Grossardi, Melbourne. Consular Agents: Joseph Wallace, Christchurch; L. O. H. Tripp, O.B.E., Wellington; Sir John Roberts, Kt., C.M.G., Dunedin; Geraldo Perotti, Greymouth; Giovanni (J. H.) Pagni, Auckland.

Japan.—Acting Consul-General: S. Shimizu, Sydney. Consul: H. D. Heather, Auckland.

Liberia.—Consul: Charles Louisson, Christchurch. Acting-Consul: T. N. Holmden, Wellington.

Mexico.—Consul: J. W. Hall, Auckland.

Netherlands.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji: W. L. Bosschart, Melbourne. Vice-Consul de Carriere, attached to Consulate-General, P. A. van Buttingha Wichers, Melbourne. Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): W. G. Johnston. Wellington. Vice-Consuls: George Ritchie, Dunedin; M. Copeland, Auckland; C. J. Cooper, Christchurch.

Norway.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, and the adjacent islands: Finn Koren, Melbourne. Consul: A. W. Newton, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: Sigurd Bentzon, Melbourne; Robert Millar, Auckland; George Jameson, Christchurch; M. E. Wiig, Invercargill; J. H. Enright, Westport; John Scott, Timaru; W. F. Edmond, Dunedin (honorary).

Paraguay.—Consul: A. E. Kernot, Wellington.

Peru.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: J. M. Paxton, Sydney. Consul: G. H. Baker, Auckland.

Portugal.—Consul: John Duncan, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: A. D. S. Duncan, Wellington; C. W. Rattray, Dunedin; N. A. Nathan, Auckland (honorary).

Spain.—Consul-in-Chief (with jurisdiction over Australia and New Zealand): Senor Don Jaime Montero y de Madrazo. Melbourne. Hon. Vice-Consul: A. K. S. Mackenzie, Wellington.

Sweden.—Acting-Consul: W. I. Nathan, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: C. I. Nathan, Auckland; W. H. Cheesman, Christchurch (acting).

Switzerland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): M. Stahol, Melbourne.

United States of America.—Consul: David F. Wilber, Auckland. Vice-Consuls: M. I. Mays, Auckland; J. E. Moran, Wellington. Consular Agents: H. P. Bridge, Christchurch; H. Reeves, Dunedin.

Uruguay.—Vice-Consul (Acting-Consul): W. J. Prouse, Wellington.

Chapter 4. SECTION IV.—STATISTICAL ORGANIZATION.

EARLY STATISTICAL RECORDS.

NEW Zealand was proclaimed a British Crown colony in 1840. Official statistical records of the country commenced with the following year, 1841, in the shape of reports compiled for the information of the Colonial Office, and known by immemorial custom as “blue-books.”

These reports, which continued until 1852, were prepared in manuscript form in triplicate, and several copies still repose in the custody of the Registrar-General, their careful penmanship still legible despite the faded ink. A collection of tables compiled by various Government authorities and illustrating the work of their Departments composed the annual blue-book. Bald statements as were these early statistical efforts, yet they fail to hide altogether the incidents of the times. Here a table of population-figures apologizes for incompleteness by the statement that an enumerator had been badly handled by Natives who were suspicious of his motives in collecting information; again, a list of exports shows the ghastly trade in dried human heads.

Two points retarded the development of the statistics of the blue-books: in the first place they were not intended for general publication; secondly, there appeared a lack of co-ordination between the departments furnishing the returns and the office collating and ultimately issuing them.

It was not long, however, before the need of authoritative statistics was felt, both for present use, and also as a record of the development of the country and its various provinces and settlements. Accordingly we find that, in 1849, “Statistics of New Munster,” compiled under the superintendence of Alfred Domett, were printed by order of the Legislative Council. Again, “Statistics of Nelson” covering the period 1843-54, were issued in 1855. Various other publications were issued dealing with some individual province or settlement. In the year 1853 a Constitution granted by the Imperial Parliament came into force, and from this date the fragmentary and inchoate statistical works find a new complexion. Five years later the Registrar-General, who had been entrusted with the task of compiling annually statistics of the whole colony, produced a volume dealing with the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856.

STATISTICAL LEGISLATION.

One of the many ways in which statistics may be classified is as to source from which obtained, and in this respect they naturally divide into two classes—i.e., as to whether they are compiled from the records (obtained primarily for some other purpose) of a Government Department or other similar authority, or whether the data require to be specially collected from individual persons, &c.

As has been indicated above, the statistics included in the early blue-books belong in the main to the first of these two categories. Certain items, however, notably population figures, would be more correctly placed in the second category, though the system of collection was exceedingly crude and the scope of inquiry very limited. As a matter of fact, the population figures prior to 1851 appear to have been compiled in each settlement by the local Resident Magistrate by the simple method of ascertaining from the head of each house the number of persons in the household. From such small beginnings, however, has grown the Dominion's present comprehensive system of collection of statistical data.

The proper collection of statistics from the public on the voluntary basis which appeared to exist in the “forties” could only be maintained with a very small population, and with the simplest of inquiries. With the increase of population and the desire to obtain fuller information than in the past it was found advisable as early as 1851 to pass an Ordinance providing for the collection of statistics in the form of recurrent censuses. The Ordinance is of peculiar interest as being the first enactment on the subject of the collection of statistics in New Zealand, and as being the foundation on which all subsequent legislation of the kind has been based. With the exception of the schedules, which provided for the ascertainment of information as to sex, age, and degree of education of all persons, day- and Sabbath-school attendance, and particulars of live-stock and crops, it is here reproduced in full.

                              Session XI, No. VIII.

AN ORDINANCE for taking a Census of the Colony of New Zealand. (15th July, 1851.)

WHEREAS it is expedient that authentic statistical information of the Colony of New Zealand be periodically obtained:

Be it therefore enacted by His Excellency the Governor-in-Chief of New Zealand, with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council thereof, as follows:—

  1. That a census of the number and condition of the population of the Islands of New Zealand shall be taken in the first, fourth, and seventh years of every decade of years, on the days and in the manner hereinafter declared.

  2. That the first decade shall be deemed to commence with the year of the passing hereof.

  3. That the Governor-in-Chief shall appoint persons to collect the information required by this Ordinance, and may cause an allowance to be made to any such person at a rate not exceeding ten shillings per day.

  4. That in each of the years hereinbefore particularized the senior Resident Magistrate in every settlement in the said Islands, or, where there is no Resident Magistrate, some fit person to be appointed by His Excellency the Governor-in-Chief, shall, on or before the first day of March, cause notices to be affixed on the several churches, chapels, Courthouses, and police-stations, and in such other conspicuous places as he shall deem proper within such district as shall be to him assigned for that purpose by His Excellency the Governor-in-Chief, requiring every householder to be prepared on the thirty-first day of March, or as soon thereafter as he may be called upon so to do by a Collector appointed as aforesaid, to give all such information as is required by the Schedule hereunto annexed.

  5. That the said Collectors shall, on or before the twenty-fifth day of March in each of the years hereinbefore particularized, leave at every house within the district assigned to them respectively a schedule, being a blank copy of the Schedule to this Ordinance annexed; and every householder able to write shall, on the thirty-first day of March, furnish in writing the information required by the said schedule, by filling up the same and subscribing his name at the foot thereof, and shall deliver the same when called for to one of the said Collectors.

  6. That each Collector shall, as soon after the thirty-first day of March as practicable, call at every house in his district to collect the schedules, and is hereby authorized to put such questions as may be indispensable to the complete filling-up thereof to any householder who, from inability to write, shall not have duly filled up the same, and the Collector shall thereupon fill it up himself with the information so supplied.

  7. That every householder who shall wilfully refuse or without lawful excuse neglect to fill up the said schedule to the best of his knowledge and belief, or to sign and deliver the same, or shall make, sign, or deliver, or cause to be made, signed, or delivered, any false return of any of the matters specified in the said schedule, or who shall refuse to answer or wilfully give a false answer to such questions as aforesaid, shall for every such refusal or wilfully false answer forfeit a sum not exceeding five pounds nor less than twenty shillings.

  8. Provided always that with respect to the present year the census shall be taken on the first day of November, the notices given on or before the first day of October, the schedules left on or before the twenty-fifth day of October, and filled up by the householder on the first day of November, and called for, and filled up when requisite, by the Collector as soon after that day as practicable, all in manner aforesaid.

  9. This Ordinance shall come into operation on the first day of August, one thousand eight hundred and fifty-one.

Following on the passing of the Census Ordinance of 1851 by the General Government several of the provinces into which New Zealand was divided passed Census Ordinances of their own, the necessity for which is not apparent, as other provinces took censuses under the authority of the 1851 Ordinance.

This Ordinance gave way in 1858 to the Census Act of that year, which was amended in 1860, 1867, 1873, and 1876, and was in its turn repealed in 1877, when a new Act was passed, consolidating and extending the law relating to census-taking. The Act of 1877 was amended in 1880 and again in 1890; also, in effect, in 1895, when the Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics Act was passed, making provision for the annual collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics, which had formerly been collected quinquennially under the Census Act. In 1908 the Census Act and amendments and the Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics Act were consolidated in the Statistics Act, 1908, as part of the general consolidation of statutes. The Statistics Act, 1908, was replaced two years later by the Census and Statistics Act, 1910, which was amended in 1915 by the Census and Statistics Amendment Act of that year.

It would be out of place here to recapitulate the various alterations and extensions involved in the successive enactments referred to. Suffice it to say that they reflect the growth of the world-wide realization of the importance and value of statistics.

The Census and Statistics Act, 1910, with the amendment of 1915, provides not only for the taking of the quinquennial population census, but also for the collection of statistical information on numerous specific heads, and contains a general authority to the Governor-General to extend the system of collection to cover such other items in respect of which statistical information may be found necessary or advisable.

THE STATISTICAL AUTHORITY.

The early “blue-books” appear to have been compiled by the Colonial Secretary. After the granting of responsible government the Registrar-General was entrusted with the collection of statistics, a function which he retained until 1910. The Census and Statistics Act, 1910, provided for the appointment of a Government Statistician, who has since been the authority charged with the administration of the Act. The 1910 Act laid down that the Government Statistician was to be an officer of the Registrar-General's Department, but this proviso was cancelled in 1915 by the amending Act of that year, whereupon the Census and Statistics Office came into existence as a separate branch of the Department of Internal Affairs.

STATISTICAL ORGANIZATION.

Until quite recent years there was very little statistical collection apart from the quinquennial census, the annual collection (on legislative authority) of the agricultural and pastoral statistics, the collection on a voluntary basis of returns of private schools, savings-banks, &c., and the obtaining of statistical information from other Government Departments. It should be noted, however, that the census was formerly the means used for the collection of certain data (as, for instance, concerning industrial manufacture), now obtained independently of the census.

Since the creation of the office of Government Statistician in 1910, and more especially since the formation of the Census and Statistics Office in 1915, the system of statistical collection has expanded considerably, not only in regard to the regular activities of the Office, but also for the obtaining of data required for some special purpose. During the war and post-war periods, for instance, the provisions of the Census and Statistics Act were utilized for the collection of information as to stocks, consumption, requirements, &c., of numerous commodities, including flour, wheat, oats, coal, oils, wire, iron, steel, copper, twine, turnip-seed, and medical requisites.

Among branches of statistical inquiries now regularly pursued by the Census and statistics Office may be enumerated the folio wing:—

  1. From private sources: Agricultural and pastoral statistics (main collection, collection of returns of areas sown in wheat and oats, detailed statistics of live-stock, and detailed statistics of commercial orchards); industrial manufacture; fire insurance; finances of local governing bodies; building societies; prices; coal stocks; hospital patients.

  2. From Government Departments in the form of individual cards, &c.: Births; marriages; deaths; orphanhood; migration; naturalization; inquests; Magistrates' and Supreme Courts; prisons; divorce; bankruptcy; deceased persons' estates.

STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.

When New Zealand ceased to be a Crown colony in 1853 the annual despatch of the blue-books to the Colonial Office in London was discontinued. During the next few years several volumes of statistical tables appeared, compiled by various Provincial Governments, and in 1858 the Registrar-General published a volume for the colony as a whole, covering the years 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856. This volume was the first of a regular annual series which, developed and expanded, are still issued by the Census and Statistics Office. As indicating the expansion of the country and of its statistical organization it may be mentioned that while the statistics of the four years 1853-56 were contained in a single small volume, the present-day statistics are published each year in four volumes aggregating nearly 1,200 pages.

Closely allied to the annual volumes of Statistics are the volumes of Census Statistics which have been regularly compiled and published after each census of New Zealand from 1858 onwards, for the first four occasions as part of the Statistics, but later (commencing with 1871) as separate publications.

With each volume of Statistics, commencing with that for 1853-56, went a brief report on the statistics presented. In this report lay the statistics of the present-day Year-book. Developing slowly at first, the ultimate result was a fairly comprehensive report on the statistics—not only those presented, but the whole statistics (so far as compiled) of the colony. A similar report on census matters was included in each volume of Census Statistics.

Parallel with the statistical reports came, in 1875, an issue of another type—“The Official Handbook of New Zealand, a Collection of Papers by Experienced Colonists on the Colony as a Whole, and on the Several Provinces,” edited by Julius Vogel, C.M.G. (afterwards Sir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.), at that time Premier of the colony. The purpose of this book differed from that of the statistical reports. Its aim was to give “a New Zealand view of New Zealand to those who may think of making the colony their home or the theatre of business operations.” Its well-written articles, generously illustrated with woodcuts and photographs, make this early volume interesting reading. Printed in London, it was circulated largely in England.

In 1884 a new and revised edition of this Handbook was complied by Mr. William Gisborne, and edited by the Agent-General of the day (F. D. Bell, afterwards Sir Francis Bell, father of Sir F. H. D. Bell, the present Attorney-General). The purpose of this edition was similar to that of its predecessor, although in form it approximated more closely to the modern type.

Another example of a handbook composed for some special purpose was that of Dr. Hector, issued for the Melbourne International Exhibition of 1880.

By the year 1889 the annual report on the statistics had reached considerable proportions, and it was decided by the Registrar-General to issue it as a separate publication. He remarks in the preface to the 1889 volume of Statistics as follows: “The report has now reached about the size of the original Victorian Year-book, and it has been deemed desirable to publish it in octavo size to make it more convenient for general reference. A similar decision, it may be added, was come to in regard to the quinquennial Census Report.

For 1889 and 1890 the “Report on the Statistics” was accordingly issued as a separate publication with several new features. The following year (1891) was a census year, and the place of the usual statistical report for that year was taken by a separate “Report on the Results of a Census of the Colony of New Zealand taken for the Night of the 5th April, 1891,” the first of a series of reports which have been published after each census since. The year 1892 saw the publication by direction of the Hon. John Ballance, Premier of New Zealand, of the Official Handbook of 1892, the first issue of the series which in the present volume has attained an unbroken record of thirty years.

Rising from the foundations of the reports of 1890 and previous years, remodelled and expanded, this Handbook issued by the Registrar-General achieved a very considerable success. Government gave instructions for the preparation annually of a similar volume to be called the “New Zealand Official Year-book.” The compilation remained in the hands of the Registrar-General until 1910, when on the passing of the Census and Statistics Act of that year the Year-book and other statistical publications came under the control of the Government Statistician.

The demy octavo size adopted in 1889, when the “Report on the Statistics” was first issued as a separate publication, was retained for the Official Handbook, and, up to the last issue, for the Year-book. This size, however, is not altogether satisfactory from the point of view of economy of space or for the display of tabular matter, and in the present issue has given way to the royal octavo size.

The aim of the Year-book of the present day is to be a statistical year-book presenting in a handy form accurate and up-to-date information. As far as possible the volume covers most of the details and activities of the Dominion. In many cases a system of special articles appearing in only one issue, with periodical revisions, is necessary to avoid enlarging the book to an unwieldy size.

While it is the endeavour of the Year-book to touch on all points, it should be remembered that in many cases fuller details are given in some other publication than is possible in the space available in this volume. A list of the regular statistical publications of the Census and Statistics Office is appended.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE CENSUS AND STATISTICS OFFICE.
Title.Periodicity of Issue.
New Zealand Official Year-bookAnnual.
Statistics of New Zealand:—
     Vol. I. —Blue-book; Population; Vital Statistics; Meteorology; Law and CrimeAnnual.
     Vol. II. —Trade and Shipping
     Vol. III. —Production; Finance; Postal and Telegraph
     Vol. IV. —Education; Local Governing Bodies; Miscellaneous
Municipal Handbook of New ZealandBiennial.
Monthly Abstract of StatisticsMonthly.
Results of the Census (of 1916:—
     Vol. I. —PopulationQuinquennially.
     Vol. II. —Ages
     Vol. III. —Birthplaces and Length of Residence in New Zealand
     Vol. IV. —Religions
     Vol. V. —Education
     Vol. VI. —Infirmity
     Vol. VII. —Conjugal Condition
     Vol. VIII. —Fertility
     Vol. IX. —Occupations
     Vol. X. —Aliens
     Vol. XI. —Dwellings
     Vol. XII. —Households
Appendices: (a.) Maori Census
(b.) Census of Cook and other Pacific Islands
(c.) Libraries and Religious Denominations
(d.) Industrial Manufacture
(e.) Poultry and Bees
Report on the Census
Statistical Tables relating to Local Governing BodiesAnnual.
Life Insurance Statistics
Fire Insurance Statistics
Published in New Zealand Gazette and also as extracts:—
     Vital Statistics of Urban AreasMonthly and annual.
     Estimated Population of New ZealandQuarterly.
     Law and Crime StatisticsQuarterly and annual.
     Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics:—
          Estimated Yields of Wheat and OatsAnnual.
          Interim Return of Principal Crops and Live-stock
          Complete Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics
          Estimated Spring Areas under Wheat and Oats
          Stocks—Flour, Wheat, and Oats

In addition to the above the Office has compiled and published two special reports on statistics of prices, one in 1915 covering retail prices from 1891 to 1914, the other in 1920 covering the period 1891 to 1919 and including wholesale prices also.

Chapter 5. SECTION V.—POPULATION.

CENSUS FIGURES.

AT the census taken for the night of the 15th October, 1916,* the population, excluding Maoris, of the Dominion proper was 1,099,449. The census of the Maori population taken at the same time showed the number of the Native race to be 49,776, including 3,529 half-castes living as Maoris, as well as five persons returned as belonging to the now practically extinct Moriori race. The population of the Cook and other annexed islands at the same date was 12,797. A summary of the total population as disclosed by the census of 1916 is as follows:—

Males.Females.Total

† Includes 3,529 half-castes living as Maoris.

‡ Includes 112 soldiers in camp in New Zealand.

Population of the Dominion (excluding Maoris and residents of Cook and other Pacific islands)551,775547,6741,099,449
Maori population25,93123,84049,771
Morioris at Chatham Islands235
Population of Cook and other annexed Pacific islands6,5536,24412,797
          Totals584,261577,7611,162,022

The Cook Islands are not included in any of the statistics of New Zealand quoted throughout this book. Figures re Maoris are included in the general details in a few cases—i.e., imports and exports, savings-bank deposits, &c.—but in other cases are either not taken into account or are shown separately. In cases where Maoris are included they swell totals to a much less extent per head than does the European population. The figures given below, therefore, do not include Maoris and residents of Cook Islands, information concerning whom is given at the end of this section.

The increase of population at successive census periods has been—

Date of Enumeration.Population.Numerical Increase.Percentage Increase.
December, 185859,413  
December, 186199,02139,60866.67
December, 1864172,15873,13773.86
December, 1867218,66846,51027.01
February, 1871256,39337,72517.25
March, 1874299,51443,12116.82
March, 1878414,412114,89838.36
April, 1881489,93375,52118.22
March, 1886578,48288,54918.07
April, 1891626,65848,1768.33
April, 1896703,36076,70212.24
March, 1901772,71969,3599.86
April, 1906888,578115,85914.99
April, 19111,008,468119,89013.49
October, 19161,099,44990,9819.02

INTERCENSAL ESTIMATES.

Intercensal estimates of population are made from the records of births and deaths and the returns of migration. These estimates, especially of late years, are found to be remarkably near the truth, as will be seen from the following table showing the estimated population as at 30th September, 1916, and at 31st March in each of the preceding seven census years, compared with the population as ascertained by the census in the same years. The comparatively large difference in 1916 is due in part to the difficulty experienced in keeping a reliable record of arrivals and departures during the war.

* For information concerning the census of 17th April, 1921, see Appendix.

Year.Estimated Population, 31st March.Census Population.Difference.
* Estimate as at 30th September.
1881488,649489,9331,284
1886585,844578,4827,362
1891631,898626,6585,240
1896701,383703,3601,977
1901775,123772,7192,404
1906889,971888,5781,393
19111,006,7611,008,4681,707
19161,092,502*1,099,4496,947

The estimated population at the end of each of the last ten years, with the mean population and the yearly increase, is as follows:—

YearEstimated Population at End of Year.Increase during Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Totals.Numerical.Per Cent.

* Decrease.

† Census population.

1911539,729485,6771,025,40621,0202.091,014,896
1912553,212499,4151,052,62727,2212.651,039,016
1913569,109515,5531,084,66232,0353.041,068,644
1914568,161527,8331,095,99411,3321.041,090,328
1915563,963538,8311,102,7946,8000.621,099,394
1916549,895550,6681,100.563−2,231*−0.20*1,099,449
1917537,360560,3121,097,672−2,891*−0.26*1,099,117
1918542,046566,3271,108,37310.7010.971,103,022
1919601,888575,5171,177,40569,0326.231,142,889
1920617,756590,0791,207,83530,4302.581,192,620

The abnormal figures for the years from 1914 to 1919 (inclusive) are the result of war conditions, combined in 1918 with the influenza epidemic.

With the exception of 1916 and 1917, the population of New Zealand has shown a continuous though not a regular increase in each year since 1855, the first year in which accurate records of births and deaths were obtained and used in conjunction with the returns of immigration and emigration. The greatest increase in any year was in 1874, when 32,118 assisted immigrants were brought into the country in accordance with the immigration and public-works policy of the Government. The next greatest increase of population was in 1863, following the discovery of gold in Otago.

SEX PROPORTIONS.

In respect of the relative proportions of the sexes in the population, New Zealand has since the first settlement of the Islands differed materially from the older countries of the world. Although in the latter the composition of the populations has been no doubt to some extent affected by migration, yet, in general, natural increase would appear to be the main determining factor, the numbers of males and females being in most of these countries approximately equal, with a more or less marked tendency, however, for the females slightly to exceed the males. The excess of females in such older countries arises from a variety of causes, amongst which the most potent are probably (a) higher rate of mortality amongst males, (b) the fact that males tend to emigrate to a greater extent than females.

Very different is the case with newer countries such as New Zealand, where the rule is (in the early years of colonization especially) for the male population to outnumber the female.

The following table is interesting as showing the early excess of males and the gradual equalization of the sexes in New Zealand, the number of females to 1,000 males having risen from 622 in 1861 to 903 in 1901. The proportion was slightly lower in 1906 and 1911, but rose to 993 in 1916, mainly on account of the absence of so many men at the war.

Census Year.Males.Females.Females to 1,000 Males.
186161,06237,959622
1871150,356106,037705
1881269,605220,328817
1891332,877293,781883
1901405,992366,727903
1906471,008417,570887
1911531,910476,558896
1916551,775547,674993

The preponderance of males in the early years of New Zealand was doubtless due to the fact that the difficulties of pioneering and the remoteness of the country from Europe were such as to deter female immigration to a greater extent than male. This was accentuated by the character of the early industries. Gold-mining and coal-mining, for instance, would attract large numbers of men, but few women. The effect of this early preponderance of males no doubt still exists, but in an ever-diminishing degree, its gradual elimination being effected by the dying-off of the earlier settlers.

Of the two sources from which the Dominion's population has been recruited—viz., migration and natural increase—the effect of the former has hitherto been to give in the aggregate a considerable preponderance of males, and of the latter to give a regular preponderance of females. Between 1860 and 1920 the gain of males by migration totalled 91,000 more than that of females. This excess was only partly offset numerically by a female surplus of 38,000 in the figures of natural increase, but the net excess of some 53,000 males is not nearly sufficient to maintain the former high ratio of males to females in the population.

FACTORS IN INCREASE OF POPULATION.

Up to the “seventies” New Zealand was dependent on migration for the greater portion of her increase of population, but since then natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—has been the principal factor. For a few years, indeed (1888-91), there was actually an excess of departures over arrivals.

During the forty-five years that have elapsed since 1875 natural increase has accounted for 70 per cent. of the total increase of population, as against only 32 per cent. during the fifteen years preceding 1875.

A table is appended showing for each five-yearly period since 1860 the excess of births over deaths and of immigration over emigration.

Quinquennium.Excess of Births over Deaths.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.Total Increase.
Males.FemalesBoth Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.FemalesBoth Sexes.

* Decrease.

† Departure and return of troops of Expeditionary Force not included in migration figures.

1861-657,6258,98516,61063,28529,88493,16970,91038,869109,779
1866-7015,66317,77933,44211,1679,36920,53626,83027,14853,978
1871-7519,40921,12940,53846,50135,44581,94665,91056,574122,484
1876-8030,14332,80862,95131,87022,91754,78762,01355,725117,738
1881-8532,36235,04667,40815,95813,00128,95948,32048,04796,367
1886-9030,78133,54464,325−4,911*−3,791*−8,702*25,87029,75355,623
1891-9527,25530,63057,8859,9175,40315,32037,17236,03373,205
1896-190028,09731,43759,5347,3203,31810,63835,41734,75570,172
1901-0532,51536,22368,73831,22314,22345,44663,73850,446114,184
1906-1038,68143,06781,74825,45415,51240,96664,13558,579122,714
1911-1542,32346,68289,00517,65617,90535,56159,97964,587124,566
1916-2035,24841,35976,6076,9707,87514,85442,22749,23491,461
Totals, 1861-1920340,102378,689718,791262,419171,061433,480602,521549,7501,152,271

The diagram which follows shows much more clearly the irregularity of the migration increase and the steadiness of the natural increase, the latter, however, broken by a sharp fall on account of the low birth-rate of the late war years and the influenza epidemic of 1918. The curves represent five-yearly moving averages.

Further information on the subject of natural increase will be found in the “Births” subsection of the “Vital Statistics” section of this book.

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.

The number of arrivals and departures during the past ten years, distinguishing the sexes and the number of those under and over twelve years of age, is given in the table following. The figures for the six years 1914-19 do not include members of the Expeditionary Force, nor have crews of vessels been taken into account.

ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES, 1911-20.
Year.Over 12 Years of Age.Under 12 Years of Age.Total.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
Arrivals.
191122,88113,9532,4522,10341,389
191224,02615,4422,7492,44344,660
191322,87215,8013,0192,89644,588
191420,36013,0202,1662,10037,646
191512,9939,5891.4941,47525,551
191610,6578,4061,3021,43421,799
19178,3345,58382590715,649
19185,6854,84267170811,906
19199,3418,8221,4311,33720,931
192020,54517,3013,1423,07444.062
Departures.
191121,73012,1901,8091,46037,189
191220,15112,2781,7631,54135,733
191317,18810,5181,3721,29130,369
191418,46011,2271,5651,25432,506
191512,2288,2511,09090722,476
191610,7178,2731,21595821,163
19176,8965,67270160013,869
19185,4775,02962053411,660
191910,0867,4401,2911,06019,877
192016,09313,3521,8581,62132,924

The monthly figures for 1920 are as follows:—

Month.Arrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals.Excess of Departures.
January4,0272,0651,962..     
February2.0882,242..     154
March3,9323,106826..     
April3,3263,553..     227
May4,0473,694353..     
June2,8273,046..     219
July3,6062,942664..     
August4,1432,4431,700..     
September4,2362,4491,787..     
October3,3912,672719..     
November5,0731,8483,225..     
December3,3662,864502..     
          Totals44,06232,92411,138..     

Some two-thirds of the oversea arrivals come from Australia, while five-sixths of the departures are booked for the Commonwealth. The numbers of departures for Australian ports are, however, inflated by the inclusion of many persons who sail from New Zealand for Australia to make that country a starting-point for further travel, and who may or may not return by the same route

ARRIVALS FROM AND DEPARTURES TO VARIOUS COUNTRIES, 1911-20.
Year.Whence arrived or whither departed.Total.
United Kingdom.Australian Commonwealth.Fiji.Canada.Other British CountriesUnited States.Other Foreign Countries
Arrivals.
191111,37926,9096249961,48141,389
191212,91228,5227671,3051,15444,660
191314,70726,7645481,4201,14944,588
19148,57925,9676481,2671,18537,646
19153,53119,49965575111139960525,551
19163,39415,3216975201063751,38621,799
19172,93110,14661764129420281815,649
19181,1768,28257476636419754711,906
19194,66811,5688822,25116180959320,931
192012,34026,1251,3271,8455821,25658744,062
Departures.
19112,75530,9186968441,97637,189
19122,60530,1415808461,56135,733
19132,64924,9614791,0171,26330,369
19142,57426,6939398711,42932,506
19152,06317,7936597586357956122,476
19162,60816,39042059212037565821,163
19171,50110,49950348510320157713,869
19184459,47743447214317151811,660
19193,55912,7226751,35818871865719,877
19203,99523,7688821,4397881,51853432.924

From the 1st April, 1921, a new system of statistics of external migration has been introduced. Prior to that date the statistics were compiled from statements furnished monthly by Collectors of Customs showing merely the totals, by sexes, of arrivals from and departures to various countries, with information as to birthplaces of all arrivals and of “race alien” departures. Under the new system a card is supplied for each person arriving or departing. This card contains statistical particulars as to age, occupation, conjugal condition, nationality, &c., of each person, and also discloses in the case of arrivals whether the person is a new immigrant intending permanent residence, a returned New-Zealander, or a visitor on business or pleasure. Similarly in the case of departures a distinction is now made between those temporarily and those permanently leaving the Dominion. The new system will thus permit of valuable statistics being compiled in respect of the Dominion's permanent additions and losses by migration.

ASSISTED IMMIGRATION.

Residents in the Dominion may, by application on the proper form, secure a passage at assisted rates for any person residing in the United Kingdom.

The payments required are—second class, £67; third class (two-berth cabin), £30; third class (four-berth cabin), £26. The passage-money, which must be paid. In full before passages are booked, can be paid to the Immigration Department in Wellington or to the High Commissioner for New Zealand in London. The Department will cable any nomination, together with a remittance, if so desired, for the extra charge of £1.

Domestic servants and farm labourers granted assisted passages as such are required to follow in New Zealand their respective occupations of domestic and farm work for a period of one year after their arrival in the Dominion. If it is found that some occupation other than domestic or farm work is entered into by any such assisted immigrant before the expiration of one year after arrival in New Zealand, the immigrant will be called upon to pay the Government the difference between the assisted rate and the full fare.

Children between three and twelve years of age travelling with their parents are charged half rates. One child under three years of age in each family is taken free. A quarter-fare is charged for each additional child under three years of age.

Passages are granted on vessels belonging to the Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company, the New Zealand Shipping Company, and the Federal Steam Navigation Company.

Passages at reduced rates are not granted to unhealthy persons. When cases of lung, chest, or other like complaints are discovered in any member of a family by the Medical Officer at London or Liverpool the whole family is prevented from sailing.

Questions as to the suitability of any person nominated for a reduced passage are decided by the High Commissioner.

The foregoing applies to persons who have not attained the age of fifty years in the case of nominated persons, forty-five years in the case of farm labourers, and forty years of age in the case of domestic servants.

In the case of immigrants under twenty-one years of age special arrangements have to be entered into for their protection on the voyage where deemed necessary or advisable.

The High Commissioner is authorized to grant to suitable and healthy farmers, farm labourers, and domestic servants, who apply to him in London, a third-class passage to New Zealand at the following rates:—

Farmers: Six-berth cabin, £24; four-berth cabin, £26; two-berth cabin, £30.

Farm labourers: £10.

Domestic servants: Free passage and grant of £2.

Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). Up to 1884, free passages were granted in the majority of cases. The numbers of assisted immigrants during each year are as follows:—

Year.Number.
1871303
18724,736
18738,754
187432,118
187520,370
18769,677
18775,344
18786,618
187910,311
18802,689
1881103
1882726
18835,902
18843,888
18851,072
1886917
18871,286
1888485
188991
1890144
189144
19041,058
19052,191
19063,880
19072,510
19084,466
19093,990
19102,179
19112,839
19123,772
19135,148
19143,716
19151,300
1916580
1917231
1918419
19193,638
19204,075

The total to 31st December, 1920, is 161,570, of which number all have come from the United Kingdom, with the exception of 3,909 from the Continent of Europe spread over the five years 1874 to 1878 (inclusive).

RECEPTION OF AND DEALING WITH ASSISTED IMMIGRANTS.

On arrival in New Zealand the immigrants are met en board by officers of the Immigration Department, who accompany the Port Health Officer to the ship. Whilst the ship is in the stream it is the special duty of such officers to afford to the assisted immigrants all necessary information as regards transhipment, &c. Arrangements are made for the safety and transhipment of luggage.

Each immigrant is seen as he passes towards the doctor for examination, and is handed an official letter containing information as to where his ticket will be arranged for, and the place and time of departure of his connecting train or boat (if any). The addresses of the district agencies of the Labour Department in the larger centres of the Dominion are also supplied to male assisted immigrants. It is the practice of the Department to send out advices, by wire if necessary, to friends and relatives of immigrants about to arrive, and to get back information as to where the newcomers will be met. These messages, often together with private letters,. &c., are given out on board to those to whom they are addressed.

Assisted immigrants requiring work are referred to the office of the Immigration Department, and their cases are there dealt with.

As regards the female assisted domestic workers who are sent to New Zealand under the supervision of one or more responsible matrons, the Government advertises the fact that the books of the Department are open to record the names of those people in the Dominion desirous of securing the services of an assisted girl. Such advertisements bring in many applications, especially pending the arrival of the ship.

Each matron in charge on board is instructed to classify the girls under two heads: (a) those with work already arranged or friends to go to; (b) those without either friends or work. On arrival they are met by the Girls' Superintendent of the Immigration Department. Arrangements are made for sending to their destinations those girls who are going to friends or to definite positions. Those requiring accommodation are directed to homes or hostels approved by the Minister of Immigration for this purpose. The Superintendent then separately considers the case of each girl, and arranges to place her with an applicant for a Government-assisted girl. After a girl has been placed the Department endeavours to keep in touch with her by correspondence.

PERMITS AND PASSPORTS.

PERMISSION TO ENTER NEW ZEALAND.

With certain specified exceptions, no person over the age of fifteen years may land in New Zealand unless in possession of a passport or some other document satisfactorily establishing his or her nationality and identity. Exemption from this. requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts, referred to below) may be granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

In the case of a person coming from a foreign country the passport must have been issued or viséd by the British Ambassador or a British Consul in that country, and in the case of a person coming from any part of the British dominions the issue or visé must have. been by some public official duly authorized in that behalf.

Certain exceptions are made with respect to persons coming to New Zealand from the Cook Islands and Samoa. In their case the only requirement is the possession of a permit to visit New Zealand granted by the Resident Commissioner of the Cook Islands or the Administrator of Samoa, as the case may be. The regulations further do not apply to a British subject arriving in New Zealand as the master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives, or to a British subject arriving from the Commonwealth of Australia.

PERMITS TO LEAVE NEW ZEALAND.

No person over the ago of fifteen years may leave New Zealand for any place beyond the seas save in pursuance of a written permit issued to him by the Minister or Under-Secretary of Internal Affairs, or some other authorized person.

The only persons exempted from the necessity of obtaining permits are those who—

  1. Leave New Zealand on the King's service:

  2. Leave New Zealand as bona fide members of the crew of any ship:

  3. Arrive in and leave New Zealand in the course of the same voyage of any ship other than a ship arriving from a port in the Commonwealth of Australia:

  4. Leave for Australia by direct route (British subjects only).

PASSPORTS.

The amendments made in November, 1915, to the Defence of the Realm Regulations of the Imperial Government, providing that no person shall enter or leave the United Kingdom without a passport, have led to a greatly increased number being issued in New Zealand.

A person leaving New Zealand for the United Kingdom or other country (with the exception of British possessions in the Pacific, for which permits suffice) must have in his possession (1) a permit under the War Regulations to enable him to depart from the Dominion, (2) a passport to enable him to land at the end of his journey. If foreign countries are being visited the passport must be viséd by the Consular representative of such country in New Zealand.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION.

The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act, 1908, and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act, 1919. It is administered by the Customs Department.

PROHIBITED IMMIGRANTS.

The following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand:—

  1. Persons of the age of fifteen years or over who refuse or neglect (a) if British subjects, to take the oath or make an affirmation of allegiance to His Majesty the King; (b) if aliens, to take an oath or make an affirmation of obedience to the laws of New Zealand.

  2. Persons not of British birth and parentage, unless in possession of permits issued by the Minister of Customs.

    (Temporary permits may, however, be granted on arrival to such persons who desire to enter New Zealand as visitors for purposes of business, pleasure, or health. These permits are granted for periods not exceeding six months, but may, under special circumstances, be extended.)

    NOTE.—A person is not deemed to be of British birth and parentage because he or his parents or either of them is a naturalized British subject, or because he is an aboriginal Native of any dominion (other than New Zealand), colony, possession, or protectorate of His Majesty.

  3. Idiots or insane persons.

  4. Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.

  5. Persons arriving in New Zealand within two years after the termination of a period of imprisonment for a serious offence.

    The above provisions do not apply to (a) His Majesty's land and sea Forces, (b) the officers and crew of any ship-of-war of any Government, (c) persons duly accredited to the Government of New Zealand by the Imperial or any other Government, (d) the officers and crew of any mercantile vessel who leave New Zealand with that vessel.

  6. Chinese (not naturalized in New Zealand), unless they pay a poll-tax of £100.

    The officers and crew of any ship-of-war of the Chinese Government, and members of the crew of any mercantile vessel who leave New Zealand by that vessel, are exempted from this provision. There is power to exempt any other persons or classes of persons under such conditions as the Minister of Customs may prescribe.

  7. Persons who have at any time been subjects of the State of Germany or of Austria-Hungary as those States existed on the 4th August, 1914, except under a license issued by the Attorney-General.

  8. Persons not permanently resident in New Zealand who are disaffected or disloyal and of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the Dominion, and whom the Attorney-General on that account prohibits from landing.

    NOTE —Any person included in classes (3), (4), and (5) above may be exempted by the Governor-General in Council or by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

RESTRICTED IMMIGRANTS.

When persons arrive in New Zealand who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm, and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons come to New Zealand must enter into a bond for £100 for each such person, guaranteeing his support and maintenance for five years.

His Majesty's land and sea Forces, persons brought to New Zealand either wholly or partly at the expense of the Government, shipwrecked mariners brought to New Zealand by another vessel without charge, and persons domiciled in New Zealand are exempted from these provisions. General power is given to exempt other persons in special cases and under such conditions as the Minister of Customs may prescribe.

GENERAL.

Every person of and over the age of fifteen years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Attorney-General, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving his or her name, occupation, and residence, and also the following particulars if the immigrant is not a permanent resident in New Zealand returning thereto after not more than twelve months' absence: Country of birth; age; names and places of birth of his parents; particulars as to his nationality, his intention as to permanent residence in or departure from New Zealand, and his purpose in coming thereto.

RACE ALIENS.

Persons of other than European descent are classified in the immigration returns as “race aliens.” Immigrants of this class have since 1908 been required to pass an education test before admission to the Dominion.

The arrivals of race aliens during each of the last ten years have been as follows:—

Birthplace.Year.
1911.1912.1913191419151916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
British Possessions
     India190325133257139292138193225
     Pacific islands2451488102844278258
     Other143478..     ..     152
          Total, British possessions21538021527231120136417223235
Foreign Countries
     China5463483255112653272722564181,477
     Syria9201993121..     4
     Asia Minor482..     ..     2..     2..     2
     Japan49171313261130107
     Pacific islands2524466537295211578
     Other1147124..     8..     ..     1
          Total, foreign countries589423374551291893588504851,99
          Total, “race aliens”8048035898233221,0137249177081,734

Of the race aliens arriving in New Zealand a large proportion are Chinese, some of whom, however, have been formerly resident in the Dominion. Hindus and other natives of India are also of late years arriving in considerable numbers. A number of soldiers from the French Pacific islands are included in the figures for 1916, 1917, and 1918.

Since July, 1914, records of departures of race aliens have been kept, and these show that a total of 443 race aliens left the Dominion during 1920, including natives of the following countries: China, 380; India, 54; Japan, 3; Asia Minor, 1; British Pacific islands, 1; foreign Pacific islands, 4.

The census returns of 1916 showed that there were 3,204 race aliens resident in the Dominion. Of these, 2,857 were described as being of full-blood and 347 as of half-blood.

More than 45 per cent. of the race aliens reside in Auckland Province. Wellington, however, claims the largest share (over one-third) of the Chinese.

THE CHINESE.

At the census of 1881, the year in which taxation was first imposed on Chinese landing in New Zealand, the Chinese population numbered 5,004 persons, which fell to 4,542 in 1884, and further to 3,711 in 1896. During the period 1881-96 the poll-tax was £10 per head, and this seemed sufficient for the purpose of preventing a large influx of Chinese. During the years 1894 and 1895, however, the arrivals shown by the Customs returns were found to be somewhat greater than the departures, and in 1896 an Act was passed raising the poll-tax on Chinese immigrants to £100 per head, and limiting the number of Chinese passengers that may be carried by vessels to New Zealand to one for every 200 tons burthen. According to the census of 1901, the Chinese population was 2,857, in 1906 it was 2,570, in 1911 2,630, and in 1916 2,147, of whom 135 were half-castes.

Between 1897 and 1917 the departures of Chinese exceeded the arrivals by 200, but in each of the last three years there has been an excess of arrivals. During 1920 no fewer than 1,477 Chinese arrived in the Dominion, while only 380 departed. Included in the arrivals were 83 females, and in the departures 28.

NATURALIZATION.

When any alien residing in New Zealand desires to be naturalized he may present to the Governor-General a memorial signed and verified by a statutory declaration setting forth—

  • His name, age, birthplace, residence, and occupation;

  • The length of his residence in New Zealand, and his desire to settle therein:

  • A request that letters of naturalization may be granted to him.

Every memorial must have written upon it or attached to it a certificate signed by some Magistrate or Justice to the effect that the applicant is known to the person certifying and is of good repute. On taking the oath of allegiance he shall enjoy within New Zealand all the rights and capacities that a natural-born subject of the United Kingdom can enjoy or transmit, excepting such rights (if any) as are specially excepted in the letters of naturalization granted to him.

Any person who has been previously naturalized in the United Kingdom or any British possession may obtain letters of naturalization in New Zealand upon presentation of his certificate or letters to the Governor-General, with satisfactory evidence of his bona fides.

An alien woman married to a natural-born or naturalized British subject shall be deemed to be herself naturalized. Where the father (or the mother, being a widow) has become naturalized in New Zealand, every child of such father or mother who during minority resides with such parent shall also be deemed to be naturalized.

No fee is payable for naturalization except in the case of Chinese, who are charged £1.

The Revocation of Naturalization Act of 1917 provided that the Governor-General may, by Order in Council, revoke the naturalization of any person when such revocation is considered desirable on grounds of public policy.

The granting of letters of naturalization was discontinued in August, 1914, and not resumed till the latter part of 1919. Between the date of resumption and the end of 1919 letters of naturalization were granted to 72 persons, and a further 288 were naturalized during 1920. The birthplaces of those naturalized since the war are as follows:—

Country.1919.1920.
* Including one British-born woman who had become a foreign subject by marriage.
France28
Spain..     1
Portugal..     2
Italy620
Switzerland542
Germany..     2
Belgium15
Netherlands44
Denmark2370
Norway635
Sweden1038
Finland37
Russia823
Esthonia..     1
Ukraine..     1
Poland..     5
Czecho-Slovakia1..     
Austria..     2
Roumania..     3
Jugo-Slavia1..     
Greece..     3
China..     1
United States..     12
Argentina..     1
Chile1..     
Samoa..     1
Friendly Islands..     1
          Totals72*288

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS.

The Registration of Aliens Act passed in 1917 provided for the registration of all persons of the age of fifteen or over who are not British subjects either by birth or by naturalization in New Zealand. The Government Statistician is charged with the duty of compiling and keeping the register, but the actual registration is effected by Registration Officers (police officers) throughout the Dominion. Every alien not less than fifteen years of age is required to make application for registration to a Registration Officer, and is required to supply the following particulars concerning himself or herself:—

  1. Name in full.

  2. Nationality (and if nationality is not the nationality of origin, nationality of origin).

  3. Place of birth.

  4. Age, and date of birth.

  5. Whether married, single, widower, widow, or divorced.

  6. If married, the name, age, nationality of origin, and place of abode of wife or husband.

  7. If married, a widower, a widow, or divorced, number, names, and ages of children (if any).

  8. Occupation.

  9. Date of arrival in New Zealand.

  10. Place of abode and postal address.

  11. Whether permanently resident in New Zealand.

  12. If not permanently resident in New Zealand, place of permanent residence, and date of projected departure from New Zealand.

  13. Such other particulars as may from time to time be prescribed by regulations under the Act.

Upon receipt of an application for registration the Registration Officer issues a certificate of registration, and forwards the application in duplicate to the Superintendent of Police for the district, who files one copy and sends the other on to the Commissioner of Police for transmission to the Government Statistician. Registered aliens are required to notify change of address on pain of a penalty not exceeding £20. Failure to register involves a fine on conviction not exceeding £50.

The number of aliens on the Dominion register in April, 1921, was 9,021. The birthplaces of these are as follows:—

Birthplace.Males.Females.Total.
France9350143
Spain21425
Portugal16..     16
Italy18335218
Switzerland16966235
Belgium521769
Netherlands68573
Germany477160637
Schleswig-Holstein17118
Denmark40692498
Norway34726373
Sweden40525430
Finland1668174
Russia10537142
Latvia651580
Lithuania11314
Esthonia819
Ukraine221133
Poland10436140
Czeoho-Slovakia26935
Austria30..     30
Hungary11112
Jugo-Slavia84324867
Roumania12113
Greece66470
Syria9250142
China2,941673,008
Japan9..     9
United States466133599
South Sea islands9330123
Other countries621072
At sea538
British - born, but aliens by naturalization, marriage, &c.61645706
          Totals7,4521,5699,021

A table published in Volume i of “Statistics of New Zealand,” 1920, gives fairly detailed information as to birthplaces in conjunction with ages. A summary giving information as to ages follows:—

Age-group.Males.Females.Total
15 and under 2050755562
20 and under 259881541,142
25 and under 301,0602031,263
30 and under 359592051,164
35 and under 408301941,024
40 and under 45663186849
45 and under 50571146717
50 and under 55497116613
55 and under 60435109544
60 and over9422011,143
          Totals7,4521,5699,021

POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS.

The 1919 issue of the Year-book contained concise summaries of the principal population characteristics of the Dominion—birthplaces, ages, conjugal condition, religions, occupations, &c.—as disclosed by the 1916 and preceding censuses. A further census has been taken (on the 17th April, 1921), but the work of tabulation is not sufficiently advanced to allow of similar summaries for this census being included in the current issue of the Year-book.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.

At the present time there is being exhibited in many countries a tendency for an increasing proportion of their inhabitants to accumulate in towns. This gradual desertion of the rural life for that of the city is usually referred to as “urban drift.” That this movement is reflected in New Zealand life is certain, but to provide an exact measure of its growth would be an excessively laborious task. The following method, while imperfect, may be taken as indicating approximately the changing of the population: The total population of towns of over 1,000 inhabitants in 1878 is contrasted with the total population of that day. Similar calculations have been made for 1886, 1896, 1906, and 1916. To make allowance for normal expansion, the minimum size of towns dealt with, has been raised from 1,000 in 1878 to 1,500 in 1886, 2,000 in 1896, 2,500 in 1906, and 3,000 in 1916, a rate roughly commensurate with the growth of the country. The result is:—

Year.Urban Population.Total Population.Urban Population expressed as a Percentage of Total Population.
1878130,407414,41231.47
1886213,286578,48236.87
1896250,498703,3603.61
1906344,308888,57838.75
1916464,8351,099,44942.28

According to this calculation, urban residents formed in 1916 over 42 per cent. of the people, whereas in 1878 they were only 31 1/2 per cent.

Information as to the population of the various integral portions of the Dominion as at the census of 1921 will be found in an appendix at the end of this volume.

HOUSEHOLDS.

A new feature of the census of 1916 was the compilation of statistics of households. “Households,” for the purpose of these statistics, comprise persons living in the same dwelling, and are not necessarily coincident with families. So wide a range of detail is presented that it is impossible to give here anything but a few striking points taken almost at random.

Household statistics are confined to inhabited private dwellings and tenements. Of these, which numbered 238,066, some 204,373 (or 85.85 per cent.) possessed male heads and 33,693 (or 14.15 per cent.) female heads. The female head of a household is, as might be expected, more to be found in the urban portions of the country. In the case of the total of the thirteen urban areas, which include almost half the total population, female heads of households formed 18.83 per cent., compared with 10.26 per cent. in the remainder of the country.

The conjugal condition of the heads of households is evidenced as follows:—

Conjugal Condition.Male Heads. Per Cent.Female Heads. Per Cent.
Never married10.2612.08
Married85.6136.79
Widowed3.9850.47
Divorced0.150.66
          Totals100.00100.00

The next computation shows, for each of four classes of individuals—adults, children under age 14, breadwinners, and non-breadwinners—the arithmetically ascertained average number of occupants in the household.

A scrutiny of this table reveals the fact that the normal number of adults in a household is greater in the large cities than in the lesser towns, which in turn range higher than the “remainder of the Dominion,” indicating that the rural household contains a lower proportion of adults than the urban. Exactly the opposite is the case when we turn to occupants under the age of fourteen.

With breadwinner-occupants the position changes somewhat. The four chief centres, with the exception of Christchurch, maintain a slight ascendency, but this is entirely lost in the secondary urban areas. Despite the fact that the average number of adult occupants is considerably higher in the case of the total of urban areas than in the “remainder of the Dominion,” the average number of breadwinners is identical in both instances. Auckland alone of the large cities has on the average more non-breadwinners to a household than the Dominion as a whole. Gisborne is unusually high, and Nelson very low; both cases due, as is obvious from the second column, to the relatively large and small number of children respectively.

Average Number of the undermentioned Class of Occupants resident in a Household.
Adults.Children under 14.Breadwinners.Non-breadwinners.
Urban areas—
     Auckland2.521.281.682.63
     Wellington2.571.271.772.54
     Christchurch2.431.231.652.48
     Dunedin2.461.231.732.46
     Gisborne2.371.601.612.90
     Napier2.401.391.582.65
     New Plymouth2.351.431.572.71
     Wanganui2.401.441.572.75
     Palmerston2.361.441.642.64
     Nelson2.271.181.612.29
     Grey Valley boroughs2.311.511.572.74
     Timaru2.401.421.592.51
     Invercargill2.371.451.612.74
Average of urban areas2.471.301.682.58
Remainder of Dominion2.331.471.682.57
Average for Dominion2.391.391.682.57

An illustration of the rental paid by the head of the household, in conjunction with his or her grade of occupation, is as follows. The figures refer only to the total of the combined thirteen urban areas.

Grade of Occupation of Head of Household.Weekly Rental Value.
Under 10s.10s. and under 15s.15s. and under 20s.20s. and under 30s.30s. and under 40s.40s. and over.Not stated.Total.
Employer2901,2202,1344,1661,4161,30395511,484
In business on own account but not employing others1,1372,5012,4543,2177715071,20911,796
Relative assisting but not receiving wages524133913714115
Working for wage or salary5,84719,28216,26012,9871,9448532,21359,386
Wage-earners unemployed3336043932794616971,768
Not applicable2,4395,4254,8495,8211,3178551,56622,272
Not stated14734929529570511011,308
          Totals10,19829,40526,39826,8045,5773,5926,155108,129

The disparity which the above figures reveal may be summarized thus: Of employers, only 34.61 per cent. lived in houses whose rental value was under 20s.; of those in business on their own account, 57.54 per cent.; of relatives receiving no wages, 41.58 per cent.; of wage-earners, 72.39 per cent.; of wage-earners out of employment, 79.59 per cent.; class not applicable, 61.40 per cent.; all classes, 64.72 per cent.

Another view of occupancy is contained in the table next presented, still dealing with the head of the household. In this table all inhabited private dwellings and tenements are dealt with.

Grade of Occupation of Head of Household.Nature of Occupancy.
Renting.Time-payment.Owner, but paying Interest on Mortgage.Freehold unencumbered.Not stated.Total.
Employer9,1801,25914,53411,11878636,877
In business on own account but not employing others14,3541,62715,51414,2371,38147,113
Relative assisting but not receiving wages23414230237104819
Working for wage or salary58,1467,55917,40814,63211,519109,264
Wage-earners unemployed1,5021534617351523,003
Not applicable13,6411,1635,91414,37272535,815
Not stated1,6961881,0011,5297615,175
          Totals98,75311,96355,06256,86015,428238,066

Under the headings of “Proportions” the households division of the census results contains numerous detailed tables analysing the composition of the household in regard to sex, age, &c. As the matter does not readily lend itself to summarized treatment, one table only is quoted.

PROPORTION OF MALES TO FEMALES IN HOUSEHOLDS.
Number of Females.Number of Males.
0.1.2.3.4.5.6.Over 6.Total.
0..     3,9055,2022,4801,0813541718313,276
118,15424,89420,91211,7575,3862,08670935784,255
25,43916,81619,84713,0316,6102,6231,09951565,980
31,5398,81112,1038,9594,7882,34092054840,008
46423,6305,5934,5752,9111,50071141919,981
53691,2432,5752,0081,4518013511938,991
6150435853754623342153963,406
Over 62802274234104032111061092,169
     Totals26,57359,96167,50843,97423,25310,2574,2202,320238,066

It is apparent from this tabulation that the most favoured combination of sexes is the natural one of one male and one female (24,894), followed in order by one male and two females (20,912), two males and two females (19,847), and one male alone (18,154). Considering adults only, the tables indicate a large preponderance (115,145) of cases where the household consists of one of each sex, the next most popular being again one man and two women (25,331). In the case of children the division is almost equal.

Taking breadwinners, it is seen that the combinations occur in the following order: One male breadwinner alone, 125,596 cases; two male breadwinners alone, 32,165; one male breadwinner and one female breadwinner, 22,807 instances.

From the statistics of dwellings the average number of occupants of a dwelling at the census date was ascertained to be 4.25 persons.

Averages compiled from the household tables show the division into sexes to be as follows: Males 2.09, females 2.16, due in large part to the fact that at the time of the census, and excluding persons on shipboard and in military camps, females outnumbered males by 7,364.

AVERAGE NUMBER OF OCCUPANTS IN EACH HOUSEHOLD.
 Males.Females.
All persons2.092.16
Adults1.181.22
Children under age 140.720.69
Breadwinners1.320.36
Non-breadwinners0.771.80

MAORI AND HALF-CASTE POPULATION.

A census of the Maori population is taken every five years, the information being obtained by the collectors either directly or through the chief or head of the tribe or hapu. The name, sex, and age, so far as can be ascertained, of each Maori are entered; but, owing to the nomadic habits of the race and lack of definite knowledge in some particulars, it has been a difficult task in the past. The results of the last six enumerations are as follows:—

Census Year.Males.Females.Total.
189122,86119,13241,993
189621,67318,18139,854
190123,11220,03143,143
190625,53822,19347,731
191126,47523,36949,844
191625,93323,84349,776

The slight decrease in 1916 as compared with 1911 is more than compensated for by the number of Maoris at the front.

The number of half-castes is given in the next table for six census periods. Those under the first heading are already included among Maoris in the preceding table, the others being classed among the European population. It is a matter of some difficulty to ascertain the number of half-castes living as Maoris. There has been no definite rule to guide collectors in deciding when a half-caste should be classified as living as a Maori—indeed, it might be said that all the half-castes and a large proportion of the Maoris in the South Island live in European fashion. They mostly have separate holdings of land and separate homes, and have adopted the habits of the Europeans. At the census of 1916 the old method of enumerating the South Island Maoris was discarded, the same methods and forms being utilized as for the European population.

HALF-CASTES.
Census Year.Half-castes.Total.
Living as Members of Maori Tribes.Living as and among Europeans.
18912,6812,1844,865
18963,5032,2595,762
19013,1332,4065,539
19063,9382,5786,516
19114.1812,8797,060
19163,5293,2216,750

POPULATION OF COOK AND OTHER ANNEXED ISLANDS.

During the year 1901 the boundaries of the Dominion were extended to include the Cook Group and certain other of the South Pacific islands. No record of the population of these islands was then obtainable, but at each subsequent census an account of the number and birthplaces was taken. The figures for the censuses of 1906, 1911, and 1916 are as follows:—

Census Year.Males.Females.Total.
19066,2246,11612,340
19116,4496,14912,598
19166,5536,24412,797

Chapter 6. SECTION VI.—VITAL STATISTICS.

Table of Contents

SUBSECTION A.—BIRTHS.

REGISTRATION.

REGISTRATION of births in New Zealand dates as far back as 1847, in which year was passed a Registration Ordinance which made provision for a record of births and deaths being kept by the State. Under this Ordinance many registrations were effected, some of births as far back as 1840. Compulsory registration did not, however, come into force until 1855.

The earlier Registration Acts and their amendments provided for very little information being given in the case of births, the register containing merely date and place of birth, name and sex of child, names of father and mother, and occupation of father. In 1875, however, a new Registration Act was passed, under which information was recorded as to ages and birthplaces of parents, and in 1912 the sexes and ages of previous issue of the marriage were added to the items required to be shown in the birth entry.

The law as to registration of births is now embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1908, and the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Acts, 1912 and 1915. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within sixty-two days without fee. After sixty-two days and within six months a birth is registrable only after solemn declaration made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of a late fee of 5s., which may, however, be remitted at the discretion of the Registrar-General. When six months have elapsed a birth cannot be registered except within one month after conviction of one of the responsible parties for neglect. But an information for such neglect must be laid within two years of date of birth. Registration of still-births was not compulsory until the 1st March, 1913, on which date the Amendment Act of 1912 came into force.

Although sixty-two days are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval—viz., forty-eight hours—if in a city or borough, and twenty-one days in every other case.

REGISTRATION OF MAORI BIRTHS.

In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912, however, empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from the 1st March, 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori births and deaths in the Dominion is 197, most of these being in the North Island, where the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Native settlement of any size is within easy reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, and the number of births given below do not include those of Maoris, which are dealt with towards the end of this subsection.

REGISTRATION OF ADOPTED CHILDREN.

Section 8 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1915, contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Clerk of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. If the child's birth has been registered in New Zealand, a note of the adoption order is made on it. In any case a new entry is made on the prescribed form in the register of births.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The number of births registered during 1920 (29,921) was 5,438 in excess of the total for 1919, which was abnormally low, and the rate for 1920 was also much higher (25.09 per 1,000 of mean population, as compared with only 21.42). The rate for 1919 was easily the lowest on record, a fact due to the greatly reduced marriage rate of the two preceding years, combined with other causes arising out of the war.

The numbers and rates of births in each of the last twenty years are as follows:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
190120,49126.34
190220,65525.89
190321,82926.61
190422,76626.94
190523,68227.22
190624,25227.08
190725,09427.30
190825,94027.45
190926,52427.29
191025,98426.17
191126,35425.97
191227,50826.48
191327,93526.14
191428,33825.99
191527,85025.33
191628,50925.94
191728,2925.69
191825,86023.44
191924,48321.42
192029,92125.09

Apart from the two years 1918 and 1919, the rates for which are abnormally low owing to the war, there is a fall in the rate in the later years of the period covered by the table, as compared with the earlier. This fall, however, is small when compared with the tremendous decline between the “seventies” and “nineties” disclosed by the following diagram, which shows also the course of the rates of deaths, natural increase, and marriages from 1855 to 1920.

NATURAL INCREASE.

The decline of the birth-rate in New Zealand has been partially compensated for by a decrease in the death-rate. Nevertheless, the rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 31.19 per 1,000 of mean population in 1870 to 14.94 in 1920. The following table shows the fall in all three rates:—

Period.Annual Rates per 1,000 living.
Births.Deaths.Natural Increase.
1871-187539.8812.6727.21
1876-188041.2111.8029.41
1881-188536.3610.9525.41
1886-189031.159.8521.30
1891-189527.6810.1517.53
1896-190025.759.5516.20
1901-190526.609.9116.69
1906-191027.069.7517.31
1911-191525.989.2216.76
1916-192024.3210.7313.59

The particularly low rate of natural increase for the last quinquennium is largely due to the abnormally but accountably low birth-rates in 1918 and 1919, combined with the heavy toll of deaths exacted by the influenza epidemic of 1918.

The diagram on the preceding page is supplemented by another containing curves illustrative of the logarithmic increases in population and in the yearly number of births registered, which is instructive as showing how the latter has failed to keep pace with the former. The logarithmic graph, of course, shows a much smaller divergence between the two curves than would a diagram representative of the actual figures.

The effect of the declining birth-rate is shown in the following table, giving the numbers of children under one year of age, and the proportions which those numbers represent in the total population as recorded in past census years:—

 Total Population
(all Ages).
Children under
One Year.
Children under
One Year per 1,000
of Population.
Census 1886578,48218,35531.73
Census 1891626,65816,44326.24
Census 1896703,36017,07024.27
Census 1901772,71918,38123.79
Census 1906888,57822,28925.08
Census 19111,008,46824,34024.14
Census 19161,099,44927,02124.57

In spite of the fact that the birth-rate in New Zealand is low compared with other countries, yet so low is the Dominion's death-rate that, so late as the quinquennium 1911-15 (since when reliable statistics are not available for most countries), New Zealand ranked third equal with Australia as regards the rate of natural increase among countries keeping records of births and deaths. The rates of natural increase in various countries follow:—

RATES OF NATURAL INCREASE OF POPULATION.
Country.Quinquennium.Rate per 1,000.
Bulgaria1907-1117.7
Roumania1910-1417.4
Australia1911-1516.8
New Zealand1911-1516.8
Russia (European)1905-0916.1
Hungary1908-1215.8
Jamaica1911-1514.9
The Netherlands1911-1514.9
Serbia1908-1213.6
Japan1909-131.31
Denmark1911-1512.9
German Empire1909-1312.8
Finland1910-1412.3
Italy1911-1512.1
Norway1911-1511.8
Ontario1911-1511.2
Austria1908-1210.7
Scotland1911-159.7
England and Wales1911-159.3
Sweden1911-159.1
Spain1910-148.9
Switzerland1911-158.4
Chile1910-148.4
Belgium1908-127.8
Ceylon1911-156.4
Ireland1911-156.0
France1910-140.0

BIRTH-RATES OF AUSTRALASIA.

For twenty years prior to 1885 the New Zealand birth-rate was higher than that of Australia. In 1885 the Australian rate gained the ascendency, and this position it held till 1903, in which year occurred the lowest rate in the history of the country. The New Zealand rate had already reached its then lowest level in 1899. These years marked the starting-point of a moderate rise in the birth-rate of each country. The prevailing decline recommenced in the Dominion in 1909, and in Australia in 1913. The Commonwealth has had a higher rate than the Dominion in each year from 1910 onwards. The movement over the last ten years is as follows:—

BIRTH-RATES PER 1,000 OF POPULATION.
State.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Queensland27.6529.6730.2429.4629.3527.9129.0928.3726.2327.65
New South Wales28.7529.8628.8628.9628.3327.8928.0626.5324.6826.59
Victoria24.8426.3925.8225.4524.5524.3023.5022.2921.5624.07
South Australia26.8928.6529.0829.3326.8127.3726.2125.8024.2725.45
Western Australia28.2128.8329.3628.4527.9727.2125.5422.8421.4424.40
Tasmania28.5730.5330.0330.3329.3228.4727.0325.9125.1226.37
Commonwealth27.2128.628.2528.0527.2526.7826.5125.2523.7825.74
New Zealand25.9726.4826.1425.9925.3325.9425.6923.4421.4225.09

BIRTH STATISTICS OF URBAN AREAS.

Metropolitan areas were created in 1916 at each of the four chief centres, and suburban areas at nine of the more important secondary centres, each area including in addition to the central borough and any suburban boroughs a considerable non-municipalized area adjacent to and contingent on the centre. The creation of these areas allows of vital and other statistics being compiled over a series of years for a definite area with fixed boundaries, and obviates the disabilities formerly arising from frequent alterations of boundaries of boroughs. The terms “metropolitan area” and “suburban area” have now been abandoned in favour of the somewhat more correct title of “urban area.”

In most countries it is found that the cities and larger towns have a somewhat higher birth-rate than the general average of the country, owing largely if not entirely to the natural tendency for people in the country districts to avail themselves of the better medical and nursing facilities provided in the population centres. In New Zealand, however, the effect of this on the birth-rates of the urban areas is obviated by information as to the domicile of the parents being obtained in the case of all births registered in the areas, and the births allocated accordingly. The result is to give for each of the four principal areas a birth-rate somewhat lower than the Dominion average. The nine secondary areas, however, have, on the average, a higher rate than that of the Dominion as a whole. The figures for each of the last four years are as follows:—

BIRTH STATISTICS OF URBAN AREAS, 1917-20.
Urban Area.Number of Births.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Auckland2,9862,9112,6033,26022.3321.7719.4722.17
Wellington2,4052,2052,0122,40225.2523.1521.1323.64
Christchurch2,1291,8751,8352,35722.9620.2219.7922.44
Dunedin1,5441,2841,2331,60222.4718.6917.9421.72
          Totals of principal areas9,0648,2757,6839,62123.2221.2019.6822.51
Gisborne41434533034932.7027.2526.0723.82
Napier38636936745225.5124.3924.2527.22
New Plymouth30426626539031.0427.1627.0535.27
Wanganui50545948160025.8723.5224.6527.02
Palmerston North39735932740228.3425.6323.3526.25
Nelson23421921422523.4921.9821.4821.47
Grey Valley boroughs20315917422724.2418.9920.7826.40
Timaru37030729034826.9822.3821.1423.16
Invercargill44747937047725.0326.8220.7124.97
          Totals of secondary areas3,2602,9622,8183,47026.9424.4723.2826.08
          Grand totals12,32411,23710,50113,09124.1021.9720.5323.36

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.

An examination of the figures shows that, with the exception of one year, there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860).

But, little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. The period preceding 1870 exhibits violent fluctuations in the proportion of males, which tend to disappear as the total of births grows larger. The extreme range since 1870 has been from, 016 male to 1,000 female births in 1878, to 1,078 in 1875 and 1,073 in 1915.

The number of births and their sex-proportion for twenty years are given below:—

Year.Number of Births ofProportions of Births of Males to every 1,000 Females.
Males.Females.
190110,47110,0201,045
190210,65310,0021,065
190311,21710,6121,057
190411,76211,0041,069
190512,10911,5731,046
190612,39711,8551,046
190712,83512,2591,047
190813,36912,5711,063
190913,50213,0221,037
191013,44212,5421,072
191113,53212,8221,055
191213,99613,5121,036
191314,43313,5021,069
191414,53513,8031,053
191514,41513,4351,073
191614,66913,8401,060
191714,32913,9101,030
191813,12412,7361,030
191912,58711,8961,058
192015,43414,4871,065

The gradual increase in the proportion of males born is illustrated by taking the average ratios of successive decennial periods.

Period.Male Births to
1,000 Females.
1856-18651,062
1866-18751,043
1876-18851,045
1886-18951,045
1896-19051,054
1906-19151,055

If the figures for one year can be taken as an indication, it would appear that the proportion of males is somewhat higher for first births than for the general average of all children. Of 9,147 first births registered in 1920 (excluding plural births) 4,875 were of males and 4,332 of females, the proportion of males per 1,000 females being 1,125. The high proportion does not appear to be due to the youth of the mothers, there being a distinctly lower rate in cases where the mother was between the ages of twenty and twenty-five. The figures for various age-groups are as follows:—

SEXES OF FIRST-BORN, 1920.
Age of Mother, in Years.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
Under 202802201,273
20 and under 251,8011,6991,060
25 and under 301,6641,4861,120
30 and under 357246521,110
35 and under 402792201,268
40 and over67551,216
          Totals4,8154,3321,125

In the same year there were 97 plural first births, and in 40 cases both children were males, in 27 both females, and in the remaining 30 of opposite sex.

Further light on the question of sexes of children may be thrown by some figures extracted from the records of births registered in 1919 and 1920 in cases where the child was shown to be the fourth-born of a family in which the three previously born children were still living. In New Zealand the birth-entries give particulars of numbers and sexes of previous issue of the parents, with the ages of the living issue, and the following interesting statement showing the sex-nativity order up to the fourth child has been compiled. Families in which plural births occurred among the first four children have been excluded.

First born.Second born.Third born.Fourth born.Number of Cases.
MaleMaleMaleMale364
MaleMaleMaleFemale367
MaleMaleFemaleMale363
MaleMaleMaleFemale319
MaleFemaleMaleMale312
MaleFemaleMaleFemale281
MaleFemaleFemaleMale321
MaleFemaleFemaleFemale306
FemaleFemaleFemaleFemale268
FemaleFemaleFemaleMale292
FemaleFemaleMaleFemale298
FemaleFemaleMaleMale310
FemaleMaleFemaleFemale266
FemaleMaleFemaleMale276
FemaleMaleMaleFemale283
FemaleMaleMaleMale304

Of the 4,930 families covered, in 2,633 the first child was a male and in 2,297 a female, the number of males per 1,000 females being thus 1,146, a figure even higher than that disclosed for first births in 1920. This proportion is considerably reduced for subsequent births, the figures being as follows:—

Child.Males.Females.Males per 1,000
Females.
First2,6332,2971,146
Second2,5422,3881,064
Third2,5192,4111,045
Fourth2,5422,3881,064

It is interesting to note that not only are males in preponderance among first-born, but also that in cases where the first-born was a male there appears to be a greater probability of the second child being a male also. Where the first-born was a female, however, the second child appears to have practically an even prospect as to sex.

The numbers dealt with are small, and too much weight cannot be attached to the proportions. It is significant, however, that the figures of first-borns registered in 1920, and those of first-borns in cases where the fourth child of the family was registered in 1919 or 1920, give almost identical results, and the two sets of figures taken in conjunction support the conclusion that there is a higher masculinity rate among first-born children than among later issue. In the extraction of the figures relating to families of four children it was noticed that the details for the two years were almost proportionately identical throughout.

The conclusion arrived at by these figures, so far as they go, would serve to explain the increasing masculinity of births in successive decennia referred to above, when it is remembered that the average number of children to a family has fallen heavily during the period, and the proportion of first-born children correspondingly increased.

The sex-proportions of illegitimate births are generally supposed to be more nearly equal than those of legitimate births. Although little reliance can be placed on the figures for New Zealand by reason of the small numbers represented, such weight as they have is in favour of the theory. The average for the period 1911-20 was 1,011 males per 1,000 females—a rate considerably lower than that for all births (1,053) for the same period. The proportion in 1920 was 983 male births per 1,000 female.

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 365 cases of twin births (730 children) registered in 1920. There were also two cases of triplets.

The number of children born alive was 29,921; the number of mothers was 29,552: thus, on an average, one mother in every 81 gave birth to twins (or triplets), against 89 in 1919, 86 in 1918, 89 in 1917, and 87 in 1916.

The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total cases of births during the past five years were,—

Year.Total Births.Total Cases.Cases of
Twins.
Cases of
Triplets.
Multiple Cases
per 1,000 of Total Cases.
* Including one case of quadruplets.
191628,50928,184323111.50
191728,23927,927312 11.17
191825,86025,560294311.62
191924,48324,2062703*11.15
192029,92129,552365212.42

The following table shows the sexes in individual cases of twin births for the last nine years:—

Year.Total Cases.Both Males.Both Females.Opposite Sexes.
1912329114106109
191331410886120
1914350105116129
19153029388121
19163239998126
191731290105117
19182948795112
19192708179110
1920365128105132

During the nine years 1912-20 there were nineteen cases of triplets. In three cases all the children were males, in five cases all were females, in three cases there were two males and one female, and in each of the remaining eight cases two of the three children were females. There occurred in 1919 one case of quadruplets, all male children.

AGES OF PARENTS, DURATION OF MARRIAGE, AND PREVIOUS ISSUE.

Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1920 is shown in the following table:—

RELATIVE AGES OF PARENTS.
Age of Mother, in Years.Age of Father in Years.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and under 50.50 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and over.Total.

* Including twenty-nine cases where plural births would have been registered had not one child been still-born, and one case where two of triplets were still-born.

† Including two cases of triplets.

Single Births.
15 and under 16..     11..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2
16 and under 17123..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     7
17 and under 181624103..     ..     1..     ..     ..     54
18 and under 192460472562..     ..     ..     ..     164
19 and under 203814510444132..     ..     ..     ..     346
20 and under 2127222212903034..     ..     ..     588
21 and under 25821,1562,0841,06439012843104..     4,961
25 and under 30103522,8093,0791,446383120391518,254
30 and under 351355432,6002,359950259923346,876
35 and under 40..     1635191,8411,4305751855454,673
40 and under 45..     ..     6362406814601977771,704
45 and under 46..     ..     ..     121641185..     83
46 and under 47..     ..     ..     ..     2616102..     36
47 and under 48..     ..     ..     ..     14765..     23
48 and under 49..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1213..     7
49 and under 50..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2..     ..     2
52 and under 53..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     1
          Totals1991,9985,8827,4616,3313,6061,5295601981727,781*
Multiple Births.
19 and under 20..     11..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2
20 and under 21212..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     6
21 and under 2517201152..     ..     ..     ..     46
25 and under 30..     322411541..     ..     ..     86
30 and under 35..     183937182..     1..     106
35 and under 40..     ..     ..     122434141..     ..     85
40 and under 45..     ..     ..     359431..     25
45 and under 46..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     1
          Totals3135310687672242..     357
          Grand totals2022,0115,9357,5676,4183,6731,5515642001728,138

Information as to the previous issue of the parents is now required in connection with the registration of births. Tables are given showing information as to number of previous issue in conjunction with (1) age of mother, and (2) duration of marriage.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS REGISTERED, 1920.
(a.) Age of Mother and Number of Previous Issue.
Age of Mother.Number of Previous Issue.Totals.
0.1.2.3.4.5.6 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and over.
15 and under 162..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2
16 and under 1761..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     7
17 and under 18531..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     54
18 and under 1915113..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     164
19 and under 202905071..     ..     ..     ..     ..     348
20 and under 2144812422..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     594
21 and under 253,0891,26645415135111..     ..     5,007
25 and under 303,1792,1301,431860432204104..     ..     8,340
30 and under 351,3931,3191,3881,1007464765441516,982
35 and under 4050759674475263751289511414,758
40 and under 4511913120420620319951115331,729
45 and under 46474512113010184
46 and under 47312133158..     36
47 and under 48..     1214177..     23
48 and under 49..     ..     ..     ..     1141..     7
49 and under 50..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     1..     2
52 and under 53..     11..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
          Totals9,2443,6414,2583,0772,0741,4182,111309628,138*
(b.) Duration of Marriage and Number of Previous Issue.
Duration of Marriage, in Years.Number of Previous Issue.Totals.
0.1.2.3.4.5.6 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and over.
* This number represents 27,781 single cases and 357 multiple cases.
Under 14,6844..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     4,688
  1 and under 22,4105815..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2,996
  2 and under 37711,3301022..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2,205
  3 and under 45121,077458243..     ..     ..     ..     2,074
  4 and under 53901,03078618918..     1..     ..     2,414
  5 and under 61575637433906241..     ..     1,920
  6 and under 796332565496166392..     ..     1,696
  7 and under 8562184424402407616..     ..     1,488
  8 and under 94916630835229112332..     ..     1,321
  9 and under 10418821327926714977..     ..     1,114
10 and under 156021651473577270392722..     3,949
15 and under 20163311214922027481313641,757
20 and under 2523102133492191251463
25 and over..     ..     ..     ..     212326153
          Totals9,2445,6414,2583,0772,0741,4182,111309628,138*

In the two preceding tables multiple births are included, twins and triplets counting as only one birth. Another table is appended giving for the first births registered in 1920 further details as to duration of the marriage in cases where less than one year had elapsed between the marriage of the parents and the birth of the child. Illegitimate births are also shown.

FIRST ISSUE AND ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1920.
Age of Mother, in Years.Illegitimate Births.Duration of Marriage, in Months.Total Legitimate First Births within One Year after Marriage.
Under 3.3 and under 6.6 and under 7.7 and under 8.8 and under 9.9 and under 10.10 and under 11.11 and under 12.
Under 214621062681088054606533774
21 and under 254101593681991651663482922171,914
25 and under 302676017598971223102932271,382
30 and under 35155243630274910512466461
35 and under 40796109612292525122
40 and under 453964..     2473632
45 and over2..     11..     ..     ..     ..     13
          Totals1,4143618624453774078598025754,688

BIRTH INTERVALS.

The birth statistics for 1918 published in detail in Volume I of Statistics of New Zealand, 1918, contain one feature which is by way of a novelty as far as New Zealand is concerned. This consists of a series of tables showing the period that elapsed between successive births in conjunction with the total number of children born. The first table only is quoted here as being perhaps the most interesting. In these tables those cases are excluded in which any of the previous issue had died, ages of deceased issue of parents not being disclosed in the birth entries.

Number of Children born.Interval in Complete Years between First and Second Living Child.
0.*1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10 and over.Total.
* Presumably almost wholly cases of twins.
261,8691,408647373237131784140614,891
3451,2241,71860028914170342010114,162
4228801,11936512947231871012,621
51963975918847211042..     11,690
61136544370291031..     ..     ..     932
762312925713321..     ..     ..     605
8511515725611..     ..     ..     ..     310
9..     10196133..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     214
10..     4931722..     ..     ..     ..     ..     91
Over 10148375..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     91
          Totals1155,5216,0601,97789146224013770607415,607

This table indicates that in families of almost all sizes the general period intervening between the first birth and the second is from two to three years. The period next in importance is that from one to two years. One case is exceptional—that of families where the previous issue was one only: in that, for the greatest number of instances, the birth-interval was from one to two years. It is unfortunate that the ages of the previous issue are available in years only, and not more precisely. The period two to three years maintains supremacy during successive births as far as tabulated—i.e., up to the sixth birth. This is illustrated in the following table, which shows, for total families of all sizes, the percentage which the number in each period forms to the whole.

Interval between.Percentage at each of the Complete Years indicated.
0.*1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10 and over.All Periods.
* Presumably almost wholly cases of twins.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cont.Per Cent.
First and second child0.7435.3838.8312.675.702.961.540.880.450.380.47100.00
Second and third child1.2228.2739.6314.076.684.112.041.460.910.581.03100.00
Third and fourth child1.6025.2140.7415.596.674.182.271.360.820.551.01100.00
Fourth and fifth child1.7523.7041.8815.897.094.122.031.320.920.560.74100.00
Fifth and sixth child2.2323.9942.9315.256.874.062.270.620.670.580.53100.00

One outstanding feature of the above tabulation is the increasing domination of the two-year interval as the number of children in the family grows larger, a position gained largely at the expense of the one-year interval.

The succeeding table gives the mean period, expressed in years, between successive births, according to the number of children in the family:—

Average interval (in Years) betweenCases in which the Number of Children in the Family was
2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.Over 10.All Families.
First and second child2.962.752.552.352.272.272.242.142.152.012.67
Second and third child..     3.332.982.692.482.412.272.242.361.922.94
Third and fourth child..     ..     3.332.962.722.632.392.422.252.212.98
Fourth and fifth child..     ..     ..     3.302.922.652.612.502.492.272.97
Fifth and sixth child..     ..     ..     ..     3.202.802.652.542.432.192.88

It seems, then, that, on the average of the families under review (i.e., all those which had the birth of a second or later child registered in 1918, without any of the previous issue being dead), the second birth takes place two years and eight months after the first; the third, two years and eleven months after the second; the fourth, three years after the third; the fifth, three years after the fourth; and the sixth, two years and eleven months after the fifth.

The increasing tendency for a greater period to elapse between children is measured to some extent above. Take, for example, the interval between the second child and the third. In the column headed “Over 10 Children” the average period was under two years; in the column, “3 Children,” it was three years and a third. The time between these two columns would, on the figures above, represent about twenty-five years, so that in the space of a generation the birth-interval in that case was almost doubled.

If the columns are read downward the lengthening period between successive births is clearly seen.

ILLEGITIMACY.

The births of 1,424 children (706 males, 718 females) were illegitimate: thus 48 in every 1,000 children registered were born out of wedlock, against 46 in 1919, 46 in 1918, 41 in 1917, and 40 in 1916.

The numbers for each of the last ten years, with the percentages they bear to the total births registered, are as follows:—

Year.Number.Percentage
to Total Births.
19111,0784.09
19121,1774.28
19131,1814.23
19141,3024.59
19151,1524.14
19161,1464.10
19171,1594.56
19181,1794.65
19191,1384.65
19201,4244.76

The ages of the mothers of the illegitimate children registered during the year are as shown below. It will be seen that of the 1,414 mothers, 460, or 32.53 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age; for the last five years the average in this respect being 32.55 per cent.

ILLEGITIMATE CHILDREN, 1920.—AGES OF MOTHERS.
Age.Single Cases.Plural Cases.
Years.
     131..     
     145.
     1511..     
     1626..     
     17651
     1893..     
     191351
     20124..     
     211202
     22114..     
     23951
     24771
     2562..     
     2667..     
     2746..     
     28471
     29431
     3038..     
     3130..     
     3230..     
     33321
     3424..     
     3520..     
     3620..     
     3711..     
     3815..     
     3913..     
     4014..     
     415..     
     42101
     436..     
     443..     
     451..     
     471..     
Totals1,40410

The proportion of illegitimate births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters and widows—at the reproductive ages, covering a period of twenty-five years, is shown in the following table:—

Year.Unmarried Women aged 15-45 Years.Illegitimate Births.Illegitimate-birth Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Women.
189168,9906389.25
189689,7228349.30
1901105,4209378.89
1906116,5061,1329.72
1911116,7261,0789.24
1916125,4611,1599.24

The rates of illegitimacy in Australasia are quoted. The average rate for New Zealand for the ten years (4.39 per 100 of all births) compares favourably with that of the Commonwealth (5.31 per 100).

PROPORTION OF ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS IN EVERY 100 BIRTHS.
Year.Queensland.New South Wales.Victoria.South Australia.Western Australia.Tasmania.Commonwealth.New Zealand.
19106.396.285.604.324.135.335.754.47
19116.226.145.964.214.475.335.794.09
19126.145.645.724.714.394.785.534.28
19136.225.356.034.184.405.185.484.23
19145.775.295.563.874.225.905.264.59
19155.364.975.744.004.245.325.124.14
19165.114.735.153.803.755.054.774.10
19175.014.745.533.964.155.284.914.56
19185.465.185.854.024.025.285.234.65
19195.765.145.773.924.216.145.304.76

THE LEGITIMATION ACT.

An important Act was passed in 1894 and re-enacted in 1908, intituled the Legitimation Act. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock, whose parents afterwards intermarry, is deemed to be legitimized by such marriage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes Registrars must register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father of an illegitimate child; but such person is required to make a solemn declaration that he is the father, and that at the time of the birth there existed no legal impediment to his marriage with the mother of the child. He has also to produce the evidence of his marriage. Registration thus becomes the test of legitimacy. The following is the number of legitimations in each year, and the total to 1920, since the Act came into force:—

 Number of Children legitimized.
Year.Previously registered.Not Previously registered.Total.
18949211
1895551368
1896451156
1897341448
1898322759
1899281341
1900303262
1901281947
1902554196
1903412465
1904444387
1905483684
19067352125
19077539114
19088435119
19096762129
19107546121
19117646122
19128651137
19138972161
19149966165
191510067167
191619091281
191721396309
191812876204
191910066166
192010985194
Totals2,0131,2253,238

The high total of legitimation entries in 1916 and 1917, as compared with preceding and subsequent years is no doubt due almost entirely to the continued duration of the war and the passing of the Military Service Act. The prospect of a prolonged absence abroad, and the uncertainty as to whether he would ever return, naturally caused many a Reservist to make proper provision for his illegitimate issue.

STILL-BIRTHS.

The registration of still-births has been made compulsory in New Zealand as from the 1st March, 1913. Still-births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of still-births during each complete year since registration became compulsory are as follows:—

Year.Male.Female.Not stated.Total.
191442124414679
19153823406728
19163832954682
191737530514694
19183963005701
191937728815680
192046736310840

The number of still-births registered during the ten months ended December, 1913, was 467.

A table is added, showing ages of parents in cases of still-births registered in 1920.

STILL-BIRTHS, 1920.—AGES OF PARENTS.
Age of Mother, in Years.Age of Father, in Years.Illegitimate Cases.Totals.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and under 50.50 and under 55.65 and over.
* This number represents 820 single cases and 10 plural cases, the former Including 29 cases where one child of twins was still-born, and one case where one of triplets was still-born, and the latter including one case where two of triplets were still-born. Total number of still-born children was 840.
15 and under 16 ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     11
16 and under 17..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
17 and under 181..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
18 and under 19..     2..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     58
19 and under 20..     221..     ..     ..     ..     ..     38
20 and under 21274..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     619
21 and under 25125412561..     ..     ..     11110
25 and under 30..     11876338103..     ..     6218
30 and under 35..     21569672963..     3194
35 and under 40..     11186744287..     8174
40 and under 45..     ..     ..     212282018..     181
45 and under 46..     ..     ..     ..     117..     ..     ..     9
46 and under 47..     ..     ..     ..     ..     121..     ..     4
47 and under 48..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     11..     ..     2
          Totals4501511791911146730..     44830*

MAORI BIRTHS.

The number of births of Maoris registered during 1920 under the provisions of section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912, was 1,001. Only 5 Maori births were registered under the main Act.

COOK ISLANDS AND NIUE.

Regulations under the Cook Islands Act, 1915, providing for compulsory registration of births and deaths in the Cook Islands and Niue from the 1st July, 1916, were gazetted on the 29th June, 1916.

In the case of a birth a month is allowed in which to furnish the following particulars to a Registrar: The place and date of birth; the Christian name and sex of the child; the names and residence of both father and mother, and also (if Natives) whether of full blood, or quarter-, half-, or three-quarter caste. A clause-provides for the registering of any birth that took place between the 31st December, 1899, and the 1st July, 1916.

Duplicates of all entries are kept by the Registrars of the High Court at Rarotonga and Niue respectively. A fine not exceeding £5 is imposed on persons supplying false information. No fees are payable for registration.

The following are the figures of birth-registrations in each Island during the year 1919:—

BIRTHS IN COOK ISLANDS, 1919.
Island.Number of Births.

* Twelve months ended 31st March, 1020.

† Fifteen months ended 31st March, 1920.

Rarotonga*160
Aitutaki60
Mangaia63
Atiu*46
Manihiki14
Rakahanga
Mauke19
Mitiaro5
Penrhyn4
Niue110
          Total481

SUBSECTION B.—MARRIAGES.

INTRODUCTORY.

MARRIAGE may be solemnized in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. No marriage can be legally solemnized before 8 o'clock in the forenoon or after 8 o'clock in the evening. Prior to the passing of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, the limits were 8 a.m. and 4 p.m.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to the Registrar of the district within which the marriage is to be solemnized, and the party giving notice must have resided for three full days in the district. In the case of a person under twenty-one, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. Provision exists for application to a Judge of the Supreme Court in cases where a parent or guardian is non compos mentis, or unreasonably or from undue motives refuses or withholds his consent.

The system of notice and certificate has obtained in New Zealand since 1855. By this system it is ensured not only that marriages are in order, but that no legally solemnized marriage escapes registration. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages solemnized, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether solemnization has been effected. Inquiries are made similarly in respect of any marriage for which a return is received, but for which there is no corresponding return of notice and certificate.

The marriage of a man with his deceased wife's sister was legalized in New Zealand in the year 1881, and the marriage of a woman with her deceased's husband's brother in 1901. Both Acts are retrospective, including in their provisions marriages solemnized before as well as those contracted after the statutes were passed, and declaring all such marriages to be valid, and the issue born thereof to be deemed born in lawful wedlock.

An important provision is contained in section 7 of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, which reads as follows:—

  1. Every person commits an offence against this Act, and is liable on summary conviction to a fine of one hundred pounds, who—

    1. Alleges, expressly or by implication, that any persons lawfully married are not truly and sufficiently married; or

    2. Alleges, expressly or by implication, that the issue of any lawful marriage is illegitimate or born out of true wedlock.

  2. “Alleges” in this section means making any verbal statement, or publishing or issuing any printed or written statement, or in any manner authorizing the making of any verbal statement, or in any manner authorizing or being party to the publication or issue of any printed or written statement.

  3. A person shall not be deemed to make an allegation contrary to the provisions of this section by reason only of using in the solemnization of a marriage a form of marriage service which at the commencement of this Act was in use by the religious denomination to which such person belongs, or by reason only of the printing or issue of any book containing a copy of a form of marriage service in use at the commencement of this Act by any religious denomination.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The number of marriages celebrated in 1920 (12,175) is easily a record, being 2,137 in excess of the previous highest number (10,028, in 1915). The rate per 1,000 of mean population (10.21) is the highest since 1864.

The movement of the marriage-rate since 1855 is shown by the diagram on p. 61. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the past twenty years are here given:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
19016,0957.83
19026,3948.01
19036,7488.23
19046,9838.26
19057,2008.28
19067,5928.48
19078,1928.91
19088,3398.82
19098,0948.33
19108,2368.30
19118,8258.70
19129,1498.81
19138,8138.25
19149,2808.51
191510,0289.12
19168,2137.47
19176,4175.84
19186,2275.65
19199,5198.33
192012,17510.21

The normal tendency towards a gradual increase in the marriage-rate was disturbed by the war in 1914-19. Taking the years seriatim, 1914 is little affected, the influences being of a counterbalancing nature. The succeeding year, 1915, in spite of the increasing diminution in the number of males of marriageable age, established a new record in point of number of marriages and—by comparison with the previous half-century—of rate also. This may be regarded as resulting almost wholly from the passing of the National Registration Act in 1915, and the desire of many men to be shown in the register as married, with a view to obtaining certain advantages or escaping certain obligations. Many marriages which would ordinarily have taken place in later years were thus celebrated in 1915. The result was to adversely affect the marriage-rate in 1916. The Military Service Act of 1916, which took into account only marriages taking place before May, 1915, had a further depressing influence. The absence, in increasing proportion, of a large part of the men of marriageable age was felt still more severely in 1917 and 1918. In 1917 the rate descended to a level never previously reached, and in 1918 reached an even lower position.

With the cessation of hostilities at the end of 1918, and the return of the troops. in 1919, a great increase in the marriage-rate set in. Many of the Dominion's soldiers had married while abroad, and apparently thousands more married shortly after their return to New Zealand, the total marriages in 1919 being over 50 per cent. in excess of those for 1918, with a further huge increase in 1920, which year as stated previously, easily holds the record for number of marriages, and has the highest rate since 1864.

The marriage-rate, measured by the total population, does not show the true position over a period of years, when, as in the case of New Zealand, the age constitution of the people has altered considerably. A more satisfactory standard is found in the number of persons of marriageable age, defined as meaning the unmarried and widowed of males aged twenty years and upwards and of females aged fifteen years and upwards.

The rates are given for seven census years in the following table:—

Year of Census.Proportion of Unmarried per 1,000 of Total.Proportion of Marriages per 1,000 of the
Males.Females.Marriageable Men.Marriageable Women.Marriageable Persons.Total Population.
1886235.0238.247.3254.5625.365.99
1891238.2268.547.7847.9723.946.04
1896258.8308.950.1447.0024.266.85
1901275.5331.854.1149.7825.937.83
1906294.3328.254.3654.9327.728.48
1911286.5314.957.6058.3828.998.70
1916215.1296.569.3550.6329.277.47

It will be noted from the above figures for 1916 that the withdrawal from the population of large numbers of men of marriageable ages has materially affected the proportions shown in the table. The proportion of unmarried males in the total male population has fallen considerably, while the proportion of marriages to the number of marriageable men shows a large increase, this increase, however, being offset by a decrease in the similar proportions as shown by the rates for females.

RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

A comparison of the marriage-rate for each State of the Australian Commonwealth with New Zealand for the ten years 1911-20 is given. Prior to 1919 the Commonwealth rate had for some years been higher than that of this country.

MARRIAGES PER 1,000 OF MEAN POPULATION IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
Year.Queens-Land.New South Wales.Victoria.South Australia (Proper).Western Australia.Tasmania.Commonwealth.New Zealand.
19118.419.248.349.818.447.768.798.70
19128.919.608.659.628.377.869.078.81
19138.679.028.139.408.198.278.668.25
19148.739.378.319.118.227.788.808.51
19158.939.689.009.028.018.029.149.12
19167.698.748.058.317.517.238.217.47
19177.167.096.767.525.255.726.875.84
19186.996.906.467.255.185.556.655.65
19197.628.047.988.466.787.167.888.3
19209.089.939.9010.338.789.189.7310.2

The average rate for New Zealand in normal years is higher than the rate for most of the European countries given in the table following:—

MARRIAGES PER 1,000 OF MEAN POPULATION IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.
Country.Quinquennial Period.Rate.
Bulgaria1907-119.3
Roumania1910-149.2
Hungary1908-128.9
Serbia1908-128.7
Russia1905-098.4
England and Wales1911-158.2
Belgium1908-127.9
German Empire1908-127.8
Italy1910-147.5
Austria1908-127.5
France1910-147.2
Netherlands1911-157.1
Denmark1911-157.1
Scotland1911-157.1
Spain1910-146.9
Norway1911-156.3
Finland1910-145.9
Sweden1911-155.9
Switzerland1911-155.4
Ireland1911-155.3

DISTRIBUTION OF MARRIAGES OVER THE YEAR.

It is interesting to dissect the year into shorter periods and to notice the fluctuations of the marriage totals. The following table shows the number of marriages solemnized during each quarter of the last ten years.

MARRIAGES IN EACH QUARTER, 1911-20.
YearMarch Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.
19111,9432,6001,9672,315
19121,9302,7052,0782,436
19132,3392,4141,8132,247
19142,2192,6252,1812,255
19151,9842,7282,2473,069
19162,2142,3931,7731,833
19171,5111,8051,5051,596
19181,4571,7561,5931,421
19191,6312,4322,4503,006
19202,9813,3292,8433,022
Decennial average2,0212,4792,0452,320

It will be seen that the June quarter is apparently considered the most propitious for the solemnization of marriage. The two years exceptional in this respect are 1915 and 1919. In the first year the December quarter was swelled by the influence of the National Registration Act of October, 1915; and the second may be explained by the celebration of many marriages postponed until the return of soldiers from abroad.

An additional investigation of marriages contracted in 1919 reveals the preeminence which December has attained as a suitable month for entering the matrimonial state. The marriages contracted in each month were as follows:—

January558August798
February501September819
March572October923
April932November801
May590December1,282
June910 
July833Total9,519

Wednesday claims almost half of the total marriages:—

Sunday54Friday476
Monday1,109Saturday847
Tuesday1,645 
Wednesday4,109Total9,519
Thursday1,279 

The days of the year 1919 on which an exceptionally large number of marriages were performed were—

23rd April13730th April110
26th November12015th October107
25th June11731st December106

All these days were, it may be remarked, Wednesdays. Easter Monday, usually considered a most suitable day, ranked only thirteenth in favour.

CONDITION OF CONTRACTING PARTIES.

The table which follows gives information as to the conjugal condition of persons married in each of the past ten years, divorced men and women being classed as bachelors and spinsters.

Year.Marriages contracted betweenDivorced Persons Married (included as Bachelors or Spinsters In preceding columns).Total Marriages registered.
Bachelors and Spinsters.Bachelors and Widows.Widowers and Spinsters.Widowers and Widows.
19118.0362583651661658,825
19128,3502534131332049,149
19138,0342743701352188,813
19148,6722763981342049,280
19159,12433739417322710,028
19167,3233294081532308,213
19175,6132843691512186,417
19185,3702844271462616,227
19198,3374035722073459,519
192010,73657764921353312,175

The figures for 1920 are given herewith in more detail as to conjugal condition of bride and bridegroom immediately prior to the marriage.

Condition of Bridegrooms.Condition of Brides.
Spinsters.Divorced Women.Widows.Totals.
Bachelors10,32820852911,065
Divorced men1811948248
Widowers59158213862
          Total11,10028579012,175

Included amongst widows in 1920 are fifteen married women, and amongst the widowers five men, who elected to go through the form of marriage with other persons under the protection of the provisions of section 224, subsection (5), of the Crimes Act, which reads: “No one commits bigamy by going through a form of marriage if he or she has been continually absent from his or her wife or husband for seven years then last past, and is not proved to have known that his wife or her husband was alive at any time during those seven years.”

The numbers of persons married under the protection of the above subsection during the past ten years are as shown in the following table:—

Year.Males.Females.Total.Year.Males.Females.Total.
191131518191621113
19126915191782129
1913459191831114
1914513181919111829
19155712192051520

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.

Of the persons married in 1920, 321 bridegrooms and 1,678 brides were under twenty-one years of age. Of the bridegrooms, two were between seventeen and eighteen, while 32 were between eighteen and nineteen. Of the brides, 10 were between fifteen and sixteen, and 40 between sixteen and seventeen years of age. A table is given showing relative ages of bridegrooms and brides in groups of years.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED, 1920.
Age of Bridegroom, in Years.Age of Bride, in Years.Total Bridegrooms.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.
Under21188112173..     1..     321
21 and under 257441,4773594191..     2,631
25 and under 304871,6861,439294571053,978
30 and under 3517970095449913629122,509
35 and under 405724144833919174201,370
40 and under 45146512817217310847707
45 and over9314987120121242659
          Total brides1,6784,3123,3941,43568634432612,175

The following are the proportions of men and women married at each of certain age-periods to every 100 marriages in the years 1900, 1910, and 1920:—

Age, in Years.1990.1910.1920.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Under 211.6717.341.9515.702.6413.78
21 and under 2524.4540.2621.8135.3421.6135.42
25 and under 3038.3326.6538.9428.9632.6727.88
30 and under 4026.8312.6329.3115.8831.8617.42
40 and under 505.532.035.162.938.124.27
50 and under 601.980.701.640.802.070.98
60 and under 701.020.370.920.300.810.21
70 and upwards0.190.020.270.090.220.04
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The next table, showing similar information concerning bridegrooms during the past eight years, gives some indication of the effect of the war on the male population of the age-group twenty-five to thirty, which in recent pre-war years contributed about three-eighths of the total bridegrooms. In 1914 and 1915 this group remained between the 37- and 38-per-cent. mark, but fell continuously in each of the next three years to a level of 30.62 in 1918, rising, however, in 1919 to 31.45 per cent. and in 1920 to 32.67 per cent. The younger age-group of twenty-one to twenty-five exhibits a decrease in lesser degree from 1916 to 1918, but in this case the decrease continued to 1919, being, however, sharply checked in 1920, which shows a percentage not greatly below pre-war years.

PERCENTAGES OF BRIDEGROOMS AT VARIOUS AGE-GROUPS, 1913-20.
Age, in Years.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Under 211.802.102.081.963.585.063.622.64
21 and under 2522.0422.0423.3323.0721.6319.5019.4921.61
25 and under 3037.7537.3437.4334.5131.1730.6231.4532.67
30 and under 4029.6328.9928.2229.3930.2529.9532.9231.86
40 and under 505.847.045.847.218.849.948.578.12
50 and under 601.841.611.952.412.963.052.492.07
60 and under 700.740.730.881.081.041.541.090.81
70 and upwards0.360.150.270.370.530.340.370.22
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average age at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, has shown a tendency to increase somewhat over the whole period. The averages for the three years 1917, 1918, and 1919 were high, over thirty-one for bridegrooms and over twenty-seven for brides, but 1920 shows a return to normal. The figures for each of the last twenty years are given.

MEAN AGE AT MARRIAGE.
Year.Mean Age of
Bridegrooms.
Mean Age of
Brides.
190129.7225.54
190229.8925.63
190329.8925.84
190429.6025.44
190529.6525.75
190629.7625.97
190729.8326.07
190829.8626.11
190930.1126.40
191029.9126.32
191130.1226.48
191229.9526.39
191330.1526.42
191430.0926.69
191530.0326.56
191630.6426.77
191731.1927.07
191831.5727.16
191931.2127.11
192030.2326.39

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. For several years prior to 1918 age twenty-six held pride of place for bridegrooms and age twenty-one for brides. The latter has continued right through to 1920 without alteration, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age altered to twenty-eight in 1918, in 1919 ages twenty-six and twenty-seven tied for the greatest number of grooms, while in 1920, for the first time in many years age twenty-five was the most popular.

This drop to age twenty-five in 1920 is no doubt duo to some extent to a desire to “settle down” on the part of many returned soldiers—men who left the Dominion while still in or scarcely out of their teens and whose war experience has tended to mature them. A further factor which may be partly responsible is the general prosperity of the country in 1920, combined with the almost entire lack of unemployment.

MARRIAGES OF MINORS.

Of every 1,000 men married in 1920, 26 were under twenty-one years of ago, while 138 in every 1,000 brides wore under twenty-one. The proportion of bridegrooms under twenty-one is in normal years 2 per cent. of the total number. The proportions for the four years 1917-1920, particularly 1918 (5.06 per cent.) shown in the following table, therefore represent a high increase in marriages of male minors. No corresponding rise occurs in the proportion of marriages of female minors—indeed, a decided fall is apparent in 1919 and 1920 as compared with pre-war years.

BRIDEGROOMS AND BRIDES UNDER AND OVER TWENTY-ONE, 1911-20.
Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.Minors, per 100 Marriages.
Adults.Minors.Adults.Minors.Bridegrooms.Brides.
19118,6531727,4991,3261.9515.02
19128,9471727,6881,4611.8815.97
19138,6541597,4191,3941.8015.82
19149,0851957,8421,4382.1015.50
19159,8192098,5161,5122.0815.07
19168,0521616,9431,2701.9615.46
19176,1872305,3431,0743.5816.74
19185,9123155,2669615.0615.43
19199,1753448,2471,2723.6113.36
192011,85432110,4971,6782.6413.78

Registrars of Marriages are prohibited by law from issuing certificates for the marriage of minors without the consent of the parents or lawful guardians if there be any in New Zealand. If a declaration is made in any case that there is no such parent or lawful guardian resident in the Dominion, then a certificate may be issued after the expiration of fourteen days following the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The ages at which persons may contract binding marriages are the same as in England—twelve years for females and fourteen for males. Marriage may be contracted at earlier ages than those stated, but would be voidable at the discretion of either of the parties upon reaching the age of twelve or fourteen, as the case may be, and without the necessity of proceedings in Court.

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

Of the 12,175 marriages registered in 1920, Church of England clergymen officiated at 3,479, Presbyterians at 3,295, Methodists at 1,260, and Roman Catholics at 1,349, while 2,143 marriages were celebrated before Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the principal denominations in the past seven years:—

Denomination.Percentage of Marriages.
1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Church of England26.2826.7625.7324.5425.3627.2628.57
Presbyterians26.0725.8425.3622.9224.0925.8727.06
Methodists12.3011.8310.4710.4411.2211.7010.35
Roman Catholics11.0711.1812.0211.9411.1911.0811.08
Other denominations5.515.835.375.395.065.175.33
Before Registrars18.7718.5621.0524.7723.0818.9217.61
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The above figures must not be taken as a true indication of the religions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both parties are members of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any of the denominations. It will be noted that the proportion of marriages by Registrars rose considerably above the 1914 level in 1916, 1917, and 1918, but fell sharply in 1919 and 1920, the last-mentioned year showing a considerably lower percentage of civil marriages than in 1914.

MAORI MARRIAGES.

In cases where both parties to a marriage are of the Native race there is no necessity under the Marriage Act to comply with the provisions of that Act, though the parties are at liberty to take advantage thereof. Considerable inconvenience, however, has been found to exist on account of the non-registration of Maori marriages, and a section was inserted in the Native Land Act, 1909, whereby it was laid down that Maori marriages must be celebrated either under the provisions of the Marriage Act or in the presence of a registered officiating minister, but without complying with the other requirements of the Act. Ministers solemnizing the latter class of marriages must send returns to the Registrar-General.

Returns of 253 marriages in which both parties were of the Native race were received during the year 1920. Of these, 55 were in accordance with the provisions of the Marriage Act. Maori marriages are not included in the numbers shown elsewhere in this subsection, nor are they taken into account in the computation of marriage-rates.

MARRIAGES IN COOK ISLANDS.

According to the annual report of the Cook Islands Department, the following are the figures of marriages solemnized in the Cook Islands during a period corresponding approximately to the year 1919:—

MARRIAGES IN COOK ISLANDS, 1919.
Island.Number of Marriages.IslandMarriages
Rarotonga80Mauke8
Aitutaki43Rakahanga1
Mangaia14Atiu9
Manihiki1Niue71
Mitiaro5          Total232

The figures for Rarotonga and Atiu are for the twelve months ended 31st March, 1920; those for Mangaia for the fifteen months ended 31st March, 1920; and those for Mitiaro for the ten months ended October, 1919.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS.

The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act is (June, 1920) 1,693, and the denominations to which they belong are shown hereunder:—

Denomination.Number.
Specified in statute—
     Church of England440
     Presbyterian Church of New Zealand374
     Roman Catholic Church272
     Methodist Church of New Zealand247
     Salvation Army148
     Baptists63
     Congregational Independents30
     Lutheran Church8
     Hebrew Congregations5
Not specified in statute—
     Church of Christ32
     Catholic Apostolic Church4
     Liberal Catholic Church3
     Unitarians3
     Seventh-day Adventists6
     Latter-day Saints6
     Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah17
     Ringatu Church12
     Others23
          Total1,693

The Ringatu Church and the Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah are Maori denominations.

SUBSECTION C.—DEATHS.

COMPULSORY registration of deaths was instituted in New Zealand in 1855. As in the case of births, a system of non-compulsory registration had obtained since 1848.

Until the year 1876 the only information provided for in the death-registration entry was as to date, place, and cause of death, and name, sex, age, and occupation of deceased. The Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1875, required information. to be recorded as regards parentage, conjugal condition, and issue of deceased. Particulars re burial had also to be entered, as well as more detailed information regarding cause of death. Subsequent amendments to the Act have made it requisite-to give additional information concerning issue, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand should be registered within three days-after the day of the death if in a city or borough, or seven days in any other case. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the undertaker in charge of the funeral being by the Amendment Act of 1912 made solely responsible for registration. Prior to 1913 the undertaker was primarily looked to for registration, but, in addition, the occupier of the house and every other person present at death were also responsible parties.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be-registered as it does in the case of a birth. It is not necessary to effect a death-registration entry in the case of a still-born child.

Any person burying or permitting or taking part in the burial of the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, a Coroner's order to bury the body, or a Registrar's certificate of registration of the death renders himself liable to a fine of £10.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The following table shows the number of deaths and the death-rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
19017,6349.81
19028,37510.50
19038,52810.40
19048,0879.57
19058,0619.27
19068,3399.31
190710,06610.95
19089,0439.57
10098,9599.22
19109,6399.71
19119,5349.39
19129,2148.87
191310,1199.47
191410,1489.31
19159,9659.06
191610,5969.64
191710,5289.58
191816,36414.84
191910,8089.46
192012,10910.15

With the exception of the year 1918 (when the deaths were increased by 50 per cent. on account of the influenza epidemic of the last quarter), the number of deaths registered in 1920 is the highest on record. The rate per 1,000 of mean population (10.15) is also somewhat above the average of recent years, and is indeed higher than in any of the ten years 1908-17.

MALE AND FEMALE DEATH-RATES.

The death-rates of males and females for the last ten years are shown separately in the next table, also the number of male deaths to every 100 female deaths, and the death-rate of males expressed as an index number of the female rate, taking the latter as equal to 100.

Year.Deaths per 1,000 of the Total Population.Male Deaths to every 100 Female Deaths.Male Rate expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (=100).
Males.Females.Total.
191110.468.219.39142127
19129.837.798.87140126
191310.468.389.47138125
191410.537.989.31144132
191510.197.879.06137129
191611.148.139.64138138
191711.098.099.58134137
191818.0311.7714.84147153
191910.858.069.46148149
192011.119.1510.15127121

In normal times the excess of male over female population has the effect of showing a smaller variation between death-rates for the two sexes than is indicated by a comparison of numbers of deaths. The withdrawal of a large number of males between the ages of 20 and 45 for military service overseas, however, reduced the male population without proportionately reducing the total of male deaths, the death-rate among persons of those ages being considerably less than for the whole population. Consequently there was during the war period an increase in the percentage of the male rate to the female, a position accentuated in 1918, and to a less extent in 1919, by the influenza epidemic, which exacted a heavier toll among males than among females.

AGES AT DEATH.

The deaths occurring during 1920 are tabulated below in single ages up to five years, and thereafter in groups, showing males and females separately:—

Ages.Males.Females.Total.
Under 1 month531391922
    1-3 months12598223
    3-6 months9269161
    6-12 months100107207
    1-2 years142109251
    2-3 years7577152
    3-4 years6150111
    4-5 years4458102
    5-10 years142129271
  10-15 years9758155
  15-20 years121116237
  20-25 years141172313
  25-30 years166232398
  30-35 years205247452
  35-40 years290246536
  40-45 years327274601
  45-50 years335238573
  50-55 years371239610
  55-60 years370242612
  60-65 years442320762
  65-70 years502372874
  70-75 years523399922
  75-80 years6184781,096
  80-85 years547361908
  85-90 years315172487
  90-95 years7755132
  95-100 years152035
100 years2..     2
101 years1..     1
102 years112
105..     11
          Totals6,7785,33112,109

The death-rates at various age-groups during recent years are as shown in the next table. A decided increase is shown for the year 1920 by comparison with the quinquennium 1911-15. The effect of the influenza epidemic of 1918 in the rates for that year, especially for ages 20 to 55 inclusive, is very noticeable.

DEATH-RATES PER 1,000 LIVING AT VARIOUS AGE-PERIODS.
Ages, In Years.Averages, 1911-15.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.Increase
1911-15 to 1920.
 Per Cent.
Under 515.4215.4914.0214.1211.7716.06+4.15
  5 and under 101.722.612.442.301.932.12+23.26
10 and under 151.371.591.391.981.491.39+1.46
15 and under 202.052.352.055.162.242.32+13.17
20 and under 252.903.163.4010.032.742.87−1.03
25 and under 353.783.914.1915.123.53.96+6.48
35 and under 455.936.675.7614.796.016.84+15.35
45 and under 559.7610.248.9315.7210.0111.34+16.19
55 and under 6519.6519.2219.0723.8919.8421.24+8.09
65 and under 7545.5640.2244.7850.4245.5644.29−2.79
75 and over133.14142.75128.55145.94143.53150.24+12.84
All ages9.229.649.5814.849.4610.15+10.09

The average age at death of persons of either sex in each of the ten years 1911-20 was as follows:—

Year.Males.Females.
191146.1742.37
191247.1944.91
191346.2643.04
191446.9744.27
191547.2444.71
191646.0644.01
191748.3345.51
191844.5644.29
191950.7348.47
192048.7445.92

The drop in the average age at death in 1918 is the result of the influenza epidemic, the average ago of those succumbing to influenza being especially in the case of males, below the normal average age at death.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.

The following figures showing the expectation of life at various ages are based on the experience of the quinquennium 1906-10:—

EXPECTATION OF LIFE OR AVERAGE AFTER-LIFETIME IN NEW ZEALAND.
Age.Males.Females.
 Years.Years.
    059.16561.764
    163.12564.816
    262.83664.503
    362.16863.843
    461.40763.053
    560.58162.211
  1056.14457.754
  1551.57053.172
  2047.20048.770
  2542.97944.562
  3038.77540.477
  3534.61436.396
  4030.54032.368
  4526.50728.294
  5022.67224.295
  5518.97220.443
  6015.50816.774
  6512.22913.331
  709.38310.311
  757.1027.777
  805.2945.815
  853.9544.262
  902.7652.900
  951.6131.650
1000.7200.723

It will be noted that while the expectation or average after-lifetime of males at age 0 is given as 59.165 years, the average age at death of males in 1920 is only 48.74 years. The reason for the difference in these figures is that the average age at death in 1920 is nothing more than the average of the ages of those dying in that year; and if the population be one with a preponderance of young people, as is the case in New Zealand, that preponderence of young ages must also be reflected among those dying in a particular year, who, after all, are largely a sample of the living. The average age at death in one particular year is therefore evidence of the age constitution of the population in that year rather than of the vitality of the people, though it is affected by both factors. In New Zealand it is on the whole constantly increasing, mainly because the population is gradually getting a due proportion of old people; but a large immigration of young people or a sufficient increase in the birth-rate could send it down again by furnishing a greater number of deaths at low ages, even without any change in the vitality.

The expectation of life is independent of these factors, being based upon the scientifically determined rates of mortality at every successive year of age, and could be said to represent the average age at death of, say, 100,000 people followed from birth to their final extinction by death. In the course of time, when the age constitution of the population of New Zealand approximates more closely to that existing in the older countries, the average age at death in a given year will tend to be in closer agreement with the actuarially ascertained expectation of life at age 0.

DEATH-RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

A table is given showing the death-rates of the Australian States and Commonwealth, and of New Zealand, in each of the ten years 1911-20.

DEATH -RATES OF AUSTRALASIA PER 1,000 OF MEAN POPULATION, 1911-20.
Country.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Queensland10.6510.9610.399.9711.0011.099.6410.3912.4210.82
New South Wales10.3710.8610.8910.1110.4810.639.609.8413.4010.32
Victoria11.4512.2311.1111.5911.1011.7010.3610.7013.2111.19
South Australia (proper)9.8210.2810.8210.7110.6711.7210.109.9712.0110.76
Western Australia10.1911.069.349.419.289.808.979.1111.1011.14
Tasmania10.1310.7310.879.6710.1110.388.898.8410.379.35
Commonwealth10.6611.2310.8710.5110.6611.049.8010.0912.8210.62
New Zealand9.398.879.479.319.069.649.5814.849.4610.15

New Zealand has ordinarily a lower death-rate than any of the Australian States, which, again, have considerably lower rates than other countries. The apparently disadvantageous position of New Zealand in the matter of the rate for 1918 is explained by the fact that the Dominion experienced the widespread influenza epidemic during 1918, while in the Commonwealth the outbreak did not occur till 1919.

The death-rates of certain of the principal European and other countries are also given. The rates for New Zealand and Australia compare very favourably with these.

Country.Quinquennium,Average Rate per 1,000.
* Registration area.
Union of South Africa1914-1811.5
Spain1910-1412.5
Netherlands1911-1512.8
Denmark1911-1512.9
Canada—
     Ontario1914-1813.1
     Quebec1913-1716.9
Norway1911-1513.3
Sweden1911-1514.0
Switzerland1911-1514.3
United States*1914-1814.6
England and Wales1915-1915.2
Scotland1915-1915.5
Finland1910-1416.2
Ireland1915-1917.2
France1910-1418.4
Italy1910-1419.2
Roumania1910-1424.5
Jamaica1915-1925.3
Ceylon1915-1928.8
Chili1910-1430.0
British India1913-1730.1

STANDARDIZATION OF DEATH-RATES.

Perfect accuracy in comparing one country with another can be attained only by the use of what is termed an “index of mortality.” The proportions of the living vary in regard to the different age-groups, and the ordinary death-rate—which is calculated on the population as a whole—does not afford a true means of judging of the relative healthiness of the places compared. But by taking a population like that of Sweden and applying the percentage at each age-group to the death-rates a standard of health or index of mortality can be arrived at. This has been done for New Zealand in accordance with a resolution of the Statistical Conference held at Hobart in 1902, and the result is expressed in tabular form.

INDEX OF MORTALITY IN NEW ZEALAND FOR 1920.
Ages, in Years.Estimated Mean Population.Number of Deaths.Death-rate per 1,000.Percentage of Population of Sweden, 1890 (Standard).Index of Mortality in New Zealand per 1,000.
Under 126,5181,51357.062.551.46
  1 and under 20447,6341,2792.8739.801.14
20 and under 40419,4431,6994.0526.961.09
40 and under 60212,2972,39611.2919.232.17
60 and upwards86,7285,22260.2111.466.90
          Totals1,192,62012,10910.15100.0012.76

The New Zealand rates may be compared with those of the Australian States and of the Commonwealth standardized by the same system.

STANDARDIZED DEATH -RATES, 1910-19.
Country1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.
New Zealand12.0411.8311.2711.9211.8511.3811.8811.6616.8011.72
Queensland12.4413.5713.9113.2512.7014.3014.3712.6413.9415.97
New South Wales12.3613.2313.6313.6112.7213.2413.4812.4512.8616.48
Victoria14.1114.2314.9413.5014.1113.5414.2812.8113.2315.51
South Australia12.3912.1812.7613.2513.0313.0914.4512.6512.5314.59
Western Australia13.3113.4714.5512.5812.5612.7914.1512.9313.6915.50
Tasmania13.5912.9713.6913.5412.1113.0413.4311.7811.7013.29
Commonwealth13.1713.5514.0813.4713.1813.4413.9912.6313.0715.75

Where comparisons are restricted to the figures for different years in a country such as New Zealand, where the age and sex constitution of the population is undergoing a gradual change, it is preferable to use as a standard the constitution of the population of the same country, at some fixed date.

In the following table the rates have been standardized on the population as disclosed at the census of 1911.

The system of standardization adopted is similar to that used in arriving at the international index of mortality, but is more detailed. The population and deaths of each year of the period have been divided, each sex separately, into five-yearly groups of ages (with one group only for ages 80 and over), and the rates for the various groups ascertained and weighted according to the percentage which the respective age-groups bore to the total population at the census of 1911.

DEATH RATES, CRUDE AND STANDARDIZED, 1872-1920.
Year.Crude (Actual) Death-rate.Standardized Rate.
187211.3912.36
187312.6714.10
187412.9813.79
187515.9217.30
187612.6614.09
187711.4712.86
187810.9612.76
187912.4614.11
188011.4612.70
188111.1312.41
188211.1913.06
188311.4513.29
188410.3911.88
188510.7612.36
188610.5412.17
188710.2911.96
18889.4311.72
18899.4410.80
18909.6611.25
189110.3512.08
189210.0611.75
189310.2311.80
189410.1911.56
18959.9111.22
18969.1010.35
18979.1410.58
18989.8411.50
189910.2411.02
19009.4310.21
19019.8110.66
190210.5011.41
190310.4011.17
19049.579.87
19059.279.60
19069.319.66
190710.9511.37
19089.579.94
19099.229.20
19109.719.63
19119.399.38
19128.878.87
19139.479.47
19149.319.31
19159.069.09
19169.649.22
19179.589.04
191814.8414.66
19199.468.99
192010.159.88

OCCUPATIONS OF DECEASED MALES.

The occupations of males who died during 1920, arranged according to the census classification, are shown in the following table. Further details may be obtained from Volume 1 of “Statistics of the Dominion of New Zealand,” 1920.

Occupation.Age, in Years.Total.
Under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 45.45 and under 65.65 and over.
Professional4587108144348
Domestic..     4436455166
Commercial1620113188234571
Engaged in transport and communication819120153132432
Engaged in manufacturing1213114173244556
Engaged in building and construction3666103177355
Other industrial workers1125170271444921
Agricultural and pastoral30372272668961,456
Working in mines and quarries..     ..     2847146221
Independent means..     ..     ..     9116125
Dependent relatives1,44622..     ..     1,450
Dependent on public or private support..     ..     1..     3334
Undefined or unknown..     10173680143
          Totals1,5301419881,5182,6016,778

DEATH STATISTICS OF URBAN AREAS.

The number and rate of deaths for each of the thirteen urban areas during the last four years are as shown in the following statement:—

URBAN AREAS.—DEATHS AND DEATH-RATES, 1917-20.
Urban Area.Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Auckland1,3972,4161,4281,63610.4518.0710.6811.13
Wellington8921,4961,0611,0819.3715.7111.1410.64
Christchurch1,0241,4359991,24211.0415.4710.7711.83
Dunedin7961,11377891011.5816.2011.3212.34
          Totals, principal areas4,1096,4604,2664,86910.5316.5510.9311.39
Suburban areas—
     Gisborne1081381141188.5310.909.008.05
     Napier1492541612109.8516.7910.6412.65
     New Plymouth1041378412410.6213.998.5811.21
     Wanganui1722762132228.8114.1410.9110.00
     Palmerston North1292361481529.2116.8510.579.92
     Nelson1281349513112.8513.459.5412.50
     Grey Valley boroughs87115979710.3913.7311.5811.28
     Timaru1161591251458.4611.599.119.65
     Invereargill1353611731907.5620.219.689.95
          Totals, secondary areas1,1281,8101,2101,3899.3214.9610.0010.44
             Grand totals5,2378,2705,4766,25810.2416.1710.7111.17

In compiling the statistics of deaths for the urban areas the rule is followed of carefully excluding deaths of persons who do not belong to the areas, but have come from elsewhere for the purpose of obtaining better medical attention. Nevertheless, the rates for the urban areas, in spite of the omission of this class, are somewhat above the average for the Dominion as a whole.

ORPHANHOOD.

The table following shows the number of living issue left by married men whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1911-20, the information being given according to age of father and of issue. It will be seen that during the period under review 27,864 fathers left issue to the number of 130,285, an average of 4.68. There were also 4,735 married men who died without leaving issue.

NUMBER AND AGES OF ISSUE LEFT BY MARRIED MEN, 1911-20.
Age of Issue, in Years.Number of Issue left by Fathers dying within the Age-groups shown at Head of Column.
20 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 50.50 and under 60.60 and under 65.65 and under 70.70 and under 80.80 and over.Totals.
017036218762822 793
1186533267761284 1,086
217263735911921136 1,327
31386464241452810631,400
49564144216617151111,388
57261852417524232021,458
64561552622038292071,500
71758356329243462331,570
8944158432162333361,489
9840064734373523841,565
10337663640596565561,633
111273664439110706431,624
12 220650498144976561,680
13 15264650816010779131,665
14 101605599172139107131,736
15 79556593214129114151,701
16 50568678235179165281,903
17 22470711305201204181,931
18 15459711341220227292,002
19 4367793373287275542,153
20 2327805417285344452,225
21 and over 79047,9939,58013,59238,52924,59695,211
Unspecified956131205174189420611,245
          Totals9256,83311,50616,85711,95715,78240,81224,913130,285
Married men who died—
     (a) Without leaving issue2646526246943644531,0016834,735
     (b) Leaving issue5452,6323,2413,8152,4882,9617,4094,77327,864
          Total8093,2843,8654,5092,8523,4148,4105,45632,599

Several tables dealing with orphanhood are given in full in the annual volume of “Statistics of the Dominion of New Zealand.” One of these, showing the number of issue under 16 left by deceased married men is summarized and given below:—

ISSUE UNDER AGE 16 LEFT BY MARRIED MEN, YEAR 1920.
Age at Death, in Years.Total Number of Married Men who died leaving Issues under Age 16.Married Men who died leaving Number of Issue under 16 Years of Age shown at Head of Column.Total Number of Children under Age 16 left by Married Men who died in 1920.
1234567 and over.
20 and under 2577..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     7
25 and under 3035181241..     ..     ..     58
30 and under 3584223113106..     2208
35 and under 40136343429121557396
40 and under 45165314732261496494
45 and under 501714149302011137493
50 and under 5514562312215654339
55 and under 6091402411871..     194
60 and under 65703320953..     ..     135
65 and under 7038221221..     ..     163
70 and under 75171033..     1..     ..     30
75 and under 8014112..     1..     ..     ..     19
80 and over76..     ..     1..     ..     ..     10
          Totals9803372651551006333272,446

Among married men who left any issue under age 16, the average number of such issue was 2.50. The average for all married men who died during the year was, however, only 0.67.

WIDOWS LEFT BY MARRIED MEN.

Of the 3,631 married men or widowers whose deaths were registered in 1920, 891 were shown to have been widowers, and 2,669 to have left widows; while in the remaining 71 cases there was no information given as to whether the deceased left a widow. Of the married men leaving widows, 2,288 had living issue also at time of death, and 381 had no living issue. In 770 cases widowers left issue, and in 121 eases no issue. In 28 of the 71 cases where no information was given as to whether a widow was left, there was living issue, in 28 cases no living issue, and in 15 cases no information as to issue was given. A table is given showing the relative ages of married men who died in 1920, and of their widows:—

DEATHS, 1920.—AGES OF MARRIED MEN WHO DIED, AND OF THEIR WIDOWS.
Age of Widow, in Years.Age of Deceased, in Years.
20 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 50.50 and under 60.60 and under 70.70 and under 80.80 and under 90.90 and upwardsTotals.
19..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
20 and under 25231321..     ..     ..     ..     39
25 and under 302858821..     ..     ..     97
30 and under 3559445611..     ..     152
35 and under 40..     68933653..     ..     205
40 and under 45119147642021..     254
45 and under 50..     5881323981..     273
50 and under 55..     11514373347..     273
55 and under 60..     ..     46414849152282
60 and under 65..     ..     41916393329313
65 and under 70..     ..     ..     577129472260
70 and under 75..     ..     ..     .14109542179
75 and under 80..     ..     ..     177177..     156
80 and under 85..     ..     ..     ..     11144662
85 and under 90..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     12214
90 and upwards..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     1
Ages not specified185112126279108
          Totals58266412484570536318252,669

INFANTILE MORTALITY.

New Zealand has the lowest rate of infantile mortality in the world, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of large industrial undertakings, &c., and partly to legislative and educative measures, the latter both by the State and by various organizations.

The number of deaths of infants under one year of age for each of the ten years 1911-20 and the percentage of these to births registered are shown in the next table:—

DEATHS OF CHILDREN UNDER ONE YEAR OF AGE. 1911-20.
Year.Number.Rate per 100 Births.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19118596251,4846.354.875.63
19128056041,4095.754475.12
19139427111,6536.535.275.92
19148286281,4565.704.555.14
19158275671,3945.744.225.01
19168306161,4465.664.455.07
19177675931,3605.354.264.82
19187045481,2525.364.304.84
19196364721,1085.053.974.53
19208486651,5135.494.595.06

In New Zealand it is unlawful for any person to take charge of an infant under the age of six years, for the purpose of nursing or maintaining it apart from its parents or guardians, for a longer period than seven consecutive days, unless such person is licensed as a foster-parent.

Provision is made by law for the granting and revocation of licenses, and for the method of payment of maintenance-money. No payment is to be made to or received by a foster-parent except in pursuance of an agreement approved by the Secretary of Education, and if default be made in payment under the agreement the amount due, or part thereof, may be paid by the Secretary, and shall be recoverable as a debt due to the Crown. When and so long as any money so recoverable remains unpaid the Secretary shall have and may exercise the powers of a guardian until the child attains the age of fifteen years. Provision is also made for the inspection of foster-homes, and the procedure in the case of the removal or death of foster-children is specified. The Act applies to any adopted infant in the same manner and to the same extent as if no such adoption had taken place.

The New Zealand Legislature in 1907 introduced provisions for early notification of birth, allowing seventy-two hours after birth if in a city or borough, or twenty-one days in any other case. The time allowed for notification in the case of a birth in a city or borough has now been reduced to forty-eight hours.

The infantile death-rate is somewhat higher among males than among females, a position which has existed without exception in every year of the period covered by the following diagram, which shows also the male and female birth-rates. As regards both birth and infantile-mortality rates, variations occur simultaneously in the curves for both sexes.

The excess of the male over the female rate of infantile mortality holds for each of the four divisions of the first year of life shown in the next table. The discrepancy is, however, somewhat greater in the first month than in the remainder of the year.

DEATHS AT AGE-PERIODS UNDER ONE YEAR PER 1,000 BIRTHS.
Year.Male Deaths per 1,000 Male Births.Female Deaths per 1,000 Female Births.
Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.
191133.039.619.9810.8623.716.787.7210.53
191233.517.508.298.2226.506.145.626.44
191333.7410.6010.4610.4625.409.636.4511.18
191432.139.436.888.5325.437.536.675.87
191535.317.496.667.9122.786.475.887.07
191629.588.939.348.7324.285.856.587.80
191731.687.406.428.0323.945.755.687.26
191829.189.985.728.7624.187.463.467.93
191933.136.914.376.1223.375.974.545.80
192034.408.105.966.4826.996.764.767.39

The number of male deaths per 100 female deaths in the first month of life during the ten years 1911-20 was 139; between one and three months, 132; between three and six months, 136; and between six and twelve months, 115.

The actual number of male and female deaths during these periods of life are next shown for the last ten years. Taking the whole decennium it is found that of every 100 males who died under one year of age, 57 lived less than one month, 72 less than three months, and 85 less than six months. The corresponding figures for females are 55, 70, and 83 respectively.

NUMBER OF DEATHS AT AGE-PERIODS UNDER ONE YEAR.
Year.Males.Females.
Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.
19114471301351473048799135
1912469105116115358837687
191348715315115134313087151
19144671371001243511049281
191550910896114306877995
19164341311371283368191108
1917454106921153338079101
1918383131751153089544101
1919417875577278715469
1920531125921003919869107

If the deaths under one year of ago are divided into two groups—viz., those occurring during the first month of life and those during the remainder of the twelve months, it is found that the decrease disclosed for recent years when compared with earlier is entirely confined to the latter class; the explanation being, no doubt, that with premature birth, congenital debility, and other causes of death due to prenatal influences (which are responsible for the great majority of deaths during the first month), it has not hitherto been found possible to effect the great improvements which have come about in regard to complaints arising from post-natal causes.

The next table shows that whereas the death-rate under one month of age was only slightly lower in the average of the five years 1915-20 than in the quinquennium 1881-85, the rate for children who have survived the first month of life is now only one-third as high as in the “eighties.” In other words, where the Dominion formerly lost, between the ages of one month and one year, sixty children out of every thousand, it now loses only twenty. In 1919 the number per thousand was only seventeen.

Quinquennium.Deaths per 1,000 Births.Deaths between
1 and 12 Months
per 1,000 Children
who survive 1 Month.
Under 1 Year.Under 1 Month.Between 1 and 12 Months.
1881-188590.6029.7760.8362.70
1886-189084.0927.5756.5258.13
1891-189587.6030.3457.2658.93
1896-190080.0630.3849.6851.24
1901-190574.7730.6444.1345.54
1906-191069.6230.2839.3440.57
1911-191553.6329.2824.3525.05
1916-192048.6228.1620.4621.05

The decrease by nearly half in the general rate and nearly two-thirds in the rate between one and twelve months, and the stationary nature of the rate under one month are well indicated in the accompanying diagram.

The deaths under one month for the year 1920 have been subjected to a more detailed analysis as to age, and it is found that of the total of 922, more than a quarter (250) occurred within twenty-four hours of birth, and more than two-thirds (649) within one week. The following table gives information as to the causes of death at various periods of the first year of life:—

INFANTILE MORTALITY 1920.—CAUSES AND AGES.
Cause of DeathUnder 1 Day.1 Day and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 Months.9 Months and under 12 Months.Total.
Measles..     ..     1..     1..     1291428
Whooping-cough..     ..     ..     1291012111257
Influenza..     21..     1..     ..     23110
Tuberculosis (all forms)..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     242412
Syphilis..     12213141..     15
Meningitis..     4..     2..     2155928
Convulsions..     192427178151
Acute bronchitis..     ..     11..     9571226
Broncho-pneumonia..     ..     1159813182176
Pneumonia..     31122389837
Diseases of stomach..     221..     1231214
Diarrhœa and enteritis..     ..     64615926131089
Hernia, intestinal obstruction..     1..     ..     ..     3..     103118
Congenital malformations1641223511913105135
Congenital debility, icterus328527271828172423263
Premature birth16416338231722441..     436
Other causes peculiar to early infancy2855463111511115
Absorption of deleterious gases (overlain, &c.)..     711..     ..     121..     13
Other causes1016978106108690
Totals, both sexes2503991188471142811611071001,513
Totals, males1562077453417946925149848
Totals, females941924431306335695651665

Summarized information as to causes of deaths of infants under one year of age is given in the next table for each of the last five years. Premature birth stands first in importance and congenital debility next.

DEATHS OF CHILDREN UNDER ONE YEAR.—CAUSES, 1916-20.
Causes.Number of Deaths from each Cause.Percentage of Total.
1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Whooping-cough6329205574.362.131.600.453.77
Convulsions74565347515.124.124.234.243.37
Bronchitis and pneumonia12396102941398.507.068.158.489.19
Diarrhœa and enteritis16414650568911.3410.743.995.055.88
Malformations108120:821121357.478.826.5510.118.92
Premature birth38138037331743626.3527.9429.7928.6228.82
Congenital debility21520823919626314.8715.2919.0917.6917.38
Other causes31832533328134321.9923.9026.6025.3622.67
          Totals1,4461,3601,2521,1081,513100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

CAUSES OF DEATH.

The classification of causes of death was made in 1908 for the first time in New Zealand according to the international classification of diseases initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon and now used by the Commonwealth of Australia and the principal European and American countries. It is highly desirable for comparative purposes that uniformity of statistical method should obtain.

The Bertillon system differs materially from that in use prior to 1908, and comparisons of certain causes of mortality between years prior and subsequent to 1908 are impossible owing to changes in the classification. This applies more particularly to diseases of the digestive, nervous, respiratory, and circulatory systems. There are, however, certain principal causes of death which are unaffected and retain their comparative value, such as cancer, tubercular diseases, typhoid fever, whooping-cough, measles, influenza, scarlet fever, diabetes, appendicitis, liver and puerperal diseases, accident, and suicide.

A comparison of the causes of deaths in 1920 and 1919 arranged according to an abridged classification, the percentage of each group to the total deaths, and the proportion per 10,000 of population is given in the following table:—

Class.Number of Deaths.Proportion to Total Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1920.1919.1920.1919.1920.1919.
 Per Cent.Per Cent. 
I.General diseases3,2592,85826.9226.4427.3325.01
II.Diseases of the nervous system and of the organs of special sense1,1531,1659.5210.789.6710.19
III.Diseases of the circulatory system2,0261,85016.7317.1216.9916.19
IV.Diseases of the respiratory system1,3541,02911.189.5211.369.00
V.Diseases of the digestive system7146125.905.665.995.35
VI.Diseases of the genito-urinary system and annexa5044624.164.274.234.04
VII.Puerperal condition1941241.601.151.631.08
VIII.Diseases of the skin and of the cellular tissue53520.440.480.440.45
IX.Diseases of the organs of locomotion35260.290.240.300.23
X.Malformations1651381.361.281.401.21
XI.Infancy8156166.735.706.845.39
XII.Old age1,0171,0568.409.778.539.24
XIII.Violence6967205.756.665.846.30
XIV.Ill-defined causes1241001.020.931.050.87
           Totals12,10910,808100.00100.00101.6094.55

The first class, general diseases, which includes both cancer and tuberculosis, is annually responsible for a quarter of the deaths registered. Next in order of numbers comes Class III, disease of the circulatory system, the principal of which, organic heart-disease, ranks easily first among individual causes of death in New Zealand. Classes VIII and IX are responsible for very few deaths.

The next table shows the number of deaths from certain principal causes for the five years 1916-20, and the proportion per 10,000 of the population:—

Cause.Number of Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1916.19171918.1919.1920.
Typhoid fever37413334400.340.370.300.300.34
Measles93171531220.850.150.140.031.02
Scarlet fever52303023150.470.270.270.200.13
Whooping-cough98442771070.890.400.240.060.90
Diphtheria163237189157951.482.161.711.370.81
Influenza73385,5163464800.660.3550.013.034.02
Pulmonary tuberculosis5915976646026955.35.436.025.275.83
Other forms of tuberculosis1411581681601561.281.441.521.401.31
Cancer9099579361,0311,0298.278.718.499.028.63
Diabetes151441951681491.401.311.771.41.25
Exophthalmic goitre27374225440.250.340.380.220.37
Anæmia, chlorosis991048275830.900.950.740.660.70
Meningitis1691661821551331.541.511.651.361.12
Infantile paralysis123104121.120.090.040.010.02
Apoplexy, cerebral hæmorrhage4784724705395254.354.294.264.724.40
Epilepsy51566149490.460.510.550.430.42
Convulsions of children under 5 years of age105627061640.950.560.630.530.54
Organic heart-disease1,2691,3901,3691,5381,70311.5412.6512.413.4614.28
Arterio-sclerosis877183741110.790.650.750.650.93
Embolism, thrombosis75625378850.680.560.480.680.72
Bronchitis2402253042903892.182.052.762.543.26
Broncho-pneumonia1271212001402311.151.10,1.811.221.94
Pneumonia3202624494015282.912.384.073.524.43
Gastritis37513836490.340.460.340.320.41
Diarrhœa and enteritis3023061471321882.752.781.331.151.58
Appendicitis and typhlitis901019288890.820.920.830.770.75
Hernia, intestinal obstruction1164696791271.050.420.870.691.06
Cirrhosis of liver53334140280.480.300.370.350.24
Simple peritonitis37464557650.340.420.410.500.55
Nephritis, Bright's disease3042712873093562.762.462.692.702.98
Cystitis51492636360.460.450.240.310.30
Diseases and accidents of puerperal condition1671691341241941.521.541.211.081.63
Malformations1271331121381651.151.211.021.211.38
Congenital debility2222082391962632.021.892.171.722.20
Premature birth3813813733174363.473.473.382.773.66
Senility8831,0011,2291,0561,0178.039.1111.149.238.53
Violence (1) suicide1471241131391331.341.131.021.221.12
              (2) accident, &c.5955615485815635.415.104.975.084.72
Other causes1,6031,7471,7021,5131,56514.5915.8915.4313.2813.12
          Totals105961052816364108081210996.3795.77148.3694.55101.60

INFLUENZA.

During the latter part of 1918 the Dominion was visited by a most virulent epidemic of influenza of a character similar to that experienced in most countries of the world in 1918 or 1919. The disease was more properly pneumonic influenza, and many deaths in the earlier stages of the outbreak were registered as caused by pneumonia, broncho-pneumonia, &c., which in the light of later knowledge would probably have been ascribed to influenza.

The deaths from influenza alone during 1918 reached a total of 5,516, a number greatly in excess of the grand total for the preceding forty-six years, prior to which statistics of causes of death are not available. This figure does not include Maori deaths—approximately 1,200—due to influenza.

The following table shows that influenza caused more deaths in 1919 and 1920 than in any year prior to 1918, thus showing that though the epidemic of that year was short-lived the disease still remained and exerted its influence on the death-rates of the next two years.

DEATHS FROM INFLUENZA, 1872-1920.
Year.Deaths.
18728
18736
187417
187515
187617
18779
18783
187915
188011
188110
188213
188311
18846
18855
188611
18879
18889
18899
189070
1891210
1892144
1893106
1894233
1895125
189689
1897120
1898219
1899135
1900181
1901219
1902117
190356
1904113
190570
1906132
1907223
190864
190947
1910141
191163
191265
191356
191463
1915110
191673
191738
19185,516
1919346
1920540

Of the 5,516 victims of influenza during 1918, 3,529 were males and 1,987 were females. The number of male deaths equals 6.54 per 1,000 of the male population, and the female deaths were 3.68 per 1,000 of the female population. Males, therefore, suffered almost twice as severely as females.

Under the age of 15 the rates for both sexes were low and comparatively equal. Over the age of 55 the same is true, except that both rates were fairly high. But between those two groups lies the great bulk of the population, varying from youth to middle age, and with normally a comparatively low death-rate. Yet in this instance the death-rate soared very high, particularly so in the case of males. In the age-group 35-39 years inclusive, the male death-rate was more than three times the female rate. Possibly the fact that many thousands of males of good health and physique were temporarily absent from the country was an influencing factor.

The deaths from influenza in 1919 were distributed considerably more evenly over the age-groups and between the two sexes than in 1918, and a still more even distribution occurred in 1920, though ages 15 to 39 inclusive still bore an unduly large proportion of the influenza mortality. The figures for the three years are as follow:—

Age-group.Percentage of Total Deaths from Influenza.Male Deaths per 100 Female Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1918.1919.1920.
Under 1571414937189
15 and under 40634539193129117
40 and under 55212222205226121
55 and over91925117191137
          Totals100100100178144118

TUBERCULOSIS.

Pulmonary tuberculosis takes fourth place in point of the number of deaths resulting therefrom during 1920, ranking after heart-disease, cancer, and senility, in that order. Acute miliary tuberculosis is included with pulmonary. The average for the past ten years was 619, or 5.57 per 10,000 of mean population.

Year.Deaths from
Pulmonary
Tuberculosis.
Rate
per 10,000.
19115845.75
19125675.46
1913566.14
19145765.28
1915562511
19165915.38
19175975.43
19186646.02
19196025.27
19206955.83

Reference to the next table will show that 466 persons known to have been born in the Dominion died during 1920 from phthisis, and 119 persons born elsewhere, but resident in New Zealand for fifteen years or over, succumbed to the disease.

DEATHS FROM PULMONABY TUBERCULOSIS, 1920.
Length of Residence in the Dominion.Age at Death, in Years.
Under 5.5 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and under 25.25 and under 35.35 and under 45.45 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and under 75.75 and upwards.Total.
    Males.
Under 1 mont h..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
  1 month and under 6..     ..     2..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     3
  6 months and under 12..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
  1 year and under 2..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
  2 years and under 3..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
  3 years and under 4..     ..     ..     2..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2
  4 years and under 5..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
  5 years and under 10..     ..     ..     213103..     1..     29
10 years and under 15..     ..     113912..     ..     17
15 years and under 20..     ..     ..     14551..     ..     16
20 years and under 25..     ..     ..     1..     21..     ..     ..     6
25 years and upwards..     ..     ..     ..     3616169454
Not known or not stated..     ..     ..     ..     ..     31..     ..     ..     4
Birthplace unknown..     ..     ..     144521..     17
Born in Dominion421377164332..     ..     214
          Totals424461001046523114363
     Females.
Under 1 month..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
  1 month and under 6..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
  6 months and under 12..     ..     ..     ..     2..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2
  1 year and under 2..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
  2 years and under 3..     ..     ..     2..     ..     1..     ..     ..     3
  3 years and under 4..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
  4 years and under 5..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
  5 years and under 10..     ..     ..     4341..     ..     ..     12
10 years and under 15..     ..     ..     ..     532..     ..     ..     10
15 years and under 20..     ..     ..     1412..     ..     ..     8
20 years and under 25..     ..     ..     ..     12..     ..     ..     ..     3
25 years and upwards..     ..     ..     125499332
Not known or not stated..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     1..     ..     2
Birthplace unknown..     ..     ..     ..     121..     ..     15
Born in Dominion426728562183..     ..     252
          Totals4268010580291394332
          Totals of both sexes84101262051849436208695
DEATHS AND DEATH-RATES FROM TUBERCULOSIS, AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL DEATHS, 1911-20.
Year.Mean
Population.
Number
of Deaths from
Tubercular
Diseases.
Rate
per 10,000.
Percentage of
Total Deaths
from all Causes.

(a) All deaths;

(b) excluding deaths from influenza, October-December, 1918.

19111,014,8967387.277.74
19121,039,0167166.897.77
19131.068,6448127.608.02
19141,090.3287286.677.17
19151,099,3946936.306.95
19161.099,4497426.747.00
19171,099,1177556.87717
19181,103,0228327.545.08 (a)
17.64 (b)
19191,142,8897626.677.05
19201,192,6208517.147.03
AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM TUBERCULAR DISEASES, 1920.
Ages.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5 years252449
  5 years and under 10101323
10 years and under 1510919
15 years and under 20173754
20 years and under 254160101
25 years and under 306166127
30 years and under 35474996
35 years and under 405645101
40 years and under 456041101
45 years and under 50412768
50 years and under 5530838
55 years and under 6015722
60 years and under 6581119
65 years and under 7010717
70 years and under 75527
75 years and under 80145
80 and upwards314
          Total deaths440411851

Tuberculosis claims its victims at comparatively early age. Of those dying from this cause in 1920, persons under the age of twenty years formed 17 per cent. and those under forty years 67 per cent.

The New Zealand rate of deaths from tubercular diseases, and the rates of the Australian States, compare very favourably with those of England, Scotland, and Ireland, which have, however, decreased considerably of late years.

DEATH-RATES FROM TUBERCULOSIS, AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL DEATHS, 1919.
 Death-rates (per 1,000)
from Tuberculosis.
Percentage of
Total Deaths.
England and Wales1.269.19
Scotland1.298.40
Ireland1.9410.99
Queensland0.625.01
New South Wales0.725.34
Victoria0.83627
South Australia0.877.27
Western Australia0.988.80
Tasmania0.716.89
Commonwealth0.775.99
New Zealand0.677.05

CANCER.

This disease is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than organic disease of the heart. The increasing prevalence of cancer is, in fact, causing no little concern throughout the civilized world.

A much more complete presentation of data than can be given here was published in a special article on cancer mortality in the Year-book for 1917 (pages 776-809).

In 1920 there were 1,029 deaths from cancer in the Dominion, a proportion of 8.63 per 10,000 persons. The average number of cancer deaths and the average cancer death-rate for the years 1915-19 were 947 and 8.53 respectively. Deaths of males during 1920 numbered 502, and of females 527.

Rates for war years are inflated to some extent by the absence of a large number of men at ages when there is comparative immunity from cancer.

The following diagram illustrates on the one hand the increase in the cancer death-rate, and on the other the decrease in the rate of deaths from tuberculosis:—

NUMBER OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM CANCER, THE PROPORTION PER 10,000 OF POPULATION, AND THE PERCENTAGE OF ALL DEATHS, 1911-20.
Year.Deaths from Cancer.Total Deaths, all Causes.Deaths from Cancer per 10,000 of Mean Population.Deaths from Cancer per 100 of all Deaths.

(a) All deaths;

(b) excluding deaths from influenza, October-December, 1918.

19118099,5347.978.49
19128129,2147.828.81
191385610,1198.018.46
191490410,1488.298.91
19159009,9658.199.03
191690910,5968.278.50
191795710,5288.719.09
191893616,3648.495.72 (a)
8.59 (b)
19191,03110,8089.029.54
19201,02912,1098.638.50

The proportion of deaths from cancer to the 1,000 persons living in some of the principal countries of the world, as shown below, leads to the conclusion that there is a general tendency to increase.

CANCER DEATH-RATES PER 1,000 LIVING IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES.
Country.Average of
5 Years, 1896-1900.
Average of
5 Years, 1906-10.
Increase per
Cent. during 10 Years.
Rate for Last
Year ascertainable.
* Decrease.
 Year.Rate.
New Zealand0.590.7222.0319200.86
Commonwealth of Australia0.580.7020.6919190.86
England and Wales0.800.9417.5019191.15
Scotland0.771.0029.8719191.16
Ireland0.580.7936.2119190.87
German Empire0.660.8427.2719130.91
Austria0.690.7813.0419120.81
Italy0.510.6425.4919140.67
Norway0.860.9712.7919141.02
Denmark0.450.5420.0019140.58
Netherlands0.921.0311.9619201.12
Switzerland1.271.2600.79*19151.28

The parts of the body most commonly affected are the stomach and liver. Among females the generative and mammary organs are frequently the seat of the disease. Full details of location are published in Volume I of the “Statistics of the Dominion of New Zealand,” 1920.

CANCER: SEAT OF DISEASE, 1920.
Seat of Disease.Males.Females.Total.
Buccal cavity52759
Stomach and liver226149375
Peritoneum, intestines, rectum6498162
Female genital organs..     9090
Breast..     6464
Skin8614
Other organs or organs not specified152113265
          Totals5025271,029

It will be observed that in two instances the rates for the two sexes show considerable disparity, to the disadvantage of the male sex—viz., cancer of the buccal cavity, and of the stomach and liver. The discrepancy in the former instance is, perhaps, due largely to two circumstances: first, that smoking is confined more or less exclusively to the males, and, secondly, that, generally speaking, more attention is paid to the teeth, &c., by females. In the second instance it appears that another predominantly male habit—drinking—is partially responsible. Alcohol is known to detrimentally affect the stomach, &c., by producing ulceration and cirrhosis, often forerunners to cancer.

Eighty-eight per cent. of the deaths from cancer during 1920 were at the ages 45 years and upwards, and 42 per cent. at the ages 60 years and upwards.

Exhaustive statistical inquiry covering the period from 1872 to date has shown that in New Zealand death from cancer is, on the average, now occurring later in life than formerly. It would seem that this is the case even if allowance be made for the fact that the age-constitution of the Dominion is increasing—i.e., that the average citizen of New Zealand is now older than the average citizen of ten, twenty, or fifty years ago.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM CANCER, 1920.
Ages.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5 years347
  5 years and under 10224
10 years and under 15..     ..     ..     
15 years and under 203 3
20 years and under 25426
25 years and under 30369
30 years and under 3541519
35 years and under 4081624
40 years and under 45164056
45 years and under 50285684
50 years and under 555153104
55 years and under 605563118
60 years and under 657866144
65 years and under 708560145
70 years and under 756353116
75 years and under 805458112
80 years and upwards453378
          Totals5025271,029

PUERPERAL CAUSES.

In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, owing to the association between maternal death-rate and the all-important matter of the birth-rate, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance.

In recent years New Zealand has had a comparatively high death-rate from puerperal causes when considered ha relation to the number of births rather than on population basis. The rate for each year since 1872 is as follows:—

Year.Proportion per 1,000 Children born.
18724.26
18734.63
18745.76
18756.44
18764.58
18774.39
18784.78
18794.48
18803.93
18814.91
18825.31
18834.95
18846.90
18857.31
18865.75
18874.96
18885.87
18894.23
18905.42
18915.20
18924.53
18934.29
18945.99
18955.45
18964.67
18974.38
18984.80
18994.57
19003.84
19014.39
19025.33
19035 86
19044.66
19054.22
19063.88
19074.62
19084.59
19095.09
19104.50
19114.33
19123.64
19133.58
19144.16
19154.70
19165 86
19175.98
19185.18
19195.06
19206.48

During the forty-nine years covered by the table the rate has ranged between 3.58 and 7.31 per 1,000 live births registered, the lowest rate being in 1913 and the highest in 1885. The rate for 1920 is the third highest on record, having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885. It is noticeable that, in the cases of both highest and lowest rates, neighbouring years rank first and second on the list.

The figures for years subsequent to 1915 are somewhat disadvantageously placed for purposes of comparison with earlier years. Commencing with 1916, special inquiry has been made in all cases where a woman of child-bearing age has been returned as having died of such causes as septicæmia, peritonitis, nephritis, &c. (without qualification), with the result that in each year several of such cases are found to be puerperal and are now so classed. Possibly this factor also affects to a certain extent comparison with other countries, and in any case the possibility of different treatment between one country and another as regards puerperal accidents and diseases and associated causes should not be overlooked when comparing New Zealand with other countries. It may be stated, however, that the average rate of the Dominion for the four years 1916-19 (5.57 per 1,000 births) is somewhat higher than the rates for Australia (5.07), England and Wales (4.05), and Ireland (4.98), but lower than that for Scotland (6.18). The New Zealand rate is also much lower than that for the United States registration area (6.57 in 1917 and 9.11 in 1918).

The following table shows the number of deaths from puerperal causes during each of the last ten years, classified in the eight groups into which such cases are divided in the international classification:—

DEATHS FROM PUERPERAL CAUSES, BY GROUPS, 1911-20.
Group.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
* Mainly deaths from puerperal mania.
Accidents of pregnancy4322252138272715926
Puerperal hæmorrhage11131417142018111040
Other accidents of labour23281619182616191112
Puerperal septicæmia27192935226059485267
Puerperal albuminura and convulsions8161018322437303637
Puerperal embolism and thrombosis21375581049
Following childbirth (not otherwise defined)*..     121254113
Puerperal diseases of the breast..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Totals11410099118131167169134124194

The great increase in the figures for puerperal septicæmia in the last five years as compared with the preceding quinquennium would suggest that the alteration in the system referred to above is entirely responsible for the considerable increases in maternal deaths since 1915. The indications, however, are that the change is only partly responsible. During the five years 1911-15 deaths shown as being due to puerperal septicæmia averaged 26 per annum, and during the next five years 57 per annum, an increase of 31. The corresponding figures for non-puerperal or undefined septicæmia of women of the child-bearing ages were 16 and 4 for the respective quinquennia, a decrease of only 12.

DEATHS FROM VIOLENCE.

Deaths from violence are steadily decreasing in numbers. The rate per 10,000 of mean population was 5.67 in 1915, 5.41 in 1916, 5.10 in 1917, 4.97 in 1918, 5.08 in 1919, and 4.74 in 1920. The various forms of violent deaths (excluding suicides) in 1920 are shown in the following table:—

VIOLENT DEATHS (EXCLUDING SUICIDES), 1920.
Cause of Death.Males.Females.Total.
Accidents—
     Poisoning10212
     Conflagration415
     Burns, scalds171835
     Asphyxia11718
     Drowning12030150
     Cutting or piercing instruments2 2
     Firearms21324
     Falls38745
     Mines and quarries3 3
     Machinery3 3
     Crushing (vehicles, railways, landslides, &c.)14520165
     Injuries by animals4 4
     Electrocution2 2
     Fractures (cause not shown)17926
Homicide—
     By firearms5 5
     By cutting or piercing instruments 44
     By other means437
Starvation2 2
Excessive cold1 1
Other external violence411152
          Totals450115565

SUICIDES.

The suicidal deaths in 1920 were 131—males 110 and females 21. The rate per 10,000 of mean population was—males 1.80, females 0.36, both sexes 1.16. The average of the preceding five years was 1.15 per 10,000 living. The New Zealand suicide-rate, 1915-19, approximates that of the Commonwealth (1.1 per 10,000 living), but compares unfavourably with that of England and Wales (0.88). The following table shows the means of self-destruction employed in New Zealand in 1920:—

SUICIDES, 1920.
Mode of Death.Males.Females.Total.
Hanging or strangulation23730
Firearms36238
Cutting or piercing instruments28129
Poison235
Drowning7411
Asphyxia325
Jumping from high places2 2
Other modes9211
          Total suicides11021131

MAORI DEATHS.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths of Maoris registered under section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912, since its coming into force. The numbers registered under the main Act are also given.

Year.Under Section 20 of Births and Deaths
Registration Amendment Act, 1912.
Under
Main Act.
Males.Females.Totals.Totals.
* Not shown separately.
1913**41261
191438234172342
191542436278631
191643232976147
191738234772944
19181,0009371,93799
19196315631,19469
192044641385933

Maoris suffered exceedingly severe losses during the influenza epidemic of 1918. As statistics of causes of deaths are not compiled in their case, the exact totals cannot be ascertained. By taking December quarter's huge total of deaths and subtracting the approximate number in normal times it seems that the death-toll of the epidemic was in the neighbourhood of 25 per 1,000 of the Maori population. These deaths are not included in the numbers quoted elsewhere in this subsection.

DEATHS IN COOK ISLANDS.

As explained in the Births subsection of this book, a system of compulsory registration of deaths is now ruling in the Cook Islands.

Particulars required are much the same as in New Zealand proper, but the onus of registering is thrown on the occupier of the house where the death took place, or on any person present at the time of death. If the deceased in his or her last illness was attended by a medical practitioner a medical certificate must he supplied to the Registrar. Any person conducting a burial or a religious service thereat must notify the nearest Registrar in writing within one week.

The following are the figures of death registrations in each island during the year 1919:—

DEATHS IN COOK ISLANDS, 1919.
Island.Number of Deaths.

* Twelve months ended 31st March, 1920.

† Fifteen months ended 31st March, 1920.

Rarotonga*89
Aitutaki43
Mangaia40
Manihiki10
Mauke10
Mitiaro2
Rakahanga10
Atiu*29
Penrhyn2
Niue126
            Total361

SUBSECTION D.—MORBIDITY.

DEATH-RATES are of great value as indicating the relative healthiness of different countries or for different years. The statistics of causes of registered deaths are of further use as showing the incidence of fatal diseases or accidents, and as indicating in a general way the relative rise or fall of diseases over a series of years. For instance, the fall in the incidence of tuberculosis and the increase in cancer (discussed in Subsection C of this section) can be readily traced from the records of deaths attributed to these causes in different years.

In comparisons of healthiness based on death-rates, however, the effect of the advance of medical science in recent years is not taken into account. It is common knowledge that many diseases regarded a few decades ago as incurable now give a fair percentage of recoveries. Similarly the death-rates in epidemics are in general much lower now than formerly, owing partly to the steps taken to prevent the spread of the disease, partly to the necessity of early notification in most countries, and partly to increased medical knowledge. Again, many diseases seldom or never result fatally.

Of recent years much attention has been devoted in different countries to the possibility or otherwise of obtaining reliable statistics of sickness. In certain of the American States an attempt has been made to obtain from medical men returns of all patients dealt with, giving the nature and duration of illness, and similar systems have been inaugurated or proposed in other countries.

In New Zealand certain diseases are notifiable, but beyond this the only record other than that of fatality is the information ascertainable from the returns of discharges from public hospitals. In the absence of full statistics of sickness, however, information from the two sources mentioned is of considerable value, and gives a fair indication of the prevalence of the more important diseases.

NOTIFICATION OF DISEASES.

The system of notification of certain diseases has been in force in New Zealand for many years, and the list of notifiable diseases has undergone several alterations. The list at present is as follows:—

  1. Notifiable infectious diseases mentioned in Part I of First Schedule of Health Act, 1920:—

    • Anthrax.

    • Cerebro-spinal fever (cerebro-spinal meningitis).

    • Cholera.

    • Dengue.

    • Diphtheria.

    • Erysipelas.

    • Enteric fever (typhoid fever, para-typhoid fever).

    • Leprosy.

    • Plague (bubonic or pneumonic).

    • Puerperal fever (puerperal septicæmia and puerperal sapræmia).

    • Scarlet fever (scarlatina).

    • Smallpox (variola, including varioloid, alastrim, amaas, Cuban itch, and Philippine itch).

    • Typhus.

    • Yellow fever.

  2. Notifiable infectious diseases declared by Gazette notice:—

    • Chicken-pox (varicella).

    • Encephalitis lethargia.

    • Fulminant inflenza.

    • Pneumonic influenza.

    • Septicæmic influenza.

    • Ophthalmia neonatorum.

    • Acute primary pneumonia.

    • Acute poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis).

    • Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids).

    • Tuberculosis (pulmonary).

  3. Notifiable diseases, other than infectious, mentioned in Second Schedule:—

    • Actinomycosis.

    • Anchylostomiasis (hookworm disease).

    • Bilharziosis (endemic hæmaturia, Egyptian hæmaturia).

    • Beriberi.

    • Hydatids.

    • Food-poisoning (botulismus, ptomaine poisoning).

    • Chronic lead poisoning.

    • Phosphorus poisoning.

    • Tetanus.

The notifications of infectious diseases during the year 1920 under the schedule then in operation numbered 41,544, including 30,398 cases of influenza, which, except in its pneumonic, fulminant, and septicæmic forms, ceased to be a notifiable disease after June, 1920. Measles, which was responsible for 2,597 notifications during the first eight months of the year, also ceased to be notifiable after August, 1920.

Of the infectious diseases at present notifiable diphtheria furnished the largest incidence of cases for 1920—viz., 2,442—but exhibited a considerable decrease in comparison with the figures for 1919 (3,499) and 1918 (5,539). Deaths from this cause per cent. of cases notified show a downward trend. A preponderance of cases occurred in the months of March, April, May, June, and July, this corresponding with the general annual experience.

Scarlet-fever cases notified numbered 1,248 in 1920, representing a continuance of the decrease from 4,278 in 1916 to 2,755 in 1917, 1,654 in 1918, and 1,521 in 1919.

Between the months of May and October, 1920, 95 cases of variola, or American smallpox, were notified in the Otago and Southland Hospital Districts. The disease was fortunately of a mild nature, and was apparently identical in type with the disease which was prevalent in New Zealand in 1913. There were no fatalities.

The figures for the principal diseases notified during 1920 are shown for each month of the year in the following table:—

Month.Scarlet Fever.Diphtheria.Enteric Fever.Tuberculosis.Puerperal Septicæmia.Influenza.Pneumonia.Measles.VariolaVaricella.Erysipelas.Other.Totals.
* From and including July only pneumonic, fulminant, and septicæmic types were notifiable.
January1151863610461,60614368..     ..     9192,292
February84186227746,0747659..     ..     6196,607
March9324940146103,9309824..     ..     11204,621
April135289258495,62112623..     524356,376
May152283331011010,0131375219128204610,994
June1512773596132,684*125115228819353,660
July13128345120141382137292210316271,841
August10715934120101192841,52715488272,458
September881513612112101262..     14471627875
October55145261221452175..     3401029671
November6811828971441158..     ..     29926588
December6911629117819136..     ..     21838561
          Totals1,2482,4423891,30512430,398*1,9332,5979550915634841,544

The 348 other notified cases comprised cerebro-spinal meningitis, 79; poliomyelitis, 76; lethargic encephalitis, 42; unspecified septicæmia, 30; ophthalmia neonatorum, 48; tetanus, 15; hydatids, 45; trachoma, 10; beriberi, 1; anthrax, 1; and actinomycosis, 1.

A quinquennial summary of certain principal diseases is as follows:—

PRINCIPAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES NOTIFIED DURING THE PAST FIVE YEARS.
Disease.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
* Not available.
Scarlet fever4,2782,7551,6541,5211,248
Diphtheria2,3765,4585,5393,4992,442
Enteric fever806653423477389
Tuberculosis9501,5211,0729841,305
Cerebro-spinal meningitis135421599679
Poliomyelitis1,0185461176
Puerperal septicæmia*817679124
Erysipelas*1127273156

Information as to case-fatality in regard to the three first-mentioned diseases above is given in the next table for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Diphtheria.Scarlet Fever.Enteric Fever.
Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality. Per Cent.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality. Per Cent.Cases notified.DeathsCase-fatality. Per Cent.
1911868627.142,36290.38792678.46
1912753466.111,61070.43582467.90
1913747618.171,614110.68863606.95
19141,094787.131,506221.45859485.59
19151,420996.972,312441.90825526.30
19162,3761636.864,278521.22806373.72
19175,4582374.342,755301.09653416.28
19185,5391893.411,654301.81423337.80
19193,4991574.491,521231.51477347.13
19202,442953.891,248151.203894010.28

PUBLIC HOSPITALS: ADMISSIONS AND DISCHARGES.

The total admissions to public hospitals in New Zealand during 1920 numbered 45,995. There were 3,354 patients in hospital at the beginning of the year, the total cases dealt with during the year being thus 49,349, equal to 397 per 10,000 of mean population, including Maoris. The total number of persons treated is somewhat less than the number of cases, each admission being counted a separate case.

Of the 49,349 cases, 28,230 were discharged as recovered, including a number of tuberculosis cases in which the patient was described as able to work or as having had the disease arrested. In 12,418 cases the patient was discharged relieved, and in 2,241 cases as unrelieved. Deaths in hospital numbered 3,399, or 6.89 per cent. of cases dealt with. The figures of admissions, discharges, and deaths for each of the public hospitals in the Dominion, other than St. Helens Maternity Homes, are given in the table following, together with the numbers of patients in hospital at the beginning and end of the year. There are 67 public general hospitals, 4 fever or infectious-diseases hospitals, and 6 sanatoria for consumptives.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.—ADMISSIONS, DISCHARGES, ETC., 1920.
Hospital.Patients remaining on 1st January, 1920.Admissions during 1920.Discharge during 1920.Deaths in Hospital during 1920.Patients remaining on 31st December 1920.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
Mangonui1415012223487
Bay of Islands12236193302815
Hokianga2627418875111511
Northern Wairoa9208152351209
Otamatea8563915541
Whangarei441,11586419384242
Auckland4386,1923,7491,755183547396
Waikato1821,90798969699147158
Te Waikato Sanatorium2857..     389335
Taumarunui224183524342417
Kawhia..     372764..     ..     
Waihi2750837976183923
Thames63977761162334440
Coromandel5673518685
Mercury Bay..     755316141
Tauranga8213159363185
Te Puke3887925..     5
Opotiki617214021188
Waiapu6756112233
Cook921,4601,179164478181
Wairoa192892344012211
Napier1571,5221,05525378135158
Waipawa483622804972153
Dannevirke404123434772233
Taranaki731,127925107128373
Stratford1135028341..     2017
Hawera424974562413226
Patea243503192811016
Wanganui1031,5311,0862489091119
Taihape143843174111920
Palmerston North641,2781,054115288560
Pahiatua9151128141107
Masterton446915993925144
South Wairarapa112491467252413
Wellington3204,5531,2542,685247394293
Otaki101621191318139
Otaki Sanatorium236192815329
Wairau2047439836103515
Havelock14840711..     
Picton132292119..     139
Nelson5260349575..     4441
Westport313502764212933
Reefton31132674742124
Waiuta Nurses' Home443385..     13
Denniston324224..     ..     1
Grey River6045021787865862
Westland2123015533..     3330
Otira..     15105..     ..     ..     
Kaikoura3204163207710
Christchurch2915,622,8631,697706387259
Lyttelton Casualty Ward..     603561..     ..     
Burwood Fever Hospital11326323591018
Cashmere Hills Sanatorium616642103567
Coronation Hospital for Consumptives42447771451
Akaroa132263121
Ashburton40521296183153136
Timaru56933710143435241
Talbot Infectious Diseases186074..     ..     13
Waimate304403268613225
Oamaru213532874182711
Palmerston Sanatorium518144316546
Port Chalmers1331711321
Logan Point Fever Hospital911388252..     7
Dunedin2623,7481,3651,832258347208
Wakari105112581215
Prince Edward Convalescent Home..     14295187121
Tuapeka75829173115
Kaitangata..     399291..     ..     
Tapanui3792547343
Maniototo11147103304912
Dunstan7103632521010
Cromwell14195161262119
Lake County647269675
Seddon Memorial2025120536..     1614
Southland771,025494384578681
Kew Infectious Diseases1093818239
Wallace and Fiord2327825114..     1422
          Totals3,35445,99528,23012,4182,2413,3993,061

Ages op Patients. The ages of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1919 and 1920 are as shown in the following summary:—

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.—AGES OF PATIENTS DISCHARGED OR DYING.
Ages of Patients, in Years.1919.1920.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 52,0461,4613,5072,3231,7364,059
  5 and under 102,2881,8904,1782,5122,2334,745
10 and under 151,6931,2812,9741,8841,5663,450
15 and under 254,6593,1747,8334,7394,2498,988
25 and under 355,6763,4689,1444,5513,9868,537
35 and under 453,6642,5176,1813,8872,8296,716
45 and under 552,3561,1733,5292,5221,4033,925
55 and under 651,5206712,1911,7727582,530
65 and over2,2626772,9392,3858423,227
Unspecified..     ..     ..     5259111
          Totals26,16416,31242,47626,62719,66146,288

SUMMARY OF DISEASES, ETC.

The international classification of diseases and causes of death divides such into fourteen well-defined classes, which are further subdivided into 189 orders. The table following shows that Class I, “General diseases,” is first on the list as regards both discharges and deaths. Diseases of the digestive system and diseases of the respiratory system come second and third respectively in point of numbers, but the death-rate in each case is low. External causes come next on the list, and here again the death-rate is very low, owing to the preponderance of simple fractures, cuts, bruises, &c.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.—CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES, 1920.
Class.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
I.General diseases7,9192,6136776915016,8585,543
II.Diseases of the nervous system and of the organs of special sense7731,2015232051051,7741,033
III.Diseases of the circulatory system73380467261951,311649
IV.Diseases of the respiratory system4,2711,4131483231503,6732,632
V.Diseases of the digestive system5,3231,4611852021313,8593,443
VI.Diseases of the genito-urinary system and annexa1,7241,060161134469622,163
VII.Puerperal condition1,44724222 79 1,790
VIII.Diseases of the skin and of the cellular tissue1,2755743024111,310604
IX.Diseases of the organs of locomotion704699812291,087428
X.Malformations1871313110528678
XI.Diseases of early infancy4525428187446
XII.Old age311251111293533497
XIII.External causes3,4521,881143124224,769853
XIV.Ill-defined causes346189582514331301
      Totals28,23012,4182,2412,1771,22226,62719,661

More detailed information concerning certain of the principal diseases and groups of diseases is given in the following pages. Volume I of “Statistics of the Dominion of New Zealand” contains detailed information for each hospital.

EPIDEMIC GENERAL DISEASES.

The first diseases in the international classification are the “general diseases,” the first nineteen orders of which cover epidemic diseases. The principal epidemic general diseases dealt with in public hospitals are scarlet fever and diphtheria. There are four special hospitals for the treatment of these and similar infectious diseases, all situated in the South Island. Several hospitals have fever wings attached.

A table of the epidemic general diseases dealt with in public hospitals during 1920 is given.

EPIDEMIC GENERAL DISEASES, 1920.
Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Typhoid fever16863191112780
Malaria818..     ..     ..     251
Smallpox7421..     ..     ..     5045
Measles4885712168269312
Scarlet fever782421926326525
Whooping-cough952561386879
Diphtheria1,46496353341721948
Croup7..     ..     ..     ..     34
Influenza3,0682333127832,0171,497
Dysentery1112..     11196
Erysipelas6414..     3..     3843
Chicken-pox182..     ..     ..     128
Mumps8010..     ..     ..     5832
German measles92..     ..     ..     65

The rate of mortality of this group is normally very low, between 2 and 3 per cent. In 1920 the mortality-rate was 5.08 per cent., due principally to the increase of measles, whooping-cough, and noticeably influenza.

TUBERCULOSIS.

Tuberculosis occupies eight orders in the classification of diseases, but is usually divided into two groups—viz., pulmonary tuberculosis and other forms of tuberculosis. In the following table an attempt has been made to show in detail the part of the body affected. Pulmonary tuberculosis, with which is included tuberculosis (undefined) and acute miliary tuberculosis, comprises 61 per cont. of the total of 1,720 cases of tubercular diseases, and 73 per cent. of the deaths.

TUBERCULOSIS CASES IN HOSPITALS, 1920.
Form of Tuberculosis.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.RelievedUnrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Pulmonary tuberculosis134459190146100623406
Acute miliary tuberculosis11294125
Tuberculous meningitis3..     225242727
Abdominal tuberculosis12297652534
Tuberculosis of spine5254332911
Pott's disease316512207
Spinal abscess1..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Psoas abscess37..     21103
Tuberculosis of hip189213117451
Tuberculosis of knee84112..     2527
Tuberculosis of ankle42141..     246
Tuberculosis of elbow24..     1..     34
Tuberculosis of wrist..     32..     ..     23
Tuberculosis of sacro-iliac joint..     42..     ..     24
Tuberculosis of toe111..     ..     21
Tuberculosis of shoulder..     2..     ..     ..     ..     2
Tuberculosis of joints (undefined)21..     ..     ..     ..     3
Tuberculosis of face1..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Tuberculosis of nose..     1..     ..     ..     ..     1
Tuberculosis of tonsil..     1..     ..     ..     1..     
Tuberculosis of arm..     2..     ..     ..     ..     2
Tuberculosis of breast..     2..     ..     ..     ..     2
Tuberculosis of kidney310441175
Tuberculous nephritis..     3..     ..     122
Tuberculosis of pyelitis..     1..     ..     ..     1..     
Tuberculosis of bladder1311..     42
Tuberculous cystitis..     32..     ..     32
Tuberculosis of genital organs7112..     ..     182
Tuberculosis of leg11..     ..     ..     ..     2
Tuberculosis of foot231..     ..     33
Tuberculosis of bones51742..     199
Tuberculosis of glands36253..     22937
Tuberculous adenitis137..     ..     ..     119
Tuberculous abscess11132..     ..     1016
Tuberculous skin11..     ..     ..     11
Tuberculous sinus48..     ..     ..     75
Tuberculous ulcer11..     1113
Lupus222..     ..     33
Disseminated tuberculosis2322128
          Totals2878242562071461,012708

VENEREAL DISEASES.

In order to obtain some definite information regarding the so-called “social diseases,” a questionnaire has been attached since 1919 to the hospital discharge-cards used in the preparation of statistical tables, requiring completion in all cases where the disease treated was due to one form or other of venereal disease. Of 46,288 patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals in 1920, some 305 suffered from effects of syphilis and 367 from effects of gonococcal infection. Some of the results obtained are as tabulated below:—

How Infection contracted.Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Died.Total
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Origin Syphilitic.
Congenitally2310124..     251820
Sexual intercourse19791252274313642
Lip infection..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Accidentally..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Otherwise1..     ..     2..     ..     ..     ..     12
Not known or not stated55361765825529
          Totals2715137583212141021095
Origin Gonococcal.
At birth29..     42..     2..     613
Sexual intercourse653812037874..     19782
By contact..     4..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     4
From parents..     1..     2..     ..     ..     ..     ..     3
Other infection..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Otherwise1314..     1..     28 
Not known or not stated149101214..     12526
          Totals826413160111261230137
          Grand totals1097926811843242011440232

Another portion of the questionnaire concerned itself with the present communicability of the disease, and the opinions of the physicians in charge of the cases were as follows:—

Was Disease communicable at
Date of Discharge?
Origin Syphilitic.Origin Gonococcal.
No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.
Yes10434.1011932.43
Probably10.33102.73
Possibly41.3182.18
Probably not30.9820.54
Unlikely10.33..     ..     
Not with care30.9861.63
Yes, if treatment stopped20.6651.36
To receive further treatment61.97..     ..     
No9731.8014940.60
Patient dead247.8771.91
Not known or not stated6019.676116.62
 305100.00367100.00

These figures relate to those persons suffering from venereal disease who in the large majority of cases have been compelled to seek admission to hospital for the treatment of some complication of the disease from which they were suffering, and who otherwise would have remained outside the hospital and, in the absence of compulsory notification, been unnoticed. Those patients discharged suffering from this disease in a communicable form had completed their treatment as in-patients, and were discharged from hospital to “carry on treatment” either as out-patients of the hospital concerned or as patients of private medical practitioners. At the present time it is not possible to compulsorily detain for treatment a person who is suffering from venereal disease.

CANCER.

Of recent years cancer has come into great prominence amongst causes of death, now ranking in New Zealand second only to heart-disease in point of number of deaths. Information as to deaths and death-rates from cancer is given in Subsection C of this section.

A special article on cancer in New Zealand was published in the Official Yearbook for 1917.

The total number of deaths in public hospitals in 1920 where cancer was assigned as the cause was 283 (males 174, females 109). In addition 120 patients treated for cancer were discharged as recovered, 199 as relieved, and 190 as unrelieved. Very few of the recoveries were in cases of internal cancer, and but a small proportion of the deaths in cases of surface cancer. It is noticeable that with but few exceptions cancer of the mouth and its annexa was confined to males. A table is given showing the seat of the disease in all cases of discharge or death during 1920. In 9 cases the location cannot be given on account of the disease being returned merely as “cancer.” In a number of other similar cases the nature of the operation was the only means of enabling the seat of the disease to be allocated.

Of the 283 patients who died in hospital from cancer during 1920, 145, or 51 per cent., had been in hospital loss than one month, and of those 28 died within one week of admission.

Tables published in Volume I of Statistics give detailed information as to condition on discharge and part of body effected, in conjunction with age of patient, and also with period in hospital.

CANCER CASES.—DISCHARGES FROM AND DEATHS IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS, 1920.
Seat of Disease.Discharges.Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Mouth..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     21
Jaw..     ..     232252
Lip2231411..     4..     
Tongue1..     11..     7..     101
Tonsils..     ..     33..     31 
Palate..     12..     1..     1..     
Cheek2111..     ..     ..     ..     
Alveolus..     ..     1..     ..     ..     1..     
Œsophagus..     ..     117..     112
Stomach2..     155207358
Pylorus1..     5..     ..     ..     ..     2
Liver..     ..     3..     541316
Gall-bladder..     ..     ..     1..     1..     4
Pharynx..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     
Ventriculi..     ..     ..     ..     1..     1..     
Stomach and liver..     ..     ..     ..     2..     32
Peritonæum..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Omentum..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Bowels1..     2..     2243
Intestines..     ..     1..     1..     2..     
Cæcum..     ..     1..     ..     ..     12
Colon..     ..     ..     13323
Sigmoid..     2..     1121..     
Rectum1..     5381165
Anus..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1 
Ileum..     ..     ..     ..     ..     11..     
Hydatiform mole..     5..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Uterus..     10..     7..     11..     10
Neck of uterus..     4..     10..     15..     7
Ovary..     2..     4..     2..     4
Vulva, vagina..     ..     ..     2..     1..     ..     
Breast..     25..     22..     11..     16
Ear3110..     ..     ..     ..     1
Nose2..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     
Head2..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     
Face1..     ..     ...     ..     21
Rodent ulcer61123213..     
Pericranium..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Eye (cancer)..     ..     4..     ..     14..     
Antrum..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     1
Parotid..     ..     ..     221..     ..     
Neck..     ..     ..     1213..     
Glands of neck..     1421142..     
Throat..     ..     ..     ..     1..     2..     
Epiglottis..     ..     ..     ..     1..     1..     
Sacrum..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Lung..     ..     ..     ..     2..     22
Mediastinum..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Ribs..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Chest..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     
Pleura..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Axilla..     2..     1..     1..     ..     
Arm..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Forearm..     1..     1..     ..     ..     ..     
Hand2..     1..     3..     ..     ..     
Wrist..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     
Fingers..     ..     ..     11..     ..     ..     
Spine..     ..     ..     ..     ..     11..     
Thyroid..     ..     ..     1..     ..     11
Larynx..     ..     22612..     
Abdomen121..     121..     
Pancreas..     ..     2..     ..     ..     41
Kidney..     ..     ..     1..     112
Urethra..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     
Spleen..     ..     1..     ..     ..     1 
Bladder..     ..     111143
Prostate..     ..     1..     1..     11..     
Pelvis..     ..     ..     ..     1..     1..     
Male genital organs2..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Buttock..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Groin..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     
Leg..     1..     11..     ..     ..     
Femur1..     ..     2112..     
Tibia1..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Knee..     ..     11..     ..     ..     ..     
Heel1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     .
Foot1..     ..     ..     121..     
Glands (other than neck)..     111..     ..     1 
Not specified..     21..     213..     
Disseminated..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     44
          Totals53671128710684174109

OTHER GENERAL DISEASES.

The principal of the remaining general diseases are as follows:—

Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Non-puerperal septicæmia352147423388138
Tetanus6..     ..     10124
Non-malignant tumours13456186110104
Acute rheumatism24315268258151
Chronic rheumatism and gout329020119459
Diabetes135420436070
Exophthalmic goitre25532181484
Leucæmia2643132
Anæmia and chlorosis20544202969
Alcoholism194115131730930

Diabetes, exophthalmic goitre, leucæmia, and pernicious anæmia are usually fatal. No recoveries are recorded in the case of pernicious anæmia, the 20 cases mentioned being due to other forms of anæmia. Sixteen of the 20 deaths from anæmia are due to the pernicious type of the disease.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The diseases of the nervous system, following the international classification, are as follows:—

Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.RelievedUnrelieved.Males.Females.
Encephalitis1112101410
Abscess of brain1..     ..     331
Meningitis30151707145
Locomotor ataxia..     26104364
Other diseases of the spinal cord165528206950
Apoplexy, cerebral hæmorrhage2132111251950
Softening of the brain..     ..     ..     22..     
Paralysis without specified cause2375284611557
General paralysis of the insane..     ..     2..     2..     
Other forms of mental alienation9248126155
Epilepsy348939511750
Convulsions64..     174
Convulsions of infants254131815
Chorea2317111131
Neuralgia, neuritis143150172174138
Other nervous diseases12426124013451187
          Totals4667534613071,290697

This class shows a fairly high death-rate over the whole group, the rate, however, being greatly reduced by the inclusion of such minor complaints as neuralgia and neurasthenia, which represent a fair proportion of the total cases dealt with. Among the discharges it is noticed that the number of cases returned as recovered is considerably less than those classified as relieved or unrelieved. Twenty-four cases were assigned to encephalitis during the year, of which 18 were due to encephalitis lethargica. Nine of the ten deaths were attributed to this disease.

The diseases included under “Other diseases of the spinal cord.” are as follows:—

 Discharges.Deaths
Myelitis13
Hæmatomyelia1..     
Infantile paralysis499
Paralysis agitans152
Bulbar paralysis..     1
Disseminated sclerosis11..     
Lateral sclerosis82
Sclerosis2..     
Spastic paralysis31
Polioencephalitis..     1
Progressive muscular atrophy51
Syringomyelia1..     
Freidrich's ataxia3..     
          Totals9920

The large percentage of mental cases shown as unrelieved is due to the inclusion of a number of such cases being admitted to hospital for observation. It is not usual for mental patients to be treated in hospital for any length of time. Many mental patients are transferred from the public general hospitals to the mental hospitals.

Neurasthenia was the complaint in 455 of the 638 cases shown above for “other nervous diseases,” this number including a large proportion of returned soldiers. Cerebral tumours accounted for 8 of the 13 deaths.

DISEASES OF THE EYES.

Eye troubles were responsible for admission to hospital of no fewer than 560 of the cases discharged from hospital during 1920. There were no deaths from these causes. A summary of the various diseases of the eyes dealt with may be of interest.

DISEASES OF THE EYES.—-DISCHARGES FROM HOSPITAL, 1920.
DiseaseRecovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Deaths.Total.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Foreign body in eye81711..     ..     ..     162
Strabismus35113..     1..     ..     419
Keratitis1244..     ..     ..     ..     56
Glaucoma34121211..     ..     1617
Iritis113201011..     ..     3214
Corneal ulcer238311561..     ..     6024
Cataract16134143136..     ..     7062
Conjunctivitis1611194..     2..     ..     3517
Pterygium3321..     ..     ..     ..     54
Dacryocystitis2364..     ..     ..     ..     87
Other diseases (including undefined)26264621144..     ..     8651
          Totals112791891283616..     ..     337223

Injuries to the eyes, other than those due to the presence of some foreign, are included in the “accident” class. There were 137 cases of injury to the eyes in 1920.

DISEASES OF THE EARS.

Diseases of the ears dealt with in hospital appear to be much fewer than eye-diseases. The total number in 1920 was 255, including otitis media 171, and otitis 11. Only 3 deaths were recorded, all due to otitis media.

DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

Organic diseases of the heart are the most important in this class. The deaths of 212 males and 79 females in hospital were due to heart-disease, while the returns show that 86 patients treated for various forms of organic heart-disease wore discharged as recovered, 440 as relieved, and 31 as unrelieved. One hundred patients were treated for varicose veins, 144 for varicose ulcers, 41 for varicocele, 199 for hæmorrhoids, and 48 for phlebitis, only 3 deaths resulting. Diseases of the glands and other diseases of the lymphatic system were returned in 310 cases, of which 4 were fatal.

Diseases of the circulatory system do not occupy a very prominent position in the statistics of hospital cases. Evidently, in a high proportion of the large number of deaths registered in which heart-disease is assigned as the cause, the general state of health has not been such as to cause admission to hospital.

TONSILS AND ADENOIDS.

In the classification of diseases adenoids rank as a disease of the respiratory system, while treatment of the tonsils is included under the digestive system. As, however, many children are admitted to hospital for the removal of tonsils and adenoids at the same time, it is well to discuss these two complaints together.

During 1920, adenoids alone was the cause shown in 180 cases, tonsils alone in 1,019 cases, while in 2,187 cases the treatment was for both tonsils and adenoids. No deaths were recorded. The medical inspection of school-children is responsible for the admission of a large proportion of these cases to public hospitals

BRONCHITIS AND PNEUMONIA.

Bronchitis, broncho-pneumonia, and pneumonia represent a big proportion of the non-tuberculous diseases of the respiratory system. The figures for hospitals for 1920 are,—

Discharges.Deaths.Totals.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Acute bronchitis1492321811577
Chronic bronchitis3042611054432197
Broncho-pneumonia25939293210183
Pneumonia917804251813439
          Totals1,629403184161,570896

OTHER RESPIRATORY DISEASES.

Diseases of the respiratory system, not already enumerated, include,—

Disease.Cases.
* Other than adenoids.
Pleurisy354
Empyema143
Goitre141
Other thyroid diseases38
Diseases of larynx81
Diseases of nose and nasal fossæ*390
Asthma157
Hæmoptysis17
Hydatids of lungs19
Pneumoconiosis12
Other diseases120
          Total1,472

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH.

The principal diseases of the stomach were as follows:—

Disease.Cases.
Ulcer of stomach223
Gastritis342
Dyspepsia57
Hæmatemtsis22
Vomiting5
Other diseases166
          Total815

Diseases of the œsophagus, numbering 41, are not included.

Ulcer of the stomach was fatal in 25 cases, gastritis in 9, and other diseases in 14.

DIARRHŒA AND ENTERITIS.

The total cases of diarrhœa and enteritis included in the returns for 1920 were 593, including 60 deaths. Thirty-six of the deaths were of children under two years of age.

APPENDICITIS.

Appendicitis ranks high among hospital cases, but the death-rate is exceedingly low. During 1920 only 68 deaths occurred out of a total of 2,473 cases dealt with, representing a percentage of 2.75. Of the discharges, 2,093 were returned as recoveries, 294 as relieved, and 18 as unrelieved. The males dealt with numbered 1,165, and females 1,308.

HERNIA, INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION.

Hernia cases included in the returns of discharges and deaths for 1920 numbered 833, including 28 deaths. Included in the total are 488 shown as inguinal hernia, 46 as umbilical hernia, 45 as femoral hernia, 75 as ventral hernia, 35 as strangulated hernia, and 142 as hernia undefined. Intussusception cases numbered 34, and intestinal obstruction (so defined) 101 cases, of which 30 were fatal.

DISEASES OF THE LIVER.

Non-cancerous diseases of the liver were responsible for 25 deaths in hospital during 1920. Discharges of patients treated for liver-diseases numbered 444. Of the total discharges and deaths, 210 cases were attributed to biliary calculi (including 171 females), 24 to cirrhosis, 42 to jaundice, 86 to cholecystitis, and 48 to hydatids.

DISEASES OF THE URINARY SYSTEM.

Diseases of the kidneys and other portions of the urinary system numbered 1,213: details are given in the following table:—

Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Acute nephritis1112..     71911
Bright's disease4284105411278
Uræmia331201314
Albuminuria861197
Pyelitis6145323675
Hæmaturia15192..     297
Movable kidney13102..     322
Pyelonephritis7812108
Perinephritic abscess411..     42
Hydronephrosis22..     ..     13
Abscess of kidney42..     ..     42
Other Kidney-diseases2413152617
Renal colic2210..     ..     2111
Renal stone1720413012
Stone in bladder or urethra8522143
Nephrolithiasis..     2..     13..     
Retention of urine192639507
Incontinence of urine41231137
Cystitis818491988105
Cystocele7621..     16
Other diseases of bladder1425243114
Stricture, &c., of urethra4565479823
Enlargement, &c., of prostate5958632155..     
          Totals47051857168769444

DISEASES OF THE GENITAL ORGANS.

Non-venereal diseases of the male genital organs numbered 193, including orchitis 35 and hydrocele 50.

Diseases of the female genital organs, other than cancer or those diseases shown to be venereal or puerperal, are an important group in hospital cases, though the death-rate is exceedingly low. The total cases passing through public hospitals in 1920 were 1,580, including only 12 deaths. The list follows.

DISEASES OF FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS.
Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
Uterine hæmorrnage101387..     146
Uterine tumour9832123145
Prolapse of uterus864218..     146
Retroflexion of uterus731..     11
Retroversion of uterus1666320..     249
Anteflexion of uterus..     93..     12
Endometritis109462..     157
Metritis182..     ..     20
Vaginitis910..     ..     19
Dysmenorrhœa29255..     59
Leucorrhœa981..     18
Ovaritis1262..     20
Pelvic cellulitis3316..     150
Pelvic abscess1562326
Pyosalpinx2921..     ..     50
Other diseases of uterus7737161131
Ovarian cysts881843113
Salpingitis62451..     108
Bartholin's abscess117..     ..     18
Other diseases47313182
          Totals1,00646597121,580

The above figures do not include 139 cases of diseases of the female breast (mastitis 33, tumour 25, abscess 80, and other diseases 1).

PUERPERAL CONDITION.

A total of 1,790 cases come under the heading of puerperal. This number includes 592 cases of normal childbirth dealt with at public general hospitals, but does not cover maternity cases in St. Helens Hospitals.

PUERPERAL DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS.
Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
Miscarriage20471..     3278
Abortion304524..     360
Ectopic gestation507..     259
Other accidents of pregnancy40223469
Normal labour5721361592
Puerperal hæmorrhage378..     348
Ruptured perinæum518..     ..     59
Other accidents of labour59213184
Puerperal septicæmia8716..     44147
Puerperal albuminuria341911872
Puerperal phlebitis and phlegmasia31127
Puerperal mania644115
          Totals1,44724222791,790

SKIN-DISEASES.

The principal diseases of the skin and annexa were as follows.—

Disease.Cases.
Abscess511
Ulcers239
Eczema142
Cellulitis226
Sinus57
Ingrown nail42
Gangrene37
Erythema26
Carbuncle68
Scabies69
Herpes29
Whitlow70
Dermatitis57
Furuncle37
Psoriasis15
Impetigo42
Seborrhœa22
Boils25
Urticaria14
Other186
          Total1,914

Deaths numbered 35, including 12 from cellulitis, 3 from abscess, and 14 from gangrene.

DISEASES OF BONES, ETC.

Non-tuberculous diseases of the bones and of the organs of locomotion numbered 1,515, including 31 deaths. Sixteen of the deaths were due to osteomyelitis. The principal diseases in this class, following the order of the classification, were,—

Disease.Cases.
Ethmoiditis8
Necrosis73
Osteomyelitis233
Periostitis47
Osteitis15
Mastoiditis88
Sinusitis42
Abscess of bone51
Exostosis9
Antrum-disease28
Ununited fracture40
Other diseases of bones62
Arthritis85
Synovitis133
Ankylosis18
Abscess of joint21
Other diseases of joints68
Amputations (cause not shown)46
Bursitis74
Talipes73
Tenosynovitis11
Lumbago60
Muscular rheumatism53
Hammer-toe13
Ganglion13
Bunion21
Hallux valgus17
Myositis14
Torticollis11
Other diseases of organs of locomotion88
          Total1,515

MALFORMATIONS.

Male infants to the number of 216 were discharged from hospital after treatment for phimosis. Other malformations were,—

Disease.Cases.
Cleft palate29
Nævus19
Hare-lip6
Hydrocephalus10
Spina bifida7
Congenital dislocation15
Hypospadias7
Talipes16
Others39
          Total148

Fifteen deaths were recorded—3 from spina bifida, 2 from cleft palate, 2 from hare-lip, 4 from hydrocephalus, and 4 from “others.”

EARLY INFANCY.

Forty-six deaths are recorded as having been due to diseases of early infancy. The chief items in this class are marasmus (24 deaths) and premature birth (14 deaths). The total discharges and deaths amounted to only 120, thus the deaths amounted to the very high percentage of 38.33 to the total cases treated.

OLD AGE.

Hospital returns show a total of 129 male deaths and 35 female deaths from old age during 1920. In addition, 31 old people treated for senility were discharged recovered, 125 relieved, and 111 unrelieved. These totals include the returns of three hospitals which are also old people's homes.

EXTERNAL CAUSES.

The principal headings included in this class in hospital cases are fractures and injuries in regard to which no specified cause is shown. In death-registrations the cause of death is asked for, and in cases of deaths resulting from fractures and other injuries the actual cause is obtained, and the death classified under one or other of the thirty definite headings provided. The Medical Superintendents are, however, concerned not with causes but with natures of injuries, and the returns in the great majority of cases are classed under the headings “fractures” and “injuries,” which in death statistics would be regarded as somewhat indefinite, but which in morbidity statistics are invaluable on account of the fact that the part of the body affected is given in most of the cases. Fractures and injuries are dealt with in detail further on.

Two suicidal deaths in hospital were returned in 1920, and 14 of the patients discharged were admitted for treatment for self-inflicted injuries.

Accidental poisoning, including cases not shown to be suicidal, was returned in 67 cases, including 13 of ptomaine poisoning. Two hundred and eighty-one cases of burns, 100 of accidental shooting, 287 of injuries by cutting or piercing instruments, 10 by fall, 1 by machinery, 1 in a mine, and 127 by crushing are also shown. One person was treated for effects of heat, 5 for effects of excessive cold, 1 for starvation, 7 for suffocation, 1 for electrocution, 11 for injuries inflicted by animals, 3 for effects of immersion in water, and 3 for homicide by firearms. The total deaths in hospitals during the year from “External Causes” were 146 out of a total of 5,622 cases.

FRACTURES, DISLOCATIONS, ETC.

The part of the body affected in the 2,027 cases of fractures referred to above is shown in full in the next table:—

Fractures.Cases.
Fracture of skull108
Fracture of nose20
Fractured malar4
Fracture of jaw1
Fracture of maxillary37
Fracture of clavicle115
Dislocation of shoulder52
Fracture of olecranon20
Fracture of scapula8
Fracture of humerus162
Dislocation of elbow55
Sprained elbow3
Fracture of forearm36
Fracture of radius47
Fracture of ulna11
Fracture of radius and ulna41
Fracture of arm26
Dislocation of wrist10
Sprained wrist9
Colles fracture55
Fracture of metacarpals13
Dislocation of fingers26
Fracture of sternum4
Fracture of spine19
Fracture of ribs93
Fracture of pelvis16
Fracture of ilium5
Fracture of coccyx4
Dislocation of hip12
Fracture of leg61
Fracture of femur199
Fracture of patella29
Dislocation of knee5
Sprained knee13
Dislocation of semi-lunar cartilage25
Fracture of tibia205
Fracture of fibula77
Fracture of tibia and fibula137
Pott's fracture84
Fracture of ankle15
Sprained ankle62
Fracture of heel3
Fracture of tarsus3
Fracture of metatarsals18
Fractured toe10
Fracture of condyle2
Fracture of scaphoid4
Separated epiphysis10
Fracture (undefined)47
          Total2,027

The total shown includes 89 deaths, 44 of which were due to fracture of the skull.

MISCELLANEOUS INJURIES.

The heading “Other External Violence,” which covers a large list of miscellaneous and undefined injuries, accounted for a total of 2,671 cases, including 30 deaths, 9 of which were due to injuries to the head or brain. The total number of cases was swelled by the inclusion of 577 returned soldiers treated for wounds received in battle.

Location.Cases.
Head116
Brain150
Scalp108
Forehead13
Face93
Eye137
Ear13
Nose17
Mouth, &c.20
Jaw5
Neck18
Shoulder33
Arm60
Elbow23
Forearm16
Wrist17
Hand123
Fingers112
Thumb44
Back101
Spine15
Chest34
Ribs13
Side6
Abdomen32
Loin7
Groin3
Pelvis17
Buttock13
Genital organs17
Leg174
Hip29
Thigh36
Knee112
Ankle36
Foot117
Heel7
Toe21
Tendon62
Internal44
Battle577
Undefined80
          Total2,671

MEDICAL EXAMINATION FOR EXPEDITIONARY FORCE.

Useful information as to the extent of illness and defects among an important section of the Dominion's population is contained in the published results of the medical examination of recruits for the Expeditionary Force raised for service in the late war. Recruits were classified as follows:—

  1. —Men fit for active service beyond the seas.

  2. —Men fit for active service beyond the seas if they undergo specified medical, surgical, or dental treatment—(1) after operation in camp or public hospital, (2) after recovery at home.

  3. —Men at present unfit for active service beyond the seas, but fit for service in New Zealand in connection with or for the purposes of the present war: (1) Those to proceed to the C1 Camp for training; (2) those permanently unfit for service outside New Zealand.

  4. —Men permanently unfit, either for active service beyond the seas or for any service in New Zealand in connection with or for the purposes of the present war.

A total of 135,282 men was examined, with following results:—

Class.Number of Men.Percentage of Total.
A46,48834.37
B18370.62
B23,2502.40
C16,8075.03
C274,68955.21
D3,2112.37
 135,282100.00

Among those rejected wore 6,106 men over the military age and 139 apparently under age; so that, taking men of ages 20 to 45, the proportion classed A would be slightly higher than that shown above—viz., 36.03, as against 34.37 per cent. The proportion of Class A to total recruits at quinquennial groups of ages is as follows:—

Age-group.Percentage.
20 and under 2547
25 and under 3039
30 and under 3538
35 and under 4031
40 and over14

The percentage at ages 40 and over suffers by the inclusion in the total of the 6,106 men over military age. Were those excluded the percentage of Class A men in the last age-group would be 19, a figure still greatly below those of preceding groups. A summary of classes by age-groups follows:—

CLASSES IN WHICH RECRUITS WERE PLACED (BY AGES).
Class.Ages.Totals.
20-25.25-30.30-35.35-40.Over 40.
A14,8309,65710,6927,6553,65446,488
B130317717412558837
B21,1187146885102203,250
C12,3551,2131,6301,2233866,807
C212,03712,28514,59215,01520,76074,689
D7997616574835113,211
          Totals31,44224,80728,43325,01125,589135,282

The causes of rejection of the 88,895 recruits classed other than “A” are next given. Diseases of the circulatory system rank first, with a total of 22,612 (valvular disease of the heart, 10,879; other diseases of the heart, 4,517; diseases of arteries, 42; varix, 4,994; varicocele, 1,340; and hæmorrhoids, 840); while defects of the extremities, flat feet, defective vision, and hernia are other important causes of rejection, as is also the somewhat indefinite “impaired constitution and debility.”

CAUSES OF REJECTION FROM CLASS A.
Disease or Defect.No. of Cases.
Defects of upper extremities2,882
Defects of lower extremities7,173
Under height605
Under chest measurement959
Insufficient weight68
Apparent age not in accordance with regulations139
Over height11
Syphilis183
Other venereal diseases112
Tubercle of lungs1,429
Other tubercular diseases289
Impaired constitution and debility4,043
Other general diseases312
Malformation of ears2
Malformation of nose and mouth129
Malformation of chest and spine1,011
Malformation of urinary or genital organs136
Impediment of speech297
Other diseases of the nervous system1,200
Defective intelligence1,076
Defective vision6,423
Diseases of the eyes and eyelids168
Diseases of the middle ear (including deafness)2,455
Other diseases of the ears114
Diseases of the nose and mouth202
Valvular disease of the heart10,879
Other diseases of the heart4,517
Diseases of arteries (aneurism)42
Diseases of the veins (varix)4,994
Diseases of the lungs (except tubercle)766
Other respiratory diseases2,056
Loss or decay of many teeth20
Hernia4,530
Diseases of the digestive system1,715
Hæmorrhoids840
Diseases of the urinary organs622
Varicocele1,340
Other diseases of the generative organs (not syphilitic656
Diseases of the joints1,431
Flat feet3,211
Other affections of the bones and muscles1,189
Ulcers, wounds, and cicatrices792
Other affections of the cutaneous system1,149
Goitre1,681
Epilepsy672
Over age6,106
Rheumatism, sciatica, and lumbago2,044
Alcoholic211
Not classified6,014
          Total88,895

Chapter 7. SECTION VII.—PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—PUBLIC HEALTH.

HEALTH ACT, 1920.

THE Health Act, 1920, repealed the consolidated Public Health Act, 1908, and its amendments. A résumé of the new Act is here given.

PART I: ADMINISTRATION.

This part of the Act deals with the constitution of the Department of Health. The chief administrative officer is the Director-General of Health, whose powers and functions, during his absence from duty, are delegated to a Deputy Director-General. The Department comprises the Divisions of Public Hygiene, Hospitals, Nursing, Dental Hygiene, Child Welfare, and Maori Hygiene, each of which is under the supervision of a divisional head called the Director.

The Dominion is divided into health districts, each of which is under the charge of a Medical Officer of Health, who must be a medical practitioner with special qualifications in sanitary science. Power is also given to appoint such number of Inspectors of Health, medical practitioners, nurses, and other professional officers as may from time to time be required.

A Board of Health is constituted under the chairmanship of the Minister of Health. It consists, in addition to the Minister, of the Director-General, three medical practitioners, a person appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Municipal Association, another appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Counties Association, a member of a recognized association of civil engineers, a Chairman of a Hospital Board, a lady member representative of the interests of women and children, and a person appointed on the recommendation of the Minister. The Board in the main is advisory in function, but under certain circumstances it may exercise mandatory powers. Commissions of inquiry may be appointed in assistance of the Board.

PART II: POWERS AND DUTIES OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The initial sections of this Part of the Act empower and direct every local authority to appoint sanitary inspectors; to cause regular inspection to be made of its district; to secure the abatement of nuisances; to enforce all regulations in force in the district; to make by-laws; to furnish to the Medical Officer of Health such reports as may be required. In certain cases, on the recommendation of the Board of Health, the Governor-General, by Order in Council, may exempt any local authority, not being a Borough Council, from any or all of the duties set out above. In these circumstances it shall be the duty of the Health Department to do all such things as it considers necessary for the promotion and conservation of public health within the district concerned, all expenses incurred by the Department being recoverable from the local authority in question as a debt due to the Crown.

The Board of Health may require any local authority to provide sanitary works within its district. However, a local authority, if dissatisfied with such requisition, has the right of appeal to a Board of Appeal consisting of a Stipendiary Magistrate and two assessors representing respectively the Board of Health and the local authority.

Every local authority must appoint its own sanitary inspectors or subscribe to the salary of an Inspector of the Department of Health. After the commencement of the Act no person can be appointed as a sanitary inspector unless he is the holder of a certificate from the Royal Sanitary Institute, or in lieu thereof such certificate as may be prescribed by regulation.

Other sections define nuisances and the various steps to be taken for their abatement; provide for the establishing on the part of the local authority of efficient refuse, nightsoil, and sanitary services; lay down certain requirements in regard to water-supply and sanitary conveniences for buildings; detail the procedure with regard to closing orders and demolition orders for insanitary buildings; govern the registration and regulation of cattle - saleyards for the keeping of animals; the protection and purification of water-supplies; the sanitation of Maori settlements; the making and application of by-laws; the duties and powers of Harbour Boards with respect to the sanitary condition of wharves and tidal lands.

PART III: INFECTIOUS AND NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.

The initial sections of this Part of the Act give the Medical Officer of Health, if authorized on that behalf by the Minister, very extensive powers in the event of an outbreak of any infectious disease. Thus he may take possession of lands and buildings for the purpose of providing accommodation for patients; he may commandeer vehicles for their conveyance; he may demand drugs, articles of food or drink, &c., for their treatment. Penalties are laid down for refusal or failure to comply with any such requisition, while provision is made for compensating persons who suffer any loss or damage thereby. Very wide power is also given a Medical Officer of Health in the direction of controlling the movements of cases and contacts of any infectious disease, of prohibiting public gatherings, of prohibiting the admission to schools, theatres, &c., of children under the age of sixteen. These emergency powers were given as the result of the experience of the influenza epidemic of 1918.

Infectious diseases are divided into two classes—the non-notifiable and the notifiable—which are set out in detail in the First Schedule of the Act. With reference to the former group, certain general provisions are applicable, protecting the public against carelessness on the part of the case or the person in charge thereof.

With reference to the latter, provision is made for very complete control. The medical practitioner who attends any person suffering from a notifiable infectious disease must forthwith report the case to the local authority and the Medical Officer of Health. If no medical practitioner is in charge of the case the occupier of the premises must notify. In the case of any vessel in port the master must notify the case to the Port Health Officer.

Provision is also made in this Part of the Act for the notification of certain non-communicable diseases of public-health importance, such as hydatids, tetanus, chronic lead-poisoning, &c.

Other sections deal. with the ordering to hospital of persons suffering from infectious diseases, the disinfection of premises and articles, the destruction of infected articles, the establishing by local authorities of mortuaries and disinfecting-stations, the notification by undertakers of any death from infectious disease, and the duties of local authorities with respect to burials.

A comprehensive set of regulations has been gezetted detailing more exactly the powers with regard to infectious disease.

PART IV: QUARANTINE.

Power is given the Governor-General to proclaim places of inspection, quarantine grounds, and quarantine stations. Ships, persons, and goods liable to quarantine are fully defined. The whole procedure with regard to the inspection of ships, the granting of pratique, the ordering into quarantine, and the release from quarantine is set out. Power is given to detain, or to release under medical surveillance, persons liable to quarantine, without quarantining the whole ship's company.

Medical practitioners and nurses may be appointed by the Director-General to take charge of passengers and crew of a ship undergoing quarantine, and the owners or agents are liable for any cost incurred under this head. It is the duty of the owners or agents of the ship to supply persons undergoing quarantine with such provisions, medicines, fuel, &c., as the medical officer in charge may require. All expenses incurred in connection with disinfection are a charge against the ship.

Comprehensive regulations have been made under this Part of the Act governing the whole matter of quarantine.

PART V: REGULATIONS.

Extensive powers have been given the Governor-General in this Part of the Act to make regulations for the conservation or promotion of public health. Included therein is provision whereby regulations may be made for any matter affecting the public health in respect of which any local authority is empowered to make by-laws. Where any local authority has failed to make by-laws, or, having made them, has failed effectively to enforce them, regulations may be made and enforced in the district concerned at the cost of the local authority.

PART VI: MISCELLANEOUS.

Medical practitioners authorized by the Minister may enter public schools and examine the children and notify parents of defects found in the children. Infirm and neglected persons found to be living in unsatisfactory conditions or without proper care or attention may be removed to institutions available for their reception. The Board of Health is empowered, in. default of a local authority, to carry out sanitary works and exercise powers under the Act at the cost of such an authority.

DIPLOMAS IN PUBLIC HEALTH.

The New Zealand University Amendment Act, 1912, confers on the Senate of the New Zealand University the power to grant diplomas in public health, and to make regulations for the examination of candidates for such diplomas.

REGISTRATION OF MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS.

Under the Medical Practitioners Act, 1914, is constituted the Medical Board of New Zealand, consisting of the Director-General of Health and six other registered medical practitioners, who are appointed to the Board by the Governor-General, the term of appointment being a three-yearly one.

The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act, which enacts that every person shall be entitled to registration who satisfies the Board that he is a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand; or registered on the register kept in accordance with the provisions of the Acts regulating the registration of medical practitioners in the United Kingdom, or eligible for registration on such last-mentioned register; or the holder of a foreign diploma approved by the Board, and granted by any university or institution other than the University of New Zealand or a university or institution situated in the United Kingdom, after a course of not less than five years' study of the subjects pertaining to a medical and surgical degree or license. The Board may, however, refuse to approve any diploma unless it appears that New Zealand graduates are, without further examination, entitled to registration in the country granting the diploma.

No person is entitled to be registered if he has been at any time convicted of any offence punishable by imprisonment with hard labour for a term of two years or upwards, or is otherwise not of good fame or character. Applicants who are refused registration have the right of appeal to the Supreme Court.

Applications for registration are received in the first place by the Registrar of Births and Deaths at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, or Dunedin. One month's notice of intended application is required, such notice to be advertised once in the New Zealand Gazette and also in a newspaper circulating in the district in which the applicant intends to practise.

The fee for registration is £3 3s., payable on deposit of evidence of qualification.

A table is appended showing the additions to and removals from the Medical Register during the last five years, with the numbers on the register on the 1st January and 31st December of each year.

MEDICAL REGISTER.—ADDITIONS AND REMOVALS.
1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
* Includes 36 with New Zealand qualifications.
Number on register on 1st January9489629699851,015
Number added during year by registration3727304871*
Number added during year by restoration51335
Number removed during year on evidence of death.1021172025
Number removed during year by direction of Medical Board—
     Letter not delivered and returned to Registrar-General18..     ..     1..     
Number removed during year by direction of Supreme Court..     ..     ..     ..     2
          Number on register on 31st December9629699851,0151,064

REGISTRATION OF DENTISTS.

Every adult person is entitled to be registered as a dentist in New Zealand who is the holder of a degree in dental surgery of the University of New Zealand, or a certificate of proficiency in dentistry obtained from the Senate of the University, or is registered or entitled to be registered as a dentist in the United Kingdom, or is the holder of such degree in dentistry granted in a British possession or a foreign country as may be recognized by the Senate of the New Zealand University. Evidence of good character is required in every case. The fee for registration is £1.

A table is appended showing the additions to and removals from the Dentists' Register during the last five years, with the numbers on the register on the 1st January and 31st December of each year.

DENTISTS ' REGISTER.—ADDITIONS AND REMOVALS.
1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Number on register on 1st January767764759753751
Number added during year by registration31..     51
Number removed during year on evidence of death66675
          Number on register on 31st December764759753751747

REGISTRATION OF NURSES AND MIDWIVES.

The Nurses Registration Act provides that every person who has attained the age of twenty-three years and is certified as having had three years' training as a nurse in a recognized general hospital, together with systematic instruction in theoretical and practical nursing from the medical officer and the matron of that hospital, and who passes the prescribed examination, is entitled to registration. During the year ended 31st March, 1921, there were 242 candidates for the final examination in medical and surgical nursing, and 226 passed. There are now 3,007 nurses on the register.

The number of registered midwives on 31st March, 1921, was 1,947. Of these latter, 1,260 were trained and certificated, the remainder having satisfied the Registrar that at the date of the passing of the Act they had been for at least three years in bona fide practice as midwives, and that they bear a good character.

REGISTRATION OF PLUMBERS.

The Plumbers Registration Act, passed during the session of 1912, provided for the setting-up of a Board, to be called the Plumbers' Board of New Zealand. This Board consists of five members—viz., the Director-General of Health or his deputy, who shall be Chairman; the Director of Education; a city or borough engineer nominated by the cities and boroughs which have a population of over 5,000 inhabitants, and appointed by the Governor-General; a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The functions of the Board are to decide what persons may be registered under the Act, in what districts sanitary plumbing shall be performed only by registered plumbers, and what shall be the scope of the examinations to be held in the future as a part of the process of securing registration.

The main principle underlying the Act is that of securing trained and certificated sanitary plumbers, and that such registered plumbers shall not be required to pay any license fee or pass any examination under any local authorities controlling sanitary-plumbing works.

At the examination held under the Act in July, 1921, 128 candidates presented themselves, the results being as follows: Thirty-five qualified in the theoretical part, 33 in the practical part, and 28 qualified or completed in both parts of the examination and were duly granted registration. The total of names entered in the register to date is 1,381.

SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS.

In order to make better provision for the sale of food and drugs in a pure state, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act was passed by the Legislature, and came into operation on the 1st January, 1908.

The Act is administered by the officers of the Health Department, and provides for the analysis, by public analysts, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article be proved to be unfit for human consumption, or likely to cause injury to health if consumed, heavy penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible.

Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such things are manufactured or packed. The selling of light-weight bread is an offence under the Act, as is also the taking-back of bread after it has been in the possession of the purchaser for more than an hour.

Any person may, on payment of the prescribed fee, together with the cost of the sample, require any authorized officer to purchase a sample of any food or drug and submit the same for analysis.

Regulations have been gazetted from time to time defining standards for the control of the purity of foodstuffs and of drugs. In general, the New Zealand standards are on the lines recommended by the Australian Inter-State Conference.

During the year 1920, 263 charges under the sale of Food and Drugs Act were dealt with in Magistrates' Courts, resulting in 227 convictions. Fines were imposed in 203 cases; in 22 cases the offender was convicted and discharged, and in two cases ordered to come up for sentence. Fifty-five of the convictions were for selling adultered milk; 59 for selling short-weight bread; and 22 for offences in connection with the labelling of foodstuffs.

QUACKERY PREVENTION ACT, 1908.

Section 2 of this Act enacts that every person commits an offence who publishes or causes to be published any statement which is intended by the defendant or any other person to promote the sale of any article as a medicine, preparation, or appliance for the prevention, alleviation, or cure of any human ailment or physical defect, and which is false in any material particular relating to the ingredients, composition, structure, nature, or operation of that article, or to the effects which have followed or may follow the use thereof.

The penalty inflicted is a fine not exceeding £100 in the case of first conviction, and not exceeding £200 for every subsequent conviction. The object of the Act is to provide the means of effectually stopping the exploitation of the public by means-of medicines or treatment alleged to cure all and sundry complaints and ailments.

MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.

The School Medical Branch of the Education Department, which had been in existence for some years, was transferred on the 1st February, 1921, to the Department of Health, becoming the Division of School Hygiene of that Department. This transfer is expected to prove of great advantage in linking up the school medical work with the other Health services of the Dominion, and especially in providing readier facilities for treatment.

The Physical Training Branch, with its staff of fifteen itinerant Instructors and Chief Physical Instructor, continues under the control of the Education Department owing to the intimate relationship between physical education and the general teaching-work of the schools. During the year 1920 the Education Department published its own syllabus of physical training for schools, based largely upon the syllabus of the London Education Board. Fifteen minutes a day are devoted to physical training in the State schools, and in the larger schools special corrective classes are held for the benefit of children suffering from particular defects. This latter work is carried on under the supervision of the school medical officers.

During the year ending 31st March, 1921, a total of 1,356 schools were visited, and the results of the examination, partial or complete, of 78,980 children recorded. During the year effort was concentrated particularly upon the examination of the entrant and primer classes. An average of 79 per cent. was returned as having defect of some kind. Subnormal nutrition was present in 7.25 per cent.; deformity of the trunk and chest, including faulty posture, in 23.9 per cent.; adenoids in 5.6 per cent.; and unhealthy tonsils in 16.2 per cent. The number of children with perfect sets of teeth is probably not more than 2 or 3 per cent.

The staff of the Division consists of thirteen school medical officers and twenty-seven school muses. School medical officers are empowered by the Health Act, 1920, to medically examine the children attending the primary State schools. The work of these officers is described in the annual report of the Director of the Division under two headings, inspectional and educational. In previous years 70 per cent. of the children requiring treatment were estimated to have received treatment. This report emphasises the widely spread prevalence of preventable defect in school-children, and the immense possibilities of improvement by the application of modern knowledge concerning its causes and prevention. For this reason educational and preventive work is emphasised as being of primary importance in the duties of school medical officers.

DENTAL TREATMENT FOR SCHOOL-CHILDREN.

A Dental Division has been attached to the Department of Health for the treatment and prevention of dental disease among school-children. The Director has at present a staff of seven dentists stationed in various parts of the Dominion. An experiment is being tried with a travelling motor clinic for outlying districts, and it is intended to place others on the road in the near future.

During the half-year ended 31st March, 1921, the following practical work has been done:—

Fillings5,619
Extractions3,698
Minor operations1,328
 10,645

A large number of children have also been examined and their mouths charted, duplicate charts being sent to parents. This, with considerable propaganda work, has naturally resulted in a good deal of treatment being sent to private practitioners and hospitals, and has opened the eyes of the general public to the necessity of prevention and early treatment.

Thirty-four probationer dental nurses are in training in Wellington under the Health Department officers.

SUBSECTION B.—HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.

EXPENDITURE ON HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE AID.

Commencing with the year 1916-17 the official statistics of Hospital and Charitable Aid Boards have been prepared on the basis of an Income and Expenditure Account and Balance-sheet. The accounts for the last four years are in some points not absolutely comparable with the figures shown under the system followed in years prior to 1916-17.

HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE-AID INCOME.

The total income of Hospital Boards, separate institutions, and Government institutions for the year ended 31st March, 1920, on account of hospitals and charitable aid and public health was £1,431,016, and for Hospital Boards alone was £1,345,634. The main sources of income for the year are as follows:—

* Exclusive of fees paid by Hospital and Charitable Aid Boards or separate institutions.
 £     
Contributable by Government354,843
Levies on local authorities297,326
Voluntary contributions18,092
Net fees payable by those assisted158,446*
Charitable-aid recoveries32,160

EXPENDITURE.

The total expenditure of Hospital Boards, separate institutions, and Government institutions amounted during the year to £1,163,753, excluding an excess of income over expenditure amounting to £267,263. The total expenditure of Hospital Boards alone was £1,100,590, excluding an excess of income over expenditure of £245,044. The following are the main items of expenditure by all authorities:—

 £     
Hospital maintenance639,153
Charitable aid174,397
Public health16,507
Administration39,677

HOSPITAL-MAINTENANCE EXPENDITURE.

The average annual cost of maintenance per occupied bed for the last five years is set out below:—

Year.Provisions.Surgery and Dispensary.Domestic and Establishment.Salaries and Wages.Total Maintenance.
 £   £   £   £   £   
1915-1627.410.431.142.5111.3
1916-1728.710.327.143.7109.6
1917-1837.312.325.641.5116.7
1918-1935.912.839.048.0135.7
1919-2040.415.443.252.4151.4

CHARITABLE-AID EXPENDITURE.

The charitable-aid expenditure for the last five years has been as follows:—

Year.Indoor Relief.Outdoor Relief.Total.
 £    £    £    
1915-1684,26940,349124,618
1916-1772,52441,119113,643
1917-1891,09244,006135,098
1918-1982,71353,464136,177
1919-2091,97482,423174,397
HOSPITAL AND CHARITABLE-AID EXPENDITURE, 1910-11 TO 1919-20.
Year ended 31st March.Mean Population.Hospital and Charitable-aid and other Expenditure.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.
 £     s.d.
1911997,974416,38484 1/4
19121,019,984482,64595 1/4
19131,046,624500,44296 3/4
19141,075,788579,606109 1/4
19151,095,207578,838106 3/4
19161,100,496631,504115 3/4
19171,099,449603,0811011 3/4
19181,102,972716,0511211 3/4
19191,116,706947,1711611 1/2
19201,157,8841,186,072205 3/4

The above figures include infectious-diseases hospitals and consumptive sanatoria under Boards' control, also public-health expenditure and subsidies to medical associations and district nurses. The 1916-17 to 1919-20 figures are statements of expenditure incurred, not of actual payments made as in previous years. The number of persons availing themselves of treatment in the general hospitals for the last ten years has been as follows:—

Year.Total Number of
Persons under
Treatment.
Proportion under
Treatment per 1,000 of Population.
Average
Number of
Occupied Beds per Diem.
Proportion per 1,000
of Mean Population.
1910-1123,58423.61,8391.81
1911-1224,68124.11,9001.83
1912-1326,97925.82,1312.04
1913-1428,88526.82,2342.08
1914-1531,36628.62,3642.16
1915-1636,47733.12,6172.38
1916-1739,02935.52,9722.73
1917-1840,23236.53,1902.89
1918-1950,11244.93,6533.27
1919-2049,15142.43,8973.37

The general hospitals, numbering sixty-seven in 1919-20, covered by the above table include four hospitals which are also old people's homes, as well as two institutions—the Mercury Bay and Oamaru Hospitals—which are not under the control of Hospital Boards. The figures given do not cover maternity hospitals or special hospitals for infectious diseases or tuberculosis.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.

The number of public general hospitals at 31st March, 1920, was 67. In addition there were four infectious-diseases hospitals and six sanatoria for consumptives.

Information as to the number of public general hospitals and their staff and accommodation is given for each of the past five years.

Number ofYear ending 31st March.
1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Institutions6565646567
Medical staff (stipendiary)115112114123138
Nursing staff—
     Trained nurses260248293292320
     Probationers764833864900981
Domestic staff675600..     771832
Beds3,8324,0754,1914,6165,029

Further particulars concerning the public general hospitals of the Dominion for the years ended the 31st March, 1919 and 1920, are given in the next table:—

Year ended 31st March.
1919.1920.
Average number of patients per diem3,6533,897
Number of patients under treatment50,11249,151
Deaths4,3592,897
Average annual cost of maintenance per occupied bed apart from administration, &c., charged£135.7£151.4
Number of out-patients attended during year27,98732,937

CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.

State charitable institutions are administered by Hospital Boards, which also distribute outdoor relief. Most of the aged needy are provided with old-age pensions, but many of these old people prefer to enter a public home, where they are probably cared for better and at less cost than could be possible with individuals. In these cases the pension is received by the officers of the Board as payment for the maintenance of the pensioner, but a proportion is handed over to the latter to be expended as he or she may choose.

PRIVATE HOSPITALS.

The Private Hospitals Act, which came into force on the 1st January, 1907, is now embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1909, which provides for the licensing, management, and inspection of private hospitals. All such institutions must be licensed, and every application for a license must be accompanied by a statement giving full description of the house proposed to be used, number of patients, and class of cases proposed to be received. The licensee shall state whether it is in respect of a lying-in private hospital or a surgical and medical private hospital, or if for both classes of cases; and no private hospital may be used for any purpose other than that in respect of which the license is granted and purposes reasonably incidental thereto.

For every private hospital there must be a resident manager, either the licensee or some person appointed by the licensee, and in every case the manager must be a legally qualified medical practitioner or a registered nurse in the case of a surgical and medical hospital, or a registered midwife in the case of a lying-in hospital, or a registered nurse and midwife, or a registered nurse having as resident assistant a registered midwife, in the case of a hospital licensed for both purposes. No license shall be granted in respect of a house not previously licensed until such house and annexed buildings have been approved by the Director-General of Health, and no addition shall be made to any private hospital until it has been so approved. No license shall be granted until the character and fitness of the applicant have been proved satisfactory, and the license must be renewed on the 1st January of each year.

In every private hospital there must be kept a register of patients showing particulars as to name, age, abode, and date of reception of each patient, date when such patient left, or, in the event of death, the date thereof, name of medical practitioner attending, and such other details as may be prescribed. Inquiry may be made at any time as to the management and conduct of any such private hospital, and if such inquiry prove unsatisfactory the license may be revoked, and, for a period of five years, no new license shall be granted to the person whose license is so revoked.

Provision is made for the inspection of private hospitals in the same manner as for public institutions of the like nature.

The Governor-General may from time to time make such regulations as are necessary for carrying the Act into effect, and substantial penalties are provided for breaches of its provisions.

MATERNITY HOSPITALS.

There are six State maternity hospitals now open for the use of the public. The St. Helens Hospital at Wellington was opened in June, 1905, and a new and up-to-date building in July, 1912; that at Dunedin was opened in October, 1905; that at Auckland in June, 1906; that at Christchurch in April, 1907; and that at Gisborne in November, 1915. The most recently acquired of these institutions is the St. Helens Hospital at Invercargill, which was opened on the 22nd March, 1918. One at Wanganui is now ready to be opened.

These institutions represent a development of the policy begun by legislation in 1901, when the Nurses Registration Act was passed, followed in 1904 by the Midwives Act. The latter provided that after a certain date only those midwives who were duly registered would be qualified to practise on their own account. During the year ended 31st March, 1921, a total of 1,246 confinements took place in the six hospitals mentioned, and 579 confinements were attended by the institution nurses outside these hospitals, as compared with 1,139 and 552 confinements respectively during the previous twelve months.

Tables are given showing information as to births and deaths in each of these institutions during the year ended 31st March, 1921, and the totals for each of the past five years. Births in cases dealt with outside St. Helens Hospitals by nurses attached to institutional staffs are also shown.

ST. HELENS HOSPITALS, 1920-21.
Town.Confinements in Institution.Confinements attended Outside.
Births.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of Infants.
Auckland353..     4247
Gisborne78121
Wellington2602797
Christchurch28519153
Dunedin1391278
Invercargill131113
          Totals1,246625579
ST. HELENS HOSPITALS, 1916-17 TO 1920-21.
Year ended 31st March.Confinements in Institution.Confinements attended Outside.
Births.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of Infants.
19171,071828523
19181,248727530
19191,1231826521
19201,139525552
19211,246625579

There is a maternity hospital attached to the Medical School at Dunedin, which also serves as a training-school for medical students and midwives.

Charitable maternity homes are established at Auckland, Otahuhu, Napier, Wellington, Christchurch, and Invercargill for the reception of unfortunate girls. The Salvation Army have similar institutions at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

SUBSECTION C.—MENTAL HOSPITALS.

There are seven public mental hospitals in the Dominion maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private hospital licensed for the reception of the mentally afflicted.

The number of patients at the end of 1920 was 4,754, consisting of 2,717 males and 2,037 females. These numbers include Maoris, of whom there are 38 male and 30 female patients.

The patients on the register at the end of the year 1920 (including Maoris) were distributed as shown below:—

Mental Hospital.Males.Females.Total.
Auckland6354161,051
Tokanui14495239
Porirua6344311,065
Nelson96104200
Hokitika19072262
Christchurch348399747
Dunedin (Seacliff and Waitati)6124341,046
Ashburn Hall (private mental hospital)182442
Absent on probation4062102
          Totals2,7172,0374,754

The number of patients remaining at the close of each of the past five years, and the proportion per 10,000 of the population (excluding Maoris) at the end of the year, are shown in the following table:—

NUMBER REMAINING (EXCLUDING MAORIS), 1916-20.
Year.Number remaining at Close of Year.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19162,5331,8044,33746.0632.7639.41
19172,5771,8844,46147.9633.6240.64
19182,5641,9214,48547.3033.9240.46
19192,6301,9574,58744.6634.0038.96
19202,6792,0074,68644.2934.0138.80
     Means of five years2,5961,9154,51146.0533.6639.65

The total number of patients under oversight, care, or control during 1920 was 5,617 (males 3,146, females 2,471), as against 5,509 in 1919. The average number resident in mental hospitals was 4,527 in 1919 and 4,654 in 1920.

ADMISSIONS.

The total admissions to mental hospitals during the year 1920 were 873 (455 males and 418 females), this number not including 96 transfers from one institution to another.

FIRST ADMISSIONS.

Of the 873 persons admitted to mental hospitals during 1920, those admitted for the first time to any mental hospital in New Zealand numbered 726 (males 383, females 343), and those readmitted 147 (males 72, females 75).

The figures for 1920 represent one first admission for every 1,643 persons in the Dominion.

Excluding the Native race, the number of first admissions and the rate per 10,000 of population for each of the past five years were as follows:—

FIRST ADMISSIONS AND RATE PER 10,000 OF MEAN POPULATION, 1916-20.
Year.Number of First Admissions.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19164362837197.905.176.54
19174062947007.475.296.37
19183673206876.805.686.23
19194482967447.835.186.51
19203833437266.285.886.09
     Means of five years4083077157.265.446.35

The causes of insanity as assigned on admission are given below:—

Heredity84
Congenital116
Previous attack122
Puberty and adolescence20
Climacteric43
Senility120
Seduction1
Puerperal state21
Lactation1
Mental stress, sudden4
Mental stress, prolonged88
Shell shock2
Solitude6
Sexual excess1
Alcohol64
Drug habit2
Syphilis29
Toxæmia1
Traumatic10
Post operative6
Organic brain-disease2
Epilepsy28
Arterio-sclerosis2
Meningitis1
Graves' disease1
Ill health24
Diabetes1
Typhoid1
Blindness1
Phthisis2
Influenza10
Cerebral hæmorrhage2
Overwork4
Religion2
Unknown51
     Totals, excluding transfers873
Transfers96
     Grand total969

VOLUNTARY INMATES.

Persons labouring under mental defect, but capable of understanding the meaning of the procedure, may seek admission to a mental hospital as voluntary boarders. At the beginning of 1920 there were 69 boarders in residence (26 males, 43 females), and during the year 93 (42 males, 51 females) were admitted. If a voluntary boarder should after admission show mental defect sufficiently pronounced and sustained to render it improper to classify him any longer as such, application for a reception order is made to a Magistrate. During the year 1920, 7 (2 males, 5 females) were transferred from the voluntary to the ordinary register, and 3 died, while 66 (33 males, 33 females) were discharged, leaving 86 resident at the end of the year (32 males, 54 females).

AGES OF INMATES.

A summary is attached showing the ages of patients in mental hospitals at the close of 1920:—

AGES OF INMATES, 31ST DECEMBER, 1920.
Age, in Years.Males.Females.Total
  1 to 571017
  5 to 10201535
10 to 15372360
15 to 2010277179
20 to 30320213533
30 to 40594396990
40 to 506055081,113
50 to 60474402876
60 to 70324227551
70 to 80136103239
80 to 90362662
90 and over5..     5
Unknown573794
          Totals2,7172,0374,754

MAORIS ADMITTED AND REMAINING.

The number of Maoris admitted as patients to the mental hospitals is small. Twenty-six (13 males, 13 females) were admitted during the year, and 68 (38 males, 30 females) remained at the end of the year.

DISCHARGES AND DEATHS.

Dealing with patients of all races, the next table gives the average number resident, those who were discharged as recovered, and those who died during the period 1916-20:—

Year.Average Number Resident.Discharged as recovered.Died.
Number.Per Cent. of Average Number Resident.Number.Per Cent. of Average Number Resident.
19164,2513317.792896.80
19174,3683237.393187.28
19184,5012836.294489.95
19194,5273377.443427.55
19204,6543106.663768.08
     Means of five years4,4603177.113557.93

Old age is the principal cause of death among mental-hospital patients, and, among individual causes, general paralysis of the insane ranks second. The figures for the principal causes and groups of causes for the year 1920 are as follows:—

DEATHS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS, 1920.
Tuberculosis44
Cancer5
Other general diseases12
General paralysis of the insane38
Organic brain-disease35
Epilepsy16
Other diseases of the nervous system30
Diseases of the respiratory system25
Diseases of the circulatory system47
Diseases of the digestive system12
Diseases of the genito-urinary system8
Old age96
External causes4
Ill-defined causes4
          Totals376

A table is added showing for all admissions since 1876 the percentages of patients discharged (as recovered, relieved, and not improved, separately), dying, and remaining.

Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Discharged—
     Recovered36.6942.2338.59
     Relieved7.149.057.99
     Not improved9.449.069.51
Died32.7523.0928.79
Remaining at end of 192013.9816.5715.12
 100.00100.00100.00

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL.

A license may be granted to enable a private mental hospital to receive patients for treatment. Stringent conditions are attached to the issue of such licenses, which may be revoked at any time. The Inspector-General has wide powers in the regulation and control of private institutions, which are placed practically on the same footing as public mental hospitals in regard to inspection and other matters.

There is only one licensed private institute in the Dominion, that at Waikari, near Dunedin, established in 1882. Particulars of admissions, discharges, deaths, and patients remaining, for the past five years are as follows. These figures are included in the tables given above.

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL (included in previous figures).
Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Patients remaining at End of Year.
1916155446
19172011352
19181111745
19191512444
19201613344

ACCOMMODATION.

At the end of the year 1920 the mental hospitals of the Dominion had accommodation for 4,478 patients, the cubic content of the dormitories and sleeping-rooms being well over three millions of cubic feet. Details of accommodation are as follows:—

Institution.Number of Patients for whom there is Accommodation.
Single Rooms.Dormitories.Totals.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Auckland16194462265623359
Christchurch6362340323403385
Seacliff170133359271529404
Hokitika40171664720664
Nelson1015779987114
Porirua10690484313590403
Tokanui302012080150100
          Totals, State institutions5804312,0081,3982,5881,829
          Ashburn Hall Private Mental Hospital2833..     ..     2833
Totals, all institutions6084642,0081,3982,6161,862

EXPENDITURE, ETC.

The total expenditure on maintenance of mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions), and receipts from patients and for sale of produce, &c., during the past five years were as follows:—

Year.Total Expenditure.Receipts from Patients, Sale of Produce, &c.Net Expenditure.
 £     £     £     
1916197,66360,745136,918
1917220,77768,446152,331
1918248,60969,195179,414
1919286,84794,130192,717
1920360,061122,939237,122

The total net expenditure out of the Public Works Fund for buildings and equipment from 1st July, 1877, to 31st March, 1920, was £918,908.

Farms are conducted in connection with the various mental hospitals, the inmates themselves doing most of the labour. During 1920, sales of produce brought in £15,217, while the value of produce grown on the farms and consumed in the institutions was estimated at £25,154. Expenses in connection with the farms amounted to £27,338, so that the year's working shows a credit balance of £13,033.

Chapter 8. SECTION VIII.—EDUCATION.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

THE central Department of Education, with a Cabinet Minister at its head, manages directly the Native schools and special schools, and also administers the Education Act. For the purposes of primary education the Dominion is divided into nine education districts, each of which is presided over by an Education Board, and these in turn are divided into smaller districts, in each of which a School Committee elected by the householders has authority. The School Committees of each education district elect the Education Board, and are subject to its general control. The Board receives from the Department and disburses money voted by the General Assembly for the purposes of instruction, and, subject to certain conditions, appoints the teachers.

A General Council! of Education created by the Act reports to the Minister upon educational methods or developments deemed worthy of introduction into the Dominion, and upon such matters as bear upon the provision of further facilities for education, whether local or general.

Education at the public schools is free and purely secular. Attendance at a registered school is obligatory upon all children between the ages of seven and fourteen, except when special exemptions are granted. The Inspectors who visit the schools are officers of the Education Department.

The programme of primary instruction provided by the Act includes English, arithmetic, geography, history and civics, drawing and handwork (including needlework), nature-study and elementary science, physical instruction, moral instruction and health, and singing.

SCHOOL STATISTICS TO 31st DECEMBER, 1920.

The number of scholars and students as in 1920 is shown in the following summary. Pupils of private schools not inspected by the Education Department are excluded.

Primary education—
     Public schools194,188
     Native village and Native mission schools5,689
     Registered private primary schools22,193
     Lower departments of secondary schools815
 222,885
Secondary education—
     Secondary schools9,196
     Secondary departments of district high schools2,543
     Technical high schools2,766
     Maori secondary schools474
     Registered private secondary schools1,439
 16,418
Technical and continuation (excluding technical high schools)18,628
Higher education—
     University colleges (including training-college students)3,822
     Lincoln Agricultural College55
 3,877
          Total under instruction261,808

This is an increase of 6,488 on the number under instruction during the previous year.

The public primary schools numbered 2,437 in 1920, against 2,400 in 1919. The number of registered private primary schools, from which returns were received by the Education Department, was 221. The number of aided or endowed colleges, grammar and high schools in operation was 35, and the number of technical schools 9. The number of University colleges was 4. The number of primary and secondary schools established for the education of the Native or Maori race was 135.

PUBLIC (STATE) SCHOOLS.

Compared with 1919, there was in 1920 an increase of 3,743 in the number of pupils belonging to the public schools at the end of the year, but the average attendance shows a decrease of 3,783 for the whole year.

Year.Number of Schools.Pupils at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Boll.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.
187874865,040..     48,773..     
18881,158112,685113,63690,10879.3
18981,655131,621133,782111,63683.4
19081,998147,428145,974127,16087.1
19132,255172,168169,530151,24289.2
19162,355185,884184,056163,15688.6
19172.368190,354187,954168,71189.8
19182,365194,934191,382169,83688.7
19192,400196,059193,655174,88590.3
19202,437199,802196,731171,10287.0

The relative activities of the various Education Boards administering primary education may be gauged from the following figures as at December, 1920; they are exclusive of the secondary departments of district high schools.

Education District.Number of Schools.Sole Teachers.Heads of Schools.Assistant Teachers.Pupil-teachers.Total Number of Adult Teachers and Pupil-teachers.Yearly Average Attendance of Scholars.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.Total.
Auckland70917317723835143656351431781,60051,896
Taranaki1551668452511129224263209,387
Wanganui199466576112319510415146713,851
Hawke's Bay14411606013351794343839612,746
Wellington25129122848693437404770222,155
Nelson14223752610980418222456,198
Canterbury397371871293181415287410298231,860
Otago2552212210436926017648166120,316
Southland18536695722231407283538210,852
          Totals2,4373939458191584632,3971144665805,755179,261

AGE AND SEX OF PUPILS.

The following table shows the age and sex of the pupils on the rolls of the public schools of the Dominion at the end of 1920, and the percentage of the roll for each age:—

Ages.1920.Percentages for Five Years.
Boys.Girls.Total.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
* Including secondary departments of district high schools.
  5 and under 6 years7,5326,71714,2497.98.07.47.87.2
  6 and under 7 years10,81210,04220,85410.610.610.710.610.6
  7 and under 8 years11,91111,05222,96311.611.511.411.611.6
  8 and under 9 years11,82010,92922,74911.711.711.311.411.5
  9 and under 10 years11,65010,51422,16411.211.611.411.311.2
10 and under 11 years11,31210,59321,90511.111.111.511.311.1
11 and under 12 years11,27410,58221,85610.810.910.711.011.1
12 and under 13 years10,99410,08521,07910.510.410.510.410.6
13 and under 14 years9,3848,55817,9428.58.88.98.89.1
14 and under 15 years4,9044,1009,0044.34.24.74.44.5
15 and over1,6281,2522,8801.8*1.21.51.41.5
          Totals103,22194,424197,645100.0100.0100.0100.00100.0

MEDICAL INSPECTION AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

Physical exercises based on the syllabus of the Board of Education, England, are practised in all public schools under the supervision of a staff of physical instructors. Corrective classes for children with physical deformities are also held with good results.

The work of medical inspection of school-children has been transferred from the jurisdiction of the Education Department to that of the Department of Health.

CONVEYENCE AND BOARD OF SCHOLARS.

The following shows expenditure for 1920 on the above-named services:—

Railway Fares.Boarding-allowance and
Conveyance by
Road or Water.
Total.
 £      £      £      
Primary12,05819,16931,227
Secondary6,255666,321
Technical3,754123,766
          Totals22,06719,24741,314

MANUAL INSTRUCTION IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Classes for elementary handwork exist in 2,232 primary schools, and in 1,606 schools other branches of manual instruction are taught. The payments made by the Department on account of manual instruction for the year 1920-21 amounted to £74,238. Instruction is given in a wide variety of subjects, ranging from laundry-work to agriculture.

CLASS-BOOKS AND SCHOOL AND CLASS LIBRARIES.

A capitation grant at the rate of 3d. per head on the average attendance is paid to Boards for the purpose of supplying schools with supplementary continuous readers for class-reading or free supply in certain cases.

Provision has been made for the payment of subsidies of £1 for £1 on moneys raised by voluntary contributions for school libraries. In addition, a subsidy is payable by the Education Board not exceeding £5 for any one school.

“SCHOOL JOURNAL.”

An illustrated paper, called the School Journal, is published monthly by the Education Department for free circulation among pupils attending public primary schools and for sale at moderate prices to private schools.

“EDUCATION GAZETTE.”

A monthly Gazette is now published by the Department and circulated to teachers. In addition to articles by Inspectors and leading teachers of the Dominion, it is a medium for the prompt dissemination of official information and advertisement of vacancies.

PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHERS.

The number of teachers in the public schools, exclusive of those employed in the secondary departments of district high schools, is shown for a number of years. The figures are as in December of the years given.

Year.Adults.Pupil-teachers.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
* Excluding probationers.
18787074541,161181332450
18881,0398871,926219694913
18981,2341,3702,6042298311,060
19081,3312,0213,352161476637
19131,6032,6594,262142*474*616*
19161,5013,2094,710137*519*656*
19171,3833,3244,707132*517*649*
19181,3663,4524,818123*523*646*
19191,6063,3945,000123*503*626*
19201,6753,5005,175114*466*580*

The total number of teachers employed in primary schools, excluding probationers and including 580 pupil-teachers, in 1920 was 5,755 (1,789 males and 3,966 females); of these 72 per cent. held teachers' certificates. The number of probationers was 580 (95 males and 485 females). Taking all schools with two or more teachers, the average number of pupils per teacher was 38; in schools with six or more teachers the average number was 43; and in all schools the average number was 32.

Omitting schools with less than 21 pupils the ratio of adult men teachers to adult women teachers in 1920 was 100 to 190. The proportion of men to women in charge of schools with 1 to 20 scholars was 100 to 392. If the adult teachers of all public schools are taken, it is found that the ratio of men teachers to women teachers was 100 to 211 in 1919 and 100 to 209 in 1920. The ratio of male pupil-teachers was 100 to 409 in 1919-20.

The average salaries paid to teachers in 1920, including house allowance or value of residence, were—Male head teachers, £432; female head teachers, £373; male assistants, £336; female assistants, £229; sole male teachers, £266; sole female teachers, £221.

The following table shows the number of certificated teachers receiving salaries of the various grades:—

Salaries (including Allowances and Value of Residences).Certificated Male Teachers.Certificated Female Teachers.
Sole and Head Teachers.Assistants.Sole and Head Teachers.Assistants.
Not exceeding £180..     4236
£181 to £2501144551,180
£251 to £3005751171344
£301 to £350132115150202
£351 to £40031812711950
Over £40042384244
          Totals9414255211,816

Information as to the Teachers' Superannuation Fund will be found in the section of this book dealing with Pensions, Superannuation, &c.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS.

Training colleges are situated in the four principal centres of the Dominion. The total provision is for 250 students at each centre. The number of students at the end of 1920 was—Auckland, 189; Wellington, 174; Christchurch, 143; and Dunedin, 174: total, 680.

The management of the training colleges is entrusted to the local Education Boards, subject to general regulations.

The amount paid to Education Boards during 1920-21 for the training of teachers was £129,685.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

Any private school may apply to be registered under the Education Act, 1914. At the end of the year 1920 the number of registered private primary schools was 221, with a total roll number of 22,193 and an average attendance of 19,162 for the year. The following statistics, relating to the year 1919, show that the great bulk of the scholars concerned attend Roman Catholic schools.

 All Registered
Private Primary
Schools.
Roman Catholic
Schools included in
Preceding Column.
Number of schools212152
Number of teachers—
     Males6731
     Females616472
Number of pupils per teacher2730
Number of S6 pupils1,5531,268
Certificates of proficiency—
     Number917800
     Percentage5963
Certificates of competency—
     Number261236
     Percentage1719
Roll number20,97717,169
Average attendance for year18,47215,116

In addition to the 221 registered primary private schools there were 18 private secondary schools on the register at the end of 1920, with a total roll number of 1,439.

SCHOOLS FOR NATIVES.

The number of Native village schools in operation at the end of 1920 was 119. In addition, there were sixteen private schools at which education for Maori boys and girls is provided. Of these, ten are maintained from the incomes arising out of lands held in trust for educational purposes by various denominational bodies; the others are supported by private resources. Instruction is imparted by means of the English language only.

On the rolls of the 119 village schools at the 31st December, 1920, there were 5,508 children (including 727 Europeans). The average attendance for the year was 4,639, the percentage of regularity being 85.7, and the average weekly roll number 5,416. The total number of pupils on the rolls of the Native mission schools was 267, and on those of the secondary schools 474. At the end of the year, therefore, the total roll number of all the Native schools inspected by officers of the Education Department was 6,249, the average weekly roll being 6,134, and the total average attendance 5,277.

Besides the children of the Maori race who are receiving instruction in the Native schools there is a still larger number attending public schools, so that the total number of primary pupils of Maori race (including those in the mission schools) is 10,134, made up as follows:—

Attending Government Native schools4,781
Attending public schools5,086
Attending mission schools267
 10,134

Of the children on the rolls of the Native schools in December, 1920, 83.8 per cent. were Maoris speaking Maori in their homes, 3 per cent. were Maoris speaking English, and 13.2 per cent. were Europeans.

The total net expenditure on Native schools during the year ended the 31st March, 1921, was £71,430. Included in this is the sum of £53,712 expended on teachers' salaries, £4,284 expended on new buildings and additions, £4,746 on maintenance of buildings, repairs, &c., and £2,512 on secondary education.

The staffs of the village schools included seventy-three male and forty-six female head or sole teachers, and 144 assistants. The average salary of the head or sole teachers was £281, of the 135 female assistants £139, and of the nine male assistants £124.

SECONDARY EDUCATION.

Secondary education is carried on at thirty-five secondary schools, fifty-nine district high schools, nine technical high schools, ten Maori secondary schools, and eighteen private secondary schools (registered).

The total numbers of pupils attending the thirty-five secondary schools for the last terms of 1919 and 1920 respectively were as follows:—

 1919.1920.
Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.
Roll (exclusive of lower departments)5,0544,0149,0685,2463,9509,196
Number in lower departments392294686454361815
          Totals5,4464,3089,7545,7004,31110,011

The number of teachers in 1920 was 400 (207 males, 193 females), this number not including part-time teachers. The average number of pupils per full-time assistant was 26.

The following were the average salaries in 1920: Male Principals, £711; female Principals, £548; male assistants, £389; female assistants, £289.

The number on the roll of the secondary departments of district high schools at the end of the year 1920 was 2,157, and the average weekly roll 2,543.

Besides the head teachers, who generally take some part in the secondary instruction, there were employed in 1920 in the secondary departments of district high schools 110 special assistants—36 men and 74 women.

The total numbers on the roll of technical high schools at any time during the years 1919 and 1920 were as follows”:—

 1919.1920.
Boys1,4381,485
Girls1,4881,281
          Totals2,9262,766

The number on the roll of secondary schools for Maoris (all of whom were boarders) at the end of 1920 was 474.

The number of children on the rolls of registered private secondary schools at the end of the year was 1,439, being 664 boys and 775 girls.

Summarizing all these figures, and excluding pupils in the lower departments of secondary schools, we obtain the following statement of the numbers receiving some form or other of secondary instruction during the year 1920 (as nearly as can be ascertained):—.

 1920
Secondary schools9,196
District high schools2,543
Technical high schools2,766
Maori secondary schools474
Private secondary schools1,439
          Totals16,418

FREE SECONDARY EDUCATION.

The following table gives a summary of the various secondary free places at the end of the year for which payment was made by Government:—

Free Places in December, 1919 and 1920.
 1919.1920.
Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.
(i) Secondary schools—
     (a.) Junior free pupils2,7932,5735,3662,9742,5905,564
     (b.) Senior free pupils1,1871,1042,2911,2421,0472,289
     Totals3,9803,6777,6574,2163,6377,853
(ii.) District high schools—
     (a.) Junior free pupils8498591,7088098671,676
     (b.) Senior free pupils116191307157184341
     Totals9651,0502,0159661,0512,017
(iii.) Maori secondary schools424890485098
(iv.) Technical high schools—
     (a.) Junior free pupils1,3511,4032,7541,2261,0002,226
     (b.) Senior free pupils15119350
     Totals1,3511,4032,7541,3771,1992,576
     Grand totals6,3386,17812,5166,6075,93712,544

Of the pupils of Government secondary schools 91 per cent. are receiving free education.

SCHOLARSHIPS HELD AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND DISTRICT HIGH SCHOOLS.

National Scholarships.

At the examinations held in 1920 220 candidates qualified for Junior National Scholarships, of which 7 were pupils of sole-teacher schools, and 57 were pupils of secondary schools. The number of candidates qualifying for Senior National Scholarships was 122, of which number only 1 qualified on the alternative programme provided specially to suit the needs of those taking a rural or domestic course.

The following figures indicate the number and the value of scholarships current in 1919 and 1920 respectively:—

Number of scholarship-holders—1919.1920.
     Boys481458
     Girls285280
          Totals766738
Number receiving boarding-allowance (included in the above total)221201
Number receiving travelling-allowance (similarly included)4245
Number held at secondary schools661627
Number held at district high schools8275
Number held at other registered secondary schools2336
Total annual rate of payment£12,913£12,510

Private Scholarships.

The number of foundation and private scholarships in the last term of 1920 was 147, of a total annual value of £1,647. Of the holders, 62 were also Government free pupils under the regulations. In addition, free tuition was given by the schools to holders of foundation and private scholarships.

WAR BURSARIES FOR SOLDIERS ' DEPENDANTS.

Regulations which came into force in January, 1919, provided for the award of bursaries to dependants of killed or disabled members of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force. To qualify for a war bursary a child must be eligible for—

  1. Free education at technical classes; or

  2. A free place at a secondary school, district high school, or technical high school; or

  3. A University or educational bursary at a University college.

A bursary entitles the holder to an allowance, in addition to free tuition, of £1 10s. or £3 per annum in the case of those qualified under (a), £5 for those under (b), or £10 for those under (c). Lodging-allowance is also payable to bursars who are obliged to live away from home to attend school, at the rate of £15 per annum under (a) and £30 under (b) and (c); travelling-allowances varying from £5 to £10 per annum are also made when travelling is necessary. During 1920 the number of bursaries held at secondary schools was 38, the expenditure thereon being £646.

FINANCES OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

The following is a summary of the receipts and payments of all secondary schools (excluding Wanganui Collegiate and Christ's College Grammar Schools) for the year 1920:—

 £    
Receipts.
Endowments—
     Sales820
     Lands vested in High School Boards45,322
     Secondary-education reserves6,810
     Interest on moneys invested1,314
Government grants—
     Grants for buildings, sites, rent, apparatus, &c., and subsidies36,918
     For salaries and incidental expenses128,759
     Capitation for manual instruction3,302
School fees11,018
Lower Department Account7,172
Boarding-school Account55,323
Loans, transfers from Capital Account, interest, &c.10,545
Technical Classes Account2,890
Voluntary contributions, income from property not reserves, refunds, and sundries11,270
 £321,463
Payments.
Endowments (including proportion of office expenses)6,787
Teachers' salaries and allowances153,979
Incidental expenses of secondary departments—
     Office expenses and salaries4,313
     Printing, stationery, and advertising3,964
     Cleaning, heating, lighting, and care of school-grounds10,187
     Materials, examinations, prizes, games, and other incidentals4,056
Manual instruction (excluding buildings, &c.)2,232
Sites, buildings, furniture, apparatus, taxes, &c.80,217
Lower Department Account6,811
Boarding-school Account57,424
Investments, loans repaid, and interest8,416
Technical Classes Account2,873
Scholarships, advances to pupils, and miscellaneous6,090
 £347,369

The total debit balance at the end of 1920 was £61,000, for the most part due to loans required for the erection of necessary buildings. The following is a summary of the monetary assets and liabilities at the end of the year:—

Monetary Assets.£Liabilities.£
Bank balances38,000Overdrafts89,000
Other assets52,000Other liabilities62,000
          Total£90,000          Total£151,000
           Debit balance£61,000

LOWER DEPARTMENTS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

There were lower departments in fourteen secondary schools during 1920; the total number of pupils in those departments was 815.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

The Education Act provides for public instruction in such subjects of art, science, and technology as are set forth in regulations. Classes recognized under the Act are eligible for grants in aid of necessary buildings, equipment, and material, for salaries and incidental expenses, and for subsidies of £1 for £1 on voluntary contributions. Free technical education is also provided for.

TECHNICAL CLASSES OTHER THAN CLASSES AT TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS.

The total number of classes held in 1920 was 2,079, and the total number of students in attendance 18,628. The following figures show the number of classes at which the various subjects indicated were taken:—

Mathematics and science143
Engineering239
Wood and lead working, and other trade subjects252
Agriculture, dairy-work, &c.103
Art and art crafts238
Domestic subjects405
Commercial subjects346
Subjects of general education353
          Total2,079

In certain districts the regulations for compulsory attendance at continuation classes were in operation, the total number of students in attendance being 1,636.

The number of discharged soldiers who received free education at technical schools in 1920 was 943.

The number of pupils receiving free education under the regulations for free places at technical high schools and other technical schools and classes was 3,966—2,134 males and 1,832 females.

TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS.

These schools (nine in number) are of secondary grade, and provide industrial, domestic, agricultural, commercial, and art courses. The number of pupils in attendance was as follows: Auckland, 476; Wanganui, 312; Hawera, 142; Wellington, 299; Napier, 249; Westport, 24; Christchurch, 581; Dunedin, 385; and Invercargill, 298. The total roll number was 2,766. The schools appear to meet the needs of a number of young people who would not otherwise proceed to secondary schools. The courses of instruction taken up by pupils were as follows:—

 Males.Females.Total.
Industrial839..     839
Commercial and general4139451,358
Domestic..     330330
Agricultural232..     232
Art167
          Totals1,4851,2812,766

Capitation earned on account of technical high schools during 1920 totalled £39,257.

The following table classifies the free pupils at technical high schools in 1919 and 1920:—

 1919.1920.
Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.
Junior free pupils1,2321,1722,4011,2261,0002,226
Senior free pupils119231350151199350
          Totals1,3511,4032,7541,3771,1992,576

EXPENDITURE ON TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

The following is a summary of the expenditure by the State on technical instruction during the year ended the 31st March, 1921:—

 £
Capitation, salaries, &c.83,361
Subsidies on voluntary contributions5,466
Scholarships and bursaries3,630
Grants in aid of material for class use2,089
Grants for building and equipment67,217
Rents1,137
Conveyance of instructors, students, and free pupils4,402
Examinations (less recoveries)155
Inspectors' salaries and travelling-expenses2,548
Maintenance, buildings195
 £170,200

SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND CARE OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN.

CHILD WELFARE.

The functions of the Special Schools Branch of the Education Department include the following phases of social work: (1) The maintenance, supervision, and training of destitute, dependent, and delinquent children committed to the care of the State; (2) the supervision of children and juvenile offenders placed on probation by the Courts; (3) the supervision of all infants and young children under the age of six years maintained for payment apart from their parents; (4) the supervision of children in cases where epidemic pensions or widows' pensions are paid by the State; (5) the education and training of afflicted children over the age of six years; the definition “afflicted” includes deaf, blind, or improvable feeble-minded children and children partly deaf or suffering from defective speech and stammerers. The following figures indicate the numbers under control in 1920:—

Industrial schools and receiving-homes3,839
Juvenile probation281
Infant-life protection797
Deaf children118
Feeble-minded children198
          Total5,233

The number of new cases actually dealt with in 1920 was 535.

Agencies in connection with the juvenile probation system are now established in all the large towns of the Dominion. A boys' probation home has been established in each of the four centres. The number of cases dealt with by the Probation Officers in 1920 was 947.

CHILDREN BOARDED OUT.

The number of children boarded out in foster-homes at the end of the year was 1,886.

On account of the increased cost of living, the boarding-out rate has been raised from 15s. to 17s. 6d. per week for infants under twelve months, and from 128. 6d. to 15s. for children over that age and up to fifteen years, or longer if the child in question is still attending school. In addition, a very complete initial outfit of clothing is supplied with each child, and the Department provides free medical and dental treatment and medicines. School books and stationery are also provided for children attending school.

BOYS ' SCHOOLS.

The Boys' Training-farm at Weraroa caters for boys of all ages who through the commission of offences against the law are not considered fit to associate with the children attending an ordinary public school, at least not until they have undergone a course of training and discipline at Weraroa.

CARE OF THE FEEBLE-MINDED.

Institutions at Otekaike and Nelson are available for the reception of feebleminded boys, who, under capable supervision, are employed in farm-work, garden and orchard work, and in the bootmaking, basketmaking, matmaking, and carpentering shops. Girls are provided for at the Special School at Richmond, and employed in housework and laundry-work, in the workroom sewing, knitting, &c., and in outside occupations, such as gardening and flower-growing.

INFANT-LIFE PROTECTION.

This work is now carried out under the supervision of trained nurses who are fully qualified in the care and feeding of infants and young children. The majority of infants dealt with under this system are illegitimate, and have been neglected to such an extent prior to placing them in foster-homes that the greatest care is necessary in catering for their welfare.

DEAF CHILDREN AND CHILDREN WITH SPEECH-DEFECTS.

Special classes are now established in the various centres for the education of the hard-of-hearing children and for the correction of defective speech among children. A school at Sumner exists for the preliminary teaching of stone-deaf children and young children who, in addition to being deaf, have little or no speech, and incidentally for the training of teachers for the deaf.

HIGHER EDUCATION.

The affairs of the University of New Zealand are controlled by three Courts—the Senate, the Board of Studies, and the General Court of Convocation.

The University of New Zealand has power to confer degrees, but is not itself a teaching body, undergraduates for the most part keeping their terms at one or other of the four affiliated institutions—Otago University, Canterbury College, Auckland University College, and Victoria University College.

The revenue of the University is derived mainly from a statutory Government grant of £4,000 per annum, authorized by the New Zealand University Amendment Act, 1919, from fees, and from interest on investments.

Auckland University College and. Victoria University College each receive an annual statutory grant of £11,500, while Canterbury College receives £4,500, and Otago University £10,000. The two latter institutions are endowed with reserves of land. In addition, a certain proportion of the income from the National Endowment Fund for the purposes of education is paid directly to the four affiliated institutions. In 1920 the sum paid to each out of the fund amounted to £1,674. There is also now provision for the payment under regulations of a Government subsidy on voluntary contributions to the funds of the institutions affiliated to the University of New Zealand.

The total amount paid by the Education Department on account of the University of New Zealand and the affiliated colleges for the year 1920-21 was £109,242.

There were in 1920 3,672 students actually in attendance at the four University colleges. Of these, 147 were graduates, 2,350 undergraduates, and 914 unmatriculated students. In addition to the students mentioned above, there were 150 students attached to the various University colleges, but exempt from lectures. There were also 55 students taking an agricultural course of University grade at the Lincoln Agricultural College.

FREE UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.

The University Junior Scholarships (twelve of which (were gained in 1920) are of the value of £20 per annum plus tuition fees, and are tenable for three years. In the case of holders living away from home a further sum of £30 per annum is allowed. The University National Scholarships are of equal monetary value, the number gained in 1920 being twenty. Taranaki Scholarships are of the annual value of £60, and the Senate may at discretion extend the tenure from three to four years. There are also some thirty or forty local' and privately endowed scholarships awarded on the results of the same entrance examination.

Scholarships awarded during the degree course are the Senior University, Sir George Grey, and John Tinline Scholarships. The various colleges have also private scholarships for which their own students may compete.

The chief scholarships awarded at the end of the University course are the Rhodes Scholarship, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, the Medical Travelling Scholarship, Engineering Travelling Scholarship, the Post-graduate Travelling Scholarship, the French Travelling Scholarship, and the National Research Scholarships. All excepting the last-named are tenable abroad. The Research Scholarships are each of the value of £100 per annum, with laboratory fees and expenses.

So far 20 Rhodes Scholarships have been granted, of which 6 have been gained by students of Auckland University College, 5 by students of Otago University, 5 by students of Victoria University College, and 4 by students of Canterbury College.

Of the 21 Research Scholarships awarded up to the present 3 were in active operation in 1920.

University bursaries entitle the holders to the payment of tuition and examination fees (not exceeding £20 per annum) during a three (or possibly four) years' course at a University college or school of agriculture recognized by the University. The number of University bursaries held in 1920 was 558.

The number of educational bursaries under the Education Act, 1914, held in 1920 was 93, of which number 16 completed the three-years tenure of their bursaries.

Domestic-science bursaries tenable at the Otago University may be awarded under the regulations for technical instruction. Bursaries of this kind were awarded to 22 students in 1920, making 57 bursars in attendance at classes.

THE WORKERS ' EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.

In the distribution to University colleges of the moneys received by the University from the National Endowment Fund in 1920, £300 was allocated to three colleges and £350 to the fourth for the establishment and maintenance of the Workers' Educational Association tutorial or University extension classes. Each college also received an additional grant of £500 from the Government for the purpose. Branches of this association have been established in several of the larger towns, and tutorial classes in such subjects as economics, history, industrial law, English, electricity, debating, and chairmanship, conducted in some cases by University-college professors or lecturers, are in operation for the better education of working men and women.

AGRICULTURAL BURSARIES.

Agricultural bursaries may be awarded to qualified candidates in order to enable them to obtain the necessary practical training for positions as teachers or agricultural instructors. During 1920 7 bursars were in attendance at Lincoln Agricultural College, Canterbury, and 3 bursars were attending a University college.

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS.

The number of candidates for the various examinations in 1920-21 who actually presented themselves in the examination-room is given below:—

Junior National and junior free places2,298
Public Service Entrance, Senior National Scholarships, and Intermediate2,999
Teachers' D and C2,365
Public Service Senior78
Kindergarten Certificate Examination1
London University Examinations2
Special Public Service Entrance Examination in June204
Special Public Service Examination for returned soldiers73
          Total8,020

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION.

In the following tables an attempt has been made to analyse the public expenditure on the various branches of education:—

ANALYSIS OF EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND FOR THE YEAR 1920-21.
(Figures given in every case to the nearest £1,000.)
Branch of Education.Amount.Per Head of Mean Population (including Maoris).
Out of Public Funds.*Secondary and University Reserves Revenue.Total from all Public Sources.Out of Public Funds.*Secondary and University Reserves Revenue.Total from all Public Sources.

* Including expenditure out of income from primary-education reserves.

† Including technical high schools and secondary departments of district high schools.

 £      £      £      s.d.s.d.s.d.
Primary2,469,000..     2,469,000395..395
Secondary312,00053,000365,00050010510
Continuation and technical130,000..     130,00021..21
Higher109,00030,000139,000190623
 3,020,00083,0003,103,00048314497
Industrial schools, &c.111,000..     111,00019..19
Special schools25,000..     25,00005..05
Superannuation and miscellaneous68,000..     68,00011..11
          Totals3,224,00083,0003,307,000516145210

The following table shows the total amount expended on education out of the public funds only, and the amount per head of population:—

Year ended 31st March.Amount expended out of Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Population out of Public Funds.
* Income from primary-education reserves included.
 £      s.d.
1899519,000134
1904679,000157
19141,301,000231
19191,986,000*351*
19202,554,000*424*
19213,224,000*516*

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS OF EDUCATION BOARDS.

The receipts and payments of the Education Boards (numbering nine altogether) in 1920 are tabulated below. with further particulars:—

 £
Receipts.
From Government,—
     General Fund41,842
     Teachers' salaries and allowances1,525,892
     School and class libraries810
     Conveyance and board of school-children20,147
     Incidental expenses of schools87,454
     Training of teachers103,537
     Manual instruction69,251
     Technical instruction133,372
     Public-school buildings, sites, furniture, &c.266,760
     Maintenance of buildings and rent106,114
     Scholarships, subsidies, and miscellaneous25,588
From local sources49,357
          Total£2,430,124
Payments.
Staff salaries, office expenses, &c.47,626
Teachers' salaries and allowances1,530,561
School and class libraries2,028
Conveyance and board of school-children19,306
Incidental expenses of schools87,824
Training of teachers107,968
Manual instruction81,573
Technical instruction147,865
Public-school buildings, sites, furniture, &c.300,350
Maintenance of buildings and rent130,240
Subsidies, scholarships, workshop expenses, &c.34,666
          Total£2,490,007

Chapter 9. SECTION IX.—JUSTICE.

CIVIL CASES.

THE ordinary civil jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts is limited generally to claims not exceeding £200. Justices of the Peace may hear and decide certain civil cases when the sum in dispute does not exceed £20. The numbers of plaints issued and of cases tried, and the amounts sued for and for which judgment was recorded, in the lower Courts during the ten years 1911-20 are shown in the following table:—

Year.Cases entered.Cases tried.
Number.Total Amount claimed.Number.Total Amount sued for.Total Amount for which Judgment entered.
* Information not available.
 £       £      £      
191153,394557,15834,627*296,629
191257,079592,94336,815420,073331,020
191361,759670,92539,086427,484366,981
191462,471706,95339,233455,197398,760
191560,170695,62537,632446,979383,532
191649,806639,92231,064395,779339,847
191746,004624,69329,412401,568340,958
191839,176563,35825,594378,025308,429
191938,775619,57624,680385,020319,135
192046,601787,52428,999467,665399,219

It would appear that the practice of using the Courts as media for the collection of small debts is growing. For instance, the number of cases tried in Magistrates' Courts in 1900 was 19,816, the aggregate sum sued for being £286,719. Although the population of the Dominion increased from 1900 to 1915 by little more than 25 per cent., the number of cases tried represents an increase of nearly 100 per cent. in the fifteen years. War causes probably occasion the successive declines of the next five years. Last year's total, however, shows an abrupt increase in the number of cases tried (28,999), while both the amount sued for (£467,665) and amount for which judgment was entered (£399,219) are higher than for any previous year.

The number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the total amount for which judgments were recorded, in the Supreme Court of New Zealand during each of the ten years 1911-20 were as follows:—

SUPREME COURT: CIVIL JURISDICTION.
Year.Number of Actions commenced.Cases tried.Judgments recorded.
With Jury.Without Jury.Number.Amount.
 £      
19117297617021184,822
191275564233235102,657
19137887524328479,610
19147929525128191,286
19156975025324168,555
19166734819325478,877
191758170172234100,447
191861147188226104,927
19197837222723888,144
19209159132926296,017

BANKRUPTCY

Under the Bankruptcy Act, 1908—a consolidation of the then existing laws—a person may seek the protection of the Court by filing a petition with a declaration of insolvency, or one or more creditors may petition the Court to have a debtor declared insolvent. The Dominion is divided into four districts for administrative purposes, each district being in charge of a State officer styled the Official Assignee, who is assisted by deputies stationed at the principal business centres.

The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the past ten years was as follows:—

Year.Petitions by Debtors.Adjudications on Petitions by Creditors.Cases in which Composition accepted.Orders of Immediate Discharge granted.Cases in which Orders of Discharge were suspended.
191128163112314
19122783428813
191329647110812
191432269..     6111
191525044..     5518
191626737..     6321
19172214416010
1918133311539
191910932112813
192011728..     7214

Private assignments and compositions are not registered, and particulars respecting this class of insolvency are not procurable.

The following table shows the total number of petitions, the amount of the unsecured assets, the amount of debts proved, and the amount paid in dividends and preferential claims for the years 1911-20:—

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  £      £      £      £      
191134488,59240,009133,51728,757
191231264,39839,965120,32526,825
1913343155,58242,735228,82925,812
1914391174,41064,153199,25133,910
191529492,87663,310153,92642,374
1916304123,44156,416172,77429,223
1917265138,69663,645178,24427,405
191816450,35667,72988,60733,176
191914143,62754,62259,76724,980
192014444,02647,89777,75245.228

In 7 cases of bankruptcy in 1920 the liabilities were under £50; in 17, from £50 to £100; in 29, from £100 to £250; in 43, from £250 to £500; in 28, from £500 to £1,000; in 13, from £1,000 to £2,000; in 6, from £2,000 to £5,000; and in 1, over £5,000.

A table showing the occupations of the bankrupts in 1920 is published in full in Volume I of “Statistics of the Dominion of New Zealand,” and is summarized here.

OCCUPATIONS OF BANKRUPTS, 1920.
Class.Employers.Working on Own Account.Working for Wages.Totals.
Professional..     415
Domestic3115
Commercial319426
Transport and communication28313
Industrial8151354
Agricultural, pastoral, and mining319527
Dependants..     3..     3
Indefinite..     7411
          Totals197649144

DIVORCE.

During the years 1919 and 1920 an abnormally large number—viz., 675 and 748 respectively—of petitions for dissolution of marriage were filed, this number including in the former year 8 and in the latter 10 petitions for nullity of marriage. In 422 of the cases in 1920 a decree nisi was granted, 173 of these being made absolute during the year. In addition, decrees nisi were granted in respect of 152 petitions filed in previous years, 112 of these being made absolute before the end of the year, and 184 decrees nisi of previous years became absolute. The total number of decrees nisi for the year 1920 was thus 574, which includes 2 decrees for nullity of marriage.

In addition, 9 petitions for judicial separation and 4 for restitution of conjugal rights were filed. Two decrees were granted in the former class, and none in the latter.

The subject of the next table is the duration of the marriage for dissolution of which petitions were filed in the past five years.

Duration of Marriage, in Years.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Under 121133212..     7
  1 and under 226346..     3313
  2 and under 3337208322311
  3 and under 4577251734378
  4 and under 5751014201552015
  5 and under 10435469696483942106121
10 and under 15225617072343656101106
15 and under 2024283054493429395884
20 and under 3013111427392230354854
30 and under 4042651848739
40 and over12..     ..     13..     1..     1
Not stated..     ..     ..     8..     ..     ..     ..     2..     
          Totals135125185326329154157195349419

A table is also given showing the grounds of petitions, in combination with particulars as to the number of living issue. Columns are added showing for the various grounds the sex of the petitioner.

Grounds.Petitioner.Number of Cases in which Number of Living Issue wasTotal Number of Cases.
Husband.Wife.0123456 or over.
* Nullity cases.
Adultery (alone)188154107867033171217342
Adultery and desertion2713122..     ..     9
Adultery, drunkenness, cruelty, and failing to maintain..     1..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Bigamy*312..     11..     ..     ..     4
Blood relationship*..     1..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Cruelty (alone)..     5..     ..     ..     13..     15
Cruelty and desertion..     2..     ..     1..     ..     ..     12
Desertion (alone)1132159593532634819328
Desertion and drunkenness..     31..     11..     ..     ..     3
Drunkenness28132..     11210
Drunkenness and cruelty..     14514..     ..     1314
Drunkenness, cruelty, and desertion..     1..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     1
Drunkenness and failing to maintain..     1..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     1
Insanity63251..     ..     1..     9
Physical defect*325..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     5
Refusal of intercourse2..     1..     ..     1..     ..     ..     2
Separation by mutual consent10.1314..     12..     11
          Totals32941922319413965592543748

In twenty-five cases the number of living issue was 6, in eight cases 7, in seven cases 8, in two cases 9, and in one case 10 or over.

It is found that in 663 of the cases the parties were married in New Zealand, and that in 526 cases the marriage had been solemnized by a clergyman, and in the remaining 222 cases (29.7 per cent.) by a Registrar of Marriages or other civil official. Civil marriages constituted 17.6 per cent. of those solemnized in New Zealand in 1920.

Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during each of the past ten years are as follows:—

Year.Divorce.Judicial Separation granted.Nullity of Marriage.Restitution of Conjugal Rights.
Petitions.Decrees.Petitions.Decrees.Petitions.Decrees.
1911226161..     21..     ..     
1912274222244..     ..     
1913260223..     53..     ..     
1914290234..     11..     ..     
1915249221..     73..     ..     
1916280246..     91..     ..     
1917282221263..     ..     
19183802794212..     
19196754795852..     
192074857421024..     

INQUESTS.

The number of bodies on which inquests were held in 1920 was 1,503, including 34 Maoris. In 1,097 cases the bodies were of males, and in 406 of females.

The verdicts given at the inquests held in 1920 may be classified as under:—

Nature of VerdictInquests on Persons.
Males.Females.Total.
Disease and natural causes541276817
Accident433104537
Homicide10616
Suicide11320133
          Totals1,0974061,503

Of the accidental deaths the most common forms during 1920 were crushing and drowning. The verdicts show that 172 deaths, or 32.03 per cent. of the total fatal accidents, were due to the former cause, while to the latter 166 deaths, or 30.91 per cent., were due.

The inquests on suicidal deaths in 1920 show a decrease on the number for the previous year. The figures for each of the past ten years were,—

Year.Inquests on Suicides.
Males.Females.Total.
191110925134
191211115126
191311833151
191411627143
191511212124
191612228150
191710430134
19189922121
191911230142
192011320133

FIRE INQUESTS.

In case of fire causing the destruction of any building, ship, or merchandise, or any stack of grain, pulse, or hay, or any growing crop, a Coroner may hold an inquiry into the cause of such fire, the procedure being similar to that of inquests into cause of death.

During 1920 but four inquests were held on fires, and in each case no evidence was forthcoming.

POLICE.

On the 31st March, 1921, the number of permanent members of the Police Force in New Zealand was 882 of all ranks, being an increase of 38 during the year. The total is made up as follows: 4 superintendents, 16 inspectors, 3 sub-inspectors, 34 senior sergeants, 78 sergeants, 700 constables, 7 senior detectives, 13 detective-sergeants, and 27 detectives. There were also 12 police surgeons, 8 matrons, 7 district constables, and 3 Native constables.

The following table shows the number of stations and of police in each police district:—

Police District.No. of
Stations.
No. of
Police.
Whangarei1623
Auckland36170
Hamilton3040
Gisborne1326
Napier1745
New Plymouth1428
Wanganui1937
Palmerston North1741
Wellington35178
Greymouth2238
Christchurch37114
Timaru1340
Dunedin3594
Invercargill2243

There were also 8 officers attached to headquarters, 1 was on loan to the Cook Islands Administration, 2 were on loan to the Samoan Administration, and 2 on leave prior to retirement.

The proportion of police to population is 1 to every 1,337 persons, and the expenditure (exclusive of the cost of buildings) on the whole Police Force for the year ended the 31st March, 1921, was 6s. 4 3/4d. per head of population.

The following table shows the growth of the Police Force since 1878, prior to which each province had its own Police Force, and reliable data are not available:—

Year ended 31st March,Officers.Non-commissioned Officers.Detectives.Constables.Total.Police to Population (including Maoris).Cost per Inhabitant.
 s.d.
18782590143294581 to 1,020..
18852065173724741 to 1,29530 3/4
18901266134034941 to 1,337210 3/4
1895751134164871 to 1,50226 3/4
19001156204995861 to 1,36320 1/4
19051265255536551 to 1,386210 1/4
19101686346397751 to 1,33633 1/2
191619104367579161 to 1,25642 3/4
191720108367348981 to 1,28243
191820111387329011 to 28146 1/2
191920112417058781 to 1,34252 1/2
192021114387439161 to 1,350411 3/4
192123112477689501 to 1,33764 3/4

CRIMINAL CASES IN MAGISTRATES' COURTS.

TOTAL CASES.

The gross total of criminal cases in Magistrates' Courts during the year 1920 was 43,491, males being charged in 41,092 cases and females in 2,399. These totals include 2,145 oases against Maoris (males 2,074; females, 71).

The number of cases during each of the last ten years, inclusive and exclusive of Maoris, is as follows:—

MAGISTRATES ' COURTS.—TOTAL CASES, 1911-20.
Year.Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
Against Males.Against Females.Totals.Against Males.Against Females.Totals.
191136,3552,92739,28235,2242,87138,095
191241,0452,82843,87339,6282,76642,394
191345,1722,78847,96044,1042,74346,847
191447,7073,26350,97046,1733,19849,371
191543,9963,193*47,18942,3643,14145,505
191639,6232,93442,55738,1892,87141,060
191738,5372,91241,44936,9572,82939,786
191833,4662,93336,39931,8272,85534,682
191937,8722,57540,44735,7352,48638,221
192041,0922,39943,49139,0182,328 i41,346

The 43,491 cases dealt with in 1920 resulted in 35,517 summary convictions, and in 719 committals to the Supreme Court for sentence after conviction in Magistrates' Courts. In 530 cases the accused person was committed to the Supreme Court for trial, and in 785 the Magistrate admonished and discharged the offender under a provision enabling him to do so in the case of a trivial offence, without a conviction being recorded. In 2,346 cases the charge was dismissed on the merits of the case, and in the remaining 3,594 cases the accused person was discharged for want of prosecution or want of evidence.

Of the 35,517 summary convictions—i.e., the cases in which the offender on being convicted was dealt with by the Magistrate—1,851 represented convictions of Maoris, leaving 33,666 for persons other than Maoris, equal to 28.23 per 1,000 of mean population, as compared with 26.91 per 1,000 in 1919. The figures for the last ten years are,—

SUMMARY CONVICTIONS (EXCLUDING MAORIS), 1911-20.
Year.Number.Per 1,000 Mean Population.
191132,03931.56
191234,98633.67
191338,74836.26
191440,41037.06
191538,21934.76
191634,19631.10
19173,77129.82
191827,83425.23
191930,75726.91
192033,66628.23

In comparing one year with another it should be remembered that the number of convictions may be considerably affected by alterations in the law or changes in its administration. As an example of the former may be mentioned the introduction in New Zealand of a system of compulsory military training. Convictions for breaches of the Defence Act rose from 12 in 1911 to 4,819 in 1912, involving an increase of 2,700 in the total convictions for the latter year, instead of a fall of 2,000 which would otherwise have been recorded. On the other hand, convictions during recent years have been somewhat reduced by the introduction of the system referred to previously, where in the case of a trivial offence the offender may be admonished and discharged without a conviction being recorded.

For similar reasons to those referred to in the foregoing paragraph it is inadvisable to base comparisons of crime between different countries on the statistics of convictions for the various countries.

A great proportion of the cases dealt with in New Zealand are in respect of comparatively insignificant offences—as, for instance, drunkenness, offences against by-laws, &c.

A classification of convictions during the last four years, according to principal offences and groups of offences, is next given.

The figures are exclusive of Maoris.
1917.1918.1919.1920.
* Not including convictions (1 in 1920) for selling liquor without a license, an offence against the revenue laws.
Offences against the person588525671647
Offences against property (including forgery)2,3152,3392,9783,344
Drunkenness (including issue of prohibition orders)10,4338,6179,43710,082
Offensive conduct or language, and obstruction, &c., of police1,7021,1591,6211,745
Breaches of by-laws4,2563,5083,8075,110
Other offences against good order1,349911863950
Breaches of Licensing Act*2,5762,2322,7832,612
Breaches of Destitute Persons Act1,7281,7561,6431,934
Breaches of Impounding Act1,1581,0171,3221,523
Breaches of Motor Regulation Act1,1981,0421,6381,933
Breaches of Defence and Military Service Acts2,3051,3871,4311,096
Other offences3,1633,3412,5632,690
          Totals32,77127,83430,75733,666

Of the 647 summary convictions for offences against the person in 1920, no fewer than 592 were for common assault. Attempted suicide was responsible for 41 convictions, indecent assault for 6, aggravated assault 3, and cruelty to children 5. In the more serious classes of offences against the person the cases are referred to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence.

The 3,344 summary convictions for offences against property during 1920 are in the main made up of various forms of theft. Theft (not otherwise described) was responsible for 2,389 convictions, embezzlement for 27, housebreaking and stealing 106, sheep-stealing 3, and receiving stolen property 54. In addition there were 133 convictions for fraud and false pretences, 1 for forgery, 2 for arson, and 629 for wilful damage. In this class also the more serious cases are committed to the Supreme Court, the number so dealt with in 1920 being 922, including theft 356, housebreaking and stealing 257, fraud and false pretences 128, and forgery 100.

The principal of the “Other offences against good order” is vagrancy, which represented 484 of the 950 summary convictions under this heading in 1920. Offences relating to gambling (192) and cruelty to animals (149) ranked next in 1920.

Among “other offences” (2,690 convictions in 1920) may be mentioned miscellaneous offences under the following Acts:—

Factories42
Shops and Offices122
Shipping and Seamen199
Noxious Weeds235
Apiaries67
Rabbit Nuisance143
Stock141
Sale of Food and Drugs227
School Attendance435
War Regulations97
Alien Registration68

PUNISHMENT ON SUMMARY CONVICTION.

Of a total of 33,666 summary convictions (exclusive of those of Maoris) in 1920 peremptory imprisonment was imposed in only 1,878 cases, in addition to which the convicted person went to goal in 804 cases in lieu of paying a fine. A summary of punishments for the year 1920 is next given.

MAGISTRATES ' COURTS.—PUNISHMENTS ON SUMMARY CONVICTION, 1920.
Punishments.Exclusive of Maoris.Maoris.Total (including Maoris).
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Offences against Good Order.Other Offences.
Released under Offenders Probation Act4281198303
Convicted and discharged50482,3946701503.732
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence73735367236741,485
Committed to an industrial school716331015198
Committed to Salvation Army Home, &c.12283314141
Fined40084512,2938,7311,34223,611
Inprisonment in lieu of fine206249522730834
Peremptory imprisonment72671601534791,957
Whipping..     37..     2140
Bound over151234346
Order made5591,6271,3341453,170
          Totals6473,34417,88711,7881,85135,517

DISTINCT CASES.

The statistics given above refer, as stated, to all cases dealt with in Magistrates' Courts, including those in which a person is charged with two or more offences committed simultaneously or in the same connection—as, for instance, drunkenness, damaging property, and resisting the police. If only one (the most serious) offence is counted in each instance the number of cases in 1920 is reduced from 43,491 to 37,188, or, excluding Maoris, from 41,346 to 35,493. A summary is given for the year 1920 comparing total and distinct cases classified according to the result of the hearing.

MAGISTRATES ' COURTS.—TOTAL AND DISTINCT CASES, 1920.
Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
Total Cases.Distinct Cases.Total Cases.Distinct Cases.
Discharged for want of prosecution or want of evidence3,5942,8563,4712,786
Dismissed on the merits2,3461,8382,2411,775
Admonished and discharged785597775589
Committed for sentence719469690452
Committed for trial530402503379
Summary convictions recorded35,51731,02633,66629,512
          Totals43,49137,18841,34635,493

ARREST AND SUMMONS CASES.

Persons charged in the Magistrates' Courts may be brought before the Court either on summons or after arrest, according to the nature of the offence and to other circumstances. Of the total of 43,491 cases in 1920, 16,105 were “arrest” and 27,386 “summons” cases. A summary is given.

Arrest Cases.Summons Cases.Totals.
Cases.Summary Convictions.Cases.Summary Convictions.Cases.Summary Convictions.
Including Maoris—
     Males15,11013,21225,98220,36841,09233,580
     Females9958741,4041,0632,3991,937
          Totals16,10514,08627,38621,43143,49135,517
Excluding Maoris—
     Males14,42112,60724,59719,18339,01831,790
     Females9678501,3611,0262,3281,876
          Totals15,38813,45725,95820,20941,34633,666

In more than 50 per cent. of arrest cases the offence is drunkenness, 8,292 of the total of 16,105 in 1920 coming under this head. Of the 955 female arrest cases included in the table drunkenness was the cause of arrest in 506 cases.

ARREST CASES.

Information in connection with both arrest and summons cases is obtained on cards, which, however, give considerably more particulars concerning the offender in regard to the former class than are available for the latter. From the information given in arrest cases it is possible to ascertain the number of distinct persons arrested, and to compile statistics as to their ages, birthplaces, &c.

The total number of convictions of arrested persons, other than Maoris, during 1920 was 13,457, which reduces to 12,350 if multiple charges—i.e., those in respect of offences committed by the same person at the same time—are excluded. If only the principal offence for which each person was convicted during the year is taken into account, the number of distinct persons convicted after arrest is found to be 8,203, a number equal to only 61 per cent. of the gross total of convictions of arrested persons.

OFFENCES, BIRTHPLACES, AND AGES.

The next three tables give the offences and ages, offences and birthplaces, and birthplaces and ages of the distinct persons (excluding Maoris) arrested and convicted during 1920.

CONVICTIONS IN ARREST CASES, 1920.
Offences and Ages.
Offences againstUnder 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.*Totals.
* Including unspecified.
The person741408268238
Property2672331582572761,191
Good order714776481,6753,4806,351
Other offences295668118152423
          Totals3748079142,1323,9768,203
Offences and Birthplaces. 
Offences againstNew Zealand.England and Wales.Scotland.Ireland.Australia.Elsewhere.*Totals. 
* Including unspecified. 
The person1235211121723238 
Property719219444873881,191 
Good order2,6161,3716247604245566,351 
Other offences17911538292438423 
          Totals3,6371,7577178495387058,203 
Birthplaces and Ages.
Birthplace.Under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.*Totals.
* Including unspecified.
New Zealand3035265011,0821,2253,637
England and Wales391341774249831,757
Scotland53651170455717
Ireland22148163615849
Australia163256173261538
Elsewhere*95881120437705
          Totals3748079142,1323,9768,203

Of the 8,203 distinct persons, other than Maoris, arrested and convicted during 1920, no fewer than 6,351 were convicted for offences against good order, and of these 5,195 were for drunkenness (including 119 drunk and disorderly, and 13 habituals). In addition, 28 were convicted in respect of prohibition orders; 289 for indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct; 358 for using obscene, threatening, or abusive language; 289 for vagrancy; 105 for assaulting, resisting, or obstructing the police; 12 for soliciting prostitution; 13 for keeping brothels; 24 for offences relating to gambling; and 38 for other offences against good order.

Of the 238 distinct persons arrested and convicted during 1920 for offences against the person, 205 convictions were for common assault; and of the 1,191 distinct persons arrested and convicted for offences against property, 948 convictions were for theft of various classes, 50 for fraud and false pretences, and 151 for wilful damage.

CRIMINAL CASES IN SUPREME COURTS.

Criminal cases in Supreme Courts are divisible into two classes—viz., those in which the accused person has been found guilty in the Magistrate's Court and committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The figures for 1919 and 1920 are as follows:—

SUPREME COURT.—TOTAL CRIMINAL CASES, 1919 AND 1920.
Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
1919.1920.1919.1920.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Indictments and informations63243583486034355848
Convictions35714305233331429323
Sentences in cases of committal for sentence41225659243802562524
Total sentences76939964477133991847

Although the number of convictions in Supreme Courts was somewhat smaller in 1920 than in the preceding year, the inclusion of cases sent up for sentence gives 1920 a much larger total than 1919.

A similar table to the above is next given, showing for 1919 and 1920 the number of distinct persons dealt with in Supreme Courts, only the principal offence being taken into account in cases where the same person was tried in respect of two or more offences during the year.

SUPREME COURT.—DISTINCT PERSONS, 1919 AND 1920.
Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
1919.1920.1919.1920.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Indicted36127328243332730924
Convicted and sentenced22115183141971517314
Sentenced after committal for sentence20421243171862122217
Total sentenced42536426313833639531

Excluding Maoris, it is seen that 12 more males and 5 fewer females were sentenced in 1920 than in 1919, a position vastly different from that disclosed by a comparison of total cases.

A classification of offences for which persons were convicted in Supreme Courts or sentenced after committal by a Magistrate for sentence gives the following results for the last two years:—

SUPREME COURT.—OFFENCES OF PERSONS CONVICTED OR SENTENCED (EXCLUSIVE OF MAORIS), 1919 AND 1920.
Class of Offence.Total Cases.Distinct Persons.
1919.1920.1919.1920.
M.F.MF.M.F.M.F.
Against the person105121131192128910
Against property50316660212371424212
Forgery and against the currency7141105263472
Other3473510287177
          Totals71339918473833639531

A summary of punishments inflicted in the Supreme Court in 1920, taking account only of distinct persons other than Maoris, is next given in conjunction with classes of offences.

SUPREME COURT —OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENTS OF DISTINCT PERSONS (EXCLUDING MAORIS), 1920.
Punishment.Offence against the Person.Offence against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other Offences.Totals.
Death3..     ..     ..     3
Imprisonment only, with or without hard labour:—
     15 years or upwards, including “life”1..     ..     ..     1
     10 and under 15 years..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
       7 and under 10 years3..     ..     ..     3
       5 and under 7 years82..     ..     10
      3 and under 5 years154..     ..     19
      2 and under 3 years717..     125
      1 and under 2 years11263242
     6 months and under 1 year5203230
     Under 6 months910..     423
Imprisonment and reformative treatment291..     12
Reformative treatment only17728299
Imprisonment and declared habitual criminal1185125
Declared habitual criminal only..     ..     1..     1
Committed to institutions not under control of Prisons Department14..     ..     5
Fined972523
Released under Offenders Probation Act65519484
Held to bail, or awaiting pleasure of Court..     ..     1..     1
Ordered to come up for sentence1106320
     Totals992544924426

Of the 99 distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) convicted or sentenced in 1920 for offences against the person, 3 were guilty of murder, 3 attempted murder, 3 manslaughter, 18 assault, 6 robbery with violence, 11 bigamy, 23 indecent assault, and 29 various other sexual offences.

Of offences against property, breaking and entering, with or without theft, was the offence for which 100 persons were convicted or sentenced, while 103 were guilty of theft, 11 of receiving stolen property, 26 of fraud and false pretences, and 9 of arson (including attempts).

Of the 49 persons shown under the heading of “forgery and offences against the currency,” 28 were convicted or sentenced for forgery alone, and 21 for forgery and uttering.

The principal of the “other” offences in 1920 were—false declaration, 11; and indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct, 5.

COURT OF APPEAL.

Under the provisions of the Judicature Amendment Act, 1913, the Court of Appeal consists of two divisions, called the First Division and the Second Division, each division consisting of five Judges of the Supreme Court, who are appointed as members of either division by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of three Judges of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice. The same division does not exercise the jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal at two successive sittings, but exercises its jurisdiction separately, except that in cases of importance involving special difficulty any two Judges (of whom the Chief Justice shall be one) may recommend, for the approval of the Governor-General in Council, that a joint sitting of both divisions may be held. The Chief Justice, or, in his absence, the senior Judge, presides. The decision of the Court must be in accordance with the majority of the Judges present, but if the Judges present are equally divided in opinion the judgment, &c., appealed from shall be deemed to be affirmed.

In addition to the ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings arising in inferior Courts may, on an order of the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to His Majesty in Council.

In criminal cases questions of law may be reserved by the Supreme Court for the Court of Appeal, and upon a refusal by the Court to reserve any question the person aggrieved may move the Court of Appeal for leave to appeal. Any person aggrieved may also (after conviction) apply to the Court of Appeal for a new trial upon leave being granted by the Supreme Court. Any person has now the right to apply to the Court of Appeal against a sentence passed in the Supreme Court where such person has been convicted upon an indictment or if sentenced for any crime on a plea of “Guilty.”

The number of cases brought before this Court and the judgments thereon for the past ten years are as follow:—

Year.Crown Criminal Cases.Civil.
Number.Convictions affirmed.Appeals.Cases removed.
Number.Allowed.Number.Judgments for Plaintiffs.Judgments for Defendants.
191111524817115
19126420420118
19138518420136
19144413516132
19154314714113
191641166633
1917441141284
191853115752
191962139624
19204216101174

PRISONS AND PRISONERS.

The following table gives for the year 1920 the prison accommodation, the number of prisoners received, the number in prison at end of year, and the daily average number in confinement:—

Name of Prison.Number for whom there is Accommodation.Number received during Year.Number in Confinement at End of Year.Daily Average Number in Confinement.

* Closed in July, 1920.

† Including Point Halswell (Women's Reformatory), which came into operation in October, 1920.

Auckland3491,169325266.00
Kaingaroa*..     1113.72 
Waikeria133102112101.10
New Plymouth58474047.29
Roto-aira41161424.46
Napier741631613.72
Wellington2211,085138115.45
Wi Tako55742925.20
Addington35492531.51
Lyttelton3215464.04
Paparua136335149114.00
Invercargill179172173154.38
Minor prisons2218583328.82
          Totals1,5344,2251,060939.69

The total number of prisoners received in the different gaols during the year 1920 was 4,225 (males 3.938, females 287), as compared with 4,016 (males 3,731, females 285) in 1919, counting each admission as a distinct person.

The following table shows how the prisoners received were disposed of, classified according to ages, the number of distinct convicted prisoners being 1,955, including 84 Maoris:—

Age, in Years.Total Receptions (excluding Duplicates) for Criminal Offences.Handed to Police for Trial and not returned to Prison.Acquitted or discharged.On Remand, awaiting Trial or Sentence at End of Year.Number of Prisoners convicted and sentenced for Criminal Offences.Number of Distinct Convicted Prisoners received during Year 1920.
Summary.Indictments.Excluding Maoris.Maoris.
* Includes 37 on remand or awaiting trial from previous year.
Under 213051073311085614614
21 and under 25364882141935621221
25 and under 304161072462245723120
30 and under 35411103252236452338
35 and under 40487109168309452616
40 and under 454598765330312794
45 and under 50289546621491724
50 and under 55213445215481203
55 and under 60116172..     925781
60 and under 6510814..     ..     931691
65 and over1352821995682
Not stated72212..     2..     
          Totals3,310*760142362,0543181,87184

Omitting those received by transfer from another prison, 734 (males 707, females 27), the debtors and lunatics received, 64 (males 61, females 3), and the duplicate receptions of the same prisoner on the same charge, 154 (males 150, females 4), it is found that the total receptions for criminal offences during 1920 were 3,310 (males 3,053, females 257). In this total are included 37 persons (males 33, females 4) on remand or awaiting sentence from the previous year.

The number of persons in gaol (including Maoris) at the end of each of the past ten years, and the proportion per 10,000 of population as at the 31st December, is given in the next table:—

PRISONERS IN GAOL (31ST DECEMBER).
Year.Number of Prisoners.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Undergoing Sentence.On Remand and awaiting Trial, &c.Total.Undergoing Sentence.Total in Confinement.
1911802718737.468.12
1912821458667.457.86
1913834859197.358.10
1914981641,0458.569.12
1915941579988.168.66
1916836548907.277.74
1917954531,0078.318.78
19181,005421,0478.689.04
1919852689206.947.50
1920996641,0607.928.43

The number of distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) imprisoned after conviction in each of the past twenty years, counting one offence only when the same person was imprisoned more than once, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is added.

DISTINCT PERSONS IMPRISONED AFTER CONVICTION.
Year.Prisoners.Proportion
per 10,000 of
Mean Population.
19012,34530.14
19022,39630.03
19032,84234.65
19042,89634.27
19052,79632.14
19062,96633.12
19073,09133.63
19083,00931.84
19093,15932.51
19103,24232.66
19112,87728.35
19123,02329.09
19133,22930.22
19143,38631.05
19152,92426.51
19162,40421.87
19172,39921.83
19181,70115.42
19191,72515.09
19201,87715.74

In classifying the offences a prisoner convicted of more than one offence during the year is reckoned once only under the heading of the principal offence—e.g., a prisoner convicted three times of drunkenness, twice of vagrancy, and once of theft is counted only once, under the heading “Offences against Property,” theft being the principal offence. Debtors and lunatics received into gaol are omitted.

The following tables show the number of distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) received into prison after conviction during 1920, classified according to birthplaces and offences, ages and offences, and ages and previous convictions:—

BIRTHPLACES AND OFFENCES OF DISTINCT CONVICTED PRISONERS (EXCLUDING MAORIS) RECEIVED INTO GAOL DURING 1920.
Birthplace.Nature of Offence.Totals.
Against the Person.Against Property.Drunkenness.Other Offences.
New Zealand9734789336869
Australia12531863146
England and Wales3411277191414
Scotland5264259132
Ireland10382987164
Other British possessions6861232
China1..     ..     34
Other countries924224398
At sea..     1..     ..     1
Not stated..     13711
          Totals1746102868011,871
AGES AND OFFENCES OF DISTINCT CONVICTED PRISONERS (EXCLUDING MAORIS) RECEIVED INTO PRISON DURING 1920.
Age, in Years.Offences against the Person.Theft and other Offences against Property.Offences not included previously.Totals.
Sexual Offences.Assaults.Other.Vagrancy.Drunkenness.Other.
Under 211641053126146
21 and under 2522149661073212
25 and under 30121410091878231
30 and under 35126282233663233
35 and under 40318569274891261
40 and under 451174733344107279
45 and under 50..     10..     37264950172
50 and under 5518..     25172445120
55 and under 601211016192978
60 and under 65..     11719192269
65 and over..     53620181668
Not stated..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     22
          Totals11135286101992866021,871
AGES AND PREVIOUS CONVICTIONS OF DISTINCT CONVICTED PRISONERS (EXCLUDING MAORIS) RECEIVED INTO PRISON DURING 1920.
Age, in Years.Not previously convicted.Previous Convictions.Total Distinct Convicted Prisoners.
Once.Twice.Three Times.Four Times.Over Four Times.Total.
Under 217421181061772146
21 and under 251283218981784212
25 and under 30116351914938115231
30 and under 35110261516660123233
35 and under 40110302219575151261
40 and under 45114331517892165279
45 and under 505925106666113172
50 and under 5543178434577120
55 and under 60237551375578
60 and under 65246621304569
65 and over266323284268
Not stated2..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2
          Totals829238139104565051,0421,871

The next table gives the offences and gravest previous offences of the distinct persons received into prison after conviction during 1920:—

OFFENCES AND GRAVEST PREVIOUS OFFENCES OF DISTINCT CONVICTED PRISONERS, 1920.
Offences.Gravest Previous Offence.
Against the PersonTheft and other Offences against Property.Offences not included previously.Totals
Sexual Offences.Assault.Other.Vagrancy.Drunkenness.Other.
Against the person—
     Sexual offences..     ..     ..     3..     ..     14
     Assaults..     20126251367
     Other1..     16..     ..     19
Against property317..     282131147373
Offences not included above—
     Vagrancy23149791316163
     Drunkenness..     6..     32267532171
     Other618387183687255
          Totals126464851381401971,042

HABITUAL CRIMINALS AND REFORMATIVE DETENTION.

The following table shows the distinct convicted prisoners (excluding Maoris) received in prison during 1920 after being sentenced to reformative treatment or having been declared habitual criminals, classified according to sentences:—

Original Sentence.Sentenced to Reformative Treatment for a Period ofDeclared Habitual Criminals.Totals.
Under Two Years.Two and under Five Years.Five Years and over.
Reformative treatment only2511718..     160
Declared habitual criminal..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Under 1 year1427..     1152
1 year and under 2111..     618
2 years and under 3..     1..     56
3 years and under 4..     ..     ..     44
4 years and under 5..     ..     ..     11
5 years and under 7..     ..     ..     22
7 years and under 10..     ..     ..     11
          Totals401561830244

PRISONS BOARD.

For the purposes of the Crimes Amendment Act of 1910 there is constituted a Prisons Board, the members of which are appointed by the Governor-General in Council for a period of three years, and may be reappointed. As at present constituted, the Board consists of the Chief Justice as President, and six other members. The Board meets at such times as the President determines, and, subject to the provisions of the Act and regulations, may determine its own procedure.

It is the duty of the Board to make inquiry from time to time as to whether there is reasonable cause for belief that any habitual criminal undergoing sentence or reformative detention is sufficiently reformed to be released on probation or discharged, or for granting discharge to any person who has been released on probation; and to make recommendations as to the release or discharge of any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or person under sentence of reformative detention, and as to the conditions which may be imposed on any such release or probation. The Board is required to take into consideration the case of every habitual criminal, &c., at least once a year, and to make a report to the Minister of Justice annually as to the operations of the Board, numbers dealt with, and the operation and effect of the Act.

Under the provisions of section 14 of the Statute Law Amendment Act, 1917, the Board was empowered to consider, at the request of the Minister of Justice, the cases of prisoners who had been sentenced to imprisonment with or without hard labour for periods exceeding two years, after half of the full term of imprisonment had expired, and to make recommendations to the Governor-General as to the release on probation of any such prisoner.

PROBATION.

An Act styled the First Offenders' Probation Act was passed in 1886 to provide, at the discretion of the Court, for conditional release on probation in the case of first offenders, in lieu of imprisonment. This Act, with its amendment of 1903, was consolidated in 1908, the consolidated Act being repealed in 1920 by the Offenders Probation Act of that year, under which the system of probation is no longer confined to first offenders.

Under the Act of 1886 an “offence” for which probation could be granted was defined as—

“Any indictable offence, not being one for murder, attempted murder, burglary, coining, corrosive-fluid throwing, demanding money with menaces, extortion of money under threats of accusation of crime, placing an explosive substance to endanger life or property, rape, robbery with violence, or an offence attended by irreparable or serious consequences, and either endangering life, or indicating, in the opinion of the Court, an established criminal intention on the part of the accused, and includes any indictable offence which may be dealt with and disposed of by a Court of summary jurisdiction.”

The Act of 1920 widens the definition to cover “any offence punishable by imprisonment, whether on indictment or otherwise.”

The maximum period of probation was originally fixed as not exceeding the longest term of imprisonment to which the offender might be sentenced for his offence; in 1903 the maximum was altered to three years, and in 1920 to five years.

Probation Officers are appointed, whose duties are defined by section 5 of the 1920 Act, which reads as follows:—

  1. “It shall be the duty of a Probation Officer, when so required by the Court,—

    1. “To make inquiries as to the character and personal history of any person accused or convicted of an offence, and as to such other matters in relation to such person as the Court may direct, and to report fully thereon to the Court in writing; and

    2. “To keep a full record of such inquiries and of the results thereof.

  2. “It shall be the special duty of the Probation Officer, if satisfied in any case that the best interests of the public and of the offender would be served by the release of the offender on probation, to recommend to the Court that he be so released.”

The conditions of release on probation are set out as follows:—

  1. “That the offender shall report himself in person where directed within twenty-four hours after his release on probation.

  2. “That he shall report himself in person between the hours of nine in the morning and nine in the evening of such day or days (being not less than once in every month) as may be specified in that behalf in the order, or as may be required by the Probation Officer, and at such place or places as may be directed: Provided that the Probation Officer may, if he thinks fit, authorize him to report in writing in lieu of in person on any occasion:

  3. “That he shall reside at an address notified to the Probation Officer, and that he shall sleep at such address unless the Probation Officer otherwise approves in writing:

  4. “That if he removes from such address he shall give to the Probation Officer at least forty-eight hours' notice of his intention so to do; and if he removes to any place within the district of another Probation Officer he shall, within twenty-four hours after such removal, notify the fact of his removal, and his address and employment, to the Probation Officer in that district:

  5. “That the nature and place of his employment shall be made known to and be approved by the Probation Officer:

  6. “That he shall not associate with any person or persons or with any class of persons with whom the Probation Officer has in writing warned him not to associate:

  7. “That he shall be of good behaviour, and shall commit no offence against the law:

  8. “Such other special conditions as the Court may, in its discretion, impose.”

A breach of the conditions of the probationary license renders the offender liable to imprisonment or fine, and in addition he may, in respect of the original offence, be either committed to prison or again released on probation.

According to a return prepared by the Chief Probation Officer 264 persons were placed on probation in the year 1920, as against 226 in 1919 and 192 in 1918.

The following table gives the ages and terms of probation of offenders dealt with under the provisions of the Act during the year 1920:—

Age.Terms of Probation.Totals.
Under One Year.One Year and under Two Years.Two Years and under Three Years.Three Years and over.
10 and under 1511114
15 and under 204374635112
20 and under 25331172172
25 and under 303910729
30 and under 401910424
40 and under 502106321
50 and under 70..     1..     12
          Totals14989062264

JUVENILE OFFENDERS.

Offences committed by juvenile offenders—i.e., persons under or apparently under the age of sixteen—constitute a class worthy of special consideration. Figures of juvenile cases in Magistrates' Courts during each of the last seven years are as follows:—

MAGISTRATES ' COURTS.—JUVENILE CASES, 1914-20.
Year.Total Cases.Discharged for want of Prosecution or Evidence.Dismissed on the Merits.Admonished and Discharged.Committed for Trial or Sentence.Summarily Convicted.
* New heading, 1917.
19141,384201130*31,050
19151,67737468*61,229
19161,68746483*51,135
19171,58599875039887
19181,552122445523831
19191,7591155564320926
19201,579805964617777

The increasing utilization of the provision which enables a Magistrate to admonish and discharge an offender without a conviction being recorded renders comparisons on the basis of summary convictions inadvisable, as it is obvious from a glance at the figures for 1916 and 1917 that many who in 1917 and subsequent years have been admonished and discharged would prior to that year have been included among the convicted, though a considerable proportion would have been included in the totals of “discharged for want of evidence” and “dismissed on the merits,” especially as the form of return then in use did not provide for “admonished and discharged” cases. Probably the best comparison between one year and another is obtained by taking the total number of juvenile cases, as in the following:—

Year.Number.Per 1,000 of Total Population.
19141,3841.26
19151,6771.52
19161,6871.53
19171,5851.44
19181,5521.40
19191,7591.54
19201,5791.32

Of the 777 summary convictions of juveniles in Magistrates' Courts in 1920, no fewer than 640 were in respect of offences' against property, including theft 396, housebreaking and stealing 111, and wilful damage 122. The whole of the 17 committals to Supreme Court were also on account of offences against property.

Nine juveniles were convicted during the year of offences against the person (indecent assault 6, common assault 3), 84 of offences against good order (including 75 breaches of by-laws), and 44 of other offences (offences relating to the use of firearms 12, and offences under Defence Act 10).

Offences by juveniles are seldom of a very serious nature, and even when a conviction is recorded Magistrates frequently adopt the course of discharging the offender or of ordering him to come up for sentence when called upon. In the latter class it rests almost entirely with the offender himself as to whether any further steps will be taken, and it is found that in very few cases does the future conduct of the convicted person render it necessary for him to be brought before the Magistrate again for sentence.

The punishment meted out to juvenile offenders in 1920 was as follows:—

MAGISTRATES ' COURTS.—CONVICTIONS OF JUVENILE OFFENDERS, 1920.
Class of Offence and Punishment.
Punishment.Against the Person.Against Property.Against Good Order.Other.Totals.
Released on probation..     68..     169
Convicted and discharged..     75219105
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence1268919297
Committed to industrial school714924162
Fined12552684
Imprisoned..     2..     ..     2
Whipped..     37..     239
Bound over..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Order made..     16..     319
          Total summary convictions96408444777

Beyond the information disclosed by the Magistrate's Court returns as to committals for sentence or trial, no statistics of juvenile cases in Supreme Courts are available. From the table given on the preceding page, however, it is obvious that very few such cases find their way to the higher Court.

Similarly, juvenile prisoners are almost non-existent, it being the custom where restraint is necessary to commit offenders to industrial schools. The prison statistics show that, excluding one Maori, two boys under the age of sixteen were received into gaol during 1920.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN.

Crime amongst women in New Zealand is not extensive. Of 33,666 summary convictions in Magistrates' Courts in 1920 (excluding Maoris) only 1,876, or 5.57 per cent., were of females. Drunkenness, including the issue of prohibition orders, was responsible for 614 convictions, theft 158, wilful damage 18, common assault 16, offensive conduct or language 50, soliciting prostitution 21, keeping a brothel 21, and vagrancy 89. A large proportion of the convictions was in respect of minor breaches of the law, including 259 breaches of by-laws; 178 of the Licensing Act; 116, Impounding Act; 69, Motor Regulation Act; and 44, School Attendance Act.

The exclusion of multiple charges in respect of offences committed in conjunction reduces the number of summary convictions of females to 1,651, including 714 arrest cases, which represent only 493 women. The number of distinct persons concerned in the 937 summons cases cannot be ascertained.

In addition to the 1,876 summary convictions of women in Magistrates' Courts during the year there was 61 committals to the Supreme Court—24 for sentence and 37 for trial. The Supreme Court statistics show that 48 charges against females were dealt with; during the year, resulting in 23 convictions, representing only 14 women. In addition 17 women were sentenced after committal for sentence in respect of 24 offences.

The number of distinct female prisoners received into prison during 1920 was 118, the principal offences of these being—vagrancy, 34; drunkenness, 18; theft, 13; and soliciting prostitution, 13. The actual number of receptions of female prisoners during the year was 287, this number including Maoris, and the daily average number of women prisoners in gaol was 67. Two reformatories (at Addington and Point Halswell) house women prisoners only.

OFFENCES BY NEW-ZEALAND-BORN.

The statistics available on the subject indicate that crime among the New-Zealand-born is less than among the rest of the population of the Dominion. As explained previously, information as to birthplace and age is available in arrest cases, and the figures for 1920 show that of 8,203 persons (excluding Maoris) convicted in Magistrates' Courts after arrest, 3,637, or 44 per cent., were New-Zealand-born. Persons born in New Zealand represented at the census of 1916 72 per cent. of the total population, including, of course, a considerable proportion of children. Probably the best comparison is by taking only males at age 20 and over, and this shows that whereas New-Zealand-born males formed 52 per cent. of the total male population at ages 20 and over in 1916, they formed in 1920 only 42 per cent of males of those ages convicted in Magistrates' Courts after arrest.

The proportion of New-Zealand-born population will no doubt have increased somewhat since 1916 owing to the preponderance of New-Zealand-born among soldiers who have returned since 1916, and youths who have attained the age of twenty since that year, so that the comparison is all the more favourable to the native-born population.

A summary of offences and ages of distinct New-Zealand-born persons convicted during 1920 is given (females are included):—

OFFENCES AND AGES.—NEW ZEALAND-BORN ONLY (EXCLUDING MAORIS).
Offences againstUnder 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.*Totals.
* Including unspecified.
The person630224223123
Property2251749612995719
Good order513043578601,0442,616
Other offences2118265163179
          Totals3035265011,0821,2253,637

A further table shows the ages of distinct New-Zealand-born prisoners received into gaol during the last five years. The proportion of New-Zealand-born to total male prisoners at ages 20 and over was in 1920 42 per cent., as compared with the 52 per cent. shown previously as being the corresponding proportion in the population.

DISTINCT NEW -ZEALAND-BORN CONVICTED PRISONERS RECEIVED INTO PRISON, 1916-20.
Year.Under 15.15 and under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.Totals.
1916..     6998140333286926
1917370136135338293975
1918..     62100122265192741
19191789595281226776
1920174151130239274869

OFFENCES BY MAORIS.

The number of convictions of Maoris brought before Magistrates' Courts for the past ten years is shown in the following table:—

SUMMARY CONVICTIONS OF MAORIS (MAGISTRATES ' COURTS), 1911-20.
Year.Offences.
Against the Person.Against Property.Against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.
Drunkenness.Other.
191142123322314189990
1912441263203513641,205
19134523294332243937
1914511913353304061,313
1915691874224053731,456
1916441522963933781,263
1917501853203734901,418
1918661902974074581,418
19191502724116204821,935
19201002753904726141,851

Distinct Maoris convicted after arrest in 1920 numbered 405. The ages of these are given in the following table in combination with information as to the class of offence:—

AGES AND OFFENCES OF DISTINCT MAORIS CONVICTED (ARRESTS ONLY), 1920.
Offences againstUnder 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.Unspecified.Totals.
The person..     11664330
Property3131142094109
Good order14854578411255
Other offences14221111
          Totals339476859819405

The number of Maoris convicted in the higher Courts exhibits the extent of serious crime amongst the Native race. Those who are sentenced in the Supreme Court after pleading guilty in the lower Court have been included.

Year.Maoris convicted or sentenced in Supreme Court forTotals.
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Miscellaneous Offences.
19166136328
1917374115
191841761845
19198248242
19206187..     31

Twenty-one of the number for 1920 had been sent up from the Magistrates' Courts for sentence.

The number of distinct Maori prisoners received into gaol under sentence during 1920 was 84 (including 3 women), as compared with 108 in 1919.

DRUNKENNESS.

The extent to which convictions for drunkenness swell the total of convictions is obvious from the information given throughout this section. Drunkenness is a peculiar class of offence, and one to which considerable attention is paid in New Zealand and elsewhere, and some further particulars concerning statistics of drunkenness are accordingly given below.

The number of convictions for drunkenness, including drunkenness with disorderly conduct, during 1920 (exclusive of convictions against Maoris) totalled 7,995 against males and 508 against females. In addition there were 390 convictions against Maoris—379 against males and 11 against females. The following table shows the number of convictions for drunkenness recorded, and the proportion per 1,000 of the mean population of each sex, excluding Maoris, during the past ten years:—

CONVICTIONS FOR DRUNKENNESS (EXCLUSIVE OF MAORIS), 1911-20.
Year.Convictions.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
191110,55984111,40019.741.7511.23
191210,68884311,53119.561.7111.10
191310,81578311,59819.271.5410.85
191412,1331,01213,14521.341.9412.06
191512,01095212,96221.221.7811.79
19169,93776510,70218.011.409.73
19177,9716068,57714.661.097.83
19186,4675326,99911.980.946.35
19197,1814757,65612.550.836.70
19207,9955088,50313.110.877.13

If the Maoris are included, the total convictions for drunkenness during 1920 will amount, to 8,893 (8,374 against males and 519 against females). Of these, 8,501 . (8,000 males and 501 females) were arrest cases, while 392 (374 males and 18 females) were cases brought before the Magistrate by summons. The following table shows the birthplaces and ages of all persons (including Maoris) arrested and convicted for drunkenness during the year. Birthplaces and ages in summons cases are not obtainable.

BIRTHPLACES AND AGES OF PERSONS CONVICTED FOR DRUNKENNESS (ARRESTS ONLY), 1920.
Birthplace.Under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 60.60 and over, and Unspecified.Totals.
New Zealand
     Maoris15948647232276
     Others342844481,0711,279913,207
Australia21224617424583591
England and Wales9721494808342721,816
Scotland22249195447120835
Ireland..     12512085542451,070
Other European19257518055345
Asia..     751121448
Africa..     1..     16..     8
America11120334522132
Other (including unspecified)..     10853147173
          Totals695098492,3173,6861,0718,501

Among the New-Zealand-born population of European descent there is evidence of less drunkenness than among persons who have come from abroad. It will be seen that in all the age-groups given in the following table the percentage of convictions of New-Zealand-born males is lower than the corresponding percentage of population, while the reverse is, of course, true in respect of males born outside the Dominion:—

Age, in Years.Percentage of Male Population, Census 1916.Percentage of Convictions for Drunkenness, 1920 (arrest cases).
New-Zealand-born.Others.New-Zealand-born.Others.
20 and under 2580.1619.8455.6444.36
25 and under 3071.1928.8152.4547.55
30 and under 4065.5834.4244.6252.38
40 and under 5059.6140.3938.7361.27
50 and under 6036.1263.8824.5975.41
60 and under 7014.2785.7311.6888.32
70 and under 805.7094.304.8395.17

Repeated charges against the same person are included in the totals shown in the tables on the previous page. Dealing with arrests only (males, 7,734; females, 419: total 8.225), but excluding Maoris, it is found that the number of distinct persons convicted of this offence was 5,195 (4,901 males and 294 females), or 63.16 per cent. of the total “arrest” convictions (excluding Maoris) for drunkenness.

The total convictions (exclusive of those of Maoris) for all offences (arrests only) in 1920 were 13,457, but the distinct convictions amounted to only 8,203, the former total including 5,254 convictions for multiple charges against the same person. Of the latter, 1,440 were in respect of charges dealt with at the same time as the offender was convicted of drunkenness, the principal associated offences being,—

Offence.Number of Convictions.
Common assault75
Theft37
Wilful damage129
Assaulting, resisting, or obstructing police106
Indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct147
Obscene, threatening, or abusive language342
Vagrancy45
Breaches of by-laws34
Breaches of Licensing Act342
Prohibition orders issued147

Any person who has been three times convicted for drunkenness within the nine months immediately preceding any conviction for drunkenness may be declared an habitual drunkard. A Magistrate may, in addition to or in lieu of a penalty, commit an habitual drunkard to any institution authorized by the Governor-General to receive and detain such persons for any period not being less than twelve months. The law makes provision in respect of the discharge of inmates, their good conduct, discipline, and punishment for offences during detention, and for the proper inspection of such institutions.

Drunkenness is usually met with a fine, the returns for 1920 showing that of the 8,503 persons (exclusive of Maoris) convicted of drunkenness 5,866 escaped with a fine, while 384 went to gaol in preference to paying the fine, and 106 were peremptorily imprisoned, and 65 (including 32 habitual drunkards) committed to a Salvation Army Home or other such institution. Eighty-seven convicted persons were ordered to come up for sentence, and no fewer than 1,954 were convicted and discharged.

A calculation of the amount of alcoholic liquor consumed per head of mean population during the past five years is given below:—

CONSUMPTION OF BEER, WINE, AND SPIRITS PER HEAD OF MEAN POPULATION.
 Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
Beer. Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.Beer. Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.
19169.9870.1210.67810.4390.1260.709
19179.9370.1240.66110.3870.1300.691
19189.2130.1090.5029.6290.1140.524
191911.6400.1460.57712.1470.1530.603
192012.1590.1930.76312.6670.2010.795

The quantity of each kind of alcoholic liquor used in the Dominion during the the same period was as follows:—

 Beer for Consumption. Gal.Wine for Consumption. Gal.Spirits for Consumption. Gal.
191611,477,041138,757779,698
191711,416,475142,859759,118
191810,621,229126,122578,177
191913,882,286174,333688,632
192015,106,653239,880947,660

Chapter 10. SECTION X.—DEFENCE.

NEW ZEALAND MILITARY FORCES.

THE New Zealand Military Forces consist of the Permanent Force, the Territorial Force, and the Senior Cadets.

The units of the Permanent Force are the New Zealand Staff Corps, the Royal New Zealand Artillery, New Zealand Permanent Staff, New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps, and New Zealand Army Pay Corps.

The Staff Corps contains 100 professional officers, who are charged with the training of the Forces and the administration of all matters connected therewith.

The Royal New Zealand Artillery has an establishment of 20 officers and 188 other ranks. These supply the necessary instructors for the Territorial Artillery, provide cadres for the Field Artillery units, and maintain the harbour defences and artillery equipment throughout the Dominion.

The New Zealand Permanent Staff, with a strength of 180, provides drill instructors and custodians of Defence property and equipment, and also carries out administrative functions.

The New Zealand Ordnance Corps comprises 9 officers and 165 other ranks, who are in charge of the mobilization equipment and bulk depots of the Forces.

The New Zealand Pay Corps comprises 7 officers and 24 other ranks, and the New Zealand Army Service Corps 2 officers and 87 other ranks, and carry out the normal functions of those services respectively.

For purposes of defence the Dominion is divided into three commands—the Northern Command comprising roughly the northern half of the North Island, the Central Command comprising the remainder of the North Island, and the Southern Command comprising the South Island, Stewart Island, and Chatham Islands.

These commands are each divided into four regimental districts, and each command contains the following units of the New Zealand Territorial Force:—

Three regiments of Mounted Rifles, seven batteries of Artillery, one Field Engineer Depot, one Railway Engineer Depot, one Corps of Signals Depot. four battalions of Infantry, one Army Service Corps Depot, and one Medical Corps Depot.

This organization on mobilization produces one complete division and three brigades of Mounted Rifles, and provides the machinery by which this force could be duplicated and kept up to strength.

The present strength of the Territorial Force is 1,031 officers and 22,157 other ranks.

The Senior Cadets are organized in battalions, and receive physical and elementary military training.

Rifle clubs exist throughout the Dominion for the encouragement of rifle shooting, and in addition to minor fixtures a Dominion rifle meeting is held at Trentham annually.

All male inhabitants of New Zealand who have resided therein for six months, and are British subjects, are liable to be trained as follows:—

  • In the Senior Cadets—from fourteen years of age, or date of leaving school, as the case may be, to eighteen years of age (or in the case of those who at the age of eighteen are attending a secondary school, then to the date of their leaving school).

  • In the Territorial Force—from eighteen years (or from any later date on which they cease to attend a secondary school as aforesaid) to twenty-five.

New Zealand supplied ten contingents for service during the South African War. These comprised a total of 6,500 officers and men.

Immediately the Great European War broke out an Expeditionary Force was despatched to Western Samoa and occupied those islands, while a larger force in the form of a mixed brigade was despatched to Europe. The latter force was, however, landed in Egypt, and took part in the defence of the Suez Canal. It gave a good account of itself in the desperate campaign on Gallipoli, and after being withdrawn to Egypt was expanded into a Division and a Mounted Brigade. The Division then went to the western front, while the Mounted Brigade continued to operate against the Turks in Palestine. Both forces became famous for their military qualities, and took part in practically all the great actions of their respective theatres up to the Armistice.

A total of 100,000 troops left New Zealand for service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and nearly 17,000 lost their lives on active service.

On the Armistice being declared in November, 1918, New Zealand had 52,000 troops in the field, while 10,000 more were ready to embark or under training.

The tremendous amount of transport work involved in the conveyance of these forces to Egypt, France, Britain, Gallipoli, and Samoa was carried out with extraordinary success, not one New Zealand transport having been lost while conveying troops.

The troops provided for foreign service represented nearly 10 per cent. of the total population of the Dominion in 1914, while it is known that a very large number of other New-Zealanders served in the British or Australian Naval or Military Forces.

The total cost of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force to date is £79,289,454.

The Headquarters of the New Zealand Military Forces is at Wellington. The General Officer Commanding is Major-General Sir Edward Chaytor, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O., C.B. (D), p.s.c.

NAVAL DEFENCE.

By the Australian Defence Act, 1887, provision was made for the payment by New Zealand of a proportional part of the cost of the establishment and maintenance of a British Naval Force to be employed for the protection of trade in Australasian waters. Under this Act a sum of approximately £20,000 per annum was paid by New Zealand to the Imperial Government.

In 1903, consequent on the passing of the Australian and New Zealand Naval Defence Act, the annual contribution payable by New Zealand was raised to “a sum not exceeding £40,000.”

By the Naval Subsidy Act, 1908, the contribution of the Dominion was again increased, this time to a sum of £100,000 payable annually for ten years from the 12th May, 1909.

In 1909 New Zealand presented the battle-cruiser “New Zealand” to the Imperial Government. Full information concerning this vessel and her visit to New Zealand in 1913 appears in the 1913 issue of this book (pages 932-941).

The Naval Defence Act, 1913, provides for the establishment of a New Zealand Naval Force by voluntary enlistment for a prescribed period of not less than two years, members on discharge to be drafted into the New Zealand Royal Naval Reserve for such period as may be prescribed for service only in time of war: the ships and personnel forming the force to pass under the control and to be at the disposition of the Imperial Government in time of war.

A commencement was made with the formation of a New Zealand Division immediately prior to the war, when H.M.S. “Philomel” was commissioned with ranks and ratings lent from the Royal Navy to serve as a training-ship for the formation of a small Naval Force. The “Philomel” was employed under the orders of the British Admiralty throughout the war, and no opportunity was afforded for the commencement of a scheme of training.

In 1919 Admiral of the Fleet Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O., visited New Zealand in H.M.S. “New Zealand,” and presented his report making recommendations and suggestions for the naval defence of the Dominion.

In 1920 H.M.S. “Chatham” was presented to New Zealand by the Imperial Government, and was commissioned on the 1st October with officers and men of the Royal Navy: the officers on loan therefrom, the men partly on loan, but mainly transferred to the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy. The “Chatham” flies the broad pennant of Commodore Alan G. Hotham, C.M.G., R.N., appointed in command of that ship, as Commodore Commanding the New Zealand Station and as Naval Adviser to the New Zealand Government. On the arrival of the “Chatham” in New Zealand waters the “Philomel,” which had been paid off towards the end of the war, was again put into commission as a training-ship, for which purpose she had in the meantime been converted. The period of first engagement was, by legislation, fixed at twelve years, with subsequent re-engagement for periods of five years, on a system of deferred pay in lieu of pension; and the period of enrolment in the Reserve on discharge from the sea-going forces at ten years, or up to the age of forty, for service as required in time of war. A commencement was made with the recruiting of New Zealand boys and youths for training as seamen and stokers in May, 1921, and fifty-six had been entered by the middle of July.

A Naval Board was constituted by Order in Council of the 14th March, charged with the control of all matters relating to the Naval Forces, upon the policy directed by the Minister, and vested with the executive command of the Naval Forces: the Board to be composed of the Minister of Defence (President) and the following members: The Commodore Commanding New Zealand Station (First Naval Member), the Chief Staff Officer to the Commodore (temporarily, as Second Naval Member), the Secretary to the Commodore Commanding (Secretary to the Board).

By Order in Council of the 20th June, 1921, it was provided that the ships and personnel comprising the New Zealand Naval Forces shall be described respectively as forming and belonging to “The New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy,” which shall be the official designation of the Force.

H.M.S. “Veronica” (sloop) was commissioned on the 23rd March, 1920, as an Imperial unit for service on the New Zealand Station. A further vessel of this class is expected to be commissioned for this station shortly.

Chapter 11. SECTION XI.—EXTERNAL TRADE.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

EARLY TRADE.

FROM the very earliest times New Zealand has inevitably been dependent upon foreign intercourse for its development and progress. The first European residents in New Zealand seem to have been the small party of sealers from Sydney who settled at Dusky Sound for ten months in 1792-93, and built there the first vessel made from local timber. The seals and whales of the South Seas attracted attention to the Islands as a convenient depot, and by 1800 there were established many little settlements where the blubber was tried out. In 1794 the timber trade was inaugurated by the visit of the “Fancy,” and the export of timber, mainly kahikatea (white-pine), rapidly grew to goodly proportions. The native flax (Phormium tenax) was also early recognized as a source of wealth, and a considerable export arose.

Thus, irregularly, the settlement of New Zealand went hand-in-hand with external trade, and was, indeed, promoted by the hope of commercial gain. The early exports were all local products as enumerated above, with the gruesome addition of tattooed Maori heads, while the imports were mainly muskets and powder.

The arrival of the New Zealand Company's expedition in 1840 stimulated the development of a more stable trade—wool had been exported to Hobart in 1839—and gradually the exports and imports of New Zealand took on their modern form. In 1852 the young colony was granted representative government, and from that date there is an accurate record of the external trade of the country. By 1856 full responsible or cabinet government was established.

By 1853 the export of flax had been practically ruined owing to increased competition from other sources, and the amount exported in that year was negligible. Timber, however, retained its place as a principal export, supplying 31 per cent. (£93,000) of the total exports; while wool had increased to 22 per cent. (£66,507); the value of grain exported was small, only £19,000 (6 per cent.); oil amounted to £22,000, and potatoes to £30,000. The total exports in 1853 were £303,282, and the total imports £597,827.

THE GROWTH OF TRADE, 1853-1920.

A low and fluctuating level of trade was turned in 1860-63 into rapidly increasing volume by the effect of the gold-discoveries which occurred in the early “sixties.” Both imports and exports were stimulated, the former to feed and clothe an ever-increasing population, the latter by the export of gold.

Trade remained stationary till the expenditure of borrowed money brought the land-boom of the early “seventies.” A great temporary increase of trade was succeeded by violent fluctuations and but slowly increasing trade as the effects of the bubble were slowly worked off. From 1873 till 1895 the world level of prices was falling continuously, and this factor contributed not a little to the depression of New Zealand. Little headway could be made against a falling price of wool and a decreasing production of gold, which were the main features of these twenty years.

But in 1895 world prices began to rise, and the effect is seen immediately in the upward shoot of the external trade. On only three occasions has this upward tendency been checked—in 1908, when the commercial crisis which was felt in the Old World a year previously affected New Zealand; in 1913, on the occasion of another depression of trade; and again in 1917-18, as a result of shortage of shipping.

The following table shows the increase in the total trade since the year 1853:—

TOTAL TRADE, IMPORTS, AND EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND, 1853-1920.
Year.Total Value.Value per Head.
Total Trade.Imports.Exports.Total Trade.Imports.Exports.
 £      £      £      £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
1853901,110597,828303,2823009191871022
186310,510,0797,024,6743,485,4057210548952410
187312,075,0586,464,6875,610,37141193229419911
188315,070,0377,974,0387,095,999289515131382
189315,896,8796,911,5158,985,3642409109013119
190327,799,05312,788,67515,010,3783317101511101860
190428,040,04213,291,69414,748,3483338151471791
190528,484,80412,828,85715,655,947321410141411171911
190633,306,54015,211,40318,095,1373739161982041
190737,371,81817,302,86120,068,957401331816621169
190833,788,77817,471,28416,317,4943515118991754
190935,336,71515,674,71919,661,996367316272048
191039,231,79217,051,58322,180,20939104173622610
191138,574,36919,545,87919,028,4903802195218150
191242,747,15520,976,57421,770,58141210203920191
191345,275,02422,288,30222,986,72242732017121102
191448,117,54321,856,09626,261,4474428200112419
191553,477,74621,728,83431,748,9124812101915228178
191659,626,22026,339,28333,286,9375448231923056
191752,516,81220,919,26531,587,547471551907281410
191852,750,19524,234,00728,516,188471662119525171
191984,641,77330,671,69853,970,0757412261694745
1920108,037,77461,595,82846,441,94690119511211381810

TRADE PER HEAD.

The trade per head was fairly great in the early years after 1853; but the amount was swelled by the relatively large imports which were necessary for the development of the young colony. The gold-discoveries raised the level of both imports and exports, and after 1870 the borrowing policy which was inaugurated greatly inflated trade, and especially imports. The highest level of imports per head, apart from the abnormal years of the early “sixties” and the last two years, was reached in 1874, and the consequent reaction saw an almost continuous decrease in the per capita trade both in imports and in exports till 1895.

It is significant that the turning-point should have come in 1895, the year in which prices turned to rise all over the world. Since 1895 there has been an almost constant increase. It will be noticed that although there was a slight decline in 1917 and 1918, due to the acute shortage of shipping at that time, the total trade per head has advanced very rapidly during the last few years. The figure for the year 1920 eclipsed all previous records.

The large increases in recent years are largely if not entirely due to the increased market values of both imports and exports.

For a long period the external trade, while increasing absolutely, was declining relatively to population, and therefore attention has been directed to the per capita trade of the Dominion, as shown in the following diagram:—

BALANCE OF TRADE.

The relation between imports and exports is of the greatest importance to a young country like New Zealand. In the very earliest years of occupation by Europeans the export of phormium, timber, and skins was greatly in excess of the few imports, mainly muskets and gunpowder, a fact which is explained partly by the temporary residence of the traders and more by the weaker bargaining-power of the Maori. With the settlement of the regular colony in 1840 there was evident an inflation of imports occasioned by the amount of capital the new colonists brought in for the development of the country. From 1853 to 1870 there was an excess of imports, which, however, was tending to decrease.

A temporary excess of exports was changed in the early “seventies” by another great increase of imports, due to the borrowing policy inaugurated in that period. Except for a big decrease in 1880, imports continued to be greater than exports until 1886.

From that year onward there is a continued excess of exports, except for the three years 1908, 1911, and 1920. The divergence from 1886 to 1895 is most marked. Since 1895 the lines of imports and exports run almost parallel, as a reference to the smoothed curves given below will show; but, as a rule, fluctuations in exports precede by a year similar fluctuations in imports.

The balance of trade is intimately bound up, in later years especially, with the large imports of capital which have been brought in to assist in the development of the country. This has already been made evident in discussing the balance of trade in early years. The excess of imports from 1853 to 1870, and again from 1872 to 1886, can definitely be traced to the importation of capital in those periods.

The excess of exports in later years consists mainly of profits, interest, and other charges on the debt of New Zealand, public, local, and private. Other items, such as remittances abroad and subsidies, also swell the balance of exports. The amount necessary in each year to pay the interest on the debt of New Zealand cannot be definitely stated, owing to the lack of data concerning the private investments in the Dominion.

The amount of interest payable on the public debt at the 31st March, 1920, was £8,377,037, but of this amount approximately one-half must be deducted for stock and debentures held in the Dominion (see section on “Public Finance”). Added to this there is the interest on local bodies' debts of approximately twenty-four and a half millions (of which, however, less than eight millions were raised abroad), and on the private debts of the Dominion, for which no statistics are available. It is evident that some five millions are needed each year to defray the charges on the various debts owing abroad.

Against this outgoing must be set the amount of now importations of capital in the shape of loans. While the expenditure on interest is fairly constant from year to year, the amount raised by new loans varies, and these variations are a big factor in the fluctuations of the balance of trade. The following table shows the comparison of this balance with the increase in the public debt since 1866:—

COMPARISON OF BALANCE OF TRADE AND INCREASE OF PUBLIC DEBT.
Period.Annual Average.
Imports.*Exports.*Excess of Imports.*Excess of Exports.*Increase of Net Debt.*

* in millions of pounds.

† Average annual increase between 31st March, 1915, and 1920. Most of this increase has been due to new loans raised in the Dominion.

 £    £    £    £    £  
1866-705.014.530.48..     0.69
1871-756.375.430.94..     1.91
1876-807.436.021.41..     2.24
1881-857.846.751.09..     1.03
1886-906.308.09..     1.791.02
1891-956.719.17..     2.460.99
1896-19008.5611.01..     2.451.26
1901-512.4114.39..     1.982.22
1906-1016.5419.26..     2.721.62
1911-1521.2824.36..     3.085.33
1916-2032.7538.76..     6.0119.45

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE AND BULLION.

There is no Mint in New Zealand, whilst there is a fairly considerable production of gold bullion. Gold therefore ranks as an ordinary export of the Dominon, along with wool, frozen meat, and dairy-produce. In earlier days this export of gold was much more important than now, amounting in 1863 to 70 per cent. of the total exports, from which figure it shrank steadily to 6 per cent. in 1913. During the last four years there has been a further decrease in the percentage of gold to the total exports.

As all coin necessary for the commerce of the Dominion must be imported from abroad, the movement of specie affords a ready index of the state of trade. A bad year is reflected in an export of specie, while prosperous years show a steady inflow. A table is given showing imports and exports of specie during the ten years 1911-20.

VALUE OF SPECIE IMPORTED AND EXPORTED, 1911-20.
Year.Total Specie.Excess of Specie Imports over Exports.
Imported.Exported.
 £     £     £     
1911763,27148,305714,966
1912399,995258,955141,040
1913634,670176,359458,311
1914711,8697,522704,347
19151,070,114318,090752,024
19161,293,8805,8801,288,000
1917177,13570,475106,660
1918102,21535,61066,605
1919362,53162,150300,381
192041,97536,5805,395

The amount of gold bullion exported is shown in the following table:—

EXPORTS OF GOLD FROM NEW ZEALAND, 1911-20.
Year.Exports.Percentage of Total Exports.
To United Kingdom.To Australia.To other Countries.Total.
 £     £     £     £     £ 
1911379,5961,435,655..     1,815,2519.54
1912394,425950,706..     1,345,1316.18
1913353,7631,105,720161,459,4996.35
1914159,499735,81157895,3673.41
19155,060507,6591,181,8341,694,5535.34
1916134,827510,499553,8861,199,2126.01
1917690,025213,863..     903,8882.86
191827542,116..     42,3910.15
1919339,533558,656436,2131,334,4052.47
1920103,35312,167768,228883,7480.19

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.

It is customary to classify the trade of a country as “special” and “entrepôt,” according as it represents the exchange of domestic productions for imports for home consumption, or a mere transit trade. In many countries, such as Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom, the transit trade attains considerable importance, but New Zealand, owing to its geographical position, is precluded from developing in that direction. Her imports, except for a small forwarding trade to the Pacific islands, are for her own consumption, and the great bulk of her exports are commodities of domestic production.

The following table shows for the last ten years the very small proportion which re-exports bear to the total trade of the Dominion:—

Year.Trade (excluding Specie).Re-exports (included in two preceding Columns).Percentage of Re-exports.
Imports.Exports.Total.To Imports.To Exports.
 £     £     £     £      
191118,782,60818,980,18537,762,793198,2871.061.04
191220,576,57921,511,62642,088,205239,2211.161.11
191321,653,63222,810,36344,463,995232,4731.071.02
191421,144,22726,253,92547,398,152269,2081.271.03
191520,658,72031,430,82252,089,542392,6901.901.25
191625,045,40333,281,05758,326,460311,0301.240.93
191720,742,13031,517,07252,259,202499,5902.411.59
191824,131,79228,480,57852,612,370579,1782.402.04
191930,309,16753,907,92584,217,092665,6912.201.23
192061,553,85346,441,946107,995,799849,6521.381.83

Before comparisons may properly be made with the trade of other countries care must be taken to ensure that the statistics are comparable in their methods of compilation and definition.

The value of imports into New Zealand has, since 1916, been reckoned at the fair market value in the country of export at the time of exportation, plus 10 per cent.; exports are valued f.o.b. In the United States and Canada, however, the value of imports also are calculated f.o.b., and the difference, representing freight, insurance, and charges, amounts to about 10 per cent. of the total value.

Again, in the United Kingdom the values of both imports and exports are obtained by assessment at current market prices in the United Kingdom.

A comparison of the “special” trade of various countries is shown in the table given below, the information being taken from the Commonwealth Official Year-book. Such a comparison (which covers in most cases the latest available year) necessarily ignores many of the elements considered above, but gives a sufficiently accurate idea of the relative trade of the various countries. The figures for Canada relate to the year ended 31st March, 1919, for the United States to the twelve months ended 30th June, 1918, for Australia to the year ended 30th June, 1919; in all other cases the figures refer to the calendar year.

TRADE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.—IMPORTS FOR HOME CONSUMPTION AND EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC PRODUCE, INCLUDING BULLION AND SPECIE.
Country.Year.Trade.*Trade per Inhabitant.
Imports.Exports.Total.Imports.Exports.Total.

* In thousands of pounds.

† Excluding bullion and specie.

  £     £     £     £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
New Zealand192060,74645,592106,3385018838478933
Switzerland1919154,862142,652;297,514,3968364875114
Netherlands1919291,251153,019444,2704363221516614
Denmark1919131,84438,442170,28643951213656211
United Kingdom19191,467,580798,3732,265,9533475181405315
Norway191792,29543,779136,07435141612851140
Canada1918-19188,312249,961438,27321632851049121
Australia1918-1994,073106,027200,10018140211639156
France1919936,867274,0591,210,92623120618130101
Belgium1919157,27571,165228,440201559803035
Argentine191836,740160,310197,050488197023158
Sweden191746,61775,025121,6428091218820195
United States1917-18628,7091,264,7181,893,427517111117217151
Italy1919431,305135,468566,7731114931391586
Brazil191980,905132,100213,0052181141627151
Japan1919285,986238,260524,24631353126147

New Zealand is seen to head the list as regards both exports of domestic produce and imports of articles entered for home consumption, Switzerland taking second place with exports, and Denmark and the Netherlands with imports. Prior to the war the trade per head of population was greatest in Belgium (£48 18s. 1d.), with New Zealand next (£41 14s. 3d.).

By themselves statistics of foreign trade are not a sure test of a country's prosperity, and they must always be interpreted with a knowledge of local conditions. An increase of imports may not be the result of increased purchasing-power, but may merely represent loans from another country, or even a failure of the home supply of certain commodities. Similarly, increased exports may mean greater productivity and increased purchasing-power, but they may also denote the payments on greatly increased liabilities.

In all countries the home trade is greatly it excess of the external trade, and in larger countries, which are more self-contained, a decrease in foreign trade may be due to development within the country itself. But New Zealand is far from self-contained, and from her position must attach a great importance to external trade. Under present conditions, only by export can a sufficient market be obtained for her rich resources, and only from abroad can be obtained the manufactures which are needed for common use. The development of the external trade since 1895 has been accompanied by increasing prosperity, and every advance in exports, followed by larger imports, represents an increase in the wealth of the Dominion.

SUBSECTION B.—EXPORTS.

METHOD OF RECORDING EXPORTS.

IN New Zealand the Department of H. M. Customs requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination.

In all cases exports are valued “free on board at the port of shipment.” In many cases, however, the goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, and in such cases values must be assessed in New Zealand with reference to current prices.

The exports of New Zealand produce are shown separately from re-exports of imported goods.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as is practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXPORT TRADE.

The table on the opposite page gives a summary of the main exports from New Zealand during the last twenty years. The main commodities are shown separately, and the progress of the Dominion during the last two decades is strikingly illustrated.

The main feature of the table is the prominence given to the primary products of the soil. The extractive industries of New Zealand have always supplied the overwhelming bulk of the exports, and, though the proportion of the different classes has varied from time to time, there has never been any considerable or even noticeable export of manufactured goods.

Until 1914 the statistical tables included a heading “Manufactures,” which showed a considerable total value in each year, reaching £987,072 in 1913. Included in this group, however, was phormium, the value of which (excluding tow) was in 1913 £721,924; and though the phormium is stripped and prepared in New Zealand, it leaves the Dominion as a raw fibre, which can hardly be termed a “manufacture.” Similarly, leather in 1913 amounted to £31,945, and copra was also included in this heading. There are some genuine manufactures exported, such as ale and beer, cordage, soap, and woollens, but their value is insignificant compared with the primary products.

Practically every item considered shows a great increase over the twenty years, and the total exports show a threefold increase in the period. This increase i6 practically continuous: there is, however, a slight check in 1904, and two more serious decreases in 1908 and 1911. The figures for 1917 and 1918 are considerably below those of the previous year, but the export values during 1919 constituted a record. Although the figures for 1920 show a decrease as compared with 1919, they are nevertheless still a long way ahead of any year prior to 1919.

In the past twenty years the proportions of the principal exports have changed a good deal. Wool, which reached its maximum percentage (47.9) in 1897, showed a tendency to decline till 1902, then partially regained its position, once more showing a marked fall in 1918, owing to a considerable portion of the clip being retained in the Dominion until the next year, when wool to the value of £19,559,537 was exported. The total exports of wool during the six years 1915-20 aggregated nearly 74 millions sterling.

Frozen meat in recent years has supplied approximately 20 per cent. of the total exports, a proportion considerably exceeded in 1920, when the value of this important item of export reached £11,673,696.

EXPORTS OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE.—1901-20.
Year.Wool.Frozen Meat.Butter.Cheese.Tallow.Skins, Hides, and Pelts.Other Pastoral Produce.*
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
19013,699,1032,253,262822,406238,685;351,710364,701238,550
19023,354,5632,718,7631,205,802163,539550,131473,699338,371
19034,041,2743,197,0431,318,067194,998517,871566,178239,532
19044,673,8262,793,5991,380,460185,486357,974498,121189,942
19055,381,3332,694,4321,408,557205,171347,888675,201208,939
19066,765,6552,877,0311,560,235341,002455,026894,518257,313
19077,657,2783,420,6641,615,345662,355560,9651,055,650273,447
19085,332,7813,188.5151,171,182783,419481,335767,692231,142
19096,305,8883,601,0931,639,3801,105,390648,4521,018,103316,959
19108,308,4103,850,7771,811.9751,195,373756,8411,129,041468,298
19116,491,7073,503.4061,576,9171,192,057607,257911,519467,695
19127,105,4833,909,5692,088,8091,680,393684,7391,091,871370,616
19138,057,6204,449,9332,061,6511,770,297663,0881,199,375317,181
19149,318,1145,863,0622,338,5762,564,125694,3481,317,593433,331
191510,387,8757,794,3952,700,6252,730,211780,8281,450,276690,398
191612,386,0747,271,3182,632,2933,514,310785,3391,667,679637,409
191712,175,3665,982,4042,031,5513,949.251553,0161,861,817776,194
19187,527,2664,957,5763,402,2234,087,278847,6182,645,8641,170,011
191919,559,5379,628,2923,080,1287,790,9902,680,0063,439,4682,432,819
192011,863,82711,673,6963,022,3356,160,8401,748,7735,032,2422,058,463
Year.Wheat.Oats.Other Agricultural Produce.Gold.Coal.Kaurigum.Phormium Fibre and Tow.Timber.

* The main items in this heading are bacon and hams, beef and pork (salted), live-stock, preserved meats, sausage-skins, and preserved milk.

† The main items in this heading are bran and sharps. chaff, flour, barley, beans and peas, maize, malt, hops, oatmeal, potatoes, and seeds.

 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
1901276,111922,301333,9741,753,784142,176446,114196,868294,699
190231,074666,664348,2481,951,426154,747450,223539,390208,005
190314,068453,702277,0752,037,832128,927631,102603,411240,713
1904126,035212,724220,4841,987,501139,898501,817714,147254,021
1905144,37499,664184,2422,093,936107,062561,444711,940318,895
19069,91576,981183,6462,270,904122,614522,486812,712304,941
19073264,656,157,9852,027,490114,737579,888897,718311,862
1908344108,997156,3892,004,79985,846372,798420,520375,235
1909305,902453,314216,9542,006,900183,961552,698324,458337,740
1910216,65744,299220,5661,896,318259,562465,044480,519407,658
1911219,1969,211184,4081,815,251204,379395,707325,130439,353
191295,702483,756481,1471,345,131216,170401,305407,903490,508
191311,81629,252238,9081,459,499205,010549,106797,062319,055
19143,580165,930278,894895,367282,163497,444492,230422,864
1915128132,827541,3181,694,553329,731279,133610,059383,883
191617,83530,200135,6801,199,212326,553339,8821,078,632381,488
19175091,306178,087903,888236,063291,9171,232,608408,121
1918460872194,42242,391227,228157,3131,408,147556,309
191967933,671753,8371,334,405201,383255,812907,584439,935
192038852,502477,166883,748128,509556,756688,972697,608

The main feature of the period has been the great advance, relatively and absolutely, of butter and cheese, the export of which has increased nearly tenfold— viz., from £1,061,091 to £9,183,175. Other classes of pastoral produce have also increased to several times their total for 1901, and phormium and timber show much the same result. Agricultural produce shows a fluctuating export with a tendency to decrease.

The relative importance of the main commodities is shown in the diagram given below.

In the following table the exports are classified under the main industries, according to a broad division, to illustrate the relative importance of the pastoral, agricultural, mining, forest, and other industries as far as the export trade is concerned. It must be remembered that in a particular industry the home trade may be relatively more important than the external trade.

The table indicates a tendency for the Dominion to rely more and more upon the pastoral industry for her main exports. The four main products of that industry—wool, frozen meat, butter, and cheese—provide an ever-increasing proportion of the total quantity of goods shipped overseas. On the other hand, the proportion of minerals has tended to fall, through decreasing exports of gold, and agricultural exports fluctuate with a downward tendency. It would seem that New Zealand is restricting her agriculture to a level barely sufficient to provide for her own needs in the matter of foodstuffs, and only in exceptional years is there a surplus available for export.

TABLE SHOWING PROPORTIONS OF EXPORTS SUPPLIED BY THE MAIN INDUSTRIES, 1901-20.
Exports.Percentage of Total Exports.
Pastoral.Mining.Agricultural.Forest.Other.Pastoral.Mining.Agricultural.Forest.Other.
 £     £     £     £     £     Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19017,969,1971,969,9631,532,386754,457655,42161.915.311.95.95.0
19028,804,8682,183,2111,045,986670,962939,95064.516.07.74.96.9
190310,074,9632,265,604744,845885,2571,039,70967.115.15.05.96.9
190410,079,4082,251,108559,243769,1881,089,40168.315.33.85.27.4
190510,921,5212,329,858428,280891,4101,084,87869.814.92.75.76.9
190613,150,7802,555,551270,542841,1661,277,09872.614.11.54.67.2
190715,245,7042,344,903162,967904,4861,410,89776.011.70.84.57.0
190811,956,0662,279,520265,730758,1151,058,06373.314.01.64.66.5
190914,635,2652,378,775976,170905,930765,85674.412.15.04.63.9
191017,520,7152,344,348481,522889,603944,02179.010.62.24.04.2
191114,750,5582,165,137412,815843,310856,67077.511.42.24.44.5
191216,931,4801,660,2801,060,605900,6711,217,54577.87.64.94.15.6
191318,519,1451,791,777279,976874,1101,521,71480.67.81.23.86.6
191422,529,1491,263,553448,404927,4821,092,85985.84.81.73.54.2
191526,534,6082,149,217674,273674,5331,716,28183.66.82.12.15.4
191628,894,4221,661,650183,797734,0341,502,00487.65.00.62.24.6
191727,329,5991,274,222179,902711,1881,593,04687.94.10.62.35.1
191824,638,631479,017196,29719,5381,903,63388.21.70.72.66.8
191948,611,2401,668,314788,187698,8491,537,79491.23.11.51.32.9
192041,560,1761,103,344530,0561,262,8941,135,82491.12.41.22.82.5

The diagram given on the page following shows clearly the relative importance in the external trade of the main classes of exports. The most noticeable feature is the extremely high proportion of the exports supplied by the pastoral industries. The percentage supplied by this group was high in the late “nineties,” but in the early years of the new century fell relatively, owing mainly to increased exports of agricultural and mining produce. Since 1901, however, the percentage increased almost continuously, till in 1919 and 1920 it amounted to 91 per cent. of the total.

On the whole, mining products are growing loss important to New Zealand; mainly because of the overwhelming increase of the pastoral products. In later years especially this tendency to diminish is noticeable.

Agricultural exports showed an abnormal increase from 1899 to 1903, the period which covers the South African War, but since then their importance has steadily declined. Their lowest level (0.6 per cent. of total exports) was reached in 1916 and 1917. Forest products, too, though steady, showed a relative downward tendency, and therefore the strip representing them tapers toward the latter years.

Measured by their value in money the exports of 1920 show a decrease of 14 per cent. as compared with the previous year. The exports of 1919 constituted a record which was entirely due to the large increase in pastoral produce. Although wool exports during 1920 were £7,695,710 lower than in 1919, this item nevertheless retained its leading position, and with £11,863,827 to its credit accounted for 26 per cent. of the Dominion's total sales abroad. Frozen meat stood at £11,673,696, an increase of £2,045,404 when compared with the figure for the previous year.

INCREASES OR DECREASES IN THE MAIN EXPORTS IN 1920.
Article.Value.Amount ofPercentage.
1920.1919.Increase.Decrease.Increase.Decrease.
 £     £     £     £       
Wool11,863,82719,559,537..     7,695,710..     39.35
Frozen meat11,673,6969,628,2922,045,404..     21.24..     
Butter3,022,3353,080,128..     57,793..     1.88
Cheese6,160,8407,790,990..     1,630,150..     20.92
Tallow1,748,7732,680,006..     931,233..     34.75
Skins, hides, and pelts5,032,2423,439,4681,592,774..     46.31..     
Gold883,7481,334,405..     450,657..     33.77
Coal128,509201,383..     72,874..     36.19
Kauri-gum556,756255,812300,944..     117.64..     
Phormium688,972907,584..     218,612..     24.09
Timber697,608439,935257,773..     58.59..     

In 1914 a new method of classification was adopted, and both imports and exports were divided into classes, which will in the future be adhered to in all statistical comparisons. The total exports of each class in 1920 are shown in the following table:—

EXPORTS BY CLASSES, 1920.
No.Class.Domestic Produce.Re-exports.
 £     £     
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)22,860,23028,755
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt364,27743,217
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic), and substances used in making up the same2,41825,371
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors2,59130,298
VTobacco and preparations thereof339,254
VILive animals55,3196,525
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs16,923,2327,422
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres911,90752,238
IXAApparel7,21540,451
IXBTextiles3,785142,302
IXCManufactured fibres31,72314,535
XOils, fats, and waxes1,790,58014,778
XIPaints and varnishes79011,855
XIIStones and minerals used industrially694,0337,772
XIIISpecie..     36,580
XIVAMetal (unmanufactured and partly manufactured) and ores987,2112,985
XIVBMetal manufactures other than machinery and machines12,83387,691
XVMachinery and machines31,74333,992
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)2,902933
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes53,25411,133
XVIIATimber697,60858
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures4,9543,584
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cement, and cement materials4,9005,832
XIXAPaper1,1652,672
XIXBStationery8,5408,754
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods19381,545
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments25516,061
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares5,32421,064
XXIIBManures45264
XXIIIMiscellaneous32,819101,931
..     Parcels-post100,008..     
           Total45,592,294849,652

It will be seen that the great bulk of the exports fall into two classes—I, which includes butter and cheese, and frozen meat; and VII, winch includes wool, hides, skins, and pelts. Mineral products fall under XII and XIVA, and timber under XVIIA; tallow is the main item in X, phormium, seeds, and fungus in VIII, while the main agricultural products are included in II.

The re-exports are spread mainly over various manufactured items.

The principal items of export may conveniently be grouped under six definite heads, and for nearly fifty years a decennial table has been published in the “Statistics of the Dominion of New Zealand” using this method of summary. A comparative statement is given below for the past five years, following the classification therein adopted.

Practically all the main commodities are homogeneous articles, and it is therefore possible to give the quantities exported. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter contain the variable element of price.

QUANTITIES OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE EXPORTED, 1916-20.
Articles.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
The mine—
Coal(tons)328,183221,125182,603138,17480,088
     Gold(oz.)292,620218,62411,987320,210212,973
     Silver(oz.)787,053787,152879,383453,567369,400
     Other minerals(tons)30416117113165
The fisheries—
     Fish(cwt.)19,37212,3708,6335,4997,849
     Oysters(doz.)178,35430,900142,80029,347121,234
     Whalebone(lb.)896..     ..     ..     7,056
     Whale-oil(gal.)22,74046,15164,940114,732115,090
The forest—
     Fungus(cwt.)3,8293,6102,0549891,576
     Kauri-gum(tons)5,4564,5942,4194,1286,481
     Timber, sawn and hewn(sup. ft.)71,503,15471,338,17474,932,81549,726,67069,664,014
Pastoral products—
     Bacon and hams(cwt.)2,6461,3593,475425369
     Beef and pork, salted(cwt.)2,7944,4164,9044,2747,598 
     Butter(cwt.)358,632254,397431,023345,818312,009
     Cheese(cwt.)949,416885,743883,4301,572,3111,222,050
     Hides and skins(number)510,936237,906320,832440,492570,095
     Live-stock—
          Cattle(number)297357402309508
          Horses(number)2,453283316134117
          Sheep(number)7,2415,1583,2511,3554,586
          Pigs(number)367714626456272
     Preserved meats(cwt.)65,58255,00874,903218,802117,550
     Frozen meats(cwt.)3,326,0452,446,9452,036,9043,822,6834,628,282
     Sausage-skins(cwt.)22,61218,13219,89922,86824,987
     Rabbit-skins(number)5,896,4104,944,6077,854,15214,340,00714,363,216
     Sheep skins and pelts(number)8,335,5706,528,0538,741,5388,501,7569,221,552
     Tallow(cwt.)449,440251,980328,420937,480540,820
     Wool(cwt.)(lb.)185,506,859178,274,486108,724,575274,246,613162,327,176
Agricultural products—
     Bran and sharps(tons)619340275543277
     Chaff(tons)386354249576197
     Flour(tons)1317441,5412,8764,428
     Grain—-
          Barley(centals)429911412705636
          Beans and peas(centals)50,50166,70554,297252,892116,712
          Oats(centals)88,1062,3071,30057,93190,811
          Wheat(centals)41,287902674974455
     Hops(cwt.)4,3582,8052,0102,2141,616
     Oatmeal(tons)1116877828
     Potatoes(tons)1,7247274403,6031,302
     Seeds (grass and clover)(cwt.)9,84116,48415,99549,90623,821
Miscellaneous—
     Ale and beer(gal.)11,94811,98912,78216,30315,682
     Cordage(cwt.)6,5087,8727,3593,3549,032
     Leather(cwt.)3,4998452,2284,4333,102
     Phormium fibre and tow(tons)32,25226,01626,982.26,60922,075
     Soap(cwt.)9,7489,2877,3616,5888,273

The values of these principal commodities are tabulated in the following pages, and the statement of exports is rendered complete by the addition of miscellaneous groups and the provision of totals for each group and for all combined.

VALUE OF PRINCIPAL ARTICLES EXPORTED, 1916-20.
Articles.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
The mine—£      £      £      £      £      
     Coal326,553236,063227,228201,383128,509
     Gold1,199,212903,88842,3911,334,405883,748
     Silver85,111105,299171,456103,03787,665
     Other minerals50,77428,97237,94229,4893,422
          Totals1,661,650370,334436,6261,668,3141,103,344
The fisheries—
     Fish37,47523,81819,20217,42527,522
     Oysters1,3402441,1143421,323
     Whalebone280..     ..     ..     3,100
     Whale-oil1,6475,51112,61822,90823,304
     Other1,75120125402299
          Totals42,49329,77432,95941,07755,548
The forest—
     Fungus12,22710,6885,7842,5238,413
     Kauri-gum339,882291,917157,313255,812556,756
     Timber381,488408,121556,309439,935697,608
     Other437462132579117
          Totals734,034711,188719,538698,8491,262,894
Pastoral products—
     Bacon and hams13,3297,97421,9012,9933,312
     Beef and pork, salted5,64711,31013,86211,78722,188
     Butter2,632,2932,031,5513,402,2233,080,1283,022,335
     Cheese3,514,3103,949,2514,087,2787,790,9906,160,840
     Hides and skins673,641456,308532,510969,4831,142,006
Live-stock—
          Cattle5.61211,38116,7438,91416,798
          Horses79,72020,44729,54427,7156,716
          Sheep23,08919,09616,9337,31129,025
          Pigs1,4533,1224,3503,1001,967
          Other4534851,033885813
     Preserved milk and cream23,780153,538341,7979,628,29211,673,696
     Preserved meats249,519278,753420,1791,283,218538,571
     Frozen meats7,271,3185,982,4044,957,576579,266795,612
     Sausage-skins196,785227,431257,871324,001454,280
     Rabbit-skins76,405105,321299,765775,118830,024
     Sheep skins and pelts917,6331,300,1881,813,5891,694,8673,060,212
     Tallow785,339553,016847,6182,680,0061,748,773
     Wool12,386,07412,175,3667,527,26619,559,53711,863,827
     Other38,02242,65746,493183,629189,181
          Totals28,894,42227,329,59924,638,53148,611,24041,560,176
Agricultural products—
     Bran and sharps3,7022,1111,8274,5552,954
     Chaff2,7272,9173,1555,8752,524
     Flour2,15413,59529,34153,18854,942
     Fruits7,4937223071,72914,685
Grain and pulse—
          Barley218513307481595
          Beans and peas38,54572,07771,282319,516151,162
          Oats30,2001,30687233,67152,502
          Wheat17,835509460679388
          Other7238891,2403,9736,165
     Hops17,63212,0381,2403,9736,165
     Oatmeal2713402,0833,2671,062
     Onions3,7789,8142,0996,01812,955
     Potatoes14,9415,8164,27938,71812,806
     Seeds (grass and clover)34,26648,63542,215249,886147,369
     Seeds (various)7,6226,93724,37249,12750,275
     Other1,6901,6831,2181,2032,921
          Totals183,797179,902196,291788,187530,056
Miscellaneous (including manufactures)—
Ale and beer1,6611,4561,4422,5082,390
     Apparel36,58955,80892.814136,0456,026
     Cement18,7115,5067,6516,9762,278
     Cordage17,55322,78126,63010,52529,935
     Foods, infants' and invalids'37,8903161215
     Leather35,14310,45828,09564,64551,940
     Phormium fibre and tow1,078,6321,232,6081,408,147907,584688,972
     Soap12,39314,84614,72414,06921,693
     Sugar48,18362,10219,23826,69916,438
     Woollen manufactures19,5048,78010,6328,8662,404
     Other153,252148,896261,295318,788258,185
          Totals1,459,5111,563,2721,870,6741,496,7171,080,276
Total exports (domestic produce)32,975,90731,087,95727,937,01053,304,38445,592,294
Specie5,88070,47535,61062,15036,580
Re-exports305,150429,115543,568603,541813,072
          Total exports33,286,93731,587,54728,516,18853,970,075 146,441,946

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

The first exports from New Zealand went naturally to the earlier-developed sister colony, and for a considerable time Australia had a monopoly of our trade. In I865 70 per cent., and even in 1871 44 per cent., of the total exports went to Australia. But since the establishment of direct shipping lines with the United Kingdom the Mother-land has absorbed the bulk of New Zealand exports, having taken during the forty years 1875-1914 £365,880,997 (or almost exactly 80 per cent.) of a grand total of exports amounting to £469,347,969. This percentage, prior to the war, did not vary greatly from year to year, but there have naturally been considerable variations since 1914, the most notable being the marked fall in 1918. During 1919 and 1920 the proportion of the total exports destined for the United Kingdom has regained its original position.

The total amount sent to Australia fluctuates considerably from year to year, rising if the products of the Commonwealth are reduced by drought. The proportion of New Zealand's exports sent to Australia has declined considerably during the twenty years covered by the table below.

Exports to Canada have increased enormously during the twenty years, rising from £2,118 in 1901 to £1,793,576 in 1918 and £1,357,774 in 1920. Even before the war Canada had become an important market for New Zealand's produce, having taken exports to the value of £606,662 in 1913, as compared with £199,587 two years earlier and only £24,051 in 1908.

Exports to the Pacific islands have risen steadily in total value, and have increased slightly as a proportion of total exports.

The value of exports to the United States fluctuated considerably up to 1912, with no definite indication of an increase. In 1913 and 1914, however, there was a substantial rise as compared with earlier years, and the war and post-war years have witnessed a huge further increase, with the result that the United States now ranks second to the United Kingdom as a purchaser of the Dominion's surplus production.

Prior to the war Germany's position in the export table was similar to that of Canada, exports having risen from £10,470 in 1901 to £205,931 in 1910 and £456,163 in 1914.

The high totals for 1918 and 1919 shown for “other countries” are mainly due to temporary heavy exports to. France in the former year and Egypt in the latter. With the exception of the three years 1914-16, during which a yearly average of £102,000 was exported to Japan, exports to that country have not exceeded the £10,000 mark.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.Pacific Islands.*United States.Germany.Other Countries.Total.

* Includes Cook Islands in 1901.

† The principal other countries are Hong Kong, India, France, Egypt, and Japan.

 £          £          £          £          £          £          £          £          
19019,295,3751,993,8312,118157,594519,07910,470902,95712,881,424
19029,450,6482,684,3507,366159,214489,9649,389844,04613,644,977
190311,345,0752,233,9962,421160,133669,64917,584581,52015,010,378
190411,876,2731,817,62215,961166,767598,92123,931248,87314,748,348
190512,087,8182,294,97151,329170,210716,30138,958296,36015,655,947
190614,047,1762,882,52229,815188,755642,79254,952249,12518,095,137
190716,533,4932,221,26078,015186,839714,06366,489268,79820,068,957
190813,143,7802,103,16124,051203,581326,41540,191476,31516,317,494
190916,193,1881,918,115180,975258,164684,81077,969348,77519,661,996
191018,633,1182,010,751160,842296,244553,603205,931319,72022,180,209
191115,134,7432,515,168199,587324,306434,586170,493249,60719,028,490
191216,861,2562,848,664542,271338,621620,988254,703304,07821,770,581
191318,130,1602,315,747606,662295,032912,051337,448389,62222,986,722
191421,383,8911,928,410595,611326,0251,02,054456,163543,29326,261,447
191525,389,0302,548,605925,813499,0632,006,5074379,89031,748,912
191626,869,9882,191,545691,986368,0692,493,9875671,35733,286,937
191726,023,3961,460,980961,653540,3801,894,3176706,81531,587,547
191818,244,2501,803,7391,793,576511,8424,045,648..     2,117,13328,516,188
191944,312,0482,249,827980,190548,1124,200,861..     1,679,03753,970,075
192034,354,3002,351,7991,357,774718,2837,456,04123203,72646,441,946

Included in the exports to the United Kingdom, however, are considerable quantities of wool and similar commodities which are shipped to London merely as a convenient depot, and which are retransferred to the Continent or to America. The following figures, taken from official publications of the British Board of Trade, will show the extent to which the United Kingdom serves as a distributing centre for our exports:—

Articles.Imports from New Zealand.Re-exports of New Zealand Produce.
1913.1919.1913.1919.
 £      £      £      £      
Butter1,351,2853,910,432206,4653,753
Cheese1,685,4728,455,1993,86110,498
Wheat23,210..     85..     
Oats41,8181,994313..     
Beef (fresh and frozen)393,4291,771,32218533,811
Mutton (fresh and frozen)4,965,3108,481,4414,48222,677
Sausage skins, casings, and bladders167,56561,182131,189680
Kauri-gum593,729100,298482,85035,550
Hemp (dressed, undressed) and tow718,959728,392553,480321,307
Copra161,18319,85081,321..     
Sheep-skins (undressed)641,853633,384464,500335,601
Rabbit-skins (undressed)92,14994,09915,29980,499
Tallow717,2642,421,70478,645272,501
Wool8,165,40821,898,5281,829,105574,291
          Totals20,338,05748,577,8254,066,8151,691,168

The largest item in the re-exports is wool, which, to the value of nearly £2,000,000 annually, was redistributed in pre-war years from London to the manufacturing centres of Belgium, northern France, and Germany. This amounted to a big proportion of the Dominion's wool exports, averaging about 25 per cent.

Practically all the foodstuffs are usually consumed in the United Kingdom itself.

The bulk of the kauri-gum, more than one-half of the phormium, and three-fourths of the sheep-skins were usually re-exported in pre-war years.

The total re-exports in normal years amounted to about £4,000,000 annually, but the amount fell, under war conditions, to £2,408,737 in 1915, £985,891 in 1917, and £565,529 in 1918, rising again to £1,691,168 in 1919.

It would seem, then, that on the average only about four-fifths of the exports from New Zealand to the United Kingdom are normally retained in that country, and the remaining fifth is distributed to Europe and America. Even deducting this re-export trade, the Mother-country may be said to retain two-thirds of the total exports from the Dominion. The following table must be read subject to the remarks made above:—

DESTINATION OF EXPORTS FROM NEW ZEALAND, 1901-20.
Year.United Kingdom.British Colonies and Possessions.Foreign Countries.Total.
 £      £      £      £      
19019,295,3752,907,412678,63712,881,424
19029,450,6483,577,815616,51413,644,977
190311,345,0752,821,608843,69515,010,378
190411,876,2732,088,691783,38414,748,348
190512,087,8182,591,802976,32715,655,947
190614,047,1763,141,327906,63418,095,137
190716,533,4932,559,631975,83320,068,957
190813,143,7802,414,521759,19316,317,494
190916,193,1882,449,6911,019,11719,661,996
191018,633,1182,468,1191,078,97222,180,209
191115,134,7432,966,952926,79519,028,490
191216,861,2563,641,2761,268,04921,770,581
191318,130,1603,135,9571,720,60522,986,722
191421,383,8912,724,9652,152,59126,261,447
191525,389,0303,694,4532,665,42931,748,912
191626,869,983,122,1873,294,76233,286,937
191726,023,3962,635,0022,929,14931,587,547
191818,244,2503,808,8926,466,04628,516,188
191944,312,0483,750,6555,907,37253,970,075
192034,354,3004,235,1327,852,51446,441,946

The following table shows in more detail the exports for the five years ending with 1920, according to the countries of destination. The British possessions are stated first, according to geographical order, followed by foreign countries in the same order.

DESTINATION OF EXPORTS FROM NEW ZEALAND, 1916-20.
Country.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £       £       £       £       £       
United Kingdom26,869,98826,023,39618,244,25044,312,04834,354,300
British Possessions.
Europe—
     Gibraltar..     2323
     Malta484745
 4105068
Asia—
     Burma72..     ..     83
     Ceylon20,9122,17299247810,245
     Hong Kong12,32910,7375,05212,26328,964
     India32,20314,38557,293328,87449,756
     Straits Settlements42,0575,8331,12428,20742,343
     Other Asiatic possessions22..     171980
 107,59533,11764,478369,849131,391
Africa—
     Egypt125,936157,3581,211,7221,059,5833,867
     Mauritius1..     ..     51
     South African Union6,6811,588718,2,2415,571
     Other African possessions19417537279
 132,637158,9501,212,6151,062,2019,518
America—
     British West Indies531712
     Canada691,986961,6531,793,576980,1901,357,774
     Other American possessions232111926
 692,014961,6581,793,688980,2061,357,812
Pacific islands—
     Australia2,191,5451,460,9801,803,7392,249,8272,351,799
     Fiji116,496167,024136,076140,835203,568
     Western Samoa71,781119,04984,24193,062173,347
     Other Pacific islands7,83210,1216,6687,3147,689
 2,387,6541,543,3111,988,6082,491,0382,736,403
Foreign Countries and Possessions.
Europe—
     Belgium1..     15057
     France303,288481,792810,00798,573203
     Germany56..     ..     23
     Italy33784670,81369
     Netherlands1..     ..     4447
     Norway229,9589968
     Sweden92111320
     Switzerland2,88411012,113403
     Other European countries1,02225,5728,39770235
 307,245507,581828,411172,6721,065
Asia—
     China16718033532,77935,224
     Japan110,0454,3885,4158,1784,904
     Other Asiatic countries2277343,10432,0033,811
 110,4395,3028,85472,96043,939
Africa—
African countries144712
America—
     Argentina4,0128611234,413
     Chile2,3081.3991,6971,27713,357
     United States of America2,493,9871,894,3174,045,6484,200,8617,456,041
     Uruguay3,390..     1161
     Other American countries3,415367900107
 2,507,1121,896,1694,048,2574,202,1877,473,819
Pacific islands—
     Hawaii12,6173,6347662,04611,928
     Society Islands54,65274,613118,865123,169123,663
     Tonga24,98179,250107,310167,215187,438
     Tutuila4242,0754,3601,9434,171
     Other foreign Pacific islands79,57484,11453,25612,5286,479
 172,248243,686284,557306,901333,679

In the following table exports have been grouped in accordance with the classification adopted by the British Board of Trade in many of its tables. As might be expected, the classification shows that raw material (other than foodstuffs) is the largest of the five divisions, food, drink, and tobacco coming next. Many of the most important items in this latter class are raw materials also, and the table is a further illustration of the fact that New Zealand is essentially a primary-producing country. Exports of manufactures in 1920 constituted only 5.59 per cent. of the total. A similar table given in the “Imports” subsection of this book shows that the reverse is the case in respect of imports—namely, a preponderance of manufactured goods received into the Dominion.

Countries.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified (including Parcels-post).Bullion and Specie.Total.
 £       £       £       £       £       £       
United Kingdom19,339,12813,505,8151,300,552100,744116,70934,362,948
British Possessions.
Europe—
     Gibraltar..     ..     ..     3..     3
     Malta..     ..     ..     5..     5
Asia—
     Aden..     ..     ..     3..     3
     British North Borneo Protectorate..     ..     ..     44..     44
     Burma..     ..     ..     3..     3
     Ceylon148..     161719,91010,245
     Hong Kong1118,2195288320,02328,964
     India332..     5421,02347,98849,885
     Straits Settlements29,256..     12,940107..     42,303
     Weihaiwei..     ..     ..     33..     33
Africa:—
     British East Africa Protectorate7..     ..     24..     31
     British West Africa Protectorate..     ..     ..     3..     3
     Egypt..     ..     ..     19..     19
     Mauritius..     ..     ..     1..     1
     Northern Rhodesia..     ..     ..     10..     10
     Nyasaland Protectorate3,620..     60187..     3,867
     South African Union2,848..     1,2991,424..     5,571
     Southern Rhodesia..     ..     ..     18..     18
America—
     British West Indies..     ..     ..     12..     12
     Canada582,148719,35944,7356,1105,4221,357,774
     British Honduras..     ..     ..     26..     26
Pacific islands—
     Australia190,4011,538,998439,381170,0864,2092,343,075
     British Solomon Islands Protectorate3,389711,42428..     4,912.
     Fanning Island1,4673456..     ..     1,926
     Fiji97,1053,29387,9365,13510,120203,589
     Gilbert and Ellice Islands..     ..     ..     6..     6
     Minor British Pacific islands178..     3..     ..     181
     Norfolk Island323..     284..     ..     607
     Papua..     ..     ..     19..     19
     Pitcairn Island..     ..     ..     7..     7
     Western Samoa8,1213,14386,428663..     173,355
Foreign Countries and Possessions.
Europe—
     Belgium..     ..     2532..     57
     Denmark..     ..     8204..     212
     France..     ..     51152..     203
     Germany..     ..     ..     23..     23
     Greece..     ..     ..     7..     7
     Italy..     ..     ..     69..     69
     Netherlands..     ..     ..     47..     47
     Norway..     ..     ..     8..     8
     Rumania..     ..     ..     3..     3
     Portugal..     ..     ..     3..     3
     Russia..     ..     ..     4..     4
     Spain..     ..     ..     6..     6
     Sweden..     ..     ..     20..     20
     Switzerland..     ..     235168..     403
Asia—
     Asiatic Turkey..     ..     ..     179..     179
     China262883354833,78935,224
     Cochin-China..     ..     ..     31..     31
     Japan22,7221,761419..     4,904
     Java55535..     1,785..     2,375
     Malay States..     ..     ..     66..     66
     Philippine Islands..     ..     ..     12..     12
     Sarawak and Brunei..     ..     ..     2..     2
     Siam..     ..     ..     7..     7
     Sumatra1,125..     ..     14..     1,139
Africa—
     Algeria..     ..     ..     4..     4
     Canary Islands..     ..     ..     2..     2
     Portugese East Africa..     ..     ..     6..     6
America—
     Alaska..     ..     ..     2..     2
     Argentina..     ..     ..     4,413..     4,413
     Chile..     337..     13,020..     13,357
     Colombia..     ..     ..     1..     1
     Costa Rica..     ..     ..     1..     1
     Ecuador..     ..     ..     1..     1
     Peru..     ..     ..     2..     2
     United States of America2,842,3163,324,215.516,50052,105720,9057,456,041.
     Uruguay..     ..     ..     1..     1
Pacific islands—
     Hawaii11,636..     20488..     11,928
     New Caledonia1,9332,6458..     ..     4,586
     New Hebrides68221456..     835
     Society Islands87,5261,57426,4047,1391,000123,643
     Tonga84,4302,58771,9203,04825,460187,445
     Tuamotu Archipelago66230096..     ..     1,058
     Tutuila1,9762,0301605..     4,171
          Totals23,366,45119,115,3762,594,934369,50995,53546,441,946

More detailed information as to principal exports to the various countries is given in the following pages:—

PRINCIPAL ARTICLES EXPORTED TO VARIOUS COUNTRIES, 1916-20.
Class.Item.Article.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
United Kingdom.
 £      £      £      £      £      
I1Butter2,464,7092,000,1613,266,2962,994,9642,630,234
3Casein10,21412,5644,93760,12262,250
4Cheese3,488,2223,851,9153,902,4877,526,0286,147,023
14Honey2,7235,3425,81459,2349,085
16Bacon11,17817,403..     25
 Meats, poultry and game—
19     Beef, frozen2,118,9061,981,140923,0011,056,6391,701,325
24     Kidneys, frozen18,17530,07221,39454,75235,072
25     Lamb, whole carcases, frozen2,437,0971,366,5111,168,2213,037,3571,915,744
27     Meat-extract9,4122,9022,59316,92210,930
28     Mutton, whole carcases, frozen2,529,9052,424,7651,566,8374,396,8135,394,76
29     Mutton, joints, frozen22,5238,61630,64438,31642,183
30     Pork, frozen2,22936,757..     ..     ..     
32     Potted and preserved166,502192,964284,1131,040,062380,931
34     Rabbits, frozen in skins55,69624,89152,7853,8335,286
36     Sausage casings and skins22,794..     2548,27520,775
37     Veal, frozen25,9745,7869,0118,809123
38     Other kinds, frozen39,45233,66030,525163,38659,915
 Milk and cream—
40     Preserved, condensed, &c.13,090101,328248,468494,424724,757
 Fruits—
II59     Bottled and preserved in syrup4912,134..     12,9621,483
 Grain and pulse, unprepared—
79     Beans and peas20,40562,76358,182289,125103,412
81     Oats..     ..     ..     1,09039,552
83     Wheat17,486..     ..     2..     
101Hops11,321..     ..     7,1276,425
103Jams, jellies, and preserves1,4314,48511,66863,9022,691
 Hides, pelts, and skins, undressed—£      £      £      £      £      
VII194     Cattle70,154235,195121,60633,99774,609
196     Rabbit55,26115,16111,20497,743457,084
198     Sheep, with wool46,002610..     ..     ..     
199     Sheep, without wool381,143364,75017,661499,685672,598
 Wool—
204     Greasy7,983,7848,671,5333,811,13611,888,0136,983,092
205     Scoured1,193,7891,316,604855,1163,510,3852,778,754
206     Sliped1,622,6831,384,681856,3083,075,7962,080,747
207     Washed63,62320,52073,62327,41019,084
VIII208Copra14,5273,178..     13,01530,202
216     Phormium tenax527,298374,592178,829427,870181,983
217     Bags1,4072,0422,75116,21313,338
218     Tow60,5942,857..     19,2674,902
223     Seeds, grass and clover24,05220,8693,034170,23364,028
225     Seed, other7054,3981,0816,8971,604
IXA234Apparel and ready-made clothing n.o.e.35,06654,79378,659125,8332,050
244Boots and shoes, other..     ..     14,65049,966101
 Tallow—
X340     Mutton-stock and oleomargarine99,084118.02092,243398,372162,621
 341     Unrefined681,616296,190106,7291,688,9901,047,474
XII357Cool, bunker121,734117,414121,182137,34160,927
 360Kauri-gum68,34724,8814,19894,856109,984
  Gold—
XIVA384     Bar, dust, ingot, and sheet131,906688,972..     339,210101,729
 397Metals, scrap (except iron and steel), not being precious20,45215,1228,8424,4663,992
 400Scheelite49,07028,97237,92229,4891,378
 401Silver1,50717,120..     6,46214,980
  Leather—
XVIA587     Hide-leathers, crust or rough tanned, but undressed198..     ..     4,96424,390
 588     Dressed4,623..     ..     22,991..     
 592     Sole, pump, and skirt leather27,4905,344..     27,2432,734
XXII788Sugar of milk3,8319,99018,59620,572..     
..     ..     Parcels-post20,38013,23797,01545,98434,641
India.
I40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.267,0601,6212,688..     
XIVA384Gold—Bar, dust, ingot, and sheet16,926..     ..     ..     23,884
 401Silver—Bar, Ingot, and sheet13,5435,26053,4949,43724,104
Ceylon.
XIVA401Silver19,892..     ..     ..     9,910
Straits Settlements.
  Coal—
XII357     Bunker4,5773,439..     ..     ..     
 358     Cargo37,111400..     ..     ..     
Hong Kong.
VIII220Fungus11,57210,2144,5592,5187,913
Egypt.
I1Butter..     214,0219,3803,620
 4Cheese..     93,257180,718186,396..     
 19Beef, frozen..     25,128736,534713,733..     
 28Mutton, frozen..     33,404237,63350,355..     
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.355,25024,3585,011..     
XII357Coal, bunker26,3072263,569..     ..     
South African Union.
I4Cheese5,433..     ..     ..     303
Canada.
I1Butter25,1862,640102,90754,753271,678
 13Gelatine..     9613,76011,31722,213
  Meats—
 19     Beef, frozen..     ..     ..     ..     6,831
 25     Lamb, frozen..     ..     52,61125,32885,289
 28     Mutton..     ..     118,47123,12249,417
 30     Pork, frozen..     9,1882,112..     ..     
 32     Potted and preserved..     16013,7598944,039
 36Sausage casings and skins21,69032,43050,46253,49495,599
II134Vegetables—Onions2,2897,412..     ..     4,110
  Hides, pelts, and skins—£      £      £      £      £      
  Undressed—
VII193     Calf35,16211,48110,77547,262105,350
 194     Cattle227,377190,000224,984299,519232,439
 196     Rabbit..     30,96896,41088,66528,156
 198Sheep, with wool75,650..     ..     ..     ..     
 199Sheep, without wool25,64712,95779,358118,889225,224
  Wool—
 204     Greasy87,181161,168382,314..     ..     
 205     Scoured5,826..     19,6614,138..     
 206     Sliped93,492149,369;170,515..     ..     
VII216Phormium tenax61,925196,55789,87660,18467,217
X341Tallow, unrefined..     59,918275,513116,84126,145
XII357Coal, bunker5,1985,5328,26610,703783
 360Kauri-gum14,59179,41281,49743,38753,148
Australia.
I1Butter116,55011,5573,7915816,371
 4Cheese18,7332,3431,7041,0575,640
 10Fish, fresh or preserved by cold process (other than oysters)29,62319,54913,6437,25713,998
 11Fish, preserved In tins or other airtight vessels8,5664,7444,18011,72318,386
 13Gelatine2,8498,65516,5253,376145
 30Pork, frozen17,047..     37,076..     ..     
 32Meats, potted and preserved37,79128,816..     13,8837,252
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.4,01526,82159,45267,24126,578
  Grain and pulse, unprepared—
II79     Beans and peas15,9609,00512,56521,32632,979
 81     Oats1,0812077681,39810,660
 101Hops6,01611,64910,6648,6629,434
 130Sugar, refined7,92425,4212223..     
 135Vegetables—Potatoes8,884..     1829,688414
VI175Cattle for stud purposes1,5006,12911,8544,3559,009
 176Horses—Ordinary19,85315,96520,62023,75210,783
 183Sheep for breeding purposes16,53113,4399,6101,6431,742
  Hides, pelts and skins—
       Undressed—
VII193          Calf23,0476,07331,11722,08140,977
 194          Cattle309,6688,893125,335288,976435,399
 199Sheep, without wool31,76632,51114,6963,91616,264
 201Horns, hoofs, and glue pieces1,5771,0744362,0052,660
  Wool—
 204     Greasy33,730..     8,272..     3
 206     Sliped1,130..     30,585..     ..     
VIII216Phormium tenax163,402146,893218,507133,461225,002
 218Tow13,30430,24319,73021,33235,127
 223Seeds, grass and clover7,19924,82422,28956,60744,305
 224Linseed18..     14,69035,91938,174
 225Seeds, other8,5906,2338,52516,14415,620
  Textiles—
IXB278     Piece-goods n.o.e.6913,2242,65612,82520,954
 286     Woollen n.o.e., of pure or mixed wool1,79215,90954,5541,954
IXC302Twine, binder15,15418,49421,2416,14314,610
X318Oil, whale1,6475,51112,61412,77523,304
 341Tallow, unrefined39121,3553,99812,94236,310
  Coal—
XII357     Bunker41,66130,09128,09222,01424,764
 358     Cargo6,8483,4723,41110,58127,321
 367Pumice-sand11,8055,6605,2382,7327,005
  Gold—
XIVA384     Bar, dust, ingot, and sheet476,415189,58927,009548,3162,486
 385     Concentrates, slimes, tailings,36,29224,31515,97210,5608,978
 401Silver46,92580,205115,71153,7101,713
XIVB474Tinned sheets1,392235753,18239,725
  Timber—
XVIIA605Flitches, other6,3834,16818,3141,4264,503
  Sawn, n.o.e., rough—
 632     Beechwood2,6862,51411,0408,5642,578
 635     Kauri78,95877,20055,77748,69311,127
 636     New Zealand white-pine and kahikatea203,053182,885231,358250,857515,781
 638     Rimu or red-pine69,748109,587196,49998,647124,808
 639Timber, other1761,69114,91217,09731,625
XVIII666Cement, building, Portland, and other structural14,767..     ..     ..     6
XX714Jewellery—Precious stones, unmounted17,63423,746..     64,73071,284
  Vehicles, motor, for road traffic, and materials therefor—
XXIII893     Cars, motor4,7635,019..     5,25611,694
 895     Rubber tires, covers, and tubes4,89820,024..     2,2376,424
 902Miscellaneous, manufactured32,18527,5496231,86633,480
  Parcels-post9,20310,84813,871116,97342,718
Fiji
I1Butter7,2387,0083,9667,54111,734
 32Meats, potted and preserved11,73414,39917,49315,65827,077
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.1,1341,1111,913;3,7255,396
II86Bran1,8528609263,0581,374
 87Flour, wheaten1,1855,06616114,61915,784
 130Sugar, refined4,7195,1514,3644,7184,659
 135Potatoes4,3503,8132,1966,1077,084
 149Tea, bulk5251,0431,1482,6623,700
IXB278Piece-goods n.o.e.9443,933..     7,70231,974
X341Tallow, unrefined4,2355,0954,0373,8379,210
  Coal—
XII357     Bunker14,0546,2796,9345,843121
 358     Cargo1,9435,592.1302,0962
XIII375Silver (specie)5,00028,300..     ..     ..     
  Timber—
       Sawn, n.o.e., dressed—
XVIIA628     Kauri2,2152,0344,1691,172479
  Sawn, n.o.e., rough—
 635     Kauri10,19715,84011,6283,859391
XVIII666Cement, building, Portland, and other structural12,8953,8934,1903,8301,625
Western Samoa.
I1Butter4,0904,5563,7884,3925,311
 11Fish, preserved in tins7021,0281,1832,4054,337
  Meats—
 20     Beef, frozen4,0525,8487,4336,96412,859
 32     Potted and preserved13,69916,68617,18713,41520,170
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.1,7491,0951,2161,6402,890
II54Food for animals—Chaff2,3692,5702,6143,3761,579
 130Sugar, refined4,4756,2141,5687,0175,777
IXA234Apparel8011,6851,5971,9932,890
IXB278Piece-goods, n.o.e.2,7006,2577,52310,36025,004
XIVB422Hardware6679641,0978274,193
XXIIA765Medicinal preparations, &c.3301,1787659492,743
XXIII875Soap4,226,4,1371,8972,8974,858
France.
  Wool—
VII204     Greasy298,962467,899767,237..     ..     
 205     Scoured1483,592..     ..     ..     
 206     Sliped..     ..     9,639..     ..     
X341Tallow, unrefined..     8,89826,597..     ..     
Norway.
VIII216Phormium tenax..     ..     9,957..     ..     
Russia.
X341Tallow, unrefined..     22,4178,381..     ..     
Japan.
VII194Hides, pelts, skins—Cattle..     ..     ..     1,2561,797
 204Wool, greasy108,617..     ..     ..     ..     
X341Tallow, unrefined..     ..     3,744..     ..     
Java.
XIV495Metal manufactures n.o.e...     ..     3,023817..     
Switzerland.
..     ..     Parcels-post2,3986511,533168
United States.
   £      £      £      £      £      
I1Butter268..     ..     67,778
 25Lamb, whole carcases, frozen..     ..     ..     1,0842,053,326
 28Mutton, whole carcases, frozen..     ..     ..     ..     307,485
 32Meats, potted and preserved3..     10,32359,69517,413
 36Sausage casings and skins144,838193,675204,783218,695335,383
II79Beans and peas68549641713,09014,240
  Hides, pelts, and skins—
       Undressed—
VII193          Calf462..     ..     5,78427,482
 194          Cattle..     ..     16,614264,668207,504
 196          Rabbit14,74555,350191,077587,021338,269
 199     Sheep, without wool322,891889,3601,701,8743772,147,889
  Wool—
 204     Greasy831,668..     542,772885,392..     
 206     Sliped7,121..     88..     2,144
VIII208Copra..     8,0491,5483,4285,135
 216Phormium tenax249,065479,343890,594240,501173,077
 223Seeds, grass and clover4,95416,96816,54725,6753,714
X340Oleomargarine..     39066,82490,714156,410
 341Tallow, unrefined..     20,726259,540318,162310,230
XII357Coal, bunker19,61216,10618,06317,36115,085
 360Kauri-gum253,316183,50866,723115,613389,467
XIVA384Gold—Bar, dust, ingot, and sheet536,960..     ..     234,998718,899
..     ..     Parcels-post3,1672,5442,3774,0458,625
Brazil.
II67Apples, fresh3,378..     ..     ..     ..     
Argentina.
II67Apples, fresh1,882..     ..     ..     ..     
VI183Sheep for breeding..     ..     ..     ..     4,400
Uruguay.
II67Apples, fresh1,956..     ..     ..     ..     
Chile.
XII357Coal, bunker2,2931,3901,664401337
Guam.
V168Cigarettes4513,023..     1,326..     
  Coal—
XII357     Bunker31,02325,62710,4221,199..     
 358     Cargo10,14917,46518,4312,103..     
Hawaii (Sandwich Islands.
I1Butter8,14060242043,047
 32Meats, potted and preserved2929..     544,531
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.2,0262,622..     3502,266
New Caledonia.
I40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.32,719303075
II130Sugar, refined22,95315,5222,042..     ..     
Society Islands.
I1Butter4,8053,4924,6865,9647,332
 20Beef, salted7511,0289797781,484
 32Meats, potted and preserved11,81311,94718,58716,13421,669
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.5,1863,6054,9895,7906,905
II43Biscuits5041,7003,8491,959849
 87Flour, wheaten969,38828,07131,20333,318
  Sugar—
 129     Raw2,8728,1372,5613,2943,210
 130     Refined2,9643,3124,3355,8863,270
 135Potatoes8229338481,1471,313
VI174Cattle, ordinary2,2283,9874,1723,7603,826
 179Pigs, ordinary9142,1203,1272,2281,704
IXB278Piece-goods, cotton2183671,1312,2651,954.
IXC301Cordage and rope n.o.e.3995851,1081,1281,565
XII357Coal, bunker2,2022,0803,15311,690..     
XXI725Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films4903,0971,4431,010860
XXIII875Soap, common bar (yellow and blue mottled)7,0108,6639,3969,16312,691
Tonga (Friendly Islands).
   £      £      £      £      £      
I1Butter12901,5382,2432,7834,702
 11Fish, preserved in tins3371,3701,7665,9405,041
 20Beef, salted4742,4623,7533,2457,032
 32Meats, potted and preserved3,60210,49917,56521,65244,267
 41provisions n.o.e.1,0221,2741,1351,5332,594
II43Biscuits, ships' plain..     1,7651,5331,7221,259
 87Flour, wheaten5931,6404734,8522,831
 130Sugar, refined..     3,5571,9424,8532,570
IXA234Apparel1849757812,3204,293
IXB278Cotton piece-goods n.o.e.1,9346,89716,46514,66519,294
IXC301Cordage and rope n.o.e.7801,8531,2981,3152,961
X324Oil, kerosene2,1642,6022,3156381,109
XIII375Silver (specie)..     21,10025,75061,15025,460
XXIII875Soap, common bar6728486529711,754
Tutuila.
I32Meats, potted and preserved3321,0112,0481,1771,681

In order to show at a glance the destinations of the main items of export tables are appended showing the details for five years for each of the principal articles.

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS, 1916-20.
Country to which exported.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Wool.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom162,452,392168,062,04980,502,867258,388,501162,301,559
Canada2,508,3493,620,4498,191,76949,661..     
Australia555,881..     523,057..     36
France4,369,7486,591,98811,328,1941,482,037..     
Japan2,182,035..     ..     ..     ..     
United States of America13,438,854..     8,178,68813,294,50825,531
Other countries..     ..     ..     1,031,90636
          Totals185,507,259178,274,486108,724,575274,246,613162,327,162
Frozen Meat.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom3,319,9112,438,4561,537,6713,469,8423,747,965
Canada..     2,58470,67118,67150,594
Pacific islands4675476035561,162
Australia5,66711275..     ..     
United States of America..     ..     6381,888829,561
Egypt25,384427,034331,724..      
          Totals3,326,0452,466,9322,036,8923,822,6814,629,282
Butter.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom336,412250,721415,250336,606282,679
Canada3,55730411,8936,00019,526
Pacific islands3,0941,8721,4952,1263,033
Australia15,5661,49943661,528
United States of America31..     ..     4,843
Other countries..     ..     1,9491,080400
          Totals358,632254,397431,023345,818312,009
Cheese.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom942,773865,152844,1981,517,1021,220,409
South African Union1,574..     ..     ..     43
Pacific islands239279233273362
Australia4,682314256105539
Egypt..     19,97538,64639,796..     
Other countries1482311215,079717
          Totals949,416885,743883,4451,572,3551,222,070
Tallow.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom22,339,6723,52936,17019,464
Pacific islands12714310987179
Australia1246496240426
Canada..     1,2565,8722,261390
United States of America..     3756,0186,9856,582
Other countries..     6897971,131..     
          Totals22,47212,59916,42146,87427,041
Hides (Horse and Cattle).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom32,08498,14253,8489,99621,610
Canada114,48872,63382,94289,01365,753
Australia151,6247,55165,736118,506135,692
United States of America..     ..     6,434103,93664,663
Other countries..     ..     ..     438400
          Totals298,196178,326208,960321,889288,118
Calf-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom24,9405,854..     ..     800
Canada101,47923,81618,84657,565133,017
Australia77,70221,23287,39241,62377,069
United States of America1,903..     ..     7,61340,371
Other countries..     ..     ..     6..     
          Totals206,02450,902106,238106,807251,257
Rabbit-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom4,819,597879,483254,8683,032,1889,578,778
Canada..     1,611,0892,871,9801,633,067271,782
Australia225,551201,82252,91739,485113,524
United States of America851,1322,252,2134,674,8879,635,2674,399,132
Other countries130..     ..     ..     ..     
          Totals5,896,4104,944,6077,854,15214,340,00714,363,216
Sheep Skins and Pelts.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom4,141,6301,786,15365,1632,638,3782,777,064
Canada440,13849,327340,620530,492681,609
Australia433,370205,809123,37022,46653,353
United States of America3,320,3944,486,7648,212,3855,310,4205,715,730
Other countries38..     ..     ..     ..     
          Totals8,335,5706,528,0538,741,5388,501,7569,227,756
Sausage-skins.
 lb.lblb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom729,274..     498386,5742.9,400
Canada257,060267,730395,010396,189545,386
Australia183,06677,337230,243244,429178,303
United States of America1,363,1611,690,7351,635,2201,538,6331,858,489
Other countries112504591..     798
          Totals2,532,6732,036,3062,261,5622,566,0952,832,376
Beans and Peas.
 Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.
United Kingdom23,45458,21944,512230,49275,748
Canada1,9612,68445..     75
South African Union1..     ..     ..     332
Australia24,0427,38510,25415,98732,255
Pacific islands5883865385
France98176..     ..     ..     
United States of America7114764489,2948,272
Other countries14648735..     
          Totals50,87169,07155,418255,831116,767
Seeds (Grass and Clover).
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom6,695,23077824,2895,771
Canada603511401,817364
Pacific islands8234016
South African Union..     ..     ..     ..     32
Australia2,2128,39810,65918,15313,149
United States of America1,4755,1114,4157,0084,811
Other countries2..     ..     ..     ..     
          Totals10,42619,09215,99551,30724,143
Gold.
 Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.
United Kingdom32,866165,0017082,00924,969
Australia127,34553,62311,917133,2203,619
Other countries132,409..     ..     104,981184,384
          Totals292,620218,62411,987320,210212,972
Coal.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom115,682102,97090,01085,29930,570
Canada5,3305,5324,9595,947412
Pacific islands (other than Fiji)5,7249,1666,08510,5304,336
Australia51,97232,07326,77326,49640,654
Fiji17,39112,6724,8716,10991
Egypt25,2462062,506..     ..     
Chile1,8159941,100247150
United States of America17,99915,64316,52712,4868,821
Guam40,70546,08729,3723,125..     
Other countries49,8113,50040054..     
          Totals331,675228,843182,603150,29385,034
Kauri-gum.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom1,516620691,7711,851
Canada2371,2291,167703746
Australia3111561934
United States of America3,6492,6891,1271,6353,850
Other countries2345..     ..     ..     
          Totals5,4564,5942,4194,1286,481
Phormium Fibre.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom15,2887,6693,28610,9115,365
Canada1,4443,5381,5721,4891,853
Australia4,7223,2494,5563,7646,677
United States of America6,2199,05915,5686,0595,046
Other countries111851248
          Totals27,67423,51625,16722,34718,949
Timber (Sawn and Hewn).
 Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.
United Kingdom340,490163,98845,8007,65720,010
Pacific islands (other than Fiji)309,054665,975619,708290,532227,567
Australia69,168,62968,725,73272,965,07148,807,93269,029,996
Fiji1,692,8211,801,8601,301,936394,891113,291
Other countries..     ..     3005,268..     
          Totals71,510,99471,357,55574,932,81549,572,28069,390,864

EXPORTS FOR YEARS ENDED 30th JUNE.

New Zealand's exports consist almost wholly of seasonal products, and the calendar year often splits the seasons. The largest export, wool, is sheared from the sheep in the early summer, and the wool-sales are held in December and January. Exports of any season's wool-clip are therefore divided between one year and the next in varying proportion. A favourable season or a sudden demand may cause a great increase of exports in the December quarter, with the result that the March quarter of the next year shows low figures. The wool trade invariably bases its calculations on each season's clip, not on calendar years.

The same argument holds good in the case of butter and cheese, which are almost wholly exported in December and March quarters. It is desirable, therefore, for some purposes to tabulate New Zealand exports for years ending in June instead of December, since this division does not split the seasonal production of any main commodity, and more truly shows the results of each season as compared with previous seasons. The following table gives this information for the principal items of export during each of the last five “June” years:—

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC PRODUCE FROM NEW ZEALAND FOR YEARS ENDING 30TH JUNE, 1917 TO 1921 (INCLUSIVE).
Article.1916-17.1917-18.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.
The mine—£      £      £      £      £      
     Coal249,106270,028195,573174,46594,350
     Gold529,878927,943635,7171,085,483836,911
     Silver89,651139,214128,464113,25674,472
Fisheries—
     Fish30,78524,05717,37424,74328,166
The forest—
     Kauri-gum330,433220,085193,902406,278418,968
     Timber (sawn and hewn)422,281457,317517,182544,229622,939
Pastoral products—
     Beef, salted7,91214,19810,82116,84523,383
     Butter2,767,1503,232,7883,592,8752,257,1458,447,198
     Cheese3,982,0894,010,8425,501,4526,930,1788,376,495
     Hides343,858558,560707,0571,071,639533,844
     Live-stock54,26566,23940,92050,83968,597
     Meat, preserved268,323534,256924,934708,702471,830
     Meat, frozen6,953,9446,414,4714,911,58210,027,65613,933,374
     Sausage-skins212,110243,745262,288421,017478,128
     Skins, rabbit79,182258,246209,702653,663541,793
     Skins, sheep1,136,9231,002,4761,937,2422,754,0761,875,835
     Tallow767,313615,4641,613,2502,155,7531,499,934
     Wool10,628,3599,519,19915,378,92313,206,0838,637,515
Agricultural products—
     Beans and peas40,80497,902170,012131,180162,817
     Oats28,8391,2284,75841,849103,361
     Wheat17,94049140197793
     Hops18,7926,12918,40914,48924,509
     Potatoes6,1995,0367,72239,99910,189
     Seeds, grass and clover43,33144,91298,066248,613137,065
Miscellaneous—
     Leather23,89429,36047,13337,856109,360
     Phormium1,221,1841,553,7911,059,316656,553443,624
     Other New Zealand produce646,821794,4281,523,1152,079,9241,968,557
          Totals30,901,36631,042,31539,708,19045,853,49049,901,215

RE-EXPORTS.

The forwarding trade of New Zealand has never at any time been of great significance, and, prior to 1914, on only one occasion (in 1907) did the amount exceed a quarter of a million sterling. Since 1913, however, this amount has rapidly increased until in 1920 it reached the comparatively huge figure of £813,072.

Items of re-exports consist partly of goods returned from New Zealand either as unsuitable or as finished with, though the bulk of the total amount is made up by various classes of machinery, hardware, metal manufactures, motor-cars, and also items such as apparel, books, tobacco, and spirits.

There is, however, a genuine entrepôt trade with the islands of the Pacific, the amount of which is still comparatively small. Exports to Cook Islands, which are treated as part of the Dominion, are not included in the figures of either exports or re-exports.

The amounts for the last twenty years of the re-exports of New Zealand are shown in the table below:—

RE-EXPORTS (EXCLUDING SPECIE) FROM NEW ZEALAND, 1901-20.
 £      
1901179,350
1902136,860
1903133,734
1904136,963
1905138,539
1906152,134
1907278,503
1908180,675
1909173,215
1910208,310
1911198,287
1912239,221
1913232,473
1914269,208
1915387,960
1916305,150
1917429,115
1918543,568
1919603,541
1920813,072

The destination of this re-export trade is shown in the following table for 1916-20:—

Country.1910.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £      £      £      £      £      
United Kingdom40,57750,245103,580113,267103,955
Australia144,406217,168261,814263,689382,593
Fiji24,48036,43436,92740,93471,645
Canada5,8286,6707,00917,74429,628
United States of America11,92624,69717,00824,36449,386
Tonga or Friendly Islands10,36423,88133,05142,25765,716
Samoa or Navigator Islands22,35526,20125,35031,18278,521
Tahiti or Society Islands14,66518,01927,18323,16821,866
Other countries30,54925,80031,64646,9369,762
          Totals305,150429,115543,568603,541813,072

EFFECT OF PRICES ON NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

It is widely recognized that the price of wool and of the other principal exports has a vital bearing on the prosperity of New Zealand, and in the following pages an attempt is made to analyse the influence exerted upon the exports by these changes of prices. New Zealand has always been peculiarly dependent for her prosperity upon her external trade, and the early vicissitudes of the several settlements were caused in great part by the difficulty of finding an assured market for their products. After the gold-discoveries of the “sixties,” there was a steady export of that metal; but the great development of sheep-farming caused the export of wool to outstrip and finally to overshadow gold. Before refrigeration these two commodities comprised the overwhelming bulk of New Zealand's exports—on the average from 90 to 95 per cent.

This was the position when, in the early “seventies,” the world level of prices began to fall, which it continued to do steadily till 1895. About this time the first alluvial deposits of gold began to work out, and gold exports constantly decreased. At the same time the price of wool fell lower and lower, so that the colony found both its great sources of wealth shrinking fast. An ambitious borrowing policy, followed by a period of land speculation, precipitated the country into the severest crisis it has yet experienced, and economic conditions became rapidly worse, till a long period of depression ended in the early “nineties” in a banking crisis.

All through this period the quantities of goods exported constantly increased. Refrigeration came in 1882, and frozen meat and dairy-produce added to the country's wealth. But the depressing influence of falling prices continually minimized the effect of the strenuous efforts at increased production, and the condition of the country remained unpromising.

The years 1895-96 saw a complete change, winch can be ascribed only to two facts: the world level of prices began to rise, and the beneficial effects of refrigeration began to make themselves felt; so that from this period dates the prosperity of New Zealand. Under the stimulus of rising prices, which always benefit debtors and producers, exports have increased by leaps and bounds, as will be seen by a reference to the charts in Subsection A of this section. Following the increase of exports there has been a great development of imports and of the home trade.

It is an economic axiom that rising prices tend to benefit producers, for the reason that all prices do not rise equally, and the main prices which lag behind the general level are the prices of the two biggest expenses of production—labour and capital. Hence the producer gets the benefit of rising prices for his produce, while his wages-bill and the interest on his borrowed capital do mot increase so fast. It is the latter fact which is of value to New Zealand. The amount of interest which must be paid by New Zealand in each year is paid by the export of domestic produce, and is represented by a continued excess of exports over imports. In times of rising prices fewer bales of wool and carcases of mutton need be shipped each year to discharge this obligation.

At the same time New Zealand derives an extra benefit from the fact that her exports are rising faster than the average level of prices. Investigations into prices, not only in New Zealand but also in the older countries, show that raw materials and foodstuffs rise much faster than other commodities, and this feature is especially marked in animal products. In New Zealand Dr. McIlraith has demonstrated that prices of exports constantly rise faster than prices of imports.

All these influences, which are the principal effects of rising prices, tend to stimulate and increase production; but their exact extent can never be separated from the other causes of increased productivity: all that may be measured is the apparent effect upon the exports as disclosed by changing values. From these data it is possible to ascertain with some accuracy what extra value has been added by the element of prices; but the important influences increasing productivity are not touched by this method.

Practically all the main exports of New Zealand are primary products, either raw materials or foodstuffs. From their nature it is possible in nearly every case to obtain the quantities exported as well as the values. It is then an easy matter of computation to find what the value would have been, assessing the quantities for each year at the prices of a selected base year or period, and by comparison with the actual values recorded to estimate the effect of price-changes.

This method is used by the British Board of Trade and by the Commonwealth Statistician, and is very suitable for application to New Zealand. Of the total exports of New Zealand produce, 99 per cent. can, for the purpose of the present inquiry, be treated in this fashion, leaving only 1 per cent. to be calculated pro rata.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE, SHOWING VALUES AS RECORDED AND AS COMPUTED ON THE BASIS OF VALUES RULING IN 1900.
Year.Recorded Value.Value at Rates ruling in 1900.Index Numbers of “True” Volume of Exports.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
 £      £      £      £       
190013,055,24917.1013,055,24917.1010001000
190112,690,46016.3113,885,22717.8510641044
190213,498,59916.9214,877,30218.6511401091
190314,838,19218.0915,148,50018.4711601080
190414,601,78717.2813,979,64416.541071967
190515,503,53017.8213,618,83815.651043915
190617,840,34619.9214,796,09716.521133966
190719,783,13821.5215,830,14917.2212131007
190815,894,53016.8214,554,75415.401115901
190919,462,93620.0317,886,54118.4113701077
191021,944,16322.1018,524,54018.6614191091
191118,781,89818.5116,131,86915.901236930
191221,272,40520.4717,754,86517.091360999
191322,577,89021.1317,506,32316.381341958
191425,984,71723.8319,807,86718.1715171063
191531,042,66228.2420,099,59218.2815401069
191632,975,90729.9918,681,65316.991431994
191731,087,95728.2815,567,99514.161192828
191827,937,01025.3312,401,37311.24950657
191953,304,38446.6424,826,91221.7219021270
192045,592,29438.2320,059,45916.821537984

In order to show the effect of changes in price from year to year, and particularly in the latter years, it is interesting to construct a series of index numbers basing the figures for each year upon the prices of the previous year. In this way it is possible to compare succeeding years directly, instead of comparing each year with a given base. The method used is the same, except that the base is changed.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE FOR EACH YEAR 1900-20, SHOWING VALUES AS RECORDED AND AS COMPUTED ON THE BASIS OF VALUES RULING IN THE PREVIOUS YEAR.
Year.Total Exports (Domestic Produce).Effect of Price-changes.
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of Previous Year.Gain.Loss.
 £      £      £      £      
190013,055,249..     ..     ..     
190112,690,46013,885,227..     1,194,767
190213,498,59913,597,171..     98,672
190314,838,19213,744,6651,093,527..     
190414,601,78713,693,279908,508..     
190515,503,53014,224,9241,278,606..     
190617,840,34616,843,708996,638..     
190719,783,13819,087,151695,987..     
190815,894,53018,189,260..     2,294,730
190919,462,93619,533,010..     70,074
191021,944,16320.157,1641,786,999..     
191118,781,89819,109,809..     327,911
191221,272,40520,671,508600,897..     
191322,577,89020,974,6231,603,267..     
191425,984,71725,546,190438,527..     
191531,042,66226,367,4134,675,249..     
191632,975,90728,852,7374,123,170..     
191731,087,95727,479,8363,608,121..     
191827,937,01024,764,4833,172,527..     
191953,304,38455,928,460..     2,624,076
192045,592,29443,068,4702,523,824..     

The comparison of each year with the preceding year brings out the advantage gained by a rise in prices. The gain shown represents the surplus value added by rising prices to the exports of any year, and, similarly, the loss shows how falling prices penalize New Zealand. The figures for the crisis years 1908-9, and for 1911, are eloquent of what falling prices would mean for the Dominion. The gains due to the rise of prices in 1915 and the three following years are remarkable. The huge recorded total of exports in 1919 would have been two and a half millions greater had average prices of exports remained as in 1918, while the 1920 total would have been correspondingly reduced had 1919 prices continued.

The next table is based on June years, which, as stated previously, are preferable as giving a comparison between one season and another, and covers the four principal items of export from 1890-91 to 1920-21. Here again a huge increase in total values of exports on account of enhanced prices is very evident.

EXPORTS OF WOOL, FROZEN MEAT, BUTTER, AND CHEESE FOR YEARS ENDING 30TH JUNE, SHOWING VALUES AS ACTUALLY RECORDED AND AS ASSESSED AT THE AVERAGE PRICES OF 1890-99.
Year.Wool.Frozen Meat.Butter.Cheese.
Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890-99.Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890-99.Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890-99.Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890-99.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      £      £      
1890-914,216,4193,641,7681,188,6201,136,432128,306143,79695,86693,699
1891-924,229,6833,735,4611,140,5711,103,579198,363206,47891,67083,578
1892-934,072,3423,999,3291,067,7801,018,744208,909189,97895,90392,232
1893-944,353,4154,274,7111,054,5371,022,559303,951299,575106,280100,779
1894-954,028,6514,329,7691,322,8101,337,768231,700242,471160,061163,260
1895-964,393,5744,345,4491,276,2321,243,269250,885256,159121,993137,210
1896-974,357,2444,449,2301,340,1691,344,449357,187366,728151,298159,899
1897-984,732,5425,032,1621,691,5461,831,138404,049404,127136,146142,455
1898-994,241,9844,847,2711,776,8431,804,212451,269452,348127,209126,913
1899-19004,889,1014,859,8062,298,1402,315,097693,666666,625224,238210,638
1900-13,890,5734,781,0592,193,4942,122,519858,543822,599239,325210,630
1901-23,079,2715,094,4462,526,6612,367,9311,044,317947,782171,886162,912
1902-34,034,7125,475,2773,310,0732,840,9371,211,2231,045,407186,412146,500
1903-44,313,0184,779,7452,846,0822,318,9581,445,8141,345,834194,779175,808
1904-55,468,5664,927,2852,714,0262,003,7091,417,9841,319,133180,215105,619
1905-66,605,7905,144,5592,882,3872,215,6181,540,3271,319,385300,056243,318
1906-77,415,4865,487,4273,143,7642,858,9031,631,1741,365,022568,058412,533
1907-85,649,6365,314,7793,165,0482,453,0431,133,665942,588761,100555,439
1908-95,965,2836,397,4533,775,9902,961,1131,491,8371,198,433977,358712,921
1909-107,962,6696,594,2953,631,1222,952,0411,712,6591,393,6131,275,148978,653
1910-117,164,8446,202,3353,875,3792,914,5071,685,0331,378,4741,093,715839,158
1911-126,965,4166,328,1673,671,9482,743,4771,891,2351,435,8341,496,7301,068,174
1912-138,217,6446,503,5454,315,4442,890,4242,027,8221,504,3181,914,2381,341,035
1913-148,262,1536,673,8035,079,2283,323,4332,197,6621,681,9152,317,9701,594,670
1914-159,907,6706,893,4205,737,6573,169,7062,336,8621,702,8562,2,5091,492,725
1915-1612,127,6976,247,7187,476,6373,954,7442,805,1521,668,157,345,3141,919,876
1916-1710,628,3595,342,6686,953,9443,481,3472,767,1501,443,4103,982,0891,881,560
1917-189,519,1994,497,9836,414,4712.943,703,232,7881,684,5374,010,8421,787,735
1918-1915,378,9237,340,7754,911,5822,221,0823,592,8751,715,7955,501,4522,319,330
1919-2013,26,0836,009,88310,027,6564,552,9922,257,1451,046,8136,930,1782,818,278
1920-218,637,5155,388,38213,999,5316,177,3118,447,1982,608,2068,376,4952,942,923

The diagrams on pages 215, 216, 217, and 220 show very plainly the tremendous divergence in recent years between the recorded and “assessed” value of these four items. A curve is added in each case showing the index number of export values, the decennium 1891-1900 being taken as the base = 1000.

The effect which war and post-war prices of products have exerted towards raising the Dominion's exports to an unprecedented height is best shown by the following comparison between the year ended 30th June, 1914, and the corresponding twelve-monthly periods ending in 1919, 1920, 1921. On the recorded figures exports for 1920-21 were more than double those for 1913-14, but the increase is seen to be due mainly to the greatly enhanced prices ruling in the later year, the real volume of exports having increased by only a little over 20 per cent. The table covers only fifteen principal items, which, however, represent more than nine-tenths of the total exports.

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE FOR THE TWELVE MONTHS ENDED 30TH JUNE, 1919, 1920, AND 1921, SHOWING VALUES AS RECORDED AND AS COMPUTED ON THE BASIS OF PRICES RULING DURING THE YEAR ENDED 30TH JUNE, 1914.
Item.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1914.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1919.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1920.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1921.
Recorded Value.Value at 1914 Prices.Recorded Value.Value at 1914 Prices.Recorded Value.Value at 1914 Prices.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      £      
Butter2,197,6623,592,8752,241,6562,257,1451,367,8118,447,1983,407,993
Cheese2,317,9705,501,4523,371,5406,930,1784,096,5738,376,4954,277,753
Beef, frozen561,8171,329,827829,3171,443,648917,792,316,0851,496,869
Lamb, frozen2,545,1751,404,6301,053,1313,379,4902,522,4914,850,5423,230,789
Mutton, frozen1,848,7911,947,4321,240,7385,093,3853,221,7656,651,7714,261,512
Meat, preserved122,096924,934609,528708,702508,974471,830408,022
Hides323,359707,057454,3081,071,639355,373533,844428,147
Skins, rabbit90,350209,70280,203653,663215,001541,793186,702
Skins, sheep (without wool)880,6601,937,242965,4502,754,076950,7881,875,835788,013
Wool8,262,15315,378,9239,087,43813,206,0837,440,2178,637,5156,670,802
Phormium600,0481,059,316557,179656,553413,276443,624298,893
Tallow711,8581,613,250924,6862,155,753918,1641,499,934903,110
Kauri-gum590,341193,902172,717406,278357,659418,968280,240
Gold1,485,920635,717592,6241,085,4831,014,968836,911784,078
Timber, sawn372,380517,182308,760544,229296,805622,939294,610
          Totals22,910,58036,953,44122,489,27542,346,30524,597,64446,525,28427,717,533
Other N.Z. produce1,406,3182,754,749..     3,507,187..     3,375,931..     
          Grand totals24,316,89839,708,190..     45,853,492..     49,901,215..     

EXPORTS BY PORTS AND DISTRICTS.

Under the system at present in force the Customs Department allocates exports as far as possible to the district of production, whether exported through the port for such district or through some other port. The Dominion is divided into twenty export districts, as under:—

Auckland: Includes the Counties of Mongonui, Whangaroa, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Hobson, Whangarei, Otamatea, Rodney, Waitemata, Eden, Manukau, Raglan, Waikato, Ohinemuri, Thames, Hauraki Plains, Coromandel, Kawhia, Waipa, Great Barrier, Piako, Matamata, Rotorua, Whakatane, Franklin, Opotiki, Waitomo, Ohura, and West Taupo; but not including Kaipara exports.

Kaipara: Includes the exports through the Port of Kaipara.

Tauranga: Includes the County of Tauranga.

Gisborne: Includes the Couunties of Waiapu, Matakaoa, Waikohu, Uawa, and Cook.

New Plymouth: Includes as nearly as possible the exports through the Port of New Plymouth.

Waitara: Includes as nearly as possible the exports through the Port of Waitara.

Patea: Includes as nearly as possible the exports through the Port of Patea.

Wanganui: Includes the Counties of Waitotara, Waimarino. Wanganui, Rangitikei, Kiwitea, Pohangina, Oroua, Kairanga, Manawatu, and Kaitieke.

Wellington: Includes the Counties of Pahiatua, Akitio, Eketahuna, Mauriceville, Masterton, Castlepoint, Wairarapa South, Featherston, Hutt, Makara, and Horowhenua.

Napier: Includes the Counties of Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, East Taupo, Waipawa, Patangata, Waipukurau, Dannevirke, Woodville, and Weber.

Wairau (including Picton): Includes the Counties of Awatere, Sounds, and Marlborough.

Nelson: Includes the Counties of Waimea, Murchison, Takaka, and Collingwood.

Westport: Includes the County of Buller.

Greymouth: Includes the Counties of Inangahua and Grey.

Hokitika: Includes the County of Westland.

Lyttelton: Includes the Counties of Kaikoura, Amuri, Cheviot, Waipara, Tawera, Ashley, Kowai, Oxford, Rangiora, Eyre, Selwyn, Ellesmere, Halswell, Heathcote, Malvern, Paparua, Springs, Waimairi, Mount Herbert, Akaroa, Wairewa, Ashburton, and Chatham Islands.

Timaru: Includes the Counties of Geraldine, Levels, Mackenzie, and Waimate.

Oamaru: Includes the County of Waitaki.

Dunedin: Includes the Counties of Vincent, Maniototo, Waihemo, Waikouaiti, Peninsula, Taieri, Tuapeka, Bruce, and Clutha.

Invercargill: Includes the Counties of Southland, Wallace, Fiord, Lake, and Stewart Island.

This system, which came into operation in 1914, displacing the former system of crediting exports to the port from which the goods were shipped on through bill of lading to their destination abroad, was introduced with a view to giving the smaller ports credit for goods produced in the surrounding district but shipped or railed to a larger port for overseas loading.

It is no longer possible to classify ports in order of their importance as exporting ports, no statistics being available from 1914 onwards as to the actual exports from each port. During the five years 1909—13, the latest for which “port” statistics were compiled, Wellington was the principal exporting port, followed by Auckland and Lyttelton in that order.

Wellington is probably the most important transhipment port, and on that account suffers more than any other port under the present system, but, even on the district basis, still ranks first for the five years 1916-20, with Auckland a close second, and Lyttelton again third.

A table follows giving the figures for each port for the quinquennium 1909-13, and for each district for 1916-20.

EXPORTS FROM VARIOUS PORTS OR DISTRICTS.
Port or District.Average of Five Years.
1909-13 (Ports).1916-20 (Districts).
* Tauranga was not a port of export in 1909-13.
 £      £      
Auckland3,603,9247,373,328
Kaipara126,61585,061
Tauranga*48,811
Gisborne1,129,4062,146,566
New Plymouth591,4881,478,285
Waitara319,528428,236
Patea641,6881,538,912
Wanganui481,8382,688,073
Wellington4,407,9237,458,865
Napier1,735,0023,246,000
Wairau (including Picton)303,824424,031
Nelson144,211266,278
Westport56,78852,071
Greymouth385,806333,499
Hokitika28,06448,023
Lyttelton2,882,7924,725,858
Timaru1,197,4001,400,379
Oamaru199,520333,931
Dunedin1,520,5712,458,174
Invercargill1,329,4582,170,843
Parcels-post39,75573,415
          Totals21,125,60138,760,539

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS.

In 1901 a group of Pacific islands was annexed to New Zealand, and has since been administered by the Dominion. The islands are fertile and rich in tropical products, so that there is a growing trade between them and the Dominion proper. This trade is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the Dominion, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. Separate returns are made of the transactions between the Dominion and its dependent islands, and these are summarized on the page following.

TOTAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM NEW ZEALAND TO COOK AND OTHER ANNEXED ISLANDS, 1901-20.
Year.Exports.
 £      
190121,849
190222,973
190327,965
190428,644
190529,098
190635,452
190738,288
190839,284
190940,204
191060,647
191156,131
191275,774
191372,046
191459,056
191555,459
191652,831
191753,449
191879,309
191988,902
1920117,820

The principal items exported to the islands in 1920 were—

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS, 1920.
Class.Item.Article.Quantity.Value.
Produce of New Zealand.Other.Total.
 £     £     £     
I1Butter202 cwt.2,164..     2,164
 11Fish, preserved in tins18,007 lb.371,0781,115
 20Beef, salted301 cwt.909..     909
 32Meats, potted and preserved2,415 cwt.13,283..     13,283
 40Milk, dried and preserved29,716 lb.1,498301,528
 41Provisions n.o.e...     1,1059822,07
II43Biscuits, ship's plain2,641 cwt.6,280..     6,280
 87Flour, wheaten10,113 centals10,067..     10,067
 130Sugar, refined2,895 cwt.4,986134,999
IV158Whisky633 gallons..     1,0261,026
V171Cut tobacco, manufactured4,096 lb...     1,4181,418
IXA234Apparel and ready-made clothing n.o.e...     1,7638312,594
 254Lace and laces n.o.e...     ..     1,1941,194
IXB267Drapery n.o.e...     4324,0794,511
 278Cotton piece-goods n.o.e...     ..     4,9464,946
IXC294Corn bags and sacks1,351 dozen991,2641,363
XII357Coal, bunker1,088 tons952..     952
XIVB422Hardware and ironmongery n.o.e...     1451,8642,009
 430Iron and steel, corrugated, plate and sheet609 cwt...     1,7161,155
 434Iron and steel, tubes and pipes9 tons401,1151,155
XVIIA628Timber, sawn, dressed, kauri77,964 sup. ft.1,256..     1,256
 635Timber, sawn, rough, kauri280,570 sup. ft.3,061..     3,061
 636Timber, sawn, rough, white-pine249,243 sup. ft.2,747..     2,747
 639Timber, sawn, rough, other580,572 sup. ft.8,414118,425
XVIIB653Furniture and upholstery n.o.e...     1,0241141,138
XXIIA765Medicinal preparations, drugs, &c...     3461,3961,742
XXIII875Soap, common bar1,200 cwt.3,154..     3,154
 893Motor vehicles and materials..     ..     2,6152,615

Further particulars regarding the trade of the Cook Islands will be found in the section of this book dealing with “Outlying Islands of New Zealand.”

SUBSECTION C.—IMPORTS.

METHOD OF RECORDING.

THE statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. Prior to 1916 the import value taken was the c.i.f. or landed value in New Zealand, thus including freight into the Dominion. For free goods and goods liable to specific duties this landed value in New Zealand was shown, but the landed value for ad valorem goods was taken as the fair market value of the goods when sold for home consumption in the principal markets of the country whence imported, and at the time when exported, plus 10 per cent. From and including the year 1916, however, the value shown for all merchandise imported is the fair market value for home consumption in the country of export at the time of exportation, plus 10 per cent.

DEVELOPMENT OF IMPORTS.

The earliest trade in New Zealand, as of most colonies, consisted more of exploitation and appropriation by visiting traders than of regular exchange. The whalers and sealers brought with them sufficient provisions to last their season, and they were never more than passing visitors to the Islands. The first genuine import trade sprang up when the Maoris became sensible of the great wealth to be won by bartering their flax for iron and other treasures of the white man. A new element was introduced when the Maori adopted the musket in preference to the old hand weapons, for the possession of firearms became a necessary precaution against the danger of extermination. Intertribal warfare was conducted on an ever-increasing scale, and muskets were the most prized of all possessions, so that when the chief Hongi returned from his visit to England in 1821 he changed all his valuable presents into firearms as soon as he reached Sydney.

With the incoming of the regular colonists, trade assumed its more modern form, and the import of firearms was quickly overshadowed by the more peaceful requirements of the settlers. It was not for many years that the Maori finally gave up the appeal to force in order to sustain his claims or his rights; but since the second Maori War in the “sixties” the Natives have settled more and more into European habits.

Permanent settlement in 1840 rendered necessary the continued and increasing import of clothing, metals, and manufactures to sustain the colonists and to develop the colony. For many years after the first landing imports were greatly in excess of exports, and this excess represents the import of capital which was necessary to put the young colony on a firm footing. Especially in the early years, New Zealand, while supplying foodstuffs from her own resources, has been dependent upon the outside world for a great proportion of the manufactures necessary for development, and also of the luxuries and amenities of modern life.

The gold rushes brought a huge increase of population and also of imports, and reference to Subsection A of this section will show the effect of the stimulus given by the gold discoveries. In the later “sixties” imports were declining; but the borrowing policy pursued in the “seventies” resulted once more in an increase of imports for a time. Violent fluctuations succeeded, with a general tendency to diminish until, in sympathy with the increased exports, the value of imports rapidly increased from 1895. The worst check was received in 1909, following the bad year of exports in 1908. The figures for 1917 also showed a substantial fall, largely due to shortage of shipping and restriction of exports from Europe.

The nature of the imports has changed little from the time of the first settlement in New Zealand, though new commodities have naturally been introduced, the principal groups of commodities being clothing and textiles, metals and machinery, sugar, tea, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, paper and stationery, and motor vehicles. The proportions of these imports have changed little for many years, except that motor vehicles have increased very rapidly during the last decade.

The following table shows the total imports for New Zealand during the last decade:—

IMPORTS, 1911-20.
Year.Total.Per Head.
Including Specie.Excluding Specie.Including Specie.Excluding Specie.
 £      £      £s.d.£s.d.
191119,545,87918,782,608195218102
191220,976,57420,576,579203919161
191322,288,30221,653,632201712053
191421,856,09621,144,2272001119710
191521,728,83420,658,72019152181510
191626,339,28325,045,4032319222157
191720,919,26520,742,130190818177
191824,234,00724,131,7922119521177
191930,671,69830,309,1672616926105
192061,595,82861,553,85351121151123

IMPORTS BY PORTS.

The subjoined table exhibits the value of the imports received at each port in New Zealand during the five years 1916-20. The large increase in the value of imports in 1920 as compared with the previous year is fairly evenly distributed over the various parts of the Dominion, but is more apparent in the case of the four chief ports. Kaipara is the only port which shows a decrease.

Napier still holds the position of fifth port of the Dominion, closely followed by Invercargill, with Timaru, Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Gisborne next, in that order. It will be observed that the number of ports participating in the direct importing trade of the Dominion is large. The four chief ports are far in advance of the rest, and amongst them the North shows a more rapid progress, so that now, while the combined South Island ports barely exceed the value received at Auckland, their aggregate is nearly £2,000,000 short of the imports credited to Wellington.

The imports credited to each port consist of the goods actually landed over the wharf at that port. The figures given in the following table therefore represent the actual shipping import trade of each port, though from the central ports the goods are afterwards distributed over the country either by rail or by coastal shipping:—

IMPORTS BY PORTS, 1916-20.
Ports.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £      £      £      £      £      
Auckland7,362,7786,413,4777,217,7329,567,40918,732,082
Kaipara3,9281,0341,3875,9551,452
Tauranga6,2046,0363,1952,9746,177
Gisborne212,505147,040141,334165,390331,414
Napier565,504401,783414,158575,4931,130,157
New Plymouth210,867194,677219,654230,089499,009
Patea33,36321,09230,36952,95277,213
Wanganui304,140248,954250,721317,007573.814
Wellington9,253,5066,730,5768,378,55710,626,87321,037,639
Wairau (inch Picton)46,43041,72631,10143,76365,585
Nelson142,47091,89887,771110,014207,019
Westport35,00023,18032,93435,86763,693
Greymouth82,41860,43650,18377,616129,219
Hokitika6,5555,0055,7415,84610,268
Lyttelton4,035,0973,243,8613,781,1154,584,8229,774,261
Timaru311,457233,065298,863353,868717,133
Oamaru65,86078,61445,19256,630123,801
Dunedin3,118,9282,563,5242,842,1463,331,6557,057,823
Invercargill542,273413,287401,854527,4751,058,069
          Totals26,339,28320,919,26524,234,00730,671,69861,595,828

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS.

In 1914 the statistics both of imports and exports were compiled for the first time upon a new plan, a statistical classification being adopted which assembles the items in well-defined classes, so that all similar commodities are grouped as far as may be. The advantages of a stereotyped classification of this kind over an alphabetical arrangement of items are obvious. In the preparation of the classes adopted a good deal of weight has been attached to the recommendations of the Dominions Royal Commission which toured New Zealand in 1913. In a memorandum prepared for the Commission, Professor A. L. Bowley submitted a scheme for uniformity of statistical work within the Empire, and suggested that New Zealand statistics should follow as closely as possible the lines laid down by Australia. The advantages of similarity of treatment in Australia and New Zealand are apparent, and in the classification of imports and exports, as in other matters, the statistics of New Zealand are being made comparable with those of Australia as far as possible.

The main classes of imports in 1920 are presented below:—

IMPORTS BY CLASSES, 1920.
No.Class.Value in 1920.
 £      
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)611,604
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt5,321,020
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making up the same1,234,598
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors1,715,650
VTobacco and preparations thereof2,013,172
VILive animals44,811
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured) not being foodstuffs64,505
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres963,510
IXAApparel6,592,393
IXBTextiles9,955,869
IXCManufactured fibres804,291
XOils, fats, and waxes3,142,493
XIPaints and varnishes744,592
XIIStones and minerals used industrially585,484
XIIISpecie41,975
XIVAMetal unmanufactured, partially manufactured, and ores713,905
XIVBMetal manufactures, other than machinery and machines6,559,369
XVMachinery and machines2,687,020
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)85,803
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes1,243,020
XVIIATimber618,692
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures330,377
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cements, and cement materials1,118,407
XIXAPaper1,244,135
XIXBStationery981,804
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods1,248,342
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments480,776
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares1,482,172
XXIIBManures759,606
XXIIIMiscellaneous8,206,433
           Total61,595,828

From the above table it can be seen that the large increase in value of all imports is reflected in each one of the classes, although some classes have naturally increased more than others. The largest group of imports in 1920 was that containing textiles (Class IXB), which shows an increase as compared with 1919 of £5,229,276. The proportions of Classes IXA and XIVB, the next highest, to the total imports have declined slightly, but the classes still show huge increases in value when compared with the previous year. Group II is rapidly assuming an important position as regards the amount contributed, having increased from £2,580,039 in 1919 to £5,321,020 in 1920.

All the other classes except specie have participated in this increase, hut to a somewhat lesser degree. Imports of specie show a considerable decrease during the year, being the smallest amount received in the Dominion since 1898.

A somewhat different and more detailed system of classification, which allows of information being shown not only for groups of items but also for the principal definite items, has been adopted for the following table:—

MAIN GROUPS OF IMPORTS, 1916-20.
Group of Principal Articles imported.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
* Includes methylated spirits, perfumed spirits, and spirits of wine.
 £      £      £      £      £      
Apparel (including hats and caps)1,675,7821,346,5051,558,3851,780,8713,670,508
Boots and shoes505,114493,109589,642589,7661,443,879
Drapery, haberdashery, linens, woollens, and other textiles3,703,3382,783,2913,715,0454,251,1028,944,625
Hosiery367,096209,741311,36434,225704,314
Silks293,101277,962468,629504,171805,294
          Totals6,544,4315,110,6086,643,0577,560,13515,568,620
Iron and steel (pig, wrought, wire, &c., and galvanized)1,313,584681,546613,7091,762,9453,736,667
Railway and tramway plant94,84244,00752,214270,900342,429
Machinery948,858777,353702,0441,208,7392,131,693
Sewing and knitting machines50,78962,94665,78272,256132,995
Hardware and ironmongery390,840294,951208,158417,7431,000,793
Tools and implements (including agricultural)318,355274,654219,074519,241870,116
Nails101,74066,09258,130224,175141,521
Other metals and metal manufactures947,421708,078753,9661,174,4741,740,203
          Totals4,166,4292,909,6272,673,0775,650,47310,096,417
Sugar986,7661,136,722904,9571,114,0841,819,138
Tea386,316428,912415,244423,293959,943
          Totals1,373,0821,565,6341,320,2011,537,3772,779,081
Beer44,77517,53510,9206,49531,980
Spirits*743,510528,797868,645467,7661,321,710
Wine85,18373,33668,9081,013,8882,013,172
Tobacco717,822446,308690,924112,546361,960
          Totals1,591,2901,065,9761,639,3971,600,6952,728,822
Paper590,530485,300472,050672,4741,054,102
Printed books258,125236,267288,070324,170524,462
Stationery269,308207,789210,047302,764485,328
          Totals1,117,963929,356970,1671,299,4082,063,892
Miscellaneous (specified articles)—
     Arms, ammunition, and explosives149,267163,140156,017228,475971,358
     Automobiles, motor-cars, and motor-cycles, and materials for1,668,8951,254,6081,323,4882,244,7415,256,809
     Bags and sacks235,139219,955254,518326,920399,019
     Bicycles and tricycles21,89511,75514,69514,25560,263
     Bicycle and tricycle fittings105,43180,20490,192104,658259,470
     Candles36,0099,06426,23720,28846,203
     Canvas91,04794,692130,177216,924253,551
     Carpeting and druggeting128,21482,70359,307135,820495,962
     Carts, carriages, and materials for47,27341,57340,21467,318402,254
     Cement1,3747885272,21917,719
     China, porcelain, earthenware, and parian ware188,552114,261103,513159,386495,713
     Coal189,526214,152202,102382,016514,249
     Drugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares890,980741,776994,1731,099,4541,482,172
     Fancy goods and toys320,996284,781292,539382,356711,266
     Fish, potted and preserved92,821104,819133,321121,599259,682
     Floorcloth and oilcloth101,33754,48229,54066,266128,893
     Fruits (including fresh, preserved, bottled, and dried)458,417493,733519,166367,7191,107,744
     Furniture, cabinetware, and upholstery41,01232,07275,41721,264167,356
     Glass and glassware218,664134,256134,921227,815604,975
     Leather and leather manufactures295,697372,051344,454405,0191,210,235
     Manures342,580328,762267,323319,620759,606
     Musical instruments and materials for157,188116,06299,692127,528302,833
     Seeds219,502294,520262,973151,065313,154
     Oil1,001,924943,4601,448,3181,305,0432,958,135
     Timber166,817160,914152,525174,666618,692
     Woolpacks and wool-pockets101,909113,926119,955198,90994,687
          Total miscellaneous (specified articles)7,272,4666,462,5097,275,3048,871,34319,892,000
Other imports (excluding specie)2,979,7422,698,4203,610,5263,789,7367,425,021
          Total imports (excluding specie)25,045,40320,742,12424,131,79230,309,16761,553,853
Specie imported1,293,880177,135102,215362,53141,975
          Total imports26,339,28320,919,26524,234,00730,671,69861,595,828

It is not possible to classify imports so completely as exports. There are two big groups of items, however, which are of dominating importance, and are, moreover, fairly homogeneous. The first, “Clothing and textiles,” comprises practically all woven articles; but the second, “Metals and machinery,” is not altogether complete, since there are many times in the “Miscellaneous” group which are metal manufactures. The other three groups are well defined, and the value imported in each is, on the whole, steady.

The grand total of £61,595,828 shown for 1920 is easily a record, the figure being £30,924,130 in excess of, or almost double that of the previous year, which was the highest then recorded. It should be remembered that part of this increase is attributable to the higher prices ruling; but, nevertheless, it is evident that the effect of higher prices on imports could not account for the whole of this huge increase, but that the quantity of goods must have considerably increased. It will be observed that this increase is not confined to any one group, but is apparently spread over the whole number. Although a great many of the individual items show comparatively large increases, the most noticeable is the advance made by motor-cars and accessories. Whereas prior to 1911 the value of these never exceeded £300,000, it has gradually increased until in 1920 it amounted to £5,256,809.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE.

The import trade of the Dominion, though spread over more countries than the export trade, is yet confined mainly to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States. In the days of the first settlement Australia was the source from which the young colony drew most of its supplies, and for a long period imports from Australia overshadowed imports from the United Kingdom. The proportion of imports from Australia, however, tended to decrease steadily till from 60 per cent. in 1862 it had fallen to about 15 per cent., a figure which, except for a few variations, has remained fairly constant.

Most of the goods brought to New Zealand from overseas come from the United Kingdom, which in normal times supplies about 60 per cent. of the total imports. The proportion has fallen a good deal in recent years—in the “eighties” and “nineties” the figure was, on the average, nearer 70 per cent. than 60 per cent.

The cause of this decline is to be found in the development of trade with other countries in quite recent years, particularly with the United States, Japan, and in a less degree with Belgium, Italy, Sweden, and other European countries. The United States was sending goods to New Zealand practically from the foundation of the colony, and the share of the imports received from that country steadily increased till in the first decade of the present century it was 11 or 12 per cent. The adoption of Imperial preference seems to have caused a temporary drop in the figure to about 7 per cent., though the proportion has now for some years been steadily climbing again, and has indeed actually surpassed its old level. In 1920 more than 19 per cent. of the imports came from the United States.

India captured the New Zealand jute-market in the early “eighties,” and since then there has been a regular import of corn-sacks, woolpacks, &c. In former times the colony imported its sugar from Mauritius, but after 1890 Fiji supplanted Mauritius, so that the imports from the Pacific islands are swelled to 4 per cent., while Mauritius practically disappears from the list of countries. Similarly the import of tea from China gave way about the same time to imports from Ceylon.

The present position is illustrated by the tables which follow. The imports of goods from the eight principal countries shown are the highest ever recorded, the most noteworthy being the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States.

IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, 1901-20.
Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.India.Ceylon.Fiji.United States.Japan.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      £      £      
19016,885,8311,979,32042,178332,747134,742349,7061,415,26745,465
19026,851,4521,715,29553,374286,061125,891327,9721,318,93756,087
19037,512,6682,154,96668,329252,570138,959461,9881,441,35886,192
19047,982,3401,893,036113,485276,106172,759516,5391,527,91584,629
19057,795,2841,815,71796,119297,128179,809456,6291,438,50179,260
19069,003,2292,775,312157,088290,725189,288378,0501,405,78199,653
190710,278,0193,127,553215,232370,655220,102625,6441,425,59694,298
190810,441,8372,841,426268,259345,180210,675557,7091,643,93788,211
19099,287,7862,764,210198,384367,999230,499590,2141,166,0686,865
191010,498,7712,359,393261,402399,991248,476580,0841,399,737103,113
191111,787,3002,944,991283,410326,360275,672728,8061,682,129123,248
191212,499,7872,583,887394,249395,298289,008764,7902,049,618154,587
191313,312,1932,914,848452,519421,209275,350846,4932,107,990151,106
191411,985,9463,376,371479,140486,978394,444788,7512,282,966187,501
191511,141,0673,554,535797,816527,942408,6971,128,9592,600,248304,322
191613,869,4554,002,171757,286572,257366,7531,053,7543,969,925562,974
19178,817,5133,660,931757,041612,063353,6131,203,3723,900,658628,822
19188,977,7255,133,349930,964712,633319,498939,3414,980,7481,214,865
191911,839,4305,081,9681,622,234772,838383,209980,1867,576,3141,258,016
192029,806,41610,555,6672,386,915900,577725,2781,824,01211,100,251,470,071

The next table gives greater detail, and shows all the main countries which shipped goods to New Zealand, arranged in geographical order.

IMPORTS FROM MAIN COUNTRIES, 1916-20.
Country.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £      £      £      £      £      
United Kingdom13,869,4558,817,5138,977,72511,839,43029,806,416
     British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.
Europe—
     Gibraltar1152431
     Malta98159240111
 99169764142
Asia—
     Burma44,91638,55392,56644,233121,394
     Ceylon366,753353,613319,498383,209725,278
     Hong Kong29,04120,67722,46110,25234,707
     India572,257612,063712,633772,838900,577
     Straits Settlements51,41862,67883,69318,44280,384
     Other possessions in Asia1891,50915064974
 1,064,5751,089,0931,231,0011,229,0381,872,314
Africa—
     Egypt43,63448,4494,39953,674107,345
     South African Union71,30056,39243,85662,628189,767
     Other possessions in Africa68542952863
 115,619104,84548,550116,588297,115
America—
     British Honduras..     ..     ..     ..     9
     British West Indies6,1924,2934,4088,7088,582
     Canada via East Coast440,171438,563225,993849,7011,580,841
     Canada via West Coast317,115318,478704,971772,533806,074
     Newfoundland2,0292,4734,6884,300202
 765,507763,827940,0601,635,2422,395,708
Pacific islands—
     Australia4,002,1713,660,9315,133,3495,081,96810,555,667
     Fiji1,053,7541,203,372939,341980,1861,824,012
     Western Samoa19,31716,30120,35924,11624,855
     Other Pacific islands5,91515416136628,626
 5,081,1574,880,7586,093,2106,086,63612,433,160
     Foreign Countries and Possessions.
Europe—
     Austria259..     864..     
     Belgium4,3304142377285,482
     Denmark41,67166,80130,72457,91446,535
     France113,35233,73133,78341,12392,873
     Germany4,287733393235,462
     Greece312..     50..     
     Italy103,48679,41457,53075,365277,648
     Netherlands70,86020,87323,27443871,229
     Norway62,46743,34322,6326,679102,024
     Portugal6,1657712,4681,8332,04
     Russia1,017501891181,246
     Spain14,4563,7519,5074,5651,246
     Sweden102,76099,29969,85889,819158,870
     Switzerland72,16048,97242,48248,89370,302
     Other European countries9..     ..     ..     9,170
 597,310398,605292,750327,2611,124,991
Asia—
     Asiatic Turkey6,1107,3595,22851146,736
     China69,12470,711115,356105,970219,485
     Dutch Borneo2,80511,34818,48011,02426,356
     Japan562,974628,8221,214,8651,258,0161,470,071
     Java40,62234,490146,780240,270425,095
     Philippine Islands31,27026,38935,55032,47972,447
     Sumatra109,24087,96752,16997,141151,632
     Other Asiatic countries1,3983,7931,4561,1395,467
 823,543870,8791,589,8841,746,5502,417,289
Africa—
     Zanzibar79421145549
     Other African countries163,050416963109
 233,1446271,418158
America—
     Argentine81209806281,231
     Brazil170..     1,439..     607
     Chile5218,3603,75273,640
     Cuba3,5506,6051,6323,93116,110
     United States of America—
          Via East Coast2,577,4492,672,6401,766,1314,938,4828,161,335
          Via West Coast1,392,4761,228,0183,214,6172,637,8322,938,924
     Other American countries3,3721,0883,6368,7381,59
 3,977,6193,916,9204,993,2937,589,63811,123,438
Pacific islands—
     Hawaii2,5453,7572,0734,32411,384
     New Caledonia4,04211,06710,17917,44022,814
     Society Islands10,95016,13713,3818,87915,004
     Tonga4,1451,4093,1503,9801,014
     Tuamotu Archipelago22,66441,27137,94565,20974,018
     Other Pacific islands308191863
 44,37673,64966,74799,833125,097
Antarctica..     10..     ..     ..     
          Grand totals26,339,28320,919,26524,234,00730,671,69861,595,828

In 1914 a change was made in the system of compilation of trade statistics, and for the first time statistics of imports were obtained for countries of origin as well as countries of shipment. Before 1914 it was the practice to credit imports to the country from which the goods were shipped to the Dominion, and considerable care was taken to ensure that the original port of shipment was ascertained. But there was no means of discovering where the goods were actually made. Importers are now required to declare the country of origin as well as the country of shipment of all goods imported. The following table permits the study of imports under both headings:—

IMPORTS FROM VARIOUS COUNTRIES IN 1920.
Country.Imports according to
Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.
Value.Per Cent. of Total.Value.Per Cent. of Total.
 £       £       
United Kingdom29,806,416.48.3928,554,58746.36
     British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.
Europe—
     Gibraltar31..     31..     
     Malta111..     792..     
 142..     823..     
Asia—
     Burma121,3940.20124,2230.20
     Ceylon725,2781.18729,8931.18
     Hong Kong34,7070.033,8240.06
     India900,5771.46940,5691.53
     Straits Settlements89,3840.1492,5800.15
     Other possessions in Asia974..     1,049..     
 1,872,3143.041,922,1383.12
Africa—
     British East Africa Protectorate..     ..     1,365..     
     British West Africa..     ..     2,545..     
     Egypt107,3450.17109,4250.18
     Nyasaland Protectorate3..     350..     
     South African Union189,7670.31263,6530.43
 297,1150.48377,3380.61
America—
     British West Indies8,5820.0130,2050.05
     Canada via East Coast1,580,8412.572,453,3793.98
     Canada via West Coast806,0741.31..     ..     
     Newfoundland20..     567..     
     Other possessions in America9..     137..     
 2,395,7083.892,484,2884.03
Pacific islands—
     Australia10,555,66717.148,624,88514.00
     Fiji1,824,0122.961,818,5292.96
     Gilbert and Ellice Islands27,7220.0527,7220.05
     Western Samoa24,8550.0421,4310.03
     Other possessions in the Pacific904..     29,5580.05
 12,433,16020.1910,522,12517.09
     Foreign Countries and Possessions.
Europe—
     Austria..     ..     185..     
     Belgium285,4820.46363,5810.59
     Czecho-Slovakia147..     14,1630.02
     Denmark46,5350.0886,9600.14
     France92,8730.151,137,3701.85
     Germany5,4620.0110,1890.02
     Greece..     ..     2,381..     
     Italy277,6480.45548,4720.89
     Luxemburg8,9860.019,1040.02
     Netherlands71,2290.12194,1640.32
     Norway102,0240.17132,7800.21
     Portugal2,904..     46,3720.08
     Russia1,246..     15,6820.02
     Spain1,246..     59,8340.10
     Sweden158,8700.26191,3090.32
     Switzerland70,3020.12396,1710.64
     Other European countries37..     1,160..     
 1,124,9911.833,209,8775.22
Asia—
     Asiatic Turkey46,7360.07105,0240.17
     China219,4850.36257,9010.42
     Dutch Borneo26,3560.0429,2620.05
     Japan1,470,0712.391,522,6752.48
     Java425,0950.69427,4030.69
     Persia1,262..     2,311..     
     Philippine Islands72,4470.1275,6280.12
     Sarawak and Brunei2,461..     2,461..     
     Sumatra151,6320.25151,8820.25
     Other Asiatic countries1,744..     5,9530.01
 2,417,2893.922,580,5004.19
Africa—
     Madagascar11..     993..     
     Madeira12..     1,373..     
     Morocco63..     1,991..     
     Zanzibar49..     1,606..     
     Other African countries23..     1,007..     
 158..     6,970..     
America—
     Alaska683..     1,626..     
     Argentine1,231..     6,5960.01
     Brazil607..     7,8660.01
     Chile3,6400.0114,4560.02
     Cuba16,1100.0318,3640.03
     Ecuador66..     3,7060.01
United States of America—
          Via East Coast8,161,33513.2511,750,69019.09
          Via West Coast2,938,9244.77..     ..     
     Other American countries302..     2,052..     
 11,123,43818.0611,805,35619.17
Pacific islands—
     Hawaii11,3840.0212,6410.02
     New Caledonia22,8140.0422,8140.04
     New Hebrides828..     7,7580.01
     Society Islands15,0040.0214,0960.02
     Tonga1,014..     483..     
     Tuamotu Archipelago74,0180.1274,0186.12
     Other Pacific islands35..     16..     
 125,0970.20131,8260.21
          Grand totals61,595,828100.0061,595.28100.00

Direct shipments from the United Kingdom, it will be seen, exceeded by £1,250,000 the imports of goods produced in that country. In view, however, of the considerable quantity of British goods that enter New Zealand by way of Australia it would not be correct to take that figure as measuring the re-export trade done by Great Britain in goods from abroad intended for the Dominion.

Australia acts as a re-exporting centre for a certain proportion of goods received from Ceylon and India, just as Hong Kong does for Chinese goods. The British West Indies still produce considerably more of the imports than they ship direct. The 1920 figures for Canada are practically level. In the case of the United States, goods to the value of, roughly, £650,000 were imported indirectly in 1920.

The goods produced in European countries are often shipped via the United Kingdom, and, as might be expected, the total produce of these countries in every instance greatly exceeds the value shipped direct from their ports. Asiatic countries generally show similar results. Hong Kong and Australia take part of the Eastern entrepôt trade.

In the “Exports” subsection it has been shown that New Zealand is a primary-producing country—i.e., her exports consist principally of raw materials. It was also pointed out that the largest proportion of imports was of manufactures. The following table, grouped in the same manner as the export table referred to, illustrates this statement. Of the total imports (£61,595,828), the United Kingdom supplied £28,554,587, or 46.36 per cent. Manufactured articles imported amounted to £47,610,755, of which the Mother-country supplied £24,763,099, or 52.01 per cent. The figures given refer to countries of origin.

Country.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified.Bullion and Specie.Total.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      
United Kingdom3,053,174510,67224,763,099186,58641,05628,554,587
 British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.
Europe—
     Gibraltar..     ..     31..     ..     31
     Malta11..     781..     ..     792
Asia—
     Aden779..     2..     ..     781
     Burma26,3182,92094,985..     ..     124,223
     Ceylon719,3053,9286,660..     ..     729,893
     Cyprus268..     ..     ..     ..     268
     Hong Kong17,1125,39511,25463..     33,824
     India131,67436,969756,12215,804..     940,569
     Straits Settlements81,6839,95690239..     92,580
Africa—
     British East Africa Protectorate1,363..     2..     ..     1,365
     British West Africa2,505..     40..     ..     2,545
     Egypt1,602148107,675..     ..     109,425
     Nyasaland Protectorate346..     4..     ..     350
     South African Union87,46834,167139,3832,635..     263,653
America—
     Bermuda11..     ..     ..     ..     11
     British Guiana68..     ..     ..     68 
     British Honduras949..     ..     ..     58
     British West Indies28,187141,612392..     30,205
     Canada202,12380,8482,167,2553,153..     2,453,379
     Newfoundland..     ..     567..     ..     567
Pacific islands—
     Australia2,506,6181,250,0754,791,34973,6903,1538,624,885
     Fiji1,815,5822,303644..     ..     1,818,529
     Gilbert and Ellice Is..     ..     27,722..     ..     27,722
     New Zealand3,3108931,36222,849..     28,414
     Norfolk Island91279..     2..     993
     Papua..     1181..     ..     119
     Solomon Islands (Mandate)..     ..     1..     ..     1
     Solomon Islands (Protectorate)..     12154..     31
     Western Samoa21,05110526510..     21,431
 Foreign Countries and Possessions.
Europe—
     Austria..     ..     185..     ..     185
     Belgium5231,383361,675..     ..     363,581
     Crete..     ..     37..     ..     37
     Czecho-Slovakia..     ..     7,4156,748..     14,163
     Denmark39,142..     18,80229,016..     86,960
     France241,44812,329867,56816,025..     1,137,370
     Germany590419,558..     ..     10,189
     Greece3856821,314..     ..     2,381
     Hungary..     ..     16..     ..     16
     Italy73,484419471,5523,017..     548,472
     Luxemburg..     ..     9,104..     ..     9,104
     Netherlands122,43512163,0518,557..     194,164
     Norway71,659..     61,121..     ..     132,780
     Portugal36,24510,1.27..     ..     ..     46,372
     Rumania..     ..     7..     ..     7
     Russia140..     11,5513,991..     15,682
     Servia..     ..     697..     ..     697
     Spain29,61020,6489,55422..     59,834
     Sweden16,79333,059140,3491,108..     191,309
     Switzerland24,3342366,5995,236..     396,171
     Turkey..     ..     403..     ..     403
Asia—
     Asiatic Turkey104,489275260..     ..     105,024
     China115,2965,352137,23419..     257,901
     Cochin-China1,421..     190..     ..     1,611
     Dutch Borneo34610528,811..     ..     29,262
     Formosa46..     ..     ..     ..     46
     French Indo - Chinese Protectorate100..     ..     ..     ..     100
     Japan17,354185,5751,313,8125,934..     1,522,675
     Java280,926136,28310,194..     ..     427,403
     Malay States..     ..     1..     ..     1
     Minor Dutch East Indies611821,469..     ..     1,712
     Nepal and Bhutan..     ..     1,137..     ..     1,137
     Persia1,482..     829..     ..     2,311
     Philippine Islands27,69747,626305..     ..     75,628
     Sarawak and Brunei..     ..     2,461..     ..     2,461
     Siam1,319..     27..     ..     1,346
     Sumatra66..     151,816..     ..     151,882
Africa—
     Algeria1..     33..     ..     34
     Anglo-Egyptian Sudan..     ..     109..     ..     109
     Canary Islands99..     105136..     340
     French West Africa..     ..     2..     ..     2
     Liberia149..     ..     ..     ..     149
     Madagascar71127012..     ..     993
     Madeira..     ..     1,373..     ..     1,373
     Morocco1,472..     519..     ..     1,991
     Portuguese East Africa154..     ..     ..     ..     154
     Portuguese West Africa86..     3..     ..     89
     Tripoli..     ..     130..     ..     130
     Zanzibar1,550..     56..     ..     1,606
America—
     Alaska1,225..     401..     ..     1,626
     Argentine5,1071,42465..     ..     6,596
     Brazil6,0931,0007712..     7,866
     Chile58..     14,247151..     14,456
     Costa Rica358..     ..     ..     ..     358
     Cuba18,294..     70..     ..     18,364
     Danish West Indies..     ..     31..     ..     31
     Dutch West Indies..     ..     18..     ..     18
     Ecuador1,107..     2,599..     ..     3,706
     Guatemala285..     ..     ..     ..     285
     Mexico2868369..     ..     663
     Panama Canal Zone..     ..     16..     ..     16
     Paraguay..     ..     31..     ..     31
     Peru..     27131..     ..     158
     Santo Domingo..     190..     ..     ..     190
     United States922,722176,06810,567,17484,42929711,750,690
     Venezuela302..     ..     ..     ..     302
Pacific islands—
     Hawaii12,561..     80..     ..     12,641
     Marquesas Islands..     15..     ..     ..     15
     New Caledonia..     ..     22,814..     ..     22,814
     New Hebrides7,735..     23..     ..     7,758
     Society Islands6,8202,5714,705..     ..     14,096
     Tonga846312..     ..     483
     Tuamotu Archipelago..     ..     74,018..     ..     74,018
     Tutuila..     ..     1..     ..     1
          Totals10,896,0532,574,89647,610,755469,61844,50661,595,828

In order to give more detailed information concerning the trade of New Zealand with other countries the following tables have been compiled, giving for each of the last three years the main items of import from all the principal countries with which New Zealand trades. The information is shown both according to country of shipment and for country of origin.

Account has been taken only of those items of a minimum total value of approximately £10,000, so that the tables are not made too complicated by the additions of great numbers of small items. The full details will be found in the “Statistics of New Zealand,” Vol. ii.

PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.
Class.Item.Article.Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.
1918.1919.1920.1918.1919.1920.
United Kingdom.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
I11Fish preserved in tins, &c.87,50847,313326,96938,331
 41Provisions n.o.e.94026,79157,8421,12615,682,48,992
II46Cocoa-butter, &c.20,3332644,32421,3458144,444
  Chocolate confectionery—
 48     In fancy packages46510,739135,82653411,390124,604
 49     In plain trade packages71,89931,261551,92831,744
 52Confectionery unenumerated2,32912,55443,4382,21713,22441,680
  Grain and pulse—
 88     Maizena and cornflour..     1,43743,611..     1,43143,611
 102Infants' and invalids' foods n.o.e.286,63124,0638347,47924,065
 107Mustard12,86214,89843,87513,44614,89943,875
  Nuts, edible—
 108     Almonds4648,91234,43580220461
 111     Other..     3,34110,148..     255109
 112Oilmen's stores n.o.e.2,97010,14048,5502,9119,83645,885
  Pickles and sauces—
 117     Sauces and chutneys9,2466,99425,8619,8036,97725,887
  Salt—
 121     In retail packages3,4902,78310,2383,7502,78310,238
 122     Other54,49630,30079,41655,65830,30079,416
III139Cocoa-beans, uncrushed..     1,59410,857..     ..     ..     
 140Cocoa and chocolate2,53182,968102,31826579,48985,703
IV151Ale, porter, and beer10,6406,21131,04410,7506,21631,077
  Spirits (beverages)—
 154     Brandy22,41719,12578,1566375626
 155     Gin, geneva, and schnapps26.08633,84496,09912,03615,51445,870
 156     Rum3,0053,30718,5301,0312,0227,075
 158     Whisky477,600273,546805,754490,639296,390876,890
  Spirits (other than beverages)—
 160     Flavouring-essences16,55018,35929,02717,40018,90029,752
 163     Perfumed spirits6,99011,98742,6785,4769,40835,578
  Wine, fermented—
 166     Sparkling8,60816,29091,236115418181
 167     Still4,6858,19461,9373,2685,68917,548
V168Cigarettes284,965369,255949,045284,688369,114950,393
 169Cigars4,1965,79216,3963,9844,94013,694
  Tobacco—
 171     Manufactured, cut110,713130,890270,986113,010133,182272,758
VII190Glue and size8274,31810,5691,1694,16210,192
VIII209Cork, cut12,31614,74252,8466,2547,00929,521
  Fibres—
 211     Engineers' waste9,6018,30314,3449,6018,30314,465
  Seeds—
 223     Grass and clover11,3267,47789,57110,4813,63938,327
 225     Other91,63088,109111,00791,28687,545106,412
  Tanning-materials (crude)—
 230     Other6,59317,25834,1556,65817,35333,583
  Yarns—
 233     Other14,59221,27896,81414,60721,552101,037
  Apparel—
IXA234     Apparel and ready - made clothing n.o.e.785,545878,3292,001,531761,553864,1791,964,667
  Boots and shoes—
 236     Children's (Nos. 0-6)18,5871,6036,08320,6441,7136,266
 238     ' Cork and sock soles: moulded rubber soles1,9433,60728,7531,9503,57728,668
 239     Goloshes and overshoes of rubber: gymnasium, &c.15,08014,30020,27615,11914,72520,361
 240     Grindery n.o.e.33,83945,67286,71633,86146,14286,871
 243     Vamps, uppers, and laces6,9384,66819,6346,7874,52215,771
 244     Other157,96221,547105,474161,73223,150107,991
 245Corsets21,70634,210104,64321,69834,198104,643
 246Furs and fur-trimmings17,44341,71754,83817,43841,60952,679
 247Gloves n.o.e.52,36653,111135,74825,91525,56074,924
  Haberdashery—
 248     Brace-elastic and brace-mountings, &c.3,2134,09514,7322,9504,01914,732
 249     Buttons, tapes, &c.28,42048,72963,22426,63646,82754,120
 250     N.o.e.36,27433,40168,22324,99131,50364,909
 251Hats and caps80,57987,033173,56285,26577,081161,801
 252Hatmakers' material56,81251,597118,13447,47842,98784,711
 253Hosiery221,849226,382491,353219,195228,837489,070
 254Lace and laces n.o.e.64,34244,15791,18737,32132,36866,951
  Millinery—
 257     Unenumerated74,43474,410186,46765,84963,445186,467
 258Minor articles n.o.e. for making up apparel, &c.24,45916,55740,08216,10612,23324,357
 259Ribbons and crape92,428103,241117,5982,9123,2276,408
 260Tailors' trimmings113,831110,143191,941118,924112,724191,637
 262Umbrellas, material for making7,7419,91917,4987,39610,26817,979
IXB263Articles n.o.e. partly or wholly made up from textiles48,52552,538107,02343,76949,466100,432
 264Blankets, woollen741312,327741312,247
 266Carpets, carpeting, and floorcloth45,53072,258359,07646,09577,843357,294
 267Drapery n.o.e.173,909160,787430,220119,989130,399356,417
 270Matting n.o.e. and mats2,0175,42026,1782,3746,34725,972
 271Oilcloths, linoleum, and stair oil-baize25,61827,27575,81825,63727,54875,691
  Piece-goods—
 274     Canvas, sailcloth, &c.104,465122,725203,590107,812124,385208,433
       Cotton—
 275          Butter and cheese cloth30,77921,95955,11630,84621,98954,754
 276          Candle-wick24,20514,69620,69524,44714,69621,098
 277          Tubular woven, for meat-wraps74,04225,289219,56683,25425,289253,985
 278     N.o.e.1,686,6941,828,7843,171,3361,744,2321,886,5403,236,616
 279     Hessian n.o.e. and scrim17,25950,879122,6757,26151,204123,379
 281     Linen25,27437,44690,58029,00940,12894,077
 283     Other silks, satins, velvets, &c.104,786112,903395,1201,16948,251116,382
 285     Waterproof cloth6,2859,61347,2206,3099,61347,376
 286     Woollen n.o.e. of pure or mixed wool367,330470,8652,358,769374,054503,0352,335,797
 287     N.o.e.15,3249,23034,45213,4228,61131,275
  Rugs—
 288     Woollen2,6331,11629,1122,6331,16527,148
 289     Other3,1381,92623,0113,1052,14223,056
 290Sewing silks and cotton160,399158,125240,091161,873160,547244,140
IXC Cordage and rope—
 300     Iron and steel16,65088,450122,91416,71189,444131,481
 301     N.o.e.11,30527,44142,71311,88927,68243,410
  Twine—
 307     Net-makers'1,3673,69611,2501,3673,69611,425
 309     Other6,77383,88172,1042,97184,41772,758
  Greases—
X311     Axie-greases and other solid lubricants8191,1372,7289851,4233,640
 313Lard, &c.7,36757..     7,36757..     
  Oils (not essential) in bulk—
 325     Mineral lubricating oil6,3042,87120,392,802,44217,978
 338Oils (not essential) in vessels less than 1 gallon1,0015,25921,8521,0185,30120,817
  Waxes—
 343     Paraffin2,86924117,1772,86924112,551
  Paints and colours—
XI348     Ground in oil7,77328,170151,417,89928,414151,446
 350     Other14,32230,50093,5015,82031,53090,541
 351     Unenumerated7,33411,39229,247,78811,46628,861
 354Varnishes, lacquers, and gold-size2,79710,82726,452,93711,94226,828
  Stone—
XII371     Other (not including slates for billiard-tables)2,6386,23312,0032,8225,95712,331
XIII375Silver84,420336,81029,450100,570344,28531,050
  Iron and steel—
XIVA388     Bar, bolt, and rod30,87560,042203,71532,06462,103210,247
 391     Pig4,88710,06558,4274,88710,06558,570
XIVB408Bolts and nuts11,59746,63396,9312,05646,69797,291
 414Chains and chain cables9,29216,85332,4,59,28316,92032,593
 416Copper, plate and sheet, plain3,09210,27524,173,30810,27525,062
 417Cutlery (including table forks and spoons)26,89046,057113,5327,06946,082114,899
 422Hardware, hollow-ware, and Ironmongery n.o.e.80,998163,035587,25081,998163,876597,267
  Iron and steel—
 423     Angle and tee14228,88841,19844029,63541,397
 424     Channel and girders4021,57953,1252,05222,25054,605
 426     Hoop, black, n.o.e.44,84256,47063,18944,84256,47063,536
 430     Corrugated, galvanized31,618236,358962,73831,618236,358973,429
 431     Plain black4,26049,581138,7544,36849,631140,915
 432     Plain galvanized tubes, &c.6,81088,307203,5173,63088,307205,923
 436     Wrought tubes and pipes, 6 in. and under in internal diameter82,81910,025312,69684,231106,048318,281
  Lamps (not electric), lanterns and lamp wick—
XIVB439     Gas-mantles12,7378,6357,70312,7478,6688,046
 441     Other11,90115,07631,83912,27315,10531,517
  Meters—
 447     Electricity7,3044,10822,0546,9593,00819,929
 448     Gas9173,13919,0919173,13919,229
  Nails—
 455     Other, including dog-spikes2,85749,64530,0992,94149,48929,574
 456Plate and plated ware23,54943,061167,29424,35044,074170,816
  Railway and tramway plant n.o.e.—
 461     Rails3,967121,33793,5806,403121,91496,261
 463     Other6,68099,04166,2266,68099,10667,714
 465Rivets and washers5,86912,29335,1245,89312,15735,245
 472Tanks and cisterns3,8393,18217,8963,8943,27818,065
 473Telephones and accessories therefor n.o.e.7,42214,67627,5837,46614,04727,705
  Tinware and tin manufactures—
 474     Tinned sheets and plates, plain139,507353,17650,858139,507355,523170,714
 475     Tinsmiths' furniture1,0232,39810,0131,0222,39810,013
 476     Other16,07320,15154,15016,19120,16354,411
  Tools and implements—
 481     Spades, shovels, and forks4,09113,99531,7714,10613,99531,791
 482     Other18,89558,838220,89619,03258,706219,558
  Wire—
 484     Bare copper1,83732,59697,7181,87032,80395,271
 485     Fencing, barbed..     11,84467,917..     11,84462,388
 486     Fencing, plain12322,025141,5369322,334136,873
 488     N.o.e.7174,34413,6868874,16114,685
 489     Netting1216,633174,4877216,633178,265
 490     Wove wire; expanded-metal fencing; electric - welded fencing6544,08820,9497414,10821,057
 491     Other, plain; metal cordage, not gold, iron, or silver4616,30211,5206136,53911,766
  Metal manufactures—
 494     Other (free)—viz., bellows-nails, &c.6,44825,32556,3117,40625,61558,288
 495     N.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)42,83575,030230,27546,44177,344239,236
  Agricultural implements—
XV511     Other, including materials for and parts of21,99940,51064,13523,26841,71669,380
  Electrical machinery, &c.—
 524     Electric batteries and cells1,0216,33914,3541,0196,26314,594
 525     Generators, motors, and transformers19,34733,014100,32119,99833,667102,739
 526     Insulated cable and wire9,57867,933234,80112,04569,959236,620
 527     Lamps34,37136,92347,16115,82716,21933,681
 529     N.o.e.18,48540,540109,52720,00541,115111,682
  Engines—
 531     Gas, oil, and hot-air—
            For motor-cars, motorcycles, and flying-machines40450026,82940450025,014
 532          Other12,93831,84761,21812,94132,10261,924
 537Steam boilers for (500 i.h.p. and under) feed - water heaters, &c.4,1477,52727,9174,1477,52727,917
 540Flying-machines602..     49,857602..     49,857
  Mining engines for—
 551     Capstan and winding2,95311,373..     2,96311,373265
 553     Unenumerated3,6417,18416,4513,8347,59420,403
  Printing machinery, &c.—
 557     Printing machines and presses9711,70014,9011,9882,43917,377
 559Road-rollers and road-graders..     3,25410,692..     3,25410,692
 560Sewing-machines15,1672,65596,50217,983,19390,089
 561Tools—Engineers' and metal, wood, glass, and stone workers'5,6609,70473,7156,40011,82876,865
  Woollen-mill machinery—
 567     Unenumerated6,23330,90232,9836,55631,06133,151
 570     N.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)26,72135,26891,79432,62937,989107,048
  Machinery and machines—
 571Materials for and parts of12,06130,03666,43212,07430,06866,633
 572
  Indiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)—
XVIA573Hose, tubing and piping7,39010,04014,3547,55510,06614,549
XVIB579Other belting (including canvas and rubber)46,60049,29588,41747,29649,92888,848
  Leather—
 592     Sole, pump, and skirt leather2496,312186,2077977,067182,938
 597     Portmanteaux, trunks, and carpet-bags1,3041,28710,7141,3201,44610,753
  Saddlery and harness—
 598     Collar-check9,58125,76032,6819,58125,76032,681
 600     Saddlers' ironmongery and other material15,52821,45555,80315,54121,50855,876
 602     N.o.e. (including whips)9,50813,313191,6569,51813,357191,979
 603Unenumerated manufactures of leather4,0254,58814,2024,1464,92314,412
  Furniture, cabinetware, and upholstery—
XVIIB650     Billiard-tables and requisites3,1435,33512,2782,4784,82110,199
 651     Materials for—viz., blind webbing and tape, &c.8,05810,96025,1608,11911,07625,884
 653     N.o.e7205,37110,6616465,13110,800
 661Woodenware and turner n.o.e.1,5974,06424,7671,6083,12223,453
XVIII667China, porcelain, and Parian ware14,04925,15368,74414,14125,46972,067
 669Earthenware n.o.e.35,98748,902196,61736,41250,493201,869
  Glass and glassware—
 671     Bottles, plain, empty2,3234,22511,0984,4044,73613,266
 673     Crown, sheet, and common window.9,63412,39569,4609,34813,00760,350
 674     Glassware n.o.e.3,5666,43924,0643,7866,58815,216
 678     Other11,27316,30425,22911,86117,22825,238
  Tiles n.o.e.—
 682     Flooring, wall, hearth, and garden9,25214,09437,6409,25214,08937,432
  Paper—
XIXA686     Bookbinders' materials3,9074,93012,2614,5855,27013,149
 689     Cardboard boxes, materials for, other11,6625,98228,4059,1865,05522,344
 692     Paperhanging18,94110,02569,15919,46910,66668,883
 693     Printing57,01725,585173,60958,63425,922174,122
 695     Writing, (not less than “demy”)27,58925,200125,39034,92326,840126,995
  Stationery—
XIXB697     Artists' materials6,40810,22216,0396,20910,09815,794
 698     Books, papers, and music, printed, n.o.e.190,879195,519358,965218,421217,719390,082
 703     Handbills, circulars, and programmes; printed advertising matter n.o.e., &c.5,70710,14118,7926,66410,43019,100
 706     Manufactured n.o.e.42,74340,13071,20343,74441,56574,198
 709     Pictures, paintings, and photographs, n.o.e.2,6768,15313,8132,7668,25313,655
 710     Other (free)—viz., charts, maps, &c.1,0032,8779,8221,2312,7029,991
 711     N.o.e.39,19755,233128,64438,66153,870124,590
XX712Fancy goods53,45776,989240,40147,64167,935213,276
  Jewellery —
 714     Precious stones, unmounted14,65282,18492,40111,40968,03492,913
 715     Other27,95827,99260,77928,06128,60670,576
 716Sporting, gaming, and athletic requisites, &c.12,32926,98886,70912,20928,74084,827
 719Watches14,77016,22630,6146976042,445
 721Tobacco pipes and cases, cigarette-papers, &c.44,51347,305100,45713,16414,75158,466
XXI725Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films3,7396,61810,4374,2716,6369,796
  Photographic materials—
 730     Sensitized surfaces and albuminized paper20,29223,97539,34621,09524,65939,504
 732Scientific instruments n.o.e.2,9116,218,6363,1636,86119,079
 733Surgical and dental instruments32,42849,74683,32333,06344,44779,340
  Drugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares—
XXIIA741     Tartaric acid7,9217,64032,1378,22711,87930,643
 748     Calcium carbide1,48511,790721,48612,839..     
 750     Chemicals and chemical preparations7,2588,24510,5048,0499,18611,722
 751     Cream of tartar10,8899,38847,9573,9171,4995,02
 752     Cyanide of potassium and of sodium32,32723,26620,23033,15023,85120,370
 753     Dyes23,21822,38231,47828,29933,52446,419
       Insecticides and disinfectants—
 757          Disinfectants15,81413,07532,04615,84013,41331,646
 761          Sheep-dip65,562100,20379,60065,562100,42279,675
 765     Medicinal preparations, drugs, and druggists' sundries, n.o.e., &c.104,753131,462215,862117,140141,520227,104
       Oils, essential (non-spirituous)—
 768          Other8,1679,54016,9613,9705,3808,406
       Perfumery—
 772          Toilet preparations16,03734,99175,21016,11929,94729,638
       Soda—
 780          Ash18,7947,2078,84618,8617,7318,923
 781          Bicarbonate and carbonate10,87810,5128,43111,44610,6928,464
 782          Caustic22,60740,19039,11522,70542,66139,181
 791     Other6,3203,56810,5276,4813,50610,375
  Manures—
XXIIB792     Ammonia, sulphate of3..     11,5223..     11,522
       Phosphates—
 798          Basic slag and Thomas's phosphate..     14,17345,647..     14,17345,647
  Arms, ammunition, and explosives—
XXIII815     Cartridges, shot, 10-24 bore2209,53353,6342209,62454,040
 818     Detonators4,6768,2315814,67610,1162,818
 821     Explosives n.o.e...     15,230668..     15,311668
       Firearms—
 824          Other2,2371,91338,9432,2492,13638,559
 831     Gelignite36,00454,0561,24936,00454,4961,249
 833     Lithofracteur, cordite, &c.2122,02114,0332122,02114,033
 834     Ordnance stores3,6988,976709,8729,3038,976709,927
       Powder—
 835          Blasting21,51013,70212,39523,81917,07914,086
 838Articles and materials suited only for and to be used solely in the fabrication or repair of goods within the Dominion, n.o.e.15,68513,21439,83716,40312,56433,631
  Asbestos—
 839     Sheets, slates, and tiles4,24315,78337,1906,02815,81636,085
 842Blue, laundry8,91112,87333,0048,98412,89833,004
 847Brushes, brushware, and brooms14,05820,09671,66912,57118,21868,151
 848Brushmakers' materials11,8204,30517,5675,5822.1243,839
 849Candles5,7982,14819,9255,7982,14720,282
 850Combs, hair and toilet1,7153,4805,7821,6152,9494,357
 853Educational apparatus and materials n.o.e.1,9156,70414,7142,3946,86914,716
  Instruments, musical—
 859     Pianos (including player-pianos and automatic pianos)32,19622,86942,57232,03522,86242,475
 861     Records for pianolas, graphophones, &c.10,9749,24943,78513,29212,74850,206
 862     Other3,7633.03023,5083,2862,20515,271
  Matches and vestas—
 863     Wax3,2563,16826,2775,1697,77327,004
 867Packing, engine10,94912,83919,50411,75313,49523,168
  Polishes and dressings—
 871     Blacklead (including stove-polish)5,4613,49718,3735,4613,49713,373
 872     Brass and similar metal polishes4633,07112,9684633,07112,967
  Soap—
 876     Powder, dry, soft, and liquid5,2142,93717,1425,2323,15117,562
 877     N.o.e.23,35927,87860,65023,49628,29061,437
XXIII882Bicycles and tricycles9,1293,15440,2649,1393,40740,333
  Bicycles and tricycles: Materials and parts—
 883     Rubber tires, covers, and tubes19,43415,79155,72717,00614,71148,022
 885     N.o.e.14,7025,29196,65214,74325,39397,187
 886Motor bicycles and tricycles6,75720,60566,2476,75720,48266,250
  Motor bicycles and tricycles: Materials and parts—
 887     Rubber tires, covers, and tubes7,8245,64027,8327,7025,64025,812
 889     N.o.e.2,5813,87314,2642,4633,90314,234
 893Cars, buses, carriages, and vehicles electrically driven by storage batteries4,06950,455457,2147,68649,531445,179
 895     Materials and parts—viz.: Rubber tires, covers, and tubes127,274135,187302,13184,19676,907208,192
 899     Axles, axle-arms, and axle-boxes5,09714,97128,0095,24314,98328,031
 900     Springs, &c.: Rubber tires n.o.e.4,46510,20716,2104,61810,30316,212
  Miscellaneous—
 902     Manufactured4,69212,05823,54313,21811,83123,769
 903     Unmanufactured6891,1252,8053736912,246
Canada.
  Fish—
I11     Preserved in tins, &c.98,484101,766118,20098,535102,363118,353
  Confectionery—
II48     Chocolate confectionery, in fancy packages1,1563,61227,0981,1563,61227,098
 52     Unenumerated662,49514,819872,53614,823
  Fresh fruits—
 67     Apples4,02915,8528,2934,02915,8528,293
IV158Whisky75,69937,15140884,89636,9755,266
VIII223Grass and clover seeds11,8145393,04211,8145391,542
 231Wood-pulp6,4848,06611,3646,4848,06611,364
IXA234Apparel and ready - made clothing n.o.e.21,68041,87093,51421,66742,20093,830
  Boots and shoes—
 239     Goloshes and overshoes of rubber11,40616,21219,37611,40616,21220,157
 241     Gum boots11,59310,3799,84211,59810,3819,842
 245Corsets22,09626,35045,38722,09926,35045,387
 246Furs and fur-trimmings155,45523,950235,50725,038
 253Hosiery2,87410,17936,5762,80810,18536,546
  Paints and colours—
XI348     Ground in oil12,0427,78944,28812,0427,78944,288
 350     Other6,1053,27920,1706,1054,02320,631
  Iron and steel—
XIVA388     Bar, bolt, and rod4,24721,40145,9994,28121,68646,260
XIVB418Fencing-staples3,00513,69010,1423,00513,69010,142
 422Hardware, hollow-ware, and ironmongery, n.o.e.4,946242,54122,2865,63824,25522,639
  Iron and steel, plate and sheet—
 431     Plain black12,0382,4677,91012,1352,5597,921
 436Wrought tubes, &c. — 6 in. and under in internal diameter23,738128,27040,86624,992132,46754,619
  Nails—
 455     Other, including dog-spikes16,24074,66038,23916,24274,66038,239
 486Plain fencing-wire15,25353,25220,85815,25354,83226,858
  Iron wire for—
 487     Telegraphic and telephonic10,7705,031..     10,7815,031..     
 495Metal manufactures n.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)4,0497,12610,3474,2097,32710,358
  Agricultural Implements—
XV511     Other, Including material for and parts of5,99411,83119,4836,61313,19522,186
  Electrical machinery—
 526     Insulated cable and wire..     1210,651..     1211,675
  Leather—
XVIB589     Japanned and enamelled9,9537,36020,79810,1447,36021,419
 592     Sole, pump, and skirt8,05611,43411,4788,05611,43411,478
  Wood, cane, and wicker manufactures—
XVIIB649     Doors and sashes2451,69314,4532451,69314,453
 653     Furniture n.o.e504,24018,717504,23918,665
 661     Woodenware and turnery n.o.e.4,93710,64334,1104,93710,80736,258
  Paper—
XIXA687     Butter-paper9947959,85299491310,089
       Cardboard boxes, materials for—
 689          Other2,9162,60620,1992,9162,60620,217
 692     Paperhangings6,60417,54548,0636,79317,80148,586
 693     Printing188,957215,857333,793190,818217,267336,540
 694     Wrapping, unprinted9,00332,59452,77510,47934,95153,245
 695     Writing-paper (not less than “demy”)5,00228,13821,1125,00228,92821,124
XXIIA748Calcium carbide2,24215,7867,4752,24215,7867,506
XXIII859Pianos7984,55129,8787874,55129,878
 882Bicycles and tricycles4,6117,02113,4114,6116,86813,391
 893Cars, buses, carriages, and vehicles, motor98,493301,351519,47798,493300,910519,782
 895Materials and parts of vehicles, motors, &c.— viz.: Rubber tires, covers, and tubes68,374126,699254,88768,367131,433266,945
British West Indies.
II139Cocoa-beans, uncrushed1,2055,8704,3201,5715,99210,121
IV16Rum5244554952,5591,74012,293
South African Union.
  Wine, fermented—
IV167     Still10,21230,55275,60110,21431,71576,624
VIII229Bark9,04710,4867,59715,14622,30315,448
XX714Precious stones, unmounted2,384..     56,96460,39587,414110,890
XXIII831Gelignite..     5,4508,655..     5,45014,630
Burma.
II96Rice, dressed11,1773,39815,46914,7744,35215,793
X343Paraffin wax60,61524,14975,03961,21826,44476,644
XXIII849Candles11,00214,68718,19111,50614,68718,191
Ceylon.
II47Coconut, desiccated7,23410,63238,3997,30011,45638,821
III139Cocoa-beans, uncrushed8,8329,7419,2188,8649,7419,218
  Tea—
 149     In bulk298,038665,125357,166300,459667,348360,571
Hong Kong.
II103Jams, &c.12,6664,66014,51812,6544,66414,571
Straits Settlements.
  Fruits -
II59     Bottled and preserved15,09384,24615,096304,342
 119Sago and tapioca32,1906,43544,26732,5306,43546,974
 124Unground spices n.o.e.18,8337,90427,69520,1318,4641 27,815
India.
II96Rice, dressed.11,6233,8543,88118,1245,0455,255
III143Coffee, raw7,4655,7698,9998,5886,8159,107
  Tea—
 149     In bulk45,84625,36093,93246,85025,63393,932
  Fibres—
VIII214     Kapok2,69442522,5162,97942522,516
  Seeds—
 225     Other574914,77551,39415,792
IXB266Carpets, carpeting, and floor-cloth n.o.e.3,92619,37143,9274,43820,81345,918
  Piece-goods:
       Bagging and sacking—
IXB272          Hessian and jute9,60617,03010,2609,60617,03015,006
       Cotton—
 279          Hessian n.o.e. and scrim55,02668,236117,71255,02669,151125,436
  Bags and sacks—
IXC294     Corn204,610255,458210,958204,972255,458212,869
 295     Jute and hessian n.o.e.47,98966,823156,79748,02666,838166,172
 296     Woolpacks119,880197,03892,079119,880197,03893,736
  Oils (not essential), in bulk: Vegetable—
X329     Castor22,7103,15220,17323,0203,29320,359
 332     Linseed113,29547,97217,673113,88648,16517,910
  Phosphates—
XXIIB800     Bonedust12,78915,4529,93012,78915,4529,930
Australia.
  Eggs—
I7     Liquid white and yolk1,2977,16913,3571,2977,16913,357
 11Fish, preserved in tins, &c.11,6282,01519,40995..     2
 16Bacon31,8967,8272,45831,8967,8272,458
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, or evaporated (other than dried)24,30927,49439,33524,30927,34039,336
 41Provisions n.o.e.16,10622,41327,16615,76918,64822,550
  Biscuits—
II44     Other5,1024,13911,2985,1024,13911,245
 46Cocoa-butter, &c.20,33328,39928,92621,34523,57526,578
  Confectionery—
 48Chocolate confectionery, in fancy packages14,73212,88330,8056,69010,91630,142
 49     Chocolate confectionery, in plain trade packages2,7145,38236,4752,6665,26535,673
 52     Unenumerated19,35942,392101,47717,92340,533100,795
  Foods—
 58     For animals n.o.e.19,78210,01714,59018,9409,86210,365
  Fruits—
 59     Bottled and preserved in syrup26,06012,562138,01125,99911,438135,951
       Dried—
 60          Apricots and apples1,003423,1021,003423,102
 61          Currants39,09535,770116,06438,17135,770116,064
 62          Dates2,8571,32949,574..     ..     ..     
 65          Raisins39,83530,183254,86339,81730,038254,863
       Fresh—
 72          Oranges19,84815,18036,83319,84815,18036,816
 75          Other28,22611,35450,29628,22611,35450,296
  Grain and pulse—
       Unprepared—
 78          Barley38,64939,67988,13238,64939,67988,132
 79          Beans and peas16,1422,6734,09314,9742,1742,095
 80          Maize31,1841,95620,58431,1841,95620,584
 81          Oats30,1034,73221,71130,1034,73221,711
       Prepared or manufactured—
 83          Wheat404,535397,403585,542404,535397,403585,542
 87          Flour, wheaten39,418261739,4182617
 88          Maizena and cornflour30,57916,8086,45830,39616,8086,458.
 92          Malt, other2772,10923,6422592,04823,642
 96          Rice, dressed32,39047,27664,62118,63412,40854,154
 98          Rice-meal refuse12,1676,9134,31812,1476,9134,318
 103Jams, &c.2,4172,24318,6412,3011,98718,484
 105Macaroni and vermicelli8,0236,31514,4458,0236,28414,268
  Nuts, edible—
 108     Almonds1,1908,42214,513..     7,1904,291
 113Peel, candied, drained, or dried5,599,40927,3585,2599,40927,236
  Salt—
 122     Other148,34053,26953,771146,97651,63153,317
  Sugar—
 125     Glucose33,26218,53223,12431,26018,16122,808
 130     Refined10,1915,59517,02110,1915,59517,021
  Vegetables—
 134     Onions17,86915,31920,24017,86915,19420,240
 135     Potatoes42,23245116542,23237523
III140Cocoa and chocolate32,45931,99537,18811,64412,02122,785
 142Coffee-essence5,7104,30211,2255,7094,30211,204
IV154Brandy12,1575,97010,57410,3892,1244,783
1156Rum25,1203,7395,32825,0593,7424,745
1158Whisky131,13525,00594,541109,2042,33018,448
IV164Spirits of wine12,7469,42613,53511,9609,18413,259
  Wine, fermented—
 166     Sparkling2,9956,37913,4277721,2212,678
 167     Still33,30248,368106,76826,17936,05188,490
  Tobacco—
V171     Manufactured, cut140,140170,368232,611128,901163,092226,634
 172     Manufactured, other61,34998,423155,55953,40293,622152,029
  Horses—
VI176     Ordinary8,0618,11425,9943,0946,73210,389
  Hides, pelts, and skins, undressed—
VII194     Cattle10,990..     3210,794..     32
 200     Other4,1674,019..     4,0573,080..     
VIII209Cork, cut6,1818,13011,3192,0502,0025,478
  Seeds—
 223     Grass and clover17,05412,16534,32416,9269,20328,613
 225     Other6,8277,58512,7095,9296,2389,293
  Tanning-materials, crude—
 229     Bark37,65820,80652,31031,4218,30144,393
 230     Other7,26212,01313,5693,9437,7327,041
IXA234Apparel and ready-made clothing n.o.e.34,69675,754221,27523,00057,288191,049
  Boots and shoes—
 236     Children's (Nos. 0-6)17,88426,42450,70015,16025,84150,387
 240     Grindery n.o.e.31,93125,26547,77528,10720,47645,146
 244     Other189,802273,727883,482182,977271,542898,714
 246Furs and fur-trimmings1,72310,97928,0971,37610,35425,822
  Haberdashery—
 249     Buttons, tapes, &c.4,8256,91116,6271,0231,4993,257
 251Hats and caps13,04237,926121,72810,76635,480107,320
 252Hatmakers' materials7,1118,70338,9655,4735,60033,894
 253Hosiery4,13418,15134,7321594,93126,072
 254Lace and laces n.o.e.5,7974,95812,221361205401
  Millinery—
 257     Unenumerated7,7528,77828,4196,4497,56223,728
IXB267Drapery n.o.e.8,7329,85020,0351,7343,1595,054
  Piece-goods—
 274     Canvas, sailcloth, &c.5,5295,78410,0501,6562,8624,688
       Cotton—
 277          Tubular woven, for meat-wraps9,212..     34,419..     ..     ..     
 278          N.o.e.78,61794,324168,9458,45016,54129,783
 283     Other silks, satin, velvets, &c.11,57132,68021,501115500125
 285     Waterproof cloth1,5755,18011,7331,5335,09811,577
 286     Woollen n.o.e. of pure or mixed wool10,00950,23742,05673915,2009,662
  Bags and sacks—
 295     Jute and hessian n.o.e.5513,47615,5562963,1678,145
  Cordage and rope—
 300     Iron and steel3104,83510,1822232851,566
  Oils (not essential), in bulk—
       Mineral—
X325          Lubricating62,24234,08365,3879,9114,45115,426
       Vegetable—
 330          Coconut1,1924,73417,0471,0643,75517,047
 332          Linseed12,97420,30966,19812,05519,99659,699
 334          Turpentine8023,82512,88184811,806
 336          Other11,37813,70910,9843,9896,7475,493
 339Stearine16,93213,19118,86516,93213,18518,860
  Paints and colours—
XI348     Ground in oil23,30046,26554,28722,34144,40253,030
 350     Other35,75940,609144,90333,18137,461142,807
 354Varnishes, lacquers, and gold-size10,41713,81930,61210,23812,55130,158
  Coal—
XII358     Cargo202,102325,739493,401202,102325,738493,401
XIII375Silver15,50017,5751,800..     10,100200
  Iron and steel—
XIVA388     Bar, bolt, and rod15,46526,680140,91912,74423,653132,657
 393Lead, pig and bar15,01314,12349,36615,01314,12349,366
  Tin—
 402     Ingot76,82048,43989,47774,99547,28187,935
XIVB408Bolts and nuts8,68211,69216,7877,93410,85815,668
 422Hardware, hollow-ware, and ironmongery n.o.e.19,33223,16770,90815,46311,79542,524
  Iron and steel—£     £     £     £     £     £     
XIVB423     Angle and tee8403,49811,52934291810,727
       Plate and sheet—
 430          Corrugated, galvanized..     6,19627,433..     ..     ..     
       Tubes, pipes, and fittings—
 434          Cast: 9 in. and under in internal diameter5,49411,06137,6755,45710,31335,671
 436          Wrought: 6 in. and under in internal diameter4,91313,58631,3361,7305,65610,338
  Lead—
 443     Sheet12,47622,45637,03012,37021,68237,114
  Nails—
 455     Other, including dog-spikes Railway and tramway plant n.o.e.—1,4835,55037,8611,0653,58037,093
 461     Rails8,48214,067108,5545,60413,332104,979
 463     Other20,02715,80110,95018,17115,3939,188
 473Telephones and accessories therefor n.o.e.13,3091,4331,4924137352
  Wire—
 486     Fencing. plain3,2305,42554,492..     1,69745,778
       Iron—
 488          N.o.e.4731,60418,3874677416,673
 489          Netting9866,68422,8069266,68419,028
 494Other metal manufactures (free), viz.: Bellows-nails, &c.7,20210,79718,5912,7392,9007,103
 495N.o.e. metal manufactures (20 per cent. ad val.)42,24021,90983,28134,39216,77665,287
  Machinery and machines—
       Agricultural implements—
XV511          Other, including material for and parts of14,41611,17516,31211,2676,9077,359
       Dairying machines—
 522          Other19,45621,07041,39919,47919,13939,607
       Electrical—
 525          Generators, motors, and transformers7,2337,08115,6293743882,499
 526          Insulated cable and wire4,46811,39117,0575723,2869,323
 529          N.o.e.35,96111,46417,6713,5205,0488,813
       Mining machinery—
 553          Unenumerated1,9854,00911,1051,7593,4116,703
 560     Sewing-machines24,89617,34211,8044,5782,043955
 561     Tools: Engineers' and metal, wood, glass, and stone workers'10,20918,48338,7056,45513,04527,807
 570     N.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)23,80820,80554,38910,76714,58526,724
 572     Materials for and parts of (free)5,3709,31716,2321,5893,2503,504
  Indiarubber—
XVIA573     Hose, tubing, and piping30,70917,50130,22930,05317,12929,189
 575     Other (free), viz.: Washer-rings, gloves, n.o.e., &c.14,61313,18820,80114,54413,06420,686
  Belting—
XVIB579     Other (including canvas and rubber)7,2266,35210,7766,1883,5649,183
  Leather—
 580     Belt-leather, harness, welting, strap legging, bag, and bridle; kip, other than East India6,5408,46322,7446,5458,38922,744
 581     Calf-skins, whole8,55117,66829,4338,04614,65828,310
 585     Goat and kid skins56,67551,80252,32743,45836,36348,601
       Hide leathers other than East India kip—
 588          Dressed8,4526,57917,2327,8956,20116,796
 589     Japanned and enamelled10,1869,25120,9933,6785,38012,101
 591     Sheep-skins and lamb-skins n.o.e.11,34314,02237,42611,34314,00037,192
 592     Sole, pump, and skirt leather18,89615,92498,08318,05615,16996,977
 593     N.o.e.3,4525,14714,0493,2093,61013,992
 596     Leather cut into shapes and leather leggings4,0124,13811,0643,9824,13510,953
 597     Portmanteaux, trunks, and carpet-bags1,5164,63724,1271,4744,39323,958
 603     Unenumerated manufactures of leather8,3639,45023,0448,0748,95419,640
  Logs, hewn—£     £     £     £     £     £     
XVIIA613     Ironbark28,50519,14767,45028,50519,14767,456
 617     Other13,82117,27929,73313,82117,27929,733
  Logs, round—
 618     Ironbark5,62420,67652,4655,62420,67652,45
  Sawn timber n.o.e., rough—
 633     Ironbark5,7764,07020,2165,7764,07020,216
 634     Jarrah8,2062,74657,0828,2062,74657,082
 639     Other25,93225,78485,21920,04922,70682,323
XVIIB661Woodenware and turnery n.o.e.4,3255,61714,6334,0634,94711,290
  Earthenware—
XVIII669     N.o.e3,8756,62515,1802,5453,4316,464
  Glass and glassware—
 671     Bottles, plain, empty15,51426,89472,67612,51426,09470,155
 675     Jars, plain3391,74913,1173331,45412,941
 681Plaster-of-paris, gypsum, and other like preparations (not being manures)3,7536,45310,7023,7056,42710,700
  Paper—
XIXA685     Bags n.o.e.2,66510,26721,0472,1289,34018,980
       Cardboard boxes, &c.—
 689          Other10,79811,36118,0077,6616,82012,747
 693     Printing6,0905,83215,2109758363
 695     Writing (not less than “demy”)16,0736,84114,526351229143
  Stationery—
XIXB698     Books, papers, and music, printed, n.o.e.66,58978,523104,49438,09555,40065,963
 703Handbills, circulars, and programmes: printed advertising-matter, n.o.e., &c.12,04211,37715,6086,8809,77113,173
 706Manufactured stationery n.o.e.10,32114,30428,6959,02512,57724,898
XX712Fancy goods22,83334,40765,50518,92327,89053,903
  Jewellery—
 714     Precious stones, unmounted69,090112,772100,94010,87124,70337,031
 715     Other32,85936,56978,57032,05334,85775,045
 716Sporting, gaming, and athletic requisites n.o.e.3,2573,97416,8933,2273,82916,519
XXI725Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films62,13522,98323,8893,1197,3494,292
  Photographic materials and goods—
 730     Sensitized surfaces and albuminized paper36,14333,87640,62435,00831,23633,075
 733     N.o.e.8,07212,05121,9251,8242,9149,216
  Acids—
XXIA741     Tartaric4,3067,37111,665117423
 751Cream of tartar3,19910,69812,125..     ..     6
 753Dyes21,32526,47840,5795,7447,12611,866
  Insecticides and disinfectants—
 759     N.o.e.10,7704,89810,8437,8793,47210,359
  Liquefied and compressed gases—
 762     Anhydrous ammonia18,05926,43832,49317,66325,03030,785
 763     Other24,48918,93015,01821,79418,43213,048
 765Medicinal preparations, drugs, and druggists' sundries, n.o.e., &c.99,121142,184157,99954,38386,175109,870
 772Toilet preparations17,94522,09325,65712,81617,05520,457
XXIIB792Ammonia, sulphate of41,25815,05041,25815,050
 797Nitrate of soda661,27510,607..     ..     ..     
  Phosphates..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
 800     Bonedust13,96239,13867,83213,96239,13867,832
 802     Guano and rock phosphates (Including mineral earth)6,01010,75230,8106,01010,71936,810
 803     Superphosphates174,32896,638158,897174,32896,638158,897
  Arms, ammunition, and explosives—
XXIII833     Lithofracteur, cordite, &c.15,49214,0735,75415,49214,0735,754
 838Articles and material suited only for and to be used solely in the fabrication or repair of goods within the Dominion n.o.e.14,4119,9229,99511,3327,3218,299
  Asbestos—
 839     Sheets, slates, and tiles9,42413,70732,9927,63913,09727,722
XXIII848Brushmakers' materials10,6335,92313,6379,2764,95510,937
  Instruments, musical—
 860     Pianolas, phonographs, and other instruments, mechanical8,41014,40624,6903,0146,86414,951
 861     Records for phonographs, gramophones, graphophones, &c.5,69110,90717,7804179372,424
 863Matches and vestas, wax 32,37112,35214,86630,0597,74714,139 
  Soap—
 876     Powder, dry, soft, and liquid11,20617,44320,35311,14717,17019,855
 877     N.o.e.63,66849,63751,45562,32947,37947,298
  Bicycles and tricycles: Materials and parts—
 883     Rubber tires, covers, and tubes41,67328,86778,09641,42128,83477,260
  Motor bicycles and tricycles: Materials and parts—
 887     Rubber tires, covers, and tubes17,1698,27127,01017,0768,12526,369
  Vehicles for road traffic, and materials therefor—
 893     Cars, buses, carriages, and vehicles (motor)15,67711,74314,632771..     2,096
 895     Materials and parts—viz.: Rubber tires, covers, and tubes165,3832,305459,006149,7231,163328,146
 902Miscellaneous manufactures14,6885,73411,22110,4154,6819,398
Fiji.
II68Bananas78,99078,128106,71178,99078,128106,711
  Sugar—
 129     Raw854,688887,9651,683,179854,688887,9651,683,179
III139Cocoa-beans, uncrushed1837,53213,7051837,53213,705
Gilbert and Ellice Islands.
XXIIB802Rock phosphate (including mineral earth)..     ..     27,722..     3327,722
Western Samoa.
III139Cocoa-beans, uncrushed16,18722,40420,94316,187122,40420,948
Belgium.
IXB278Cotton piece-goods n.o.e...     ..     319..     ..     29,348
  Glass and glassware—
XVIII673     Crown, sheet, and common window..     ..     151,045..     ..     160,373
 674     Glassware n.o.e...     ..     5,920..     ..     10,792
 678     Other..     47,253..     ..     47,398 
  Phosphates—
XXHB798     Basic slag and Thomas's phosphates..     ..     46,181..     ..     46,181
  Asbestos—
XXIII839     Sheets, slates, and tiles..     ..     20,161..     ..     22,339
Denmark.
I41Provisions n.o.e...     49,86127,427..     53,07837,658
  Seeds—
VIII223     Grass and clover506..     2,5275062,51423,790
XXIII838Articles and materials suited only for and to be used solely in the fabrication or repair of goods within the Dominion, n.o.e.22,6112393,06922,6212393,490
France.
IV154Brandy13,2301,29820,81036,17721,763103,945
  Wine, fermented—
 166     Sparkling5,5552795,33716,27121,294107,162
VIII222Resin..     6053,2962022,77411,180
  Seeds—
 223     Grass and clover17481212551,37213,231
IXA234Apparel and ready - made clothing n.o.e.4522,0001,41213,09114,63333,797
 247Gloves n.o.e.8707092,85117,53219,55244,609
 252Hatmakers' material74596963,7783,41612,991
  Millinery—
 257     Unenumerated449178759,0829,04720,263
 258Minor articles, n.o.e., for making up apparel, &c.109..     318,8274,51816,668
 259Ribbons and crape57078345420,47928,96350,686
IXB267Drapery n.o.e.2551,3191,6208,31513,92546,980
  Piece-goods—
 278     Cotton n.o.e...     17..     6912,25910,266
 283     Other silks, satins, velvets, &c.2,05774196645,72457,062161,438
 286     Woollen n.o.e., of pure or mixed wool..     9202,0451,46246,521
XX712Fancy goods7524021,2507,51810,21627,929
 721Tobacco - pipes and cases, cigarette-papers, &c.1,3551,45313932,76934,28744,176
XXIIA751Cream of tartar4067624207,7819,29934,158
  Vehicles: Motors for road traffic—
XXIII893     Cars, buses, carriages, and vehicles (motor) n.o.e...     ..     1,2301372,49512,004
 895     Materials and parts—viz.: Rubber tires, covers, and tubes..     ..     31,52849,950102154,547
Italy.
  Nuts, edible—
II108     Almonds9,76829110,19111,2136,75347,197
IXA247Gloves n.o.e.2,86885783612,73910,04219,336
  Haberdashery—
 249     Buttons, tapes, &c.2,8157,4674,3663,4599,2790,779
 251Hats and caps4,4483,51328,6506,0587,12649,710
 252Hatmakers' materials882,7077,8671,2563,90212,63
  Millinery—
 257     Unenumerated622972788852,84610,165
  Piece-goods—
IXB283     Other silks, satins, velvets, &c.1,0131643321,82512,96416,908
XXIIA741Tartaric acid3,5302,1561,0594,9654,08711,457
 751Cream of tartar9,025..     5,4329,025..     19,102
  Vehicles: Motors for road traffic, and materials therefor—
XXIII895     Materials and parts7,68248,275159,36512,93448,290226,970
Netherlands.
IV155Gin, geneva, and schnapps, unsweetened11,3769837,88727,4441,90493,103
XV527Electrical lamps7,433109,69726,19521,10724,418
Portugal.
  Wine, fermented—
IV167Still1,5211,3352,3474,0046,96232,628
Norway.
  Fish—
I11     Preserved in tins6,57212050,05713,2421,7051,589
XIXA687Butter-paper9368219,5581,1791,00710,612
XXIIA748Calcium carbide..     ..     13,691..     ..     14,572
Sweden.
I41Provisions n.o.e.,..     15,00712,256..     26,18913,808
  Vegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres—
VIII231     Wood-pulp7,3843,21832,3837,3843,21832,383
  Dairying—
XV517     Cream-separating machines18,39644,05262,60019,55747,89565,921
XXIII838Articles and materials suited only for and to be used solely in the fabrication or repair of goods within the Dominion n.o.e.15,3143146615,5399111,108
  Matches and vestas—
 864     Wooden13,0572,29013,58115,0534,03324,196
Spain.
  Wine, fermented—
IV167     Still7613436741,870.1,77317,729
VIII209Cork, cut4,4383,06751412,005:14,80220,568
Switzerland
IXA234Apparel and ready - made clothing n.o.e.41248298313,8549,10716,051
 252Hatmakers' materials498871,3284,5265,16112,669
 259Ribbons and crape37785070271,54072,39965,090
IXB267Drapery n.o.e.4881,8381,54150,15924,34335,472
  Piece-goods—
 283     Other silks, satins, velvets, &c.37928585113,0208,915103,094
XX719Watches35,06141,11045,17751,46358,73077,840
United States.
 Fish—
I11     Preserved in tins, &c.14,1176,59612,49317,6206,76214,511
 36Sausage casings and skins29,71427,95379,66530,38828,29080,549
 41Provisions n.o.e.2,11513,26924,8352,2613,70638,925
II46Cocoa-butter, &c.16,52527,63416,12316,52532,40317,399
 48Chocolate confectionery in fancy packages12,81229,87143,96512,81231,18743,983
  Fruits—
 59     Bottled and preserved in syrup36,86512,01919,80636,86812,58320,771
       Dried—
 60          Apples and apricots19,8516406,98319,8816407,067
 64          Prunes23,1452,44033,14423,1452,57233,144
 65          Raising122,05970,90686,361122,07571,05186,361
       Fresh—
 71          Lemons5,44114,51713,0025,44114,51713,029
 72          Oranges7,69122,63535,7787,69122,63535,795
 88Maizena and cornflour2514,33148,8264344,33148,826
 96Rice, dressed..     1,3204,006..     15,1235,152
  Salt—
 122     Other36,42411,6417,35436,62613,0657,354
 125Glucose2,14618,75519,3533,94619,12619,669
III140Cocoa and chocolate16,41212,0296,87036,96831,30239,650
  Tobacco—
V171     Manufactured, cut22,13172,09497,48631,08977,087101,145
 172     Manufactured, other37,512112,634164,66744,403117,132166,902
 178     Unmanufactured16,37527,20056,68916,50727,20056,728
VII222Resin15,3407,72323,26321,3469,86928,983
  Seeds—
 223     Grass and clover101,71523,55025,417101,85323,55027,317
 225     Other11,21711,2979,81011,41411,15010,17
IXA234Apparel and ready-made clothing n.o.e.39,23890,056117,30742,98096,123124,671
  Boots and shoes—
 240     Grindery n.o.e.14,74537,28835,02617,66639,50436,289
 241     Gum boots7,71811,82315,3297,75911,84915,329
 244     Other42,11352,00657,70644,82952,13857,933
 245Corsets19,37025,84417,92819,54926,07817,947
 247Gloves n.o.e.4,989,59411,4875,25310,21113,309
 249Buttons, tapes, &c.7,36010,96516,5379,23714,18225,381
 251Hats and caps18,22830,14550,66218,41330,41950,733
 253Hosiery76,817165,773131,59882,067174,838139,799
  Millinery—
 257     Unenumerated3,79212,27616,7493,85512,76317,038
 259Ribbons and crape18,40412,3308,43818,41612,6328,468
IXB266Carpets, carpeting, and floorcloth n.o.e5,13030,65677,1485,20532,05977,148
 271Oilcloths, linoleum, and stair oil-baize3,54837,86151,6493,54838,63552,986
  Piece-goods—
 274     Canvas, sailcloth, &c.6,36358,70638,0746,43058.78938,334
       Cotton—
 275          Butter and cheese cloth23,89820,4908,14324,95720,4908,857
 278          N.o.e.145,244256,563283,147151,253267,190304,143
 280     Leather cloth1,2806,03311,5351,2806,32513,727
 283     Other silks, satins, velvets, &c.18,98233,01213,61519,30534,79015,346
 285     Waterproof cloth9967,36610,5971,0147,44810,597
 290Sewing silks and cottons n.o.e.15,70013,69026,25116,79214,22827,120
  Cordage and rope—
IXC300     Iron and steel93210,4102,63695810,4822,689
  Greases—
X311     Axle-greases and other solid lubricants8,60811,8619,4089,48512,87012,471
 Oils (not essential), in bulk—
       Mineral—
 319          Benzine424,870399,028781,206424,870399,028781,376
 323          Gasolene147,98289,647411,911147,98289,647411,911
 324          Kerosene166,899143,117309,621167,20214,245310,258
 325          Lubricating116,216151,070153,173172,043181,132205,554
 326          Motor-spirit n.o.e.203,684195,576497,727203,684195,576497,729
      Vegetable—
 334          Turpentine13,13010,63527,92513,69114,37939,054
 336          Other4,7172,34413,3747,2276,66716,134
 337          N.o.e.5,5148,1773,8955,8388,5934,615
 338Oils (not essential), in vessels less than 1 gallon4,07813,13415,2534,42813,48516,446
 343Paraffin wax7,9319,4357,55310,1409,83612,065
  Paints and colours—
XI348     Ground in oil44,35720,36239,04545,1821,98140,220
 350     Other31,17434,35938,42032,23135,60938,630
 354Varnishes, lacquers, and gold-size5,67110,40714,9085,69810,55814,945
  Coal—
XII358     Cargo..     55,9313,849..     55,9313,849
XIVB408Bolts and nuts9,19221,60712,7169,4802,37013,535
  Brass—
 410     Plate and sheet, plain21,63616,38521,30921,75116,38521,326
  Copper—
 416Plate and sheet, plain13,42616,5325,98013,44216,69411,022
 418Fencing-staples9,00917,7459,5419,80517,9439,996
 422Hardware, hollow-ware, and ironmongery n.o.e.58,340140,876188,10959,83149,829,200,988
  Iron and steel—
 428     Hoop and other iron manufacture of spiral pipes..     1,27815,909..     1,27815,909
 430     Plate and sheet, corrugated, galvanized19,30690,54626,17519,30696,74242,917
 431     Plain, black14,93919,6736,39115,40420,2807,644
 432     Plain, galvanized29,85939,4938,08734,44440,9509,956
 436     Wrought tubes and pipes: 6 in. and under in internal diameter16,42325,62227,37716,71626,06327,981
  Lamps (not electric), lanterns, and lamp-wick—
 441     Other19,18814,56017,15319,41414,53517,453
 447Electricity meters11,8207,9249,32811,8277,9399,404
 456Plate and plated ware1,65711,07616,6281,66812,57716,676
  Railway and tramway plant n.o.e.—
 461     Rails, &c...     11,58226,701..     11,74027,535
 463     Other12,0123,2678,02513,8713,5908,299
 473Telephone and accessories therefor n.o.e.16,58695,7597,52629,81097,6608,221
  Tinware and tin manufactures—
 474     Tinned sheet and plates, plain2,6153,2046,8342,6153,28048,631
  Tools and implements—
 482     Other47,770161,244166,06549,897162,937169,463
  Wire—
 485     Fencing, barbed20,75525,95861,11522,95826,45167,921
 486     Fencing, plain48,360138,052120,96351,62039,891134,340
       Iron—
 488          N.o.e.5,63013,35910,7705,87113,93211,394
  Metal manufactures—
 491     Other, plain metal cordage, not gold, iron, or silver5,05614,9036,5685,89815,8446,660
 494     Other (free)—viz.: Bellows-nails, &c.6,17817,21117,6069,50225,44826,717
 495     N.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)52,77993,287119,79956,60395,621126,995
  Agricultural implements—
XV504     Mowers, horse40112,9788,86140113,0028,861
 505     Ploughs3,8087,52311,5343,8667,55311,550
 507     Reapers and reapers-and-binders..     8,55410,859..     8,55410,859
 511     Other, including materials for and parts of18,44240,76542,81919,66742,42343,666
 513Calculating-machines5,3775,94947,8295,6756,76848,98
 514Cash-registers8,54110,37812,2428,84110,37815,629
  Dairying machinery—
 517     Cream-separating machines10,06818,97110,63510,06820,20111,061
  Electrical machinery—
 524     Electric batteries and cells26,67735,48825,36327,99435,86228,652
 525     Generators, motors, and transformers32,69562,243123,6718,79667,815133,483
 527     Lamps19,42735,52135,12520,09936,11736,738
 528     Materials—viz., carbon in block, &c.4,99313,9674,3907,80114,3615,869
 529     N.o.e.73,938130,268108,425102,179135,676114,348
  Engines—
 532     Gas, oil, and hot-air, other25,17131,12447,70225,95531,47550,218
 533     Portable and traction16,50769,68870,83118,86869,68871,216
  Mining machinery—
 553     Unenumerated1,2865,17210,0271,3195,36010,477
  Printing machinery—
 557     Printing machines and presses4463,4318,8826773,89412,288
 558     Type-setting and typecasting1,9728,73110,8442,17612,14413,421
XV560Sewing-machines24,39450,40414,11541,88965,15231,377
 561Tools: Engineers', and metal, wood, glass, and stone workers'21,80336,09652,10423,74839,41058,641
 562Typewriters21,86422,86732,61226,24026,26739,078
 570Machinery n.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)13,81438,014106,91319,71641,445118,889
 571Materials for and parts of machines (dutiable)30,28151,52760,99134,37863,03575,754
 572
XVIB579Belting, other (including canvas and rubber)9,17130,56720,4069,47232,69021,549
  Leather—
 581     Calf-skins, whole11,45623,47520,68811,96126,36321,413
 585     Goat and kid skins34,80618,58838,31647,64233,65942,818
 589     Japanned and enamelled7,51710,28536,60913,78214,15644,970
 592     Sole, pump, and skirt leather8,2578,40710,7208,5498,40715,095
  Timber, sawn, n.o.e., rough—
XVII637     Oregon pine30,73523,05029,38130,73523,14129,567
 639     Other11,09319,18664,20511,09321,78865,827
  Handles for tools—
 655     Other3,74917,45726,5063,76317,90427,573
 661Woodenware and turnery n.o.e.4,0978,45218,7194,2278,92819,686
XVII662Asphalt1,2091,82915,0031,2091,92715,101
  Glass and glassware—
 671     Bottles, plain, empty18,61622,99917,35719,51023,07717,484
 673     Crown, sheet, and common window7,65446,0277,6528,85746,3629,651
 674     Glassware n.o.e.7511,37127,7647512,00729,667
 678     Other6,66125,4737,1777,09026,2507,521
  Paper—
XIXA687     Butter-paper23,68281,73412,57324,92932,78416,317
       Cardboard boxes, materials for—
 689          Other8,33045,93360,7329,09348,82665,583
 692     Paperhangings6,64713,75528,6776,91113,82428,737
 693     Printing25,35670,34714,57126,19773,54323,59
 695     Writing (not less than “demy”34,265140,58723,75339,523143,89032,97
XIXB698Books, papers, and music, printed, n.o.e.29,94649,00260,15460,83949,25166,899
 700Cards, playing3,0575,3294,2893,0645,164,314
 703Handbills, circulars, and programmes3,8298,21512,7567,9719,34414,811
  Printed advertising matter n.o.e., &c.—
 706     Manufactured n.o.e.4,3957,13610,044,5437,35110,704
 711     N.o.e.23,45452,54335,03626,95856,37942,537
XX712Fancy goods22,34545,65762,54223,32348,60666,110
 717clock's12,9028,88822,52712,82912,32522,544
 719Watches13,37913,82932,45513,41114,34232,478
 721Tobacco pipes and cases, cigarette-papers, &c.10,3817,3438,96010,3477,2419,221
XXI725Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films19,78755,06265,05679,48571,67685,433
 728Optical: Microscopes and telescopes18,13916,16014,01819,04517,49315,194
  Photographic materials and goods—
 729     Cameras27,48715,71829,36229,05217,92133,984
 730     Sensitized surfaces and albuminized paper13,808,77227,61714,17910,72334,987
 733Surgical and dental instruments35,70544,01142,35140,42137,70257,654
XXIIA751Cream of tartar82,78245,10867,14585,57855,15871,842
 753Dyes2,48216,39527,1110,02521,63036,755
 765Medicinal preparations, drugs, and druggists' sundries n.o.e., &c.27,06144,99846,80850,84079,57673,265
  Perfumery—
 772     Toilet preparations31,35540,96366,49233,48143,0068,236
 782Caustic soda2,30715,2155,0374,08515,536,911
 788Sugar of milk..     ..     37,674..     ..     37,674
 789Sulphur7336818,3757436818,394
  As, ammunition, and explosives—
XXIII814     Cartridges, 25 calibre and under9,82416,01827,94310,00816,40327,989
 815     Shot (10 to 24 bore)25,96216,4635,6327,81017,1885,683
 824     Firearms, other5,95016,01241,7365,98916,65142,037
 838Articles and materials suited only for and to be used solely in the fabrication or repair of goods within the Dominion n.o.e.30,86630,17145,66731,84831,14146,848
 847Brushes, brushware, and brooms3,7289,04420,4143,8619,49121,255
  Instruments, musical—
 859     Pianos6,41923,98061,9456,41924,31462,272
 860     Pianolas, phonographs, and other instruments; mechanical6,9297,78616,26711,06113,57324,531
 861     Records for pianolas, graphophones, &c.4,0502,5581,8886,6809,03110,798
  Matches and vestas—
 864     Wooden1751214,0381751614,038
 867Packing, engine7,59410,6978,1888,38410,8778,539
 874Harness - oil and leather-dressing14213,13023,34036413,71123,821
 877Soap n.o.e.20516,85025,94820717,24227,864
  Motor-bicycles and tricycles, materials for—
 889     N.o.e.3,5477,41611,056,647;7,62711,222
  Vehicles: Motor for road traffic, and materials therefor—
 893     Cars, buses, carriages, and vehicles (motor)332,813771,6431,928,014343,965782,3841,940,147
 895     Materials and parts—viz.: Rubber tires, covers, and tubes395,036480,718835,620407,023496,241857,248
  Vehicles: Parts and materials n.o.e.—
 900     Springs, &c.; rubber tires n.o.e.7,3889,20910,2567,4689,44410,442
  Miscellaneous—
 902     Manufactured44,2409,29214,82345,71619,85215,280
Cuba.
V169Cigars1,6323,92216,1101,663,12218,288
Chile.
XXIIB797Nitrate of soda3,369..     3,4593,4351,27514,066
Asiatic Turkey.
II62Dates4,85824138,8097,5771,3880,731
 63Figs..     ..     7,573..     ..     12,371
Dutch orneo.
X343Paraffin wax18,48010,31714,44818,48010,95815,286
Java.
  Sugar—
II129     Raw3,574180,747..     3,574180,747..     
       Refined..     1,90071,65111,90071,651
  Tea—
III149     In bulk61,63829,668187,91961,63831,319187,919
VIII214Kapok67,55415,578135,56269,07515,829135,685
Sumatra.
X319Benzine39,59572,125102,87339,59572,125102,873
X326Motor-spirit n.o.e.9,94318,65036,122,9,94318,65036,122
Philippine Islands.
V169Cigars2,0684,47324,5362,6676,28227,666
VIII213Hemp33,15427,30547,34235,77727,58047,342
China.
  Eggs—
I6     Desiccated white and yolk3,4556,33411,2653,4556,33711,339
  Grain and pulse—
       Unprepared—
II84          Other2,4123,18514,0052,7823,69514,625
 96     Rice, dressed8,01223,69640,7179,22534,91248,652
IXA252Hatmakers' materials625..     6,3241,042..     11,324
 254Lace and laces n.o.e.30,90616,80851,92934,86320,81555,390
  Piece-goods—
 283     Other silks, satins, velvets, &c.33,50715,80224,10035,04216,66231,838
XXIII848Brushmakers' materials4,0341,0938,0205,1281,87515,756
Japan.
VIII211Engineers' waste10,5901,70261811,2281,702618
IXA234Apparel and ready - made clothing n.o.e.66,50872,52276,82368,98674,87179,739
 247Gloves n.o.e.16,43518,5662,09116,66619,0452,446
 249Buttons, tapes, &c.10,78610,66619,05512,51311,69120,738
 251Hats and caps37,52411,256,27238,12911,9486,537
 252Hatmakers' materials12,6771,64518,01414,73713,13923,062
 253Hosiery5,62913,5877,7945,65513,7027,999
IXB267Drapery n.o.e.14,85814,2155,16015,21715,1106,975
 270Matting, n.o.e., and mats11,95528,18655,38712,38128,65555,980
  Piece-goods—
 274     Canvas, sailcloth, &c.13,82017,2721,21114,27817,2721,211
       Cotton—
 277          Tubular woven, for meat-wraps15,13117,1873,44515,13117,1873,445
 278     N.o.e.214,564248,278199,294219,275253,552203,104
 283     Other silks, satins, velvets, &c.294,987308,007348,677301,746324,368359,247
  Cordage and rope—
IXC300     Iron and steel3,03319,951753,03323,43575
  Oils (not essential), in bulk—
       Vegetable—
X336          Other12,9226,0608,27416,5978,26910,654
XIVB422Hardware, hollow-ware, and ironmongery, n.o.e.7,61010,0798,6558,03010,07911,366
  Electrical machinery and machines—
XV526     Insulated cable and wire23,42037,9095,16024,72539,8845,521
 529     N.o.e.8,6227,38110,6529,0737,64710,845
  Timber, sawn, n.o.e., rough—
XVII639     Other15,31628,470167,84715,91328,813169,491
 661Woodenware and turnery, n.o.e.9001,91019,0049811,19219,004
  Earthenware, china, glass, stoneware—
XVIII667     China, porcelain, and parian ware14,69323,28944,36314,79323,75046,539
 669     N.o.e.13,04016,33546,00613,66517,88048,540
  Glass and glassware—
 671     Bottles, plain, empty22,46014,99423,53223,08115,98423,878
 674     Glassware n.o.e.16,66414,90846,39017,23116,11147,670
  Cardboard boxes, materials for—
XIXA689     Other27,04031,09721,21027,86631,09721,210
XX712Fancy goods59,82374,34292,80961,21976,01694,506
XXIIA748Calcium carbide34,6646,892..     36,0646,892..     
 765Medicinal preparations, drugs, and druggists' sundries n.o.e., &c.8,9962,8537,41310,7233,4348,581
 789Sulphur19,78032,1617,03221,27832,7357,082
XXIIB803Superphosphates1,035..     73,7161,035..     73,716
XXIII847Brushes, brushware, and brooms21,58021,34021,69722,20622,69423,098
  Matches and vestas—
 864     Wooden37,6801,2702,53940,4241,4282,720
  Bicycles and tricycles: Materials and parts—
 883     Rubber tires, covers, and tubes2,94610,1015,3752,94710,1015,375
Hawaii.
  Fruits—
II59     Bottled and preserved in syrup1,1978,50210,8831,2553,91012,221
Marquesas Islands.
  Oils (not essential), in bulk—
       Mineral—
X319          Benzine..     72,12519..     72,125..     
New Caledonia.
XXIIB802Guano and rock phosphates10,16917,43522,81410,16917,43522,814
Tuamotu Archipelago.
XXIIB802Guano and rock phosphates37,94565,20974,01837,94565,20974,018

IMPORTS FROM COOK ISLANDS.

A small group of Pacific islands was annexed to the Dominion on the 11th June, 1901, and has since been administered as the “Cook and other annexed islands.” The following table shows the growth of the import trade from this group—previous figures are included with those for the other Pacific islands:—

Year.Imports.
 £     
190232,163
190338,708
190445,517
190544,179
190663,477
190761,922
190867,483
190973,469
191090,039
191192,382
1912105,943
1913109,095
191494,620
191587,890
191663,702
191772,470
191870,374
191988,820
1920105,146

The principal articles imported for the past five years are as follows:—

Class.Item.Article.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
  Fruits, fresh—£      £      £      £      £      
II68     Bananas15,04929,37624,99820,09116,779
 72     Oranges26,03321,15528,06033,90258,550
 74     Tomatoes, plums, &c.7,5413,6322,1368,36713,666
 75     Other1,1141,934..     571357
 109Nuts—Coconuts5656767741,7911,631
 135Potatoes821290..     135360
III143Coffee, raw1,337120396938330
VIII208Copra7,56011,70410,91815,4268,518
 220Fungus1,25931551362
IXA251Hats and caps9797731,9142,6201,958
XXI725Cinematograph-films8251,705400760290

SUBSECTION D.—TARIFF AND REVENUE.

TARIFF DEVELOPMENT.

The first Customs Ordinance in New Zealand was proclaimed in 1841. This Ordinance, which repealed the New South Wales Ordinance then in force in these Islands, was the first of two long series of enactments dealing with Customs law and the tariff of Customs duties. The Customs law has been constantly revised and extended, Acts being passed in 1858, 1868, 1882, 1892, 1908, and revised, extended, and consolidated by the Customs Duties Act of 1914, and further extended by the Finance Acts of 1915 and 1917.

The first tariff, contained in the Ordinance of 1841, covered only a few items, and may be given in full as a type of all the early tariffs. It is noteworthy that, following the old mercantilist policy of colonial administration, preference was given to certain products of the Mother-land. The full schedule of duties was as follows:—

 £s.d.
Spirits or strong waters, not being the produce of the United Kingdom, of any British possession in America, or of New South Wales, or of Van Diemen's Land, per proof gallon050
Spirits or strong waters, the produce of the United Kingdom, of any British possession in America, or of New South Wales, or of Van Diemen's Land, per proof gallon040
Wine, for every hundred pounds' value1500
Tobacco, unmanufactured, per pound009
Tobacco, manufactured, except cigars and snuff, per pound010
Cigars and snuff, per pound020
Tea, sugar, flour, meal, wheat, rice, and other grain and pulse, for every hundred pounds' value500
On all other goods (except goods the produce and manufacture of the United Kingdom, or of New South Wales, or of Van Diemen's Land), for every hundred pounds' value1000

In 1844 alterations were made in the direction of increasing most of the duties, while the preference to the United Kingdom was dropped. A very interesting item was the duty of 30 per cent. imposed “on all guns or weapons of any description, or gunpowder, or any munition of war,” evidently imposed to check the growing import of firearms for the Maoris. The rate of duty on all unspecified goods, except personal baggage, living animals, and specie, was 5 per cent.

In 1846 preference was again introduced by the imposition of a duty of 12 1/2 per cent. on all foreign unspecified goods, while similar British goods paid only 10 per cent. At the same time there appears the germ of the later free list, five items— glass bottles, bullion, live animals, books, and seeds and bulbs—being proclaimed free of duty.

The tariff of 1851 was the first elaborate scale of duties, and is noticeable for the liberal use of ad valorem duties, mainly at the rate of 10 per cent., though cottons, woollens, &c., were charged by the yard, calico by the bolt, and trousers by the pair.

The general tariff of 1864 comprised many items, but the duties were levied for revenue primarily; the rates were low, and were mostly specific duties, even drapery being charged at per cubic foot. Amendments of the tariff, mostly small and affecting only a few items, followed rapidly in 1866, 1867, 1871, 1873; but in 1878 some sweeping changes were made, particularly the reduction on sugar from Id. per pound to 1/2d., and similar reductions on many foodstuffs, while tools were also made free of duty. Another Act in 1879 added a few dutiable articles—in this case, however, chargeable with ad valorem duty; and the Act of 1881 was similar. All these changes were revised, and consolidated in the Customs Duties Consolidation Act, 1882, which also extended the range of the tariff a good deal. The tariff of 1888 was distinguished by a more liberal use of ad valorem duties, the most usual rate being 20 per cent., as against 10 per cent. in the earliest years, while a primage duty was also levied.

With the year 1895 the tariff takes on its distinctive modern form, marked by the preponderance of ad valorem duties and a definitely protective intention. The scope of the tariff was greatly widened so as to enumerate in detail a number of new items, and there were many reductions, principally of the duties on foodstuffs such as dried fruits and cocoa.

The process of subdivision and protection then begun was continued in 1900, when further steps were taken in the direction of a free breakfast-table, and another notable remission was made, the duty on kerosene being abolished.

In 1907 the Customs tariff was completely revised and some important alterations made. Among articles placed upon the free list were: Sugar, molasses and treacle, currants, raisins, figs, dates, prunes, unground spices, mustard, maizena, cornflour, almonds and nuts (excepting walnuts), carbonate and bicarbonate of soda, tartaric acid, infants' foods, forfar, dowlas and flax-sheeting, vegetable oils, fencing staples and standards, sheet lead; gas, electricity, and water meters; rubber and pneumatic tires for carriages. Children's boots (Nos. 0-6) and tea in bulk were admitted free if of British manufacture or growth.

Increased rates of ordinary duty were imposed on certain articles, among which were: Flavouring-essences n.o.e., medicinal preparations, drugs and druggists' sundries, candles, paraffin-wax, hosiery, cash-registers, cartridges (shot) 10-24 bore, cartridge-cases, certain sizes of iron and fibre pipes, mouldings and panels.

Tea, the produce of British dominions, if in packages of 5 lb. in weight or over was admitted free; when put up in packages under 5 lb. there was a duty of 2d. per pound. The preferential duty on tea of foreign growth was 2d. per pound if in packages of 5 lb. in weight or over, and 2/5d. per pound if in packages of a less weight than 5 lb.

The Customs Duties Amendment Act, 1909, imposed a surtax of 1 per cent. on the amount of duty payable on tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes, and of 2 1/2 per cent. on the amount of duty payable on all other dutiable goods. This surtax remained in operation until the 31st March, 1911.

In 1915 again changes were made in the rates of duty levied on certain articles, in order to meet the extraordinary expenses of the war. The principal changes were: The duty was raised on spirits from 16s. to 17s. per gallon; gas and oil engines were made subject to 10 per cent., plus an additional preferential 10 per cent. if foreign, instead of being free and 20 per cent. preferential as before; electric motors, transformers, and lamps were charged 10 per cent. plus 10 per cent., instead of 10 per cent. plus 5 per cent.; and motor-cars were charged 10 per cent. plus 10 per cent. preferential surtax, whereas before the chassis was free and the body was liable to 20 per cent. duty. On the other hand, the 20 per cent. on bicycles was reduced to 10 per cent.

At the same time a primage duty of 1 per cent. was levied on all goods imported, with the exception of a few small classes of exempted articles. In addition, power was taken to gazette at any time an extra surtax of 50 per cent. on any goods which might be specified, being the produce or manufacture of any country then (October, 1915) at war with His Majesty. Power was also taken to impose an excise duty on aerated waters, cordials, and other beverages, subject to a report by an officer of Customs to be appointed as a Commission to inquire into the advisability of controlling and regulating this manufacture. Increases were also made in certain excise duties in 1915, and again in 1917.

In August, 1917, also, as part of the scheme of additional war taxation, further increases were made in the rates of duties to be levied on certain items of import. These increases were somewhat more accentuated in some cases by the Finance Act, 1917, which received the assent of the Governor-General on the 15th September of that year.

Of the items dealt with in 1917 that which most nearly concerns the people as a whole is tea, a commodity which has fluctuated considerably in the tariff scale. Originally 5 per cent. ad valorem, the duty was raised in 1856 to 3d. per pound., two years later to 4d. per pound, and in 1864 to 6d. per pound. This rate remained till 1895, when the duty was reduced to 4d., followed in 1900 by a further reduction to 2d., British tea being in 1903 placed on the free list. In 1907 the charge of 2d. per pound was reimposed in the case of British tea put up in packages under 5 lb., and at the same time an additional preferential duty of 2d. per pound if in packages of 5 lb. or over and 2/5d. per pound if in packages under 5 lb. was imposed on tea of foreign growth. Under the tariff of 1917 tea now pays a general rate of 3d. per pound if in bulk and 5d. per pound if in packages under 5 lb., with an additional preferential duty of 2d. per pound for all foreign tea.

The rates of duty levied by the tariff now in force are divided into two classes, specific and ad valorem. The specific class includes 18s. per gallon on spirits; 30s. per gallon on perfumed spirits; 12s. per pound on cigars and snuff; 25s. 6d. per 1,000 of 2 1/2 lb. and under, on cigarettes; also 3s. 6d. per pound on manufactured and 2s. on unmanufactured tobacco. Sparkling wine is charged 15s. a gallon; Australian, 5s.; other kinds, 6s.; ale and beer, 2s. The duty on cocoa, chocolate, chicory, and roasted coffee is 3d. per pound. Opium is charged 40s. per pound; but this article, in a form suitable for smoking, cannot now be legally imported. Ad valorem duties range from 5 to 40 per cent. on the value of the goods, 20 per cent. being the commonest rate.

EXCISE DUTIES.

The most important excise duty in New Zealand is that on beer, which up to 1915 was charged at the rate of 3d. per gallon. In that year the beer duty was altered so as to increase according to the specific gravity of the worts used, the rate being 3 3/4d. per gallon when the specific gravity does not exceed 1,047, and increasing by 1/16d. per gallon for every unit of specific gravity up to 1,055, and by 1/8d. thereafter. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60°; F. is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts determined in relation thereto. On 2nd August, 1917, the minimum rate of duty for beer was increased from 3 3/4d. to 4 3/4d. per gallon, and further (on 15th September, 1917) to 5 3/4d., with a maximum of 6d. per gallon.

In addition to the beer duty there are also excise duties of Is. per pound on tobacco; 4s. per pound on cigars and snuff; 9d. per pound on medicinal preparations (with exceptions) containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, which, if less than 50 per cent., would be free. Toilet preparations subject to 18s. per liquid gallon on importation are charged 14s. the liquid gallon, or when subject to 25 per cent. duty 6s. per gallon. Other excise duties are 14s. per gallon on culinary and flavouring essences, and 20s. on perfumed spirits. The excise duty on cigarettes made in New Zealand is now (from the 15th September, 1917) 5s. 6d. per pound on machine-made and 4s. per pound on band-made cigarettes. All packages of manufactured tobacco must be labelled before leaving the manufactory, and it is necessary to obtain warrants to use cutting-machines for cutting duty-paid manufactured tobacco for sale (or to be used in the manufacture of cigarettes by hand), and to manufacture cigarettes by hand, under certain conditions.

EXPORT DUTIES.

In 1856 the first Gold Duty Act was passed, empowering the Governor to collect an export duty on gold at the rate of 2s. 6d. per ounce. This rate was amended by various Acts; but in 1890 the Gold Duty Abolition Act was passed, and a system of rating in mining districts substituted for the export duty as far as the South Island was concerned. The Gold Duty Act, 1908, consolidated and repealed all previous enactments. An export duty was also imposed on timber by Acts of 1901 and 1903.

CUSTOMS REVENUE.

In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties produced a greater proportion of the revenue than it does to-day. There has been a constant tendency for this proportion to decrease, and the table given below will show that, even in the last twenty years, this tendency has been very noticeable.

AMOUNT OF CUSTOMS AND EXCISE REVENUE, EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL TAXATION AND TOTAL REVENUE OF NEW ZEALAND.
Year ending 31st March.Total Revenue.Total Taxation.Customs and Excise Duties.
Amount.Percentage of Total Revenue.Percentage of Total Taxation.
 £      £      £      Per Cent.Per Cent.
19026,152,8393,113,0792,291,34937.2473.61
19036,447,4353,277,9642,426,04337.6374.01
19047,130,1173,649,6012,698,04637.8473.93
19057,347,1973,754,3792,728,19337.1372.67
19067,650,983,841,5962,795,54636.5472.77
19078,478,9574,264,5553,048,62235.9671.49
19089,063,9894,645,7543,217,53835.5069.26
19099,001,1854,377,7612,917,46232.4166.64
19109,238,9174,180,5162,786,49030.1665.63
191110,297,2734,837,3223,145,92930.5565.03
191211,061,1615,296,5903,398,14330.7264.16
191311,734,2765,606,8293,531,76130.1062.99
191412,229,6615,918,0343,553,78529.0660.05
191512,451,9455,880,8113,294,94326.4656.03
191614,507,5307,266,9663,524,06324.2948.49
191718,355,19410,549,6544,037,62822.0038.27
191820,206,22212,340,8533,601,38317.8229.18
191922,352,37213,801,6434,104,74918.3729.74
192026,081,34016,251,7695,185,38819.0831.91
192134,260,96122,184,4148,769,25125.6039.53

In this table the financial year has been taken for purposes of comparison with total revenue and total taxation, figures concerning which are not available for calendar years. In subsequent tables the Customs taxation figures relate to the calendar year, which is the statistical year for trade purposes. Though the Customs revenue has increased greatly, the table shows that other forms of taxation and other sources of revenue have increased still faster, so that the proportion of taxation and of revenue furnished by the Customs duties has decreased considerably over the period. This relative decrease has been due in part to the extension of the governmental services in the Dominion increasing the revenue apart from taxation, to the greater use of direct taxation, and to the remissions and reductions of duty which have been made from time to time. These reductions have been mainly in foodstuffs, so that the tariff has tended towards the ideal of a free breakfast-table. War conditions necessitated in 1917 a partial reversal of this principle whereby non-alcoholic beverages again became the subject of taxation.

The tables hereunder show the amounts and percentages collected at intervals of five years, 1891-1911, and in each year since 1911, in respect of (1) foods and non-alcoholic drinks, (2) clothing and textiles, (3) alcoholic drinks and tobacco, and (4) all other articles. Excise duties on alcoholic liquors, tobacco, &c., are not included, nor are surtax and primage for the years during which these duties have been in force.

PRINCIPAL CLASSES OF IMPORTS FROM WHICH CUSTOMS REVENUE DERIVED.
Year.Amount of Duty derived fromTotal.
Foods and Non-alcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.
 £      £      £      £      £      
1891312,809276,072651,680320,1411,560,702
1896329,622322,947715,019400,2641,767,852
1901321,625434,112928,176512,8532,196,766
1906369,964610,8731,130,837787,4292,899,103
1911147,456682,7101,286,6011,048,8903,165,657
1912158,077708,8531,395,8371,072,9523,335,719
1913146,938790,8621,408,9771,078,6493,425,426
1914165,998822,3731,459,464906,7803,354,615
1915155,292727,8691,515,903745,2643,144,328
1916170,009985,3351,390,3221,036,2273,581,893
1917174,430794,4431,397,267805,4003,171,540
1918278,939935,2031,342,443801,9533,358,538
1919248,7621,097,4631,629,6801,245,1574,221,062
1920433,7402,432,7042,084,1962,424,0457,379,685
PERCENTAGE OF EACH CLASS TO THE TOTAL DUTY COLLECTED.
Year.Percentage of Total Duty collected on
Foods and Non-alcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
189120.0517.6941.7520.51
189618.6418.2740.4522.64
190114.6419.7642.2523.35
190612.7621.0739.0127.16
19114.6621.5740.6433.13
19124.7421.2541.8432.17
19134.2923.0941.1331.49
19144.9524.5143.5127.03
19154.9423.1548.2123.70
19164.7527.5138.8128.93
19175.5025.0544.0625.39
19188.3127.8439.9723.88
19195.8926.0038.6129.50
19205.9532.9628.2432.85

The Customs and excise duties received during the last five years are shown in more detail in the table given below, which also shows the rate of revenue per head of mean population, inclusive and exclusive of Maoris, for each year considered.

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE REVENUE, 1916-20.
1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £      £      £      £      £      
Customs Duties.
Spirits665,182659,477522,401622,811861,943
Wine34,95035,81231,69838,83956,080
Ale, beer, &c.22,9328,0633,2372,9976,593
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff262,695287,777369,817472,256600,685
Tobacco401,598403,591413,226490,483554,704
Coffee, cocoa, &c.9,0623,2618,01213,09715,455
Tea62336,651129,145116,432138,829
Opium1721292850
Other goods by weight195,351141,089144,356148,494264,012
Other goods ad valorem1,854,2621,498,8051,613,9082,215,4714,707,362
Other duties135,22196,993122,709100,154174,972
Primage241,118196,863227,626281,292573,792
          Totals, Customs duties3,823,0113,368,4033,586,1644,502,3547,953,477
Excise Duties.
Tinctures—New Zealand8,5579,89212,07811,49518,793
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff—New-Zealand-manufactured39954386614,66759,319
Tobacco—New-Zealand-manufactured1,4523,4781,7451,5781,753
Beer—New Zealand189,671219,594261,536337,811363,597
          Totals, excise duties200,079233,507276,225365,551443,462
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d,£s.d.
Revenue from Customs duties per head of mean population (excluding Maoris)39631435031896135
Ditto (including Maoris)36621883233156680
Revenue from excise duties per head of mean population (excluding Maoris038043050065075
Ditto (including Maoris)036041049062072

The following table furnishes a general view of the ratio of Customs revenue to imports since 1895, which is taken as the base year:—

CUSTOMS REVENUE COMPARED WITH IMPORT VALUES FROM 1895.
Year.Imports.Revenue.Percentage of Revenue on Total Imports.Index Number of Customs Revenue compared with Imports.
Value.Value per Head.Amount.Actual Value per Head.Value per Head at 1895 Ratio.
 £      £s.d.££s.d.£s.d.Per Cent. 
18956,400,12994101,619,97026926925.311000
18967,137,320101111,765,0732911211124.73977
18978,055,22311331,912,1612130216623.74938
18988,230,60011371,961,7262133216723.83942
18998,739,633111312,042,0022145219023.36923
190010,646,0961318102,170,3542161036420.39805
190111,817,915153102,191,79821643161118.55733
190211,326,723143112,285,04321733111020.17797
190312,788,6751511102,501,8963103181119.56773
190413,291,694151472,650,189329319819.94788
190512,828,8571414112,652,666310314820.68817
190615,211,403161982,899,10334946019.06753
190717,302,861181663,079,422370415417.80703
190817,471,28418992,903,086315413716.62656
190915,674,71916272,653,617214741816.93669
191017,051,58317362,954,9892196461117.33685
191119,545,87919523,165,65732549216.20640
191220,976,57420393,335,71934352215.90628
191322,288,302201713,425,42634155715.37607
191421,856,096200113,354,61631651615.35606
191521,728,834191523,190,883218150114.68580
191626,339,283231923,823,01139661414.51573
191720,919,26519083,368,403313416416.10636
191824,234,007211953,586,164350511214.79584
191930,671,698261694,502,3543189615914.06556
192061,595,8285112117,953,4776135131312.91510

With regard to the foregoing table, it may be explained that the figures given in the column “Value per head at 1895 ratio” indicate the amount of revenue per head of population which would have been obtained had the same high ratio of Customs taxation been levied as prevailed in 1895. The last two columns in the table show clearly the substantial decline in the proportion which the Customs revenue bears to the value of the imports, and demonstrate that the increase, both total and per capita, in the Customs revenue is not due to heavier imposts, but has actually been achieved in spite of very considerable reductions in the scale of duties.

In 1895 the proportion of revenue to the total imports was one-fourth; in 1920 it had fallen to little more than one-eighth. The tariff of 1903 and the further changes made in 1907, together with the financial circumstances of 1908, account for such interruptions as are noticeable in this generally steady diminution.

CUSTOMS REVENUE BY CLASSES OF IMPORTS, 1920.
Class.Item.Article.Revenue collected.
General.Additional Preferential.Total.
 £    £    £    
I1-41Foodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)74,7677,18681,953
II42-137Foodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt190,0228,306198,328
III138-150Beverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making up the same145,56912,890158,459
IV151-167Spirits and alcoholic liquors928,381426928,807
V168-173Tobacco and preparations thereof1,155,389..     1,155,389
VI174-186Live animals82..     82
VII187-207Animal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs1,942391,981
VIII208-233Vegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres27,7574,12631,883
IXA234-262Apparel1,328,830114,9351,443,765
IXB263-291Textiles899,25289,687988,939
1XC292-309Manufactured fibres25,76096926,729
X310-344Oils, fats, and waxes66,4288,24174,669
XI345-355Paints and varnishes30,7522,28133,033
XII356-372Stones and minerals used industrially7,46717,468
XIII373-375Specie..     ..     ..     
XIVA376-405Metal, unmanufactured, partially manufactured, and ores..     1,3921,392
XIVB406-495Metal manufactures, other than machinery and machines401,66153,854455,515
XV496-572Machinery and machines171,09464,090235,184
XVIA573-576Indiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)341,5831,617
XVIB577-603Leather and manufactures thereof (Including substitutes).45,0743,57948,65
XVIIA604-641Timber15,514..     15,514
XVIIB642-661Wood, cane, and wicker manufactures46,0177,07253,089
XVIII662-683Earthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cements, and cement materials112,15019,777131,927
XIXA684-698Paper14,8186,23421,052
XIXB697-711Stationery79,1557,48586,640
XX712-722Jewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods195,41829,025224,443
XXI723-734Optical, surgical, and scientific instruments4,1247,78211,906
XXIIA735-791Drug, chemicals, and druggists' wares136,59819,601156,199
XXIIB792-810Manures..     ..     ..     
XXIII811-903Miscellaneous545,100259,969805,069
            Totals6,649,155730,5307,379,685

Slightly more than one-sixth of the Customs revenue collected during 1920 was furnished by spirits and alcoholic liquors (£928,807). In earlier years this class furnished more of the Customs revenue than any other class, but it has now been surpassed by tobacco and apparel, and in 1920 by textiles also.

FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS.

The next table gives the imports of free and dutiable goods arranged according to the statistical classification. The main features of the table are the overwhelming proportion of dutiable goods in the classes containing beverages (both alcoholic and non-alcoholic), tobacco, foodstuffs of animal origin, paints and varnishes, and apparel, and the high proportion of free goods in stones and minerals (mainly coal), specie, raw metals, paper, and manures.

FREE AND DUTIABLE GOODS BY CLASSES, 1920.
No.Class.Value of Imports.Percentage of Total.
Free.Dutiable.Total.Free.Dutiable.
 £      £      £        
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)70,899540,705611,60411.5988.41
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt4,029,7121,291,3085,321,02075.7324.27
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making the same101,2641,133,3341,234,5988.2091.80
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors601,715,5901,715,650..     100.00
VTobacco and preparations thereof..     2,013,1722,013,172..     100.00
VILive animals29,00715,80444,81164.7335.27
VIIAnimal substances (mainly manufactured) not being foodstuffs45,04619,45964,50569.8330.17
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres800,870162,640963,51083.1216.88
IXAApparel901,7605,690,6336,592,39313.6886.32
IXBTextiles5,299,1594,656,7109,955,86953.2346.77
IXCManufactured fibres651,267153,024804,2180.9719.03
XOils, fats, and waxes2,670,377472,1163,142,49384.9815.02
XIPaints and varnishes60,075684,517744,5928.0791.93
XIIStones and minerals used industrially555,61729,867585,48494.905.10
XIIISpecie41,975..     41,975100.00..     
XIVAMetal, unmanufactured, partially manufactured, and ores707,0616,844713,90599.040.96
XIVBMetal manufactures, other than machinery and machines3,392,0083,167,3616,559,36951.7148.29
XVMachinery and machines1,401,3731,285,6472,687,02052.1547.85
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)77,8177,98685,80390.699.31
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof (including substitutes)587,202655,8181,243,02047.2452.76
XVIIATimber241,761376,931618,69239.0860.92
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures106,866223,511330,37732.3567.65
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cements, and cement materials543,851574,5561,118,40748.6351.37
XIXAPaper1,106,621137,5141,244,13588.9511.05
XIXBStationery604,077377,727981,80461.5338.47
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods257,132991,2101,248,34220.6079.40
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific Instruments390,01890,758480,77681.1218.88
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares819,888662,2841,482,17255.3244.68
XXIIBManures759,606..     759,606100.00..     
XXIIIMiscellaneous3,705,2444,501,1898,206,43345.1554.86
           Totals29,957,61331,638,21561,595,82848.6451.36

By classifying the different rates of duty as is done in the following table it will be found that even if specie is excluded, on the average rather over half the imports into New Zealand are duty-free, while the value of goods which are liable to specific duties is about one-seventh. The most usual ad valorem rate is 20 per cent., followed by 25 and 30 per cent. The 15-per-cent. figures are composed mainly of the imports of boots, while the 30-per-cent. figures consist of the value of goods which are liable to 20 per cent. general duty plus an additional preferential duty of 10 per cent.

IMPORTS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO RATE OF DUTY, 1916-20.      
Nature of Duty.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £      £      £      £      £      
Free (excluding specie)12,789,63911,301,52713,272,26216,302,65529,915,638
Specific duties3,742,1502,995,3954,236,4394,256,33710,747,659
Ad valorem duties—
     5 per cent.57,68328,52429,25581,422101,342
     10 per cent.583,390387,617353,161751,2491,735,099
     14 11/20 per cent.4..     ..     ..      
     15 per cent.303,043282,475350,902599,5451,015,283
     19 2/5 per cent.1732715169191,321
     20 per cent.4,713,3633,042,6902,672,9504,167,88810,887,642
     22 1/2 per cent.69,85469,13785,123154,313139,159
     24 per cent.51,8759,88321,62331,18767,946
     24 1/4 per cent.269173503482,152
     25 per cent.2,262,7801,478,0091,561,6401,803,4294,258,634
     30 per cent.649,1491,062,8831,412,2731,792,6902,790,248
     33 3/4 per cent.7,77212,7878,6308,72619,180
     37 1/2 per cent.135,303380,824515,354703,783920,480
     40 per cent.3,8622,7882,2923,4044,610
     60 per cent...     62104428211
          Totals, ad valorem8,838,5206,758,1137,013,87310,099,33121,943,307
Specie1,293,880117,135102,215362,53141,975
          Grand totals of imports26,339,28320,919,26524,234,00730,671,69861,595,828

The value of boots imported is included under both specific and ad valorem duties: 1916, £324,906; 1917, £312,905; 1918,. £390,782; 1919, £349,156; 1920, £1,052,751.

As already stated, general tariff revisions were made in 1895 and 1907. The table following shows for the years immediately preceding and following these changes, and for 1920, the value of free and dutiable imports, the percentage admitted free of duty, and the duty per cent. on dutiable imports and on all merchandise imported:—
1894.1896.1906.1908.1920.
* Including excise duties levied on certain imports manufactured in bond.
Merchandise—£      £      £      £      £      
     Free1,871,7722,263,0915,476,9498,658,11129,957,613
     Dutiable4,118,4054,772,2888,826,2218,589,05131,638,215
Imports (less specie)5,990,1777,035,37914,303,17017,247,16261,595,828
Percentage of free merchandisePer Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
 31.2532.1738.2950.2048.64
 £      £      £      £      £      
     Total net duty received*1,572,4671,767,8522,903,1312,907,1518,033,342
Duty, per cent. of imports—Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
     (a.) On dutiable imports38.1837.0432.8933.8525.39
     (b.) On all merchandise26.2525.1320.3016.8613.04

The average rate levied on dutiable goods in 1920, whether taken as a percentage of all imports or dutiable imports only, was thus very much lower than before the tariff revision of 1907. The proportion of imported merchandise free of duty amounted to 48.64 per cent. in 1920, the corresponding figures for 1918 and 1919 being 54.97 and 53.79 per cent. respectively, and for 1908, 38.29 per cent.

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY.

Preference to British countries in respect of certain commodities was provided for in the earliest tariff in force in New Zealand, that introduced in 1841. The amended tariff of 1844 involved the dropping of this preference to British goods, but two years later preference was again introduced.

The first definite attempt at reciprocity was made in 1870, when the Colonial Reciprocity Act gave power to the Government to make reciprocal agreements with the Australian States, including Tasmania; but this Act failed to receive the Royal assent and consequently lapsed.

In 1895, however, the Customs Duties Reciprocity Act received the Royal assent, and ratified an agreement which had been tentatively proposed with South Australia, besides giving power to the Government to make further agreements with the other Australian States. In 1907 the New Zealand and South African Customs Treaty was negotiated.

Imperial preference proper was introduced in New Zealand by the Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act, 1903, which followed the lead given by Canada. At first only a few items were covered by the extra duties levied upon goods of foreign origin; but the Tariff Act of 1907 extended this additional preferential duty to a great number of items.

The following table shows the extent of the imports which are affected by preference, by giving the percentage of the total imports and of foreign imports so affected. It will be seen that the proportions have increased after the tariff changes of 1903, 1907, and 1917.

IMPORTS AFFECTED BY PREFERENTIAL SURTAX.
Year.Value of Imports.Imports on which Surtax was paid.Percentage of
Total.British Empire.Foreign Countries.Total Imports.Foreign Imports.
 £      £      £      £      Per Cent.Per Cent.
190312,788,67510,648,1422,140,5331,7520.0100.08
190413,291,69411,029,6942,262,000487,8673.6721.57
190512,828,85710,709,6422,119,215599,7644.6828.30
190615,211,40312,890,0162,321,387620,6004.0826.73
190717,302,86114,942,1832,360,678658,0273.9827.87
190817,471,28414,780,2762,691,008895,0075.1233.26
190915,674,71913,554,9622,119,757842,4075.3739.74
191017,051,58314,465,8242,585,7591,000,2675.8738.68
191119,545,87916,497,3403,048,5391,159,3425.9338.03
191220,976,57417,073,2723,903,3021,337,1826.3734.26
191322,288,30218,348,2493,940,0531,325,0575.9533.63
191421,856,09617,649,7844,206,3121,228,2075.6229.20
191521,728,83417,727,1374,001,6971,321,8536.0833.03
191626,339,28320,833,4615,506,8222,071,1757.8637.61
191720,919,26515,591,3085,327,9572,251,42810.7742.26
191824,234,00716,017,5548,216,4533,457,00414.2742.07
191930,671,69819,519,61911,152,0794,794,24915.6342.99
192061,595,82843,861,29917,734,5297,610,75612.3542.91

The system of recording imports was changed in 1914, and for that and subsequent years statistics are available of the countries of origin as well as the countries of shipment, so that it is now possible to get better comparisons of the value of goods produced each year in the various countries with which New Zealand trades. In the above table the imports credited to any country prior to 1914 were those shipped to New Zealand from that country, but for 1914 and later years the figures relate to country of origin.

For the purpose of studying better the scope and effect of the preferential surtax, imports for the last three years have been classified in the next table into four groups, viz.:—

  1. Goods duty-free, whether of British or of foreign origin:

  2. Goods duty-free if of British origin, but dutiable if of foreign origin:

  3. Goods dutiable and with same rates of duty whether of British or of foreign origin:

  4. Goods dutiable but with additional preferential duty when of foreign origin.

TABLE SHOWING THE IMPORTS OF GOODS OF BRITISH OR FOREIGN ORIGIN CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF DUTY PAYABLE DURING THE YEARS 1918, 1919, AND 1920.
1918.1919.1920.
British.Foreign.British.Foreign.British.Foreign.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      
Free In any case8,248,1344,248,6199,966,2985,516,03418,698,9718,381,613
Free when of British origin, but dutiable when of foreign origin870,021238,6411,182,854412,0962,877,029355,665
Dutiable with same rates whether of British or foreign origin2,084,624551,9241,806,232841,7964,625,4401,741,659
Dutiable, with additional preferential duty when of foreign origin4,814,7753,177,2696,564,2354,382,15317,659,8597,255,592
     Totals16,017,5548,216,45319,519,61911,152,07943,861,29917,734,529

NOTE.—In the above table British protectorates and mandated territories have been included among British countries, though, with the exception of Samoa, the imports having origin in these are subject to preferential duty.

Taking the year 1920 it is found that of foreign goods imported 47 per cent. were free of duty, while a further 10 per cent., though dutiable, paid no higher rate than if they had been of British origin, leaving 43 per cent. with the disadvantage of the preferential duty. Of a total of £43,861,299 of British origin, £20,536,888, or 47 per cent., had the advantage conferred by the surtax.

It should be explained that for statistical purposes British protectorates are classed as British countries, as are also territories administered by the United Kingdom or British dominions under mandate of the League of Nations. For the purposes of the preferential tariff, however, these two classes of countries, with the exception of Western Samoa, are treated as foreign. There is therefore a slight discrepancy (£501 in 1920) between the actual total of imports on which surtax was paid and the aggregate shown in the above table for foreign goods under headings (2) and (4).

RECIPROCITY WITH SOUTH AFRICA.

As stated above, there has been since 1907 a reciprocal arrangement with British South Africa whereby products of that country, when imported direct, are admitted into New Zealand at reduced rates of duty, in return for similar concessions granted by South Africa in respect of New Zealand products.

The principal item affected is wine (other than sparkling), which pays a duty of only 2s. per gallon, as compared with 5s. per gallon in the case of Australian wine and 6s. per gallon in other cases. Sparkling wine pays only 5s. per gallon, as against a general rate of 15s., while tobacco pays 2s. 6d. per pound as against 3s. 6d. Other items specially provided for are feathers, fish, fruit, maize, and tea; while in the case of all other dutiable goods, with the exception of spirits, a reduction of 3 per cent. is made.

The following table, shows the growth of the volume of imports from South Africa during the last ten years. It also discloses a tremendous decrease in the exports to South Africa between the earlier and later years of the decennium.

Year.Imports.Exports.
According to Country of Shipment.According to Country of Origin.
* Not available.
 £    £    £    
19119,936*43,755
191213,733*83,229
19137,796*61,651
191433,22998,43760,826
191543,65455,82611,279
191671,300105,0006,681
191756,39298,5381,588
191843,856110,645718
191962,628169,2222,241
1920189,767263,6535,571

Although goods of South African origin to the value of £263,653 were imported in 1920, only £85,791 of this received the benefit of the reciprocal tariff, the remainder either having reached New Zealand after transhipment from some other country or-being duty-free in any case. As an example of the latter class may be mentioned unmounted precious stones, the imports of which in 1920 amounted to £110,890, as compared with £87,414 in 1919 and £60,395 in 1918.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the principal items coming within the scope of the reciprocal tariff:—

PRINCIPAL IMPORTS FROM BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA AFFECTED BY RECIPROCAL TARIFF.
Class.Item.Article.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £      £      £      £      £      
II80Maize973..     ..     4,8203,446
IV166 & 167Wine11,0298,16811,09032,02677,555
V171Tobacco, cut5,4597488131,3831,029
IXA234Apparel2656514891,554
..     256Ostrich-feathers6872826283286
XXIII849Candles..     ..     2,4551,848..     

Chapter 12. SECTION XII.—SHIPPING.

REGISTERED VESSELS.

Port.Sailing-THE number and tonnage of the registered vessels belonging to the several ports of registry in the Dominion on the 31st December, 1920 (distinguishing sailing-vessels and steamers), were as under:—.
Sailing-vessels.Steam-vesselsTotals. 
Vessels.Gross
Tonnage.
Net
Tonnage.
Vessels.Gross
Tonnage.
Net
Tonnage.
Vessels.Gross
Tonnage.
Net
Tonnage.
 
Auckland1057,3796,09420823,06011,80431330,43917,898
Napier4266253293,8422,223331082,476
Wellington143,1792,8923812,2436,0405215,4228,932
Nelson6169126172,9631,396233,1321,522
Lyttelton113,6283,489176,1672,992289,7956.481
Timaru1733690194248821,6751,178
Dunedin207,6087,3356466,23939,3498473,84740,684
Invercargill2372344101,155545121,527889
         Totals16323,33421,223384116,61164,837547139,94586,060

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 313 vessels on the Auckland register being under 60 tons. At Dunedin many of the vessels of the Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand are registered. Shortly after the outbreak of war, however, several of the principal vessels of this company were transferred to the London register, the large decrease in 1914 as compared with 1913, shown in the next table, being due to this cause.

Year.Sailing-vessels.Steam-vesselsTotals.
Vessels.Gross
Tonnage.
Net
Tonnage.
Vessels.Gross
Tonnage.
Net
Tonnage.
Vessels.Gross
Tonnage.
Net
Tonnage.
191124437,71035,651361196,374114,973605234,084150,624
191224236,55834,308374208,887121,772616245,445156,080
191322533,93131,619391220,186127,691616254,117159,310
191419722,71420,984384135,83877,901581158,55298,885
191519623,54621,762385126,54971,695581150,09593,457
191619023,66421,853390124,83370,442580148,49792,295
191718424,35622,404376115,68365,092560140,03987,496
191817825,20023,158379116,55165,388557141,75188,546
191917424,35422,216382116,26164,943556140,61587,159
192016323,33421,223384116,61164,837547139,94586,060

The tonnage of sailing-vessels on the register has decreased rapidly during recent years, though a slight improvement was apparent in the years immediately following 1914, due probably to the demand for vessels to replace those used for war purposes.

OVERSEA SHIPPING.

The number and tonnage of oversea vessels fell steadily throughout the war, and only a partial recovery was effected in 1919. During the year 1920, however, a total of 744 vessels direct from oversea ports was entered inwards, this number constituting a record, as did also the total tonnage for the year—viz., 2,062,370.

Of late years the tendency has been for vessels of a larger size to be employed in the New Zealand trade, in order to cope with the growing imports and exports of the Dominion and for the purposes of the passenger traffic. The increase over a period of years is thus more noticeable on a comparison of tonnage than by comparing the number of vessels. The number of vessels entered inwards and cleared outwards in 1910 was 1,197, of an aggregate tonnage of 2,756,238 tons—an average of 2,303 tons. The 1,451 vessels in 1920 aggregated 4,038,625 tons, the average being 2,783 tons. Dealing with steamships only (939 in 1910 and 1,302 in 1920), the average tonnage is found to be 2,786 and 3,048 tons respectively. The number of sailing-vessels arriving and departing decreased from 258 in 1910 to 149 in 1920, the aggregate tonnage falling in the same time from 139,872 to 70,547 tons.

The number and tonnage of vessels entered and cleared during each of the last ten years, separating steam from sailing, are as shown in the following table:—

OVERSEA SHIPPING, 1911-20.
Year.Entered.Cleared.
Vessels.Tonnage.Vessels.Tonnage.
Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.
19114991221,417,94364,4354981261,402,10365,299
1912582951,619,41152,681572941,620,05748,573
1913563821,692,92946,056559761,658,45741,350
1914567791,676,84048,009582751,735,60146,380
1915581571,613,67927,746585641,604,05031,883
1916520541,418,99129,526534561,461,59729,996
1917485581,378,67627,100486611,353,97527,907
191838584867,72953,44335457930,42727,282
1919472921,427,75953,124475991,444,20661,050
1920665792,025,17537,195637701,942,90333,352

NATIONALITY OF VESSELS.

Tables are given showing the number and tonnage of British, colonial, and foreign vessels entered and cleared in each of the ten years 1911 to 1920.

VESSELS ENTERED AND CLEARED, 1911-20.
Year.British.Colonial.Foreign.Total.
Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.
Entered.
1911169707,573409727,9694346,8366211,482,378
1912153672,289462931,8116267,9926771,672,092
1913171765,943430905,0344468,0086451,738,985
1914191791,529398847,9105785,4106461,724,849
19153141,145,609290439,2923456,5246381,641,425
1916255998,388283388,9613661,1685741,448,517
19172491,008,759262336,0273260,9905431,405,776
1918193838,198289374,1306167,2205431,279,548
19192661,114,479239285,3835981,0215641,480,883
19203631,477,965302403,02579181,3807442,062,370
Cleared.
1911169693,665412726,6554347,0826241,467,402
1912152680,774459930,6275557,2296661,668,630
1913171748,769420886,4404464,5986351,699,807
1914194826,358407867,1845688,4396571,781,981
19153171,138,873293437,3883959,6726491,635,933
19162591,027,088294400,6463763,8595901,491,593
1917253995,346261327,8223358,7145471,381,882
1918203872,204289377,3835261,0405441,310,627
19192731,139,812239286,0626279,3825741,505,256
19203451,421,814291393,09171161,3507071,976,255

British vessels have shown a great increase in tonnage over the period under review, and the tonnage of foreign vessels, which, however, represents only a small percentage of the total, has also risen considerably in the past few years. The decrease in the colonial tonnage is due to the transfer of many of the larger New-Zealand-owned vessels to the London registry early in the war.

The nationality of the foreign-owned vessels entered inwards and cleared outwards in 1910 and 1920 is as follows:—

FOREIGN VESSELS, 1910 AND 1920.
Nationality.1910.1920.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.
American190119013994,2473585,329
Dutch..     ..     ..     ..     12,86312,863
French59,38259,3821146..     ..     
German21,45621,456..     ..     ..     ..     
Italian33,85233,841..     ..     ..     ..     
Japanese..     ..     ..     ..     3578,2233372,395
Norwegian2522,5302321,43323,2761743
Swedish..     ..     ..     ..     12,625..     ..     
Austrian13,53813,538..     ..     ..     ..     
Russian11,00011,000..     ..     ..     ..     
Tongan..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     120
         Totals3842,6593641,55179181,38071161,350

DIRECTION OF OVERSEA SHIPPING.

Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries during the years 1910 and 1920 are given below:—

Country.1910.1920.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.
United Kingdom104455,382114488,94959339,17382473,822
India621,07113,684413,262..     ..     
Ceylon..     ..     ..     ..     15,137..     ..     
South African Union64,832..     ..     29,379..     ..     
Canada722,482..     ..     26131,9891889,167
Australia374652,310401765,0764661,076,5855101,185,707
Fiji2446,7841829,8713061,2602333,943
Malden Island43,05632,366..     ..     ..     ..     
Norfolk Island5960490525083911
Gilbert and Ellice Islands..     ..     ..     ..     35,70311,901
Solomon Islands (Protectorate)..     ..     ..     ..     1403..     ..     
Western Samoa..     ..     283035,43912,112
France33,85213,074..     ..     ..     ..     
Java12,547..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Sumatra..     ..     ..     ..     22,419..     ..     
Caroline Islands..     ..     45,195..     ..     ..     ..     
Japan27,107..     ..     617,08123,833
Bismarck Archipelago1699..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Dutch Borneo..     ..     ..     ..     11,214..     ..     
Egypt..     ..     ..     ..     314,289..     ..     
Argentine21,69411,509..     ..     ..     ..     
Brazil21,725..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Chile617,621513,33312,863413,137
King Edward VII Land..     ..     1399..     ..     ..     ..     
United States of America1331,98937,45149101,4612056,065
Easter Island..     ..     110..     ..     ..     ..     
Surprise Island32,2801681..     ..     ..     ..     
Marshall Island..     ..     21,471..     ..     ..     ..     
Marquesas Islands..     ..     ..     ..     1146..     ..     
New Hebrides166321,63729141403
Tutuila..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     11,194
Ocean Island12,561..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Christmas Island12,552..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
New Caledonia34,86734,12485,58036,074
Hawaii12,908..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
New Britain..     ..     21,450..     ..     ..     ..     
Society Islands..     ..     25,527911,7781313,386
Tonga1730,4041729,66511056918
Tuamotu Archipelago..     ..     ..     ..     711,62659,036
         Totals6091,389,0315881,367,2077442,062,3707071,976,255

OVERSEA SHIPPING.—TONNAGE AT VARIOUS PORTS.

The net tonnage of oversea shipping entered and cleared at the various ports during the years 1910 and 1920 is given in the next table. Vessels arriving from abroad are recorded at the first port of call, and those departing oversea are cleared at the port from which they finally sail.

Port.1910.1920.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
 Tons.   Tons.   Tons.   Tons.   
Auckland645,063363,3061,092,675612,964
Kaipara8,90738,06763811,205
Tauranga..     ..     794..     
Gisborne8,4201,15027,5089,966
Napier4,9787,87029,79910,402
New Plymouth1,25976027,12522,031
Waitara3,934..     ..     ..     
Wanganui2,2881,20823,7791,360
Wellington384,197532,821553,024931,242
Wairau (including Picton)1,9101,9011,930683
Nelson..     ..     ..     ..     
Westport24,20051,6333241,534
Greymouth2,07816,01740033,493
Lyttelton49,76961,437168,74896,543
Timaru8,84317,40117,7928,724
Oamaru1,4935,5371,247..     
Dunedin74,97096,53260,361191,633
Bluff166,722171,56756,22630,475
               Totals1,389,0311,367,2072,062,3701,976,255

COASTWISE SHIPPING.

The extensive coast-line and numerous harbours of New Zealand facilitate travelling and the distribution of goods by sea. The total tonnage of coastwise shipping, as shown below, includes that of oversea vessels which, after entry at the first port of arrival, proceed to other ports within the Dominion for the purpose of delivering and loading cargo, each movement, until the final sailing, being recorded as coastwise shipping.

COASTWISE SHIPPING, 1911-20.
Year.Entered.Cleared.
Vessels.Tonnage.Vessels.Tonnage.
Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.
191123,0924,02412,060,227206,42723,0644,03312,026,951208,820
191223,6543,84312,451,499180,69823,6223,87012,457,316181,718
191321,9373,76411,332,143173,49421,9223,73311,330,078172,715
191423,0193,88012,217,206175,75723,0263,84612,154,108179,761
191521,8903,20410,918,580133,10221,9273,20210,899,058133,519
191621,2283,0929,919,576129,25321,1563,1319,713,698127,182
191718,5032,2838,172,12493,84518,4032,2958,164,40795,808
191817,4921,9676,942,341113,12417,4931,9237,041,489103,059
191917,6311,9767,274,63591,49417,6331,9747,277,28190,593
192017,8571,5478,068,61075,24117,8701,5428,097,96873,982

The decrease in 1913 as compared with 1912 is largely accounted for by the strike during the latter part of the year, many coastal vessels being laid up for several weeks during the strike period. Coastwise shipping naturally reflects on a larger scale the effects of the war noticeable in overseas shipping. That this is so will be more readily understood if it be observed that the normal rate of progress from year to year is much greater in the overseas shipping. Despite the difference of ten years (during which there might be expected to be a large increase in shipping commensurate with the Dominion's developments in other directions), there is a big drop shown in the coastwise shipping handled in 1920 as compared with 1910.

In the next table is given information showing tonnage of vessels entered and cleared coastwise at each port in the years 1910 and 1920:—

COASTWISE SHIPPING AT VARIOUS PORTS, 1910 AND 1920.
Ports.1910.1920.
Tonnage entered.Tonnage cleared.Tonnage entered.Tonnage cleared.
Whangape10,3428,0931,6341,197
Mangonui28,85528,85524,64024,786
Whangaroa51,84751,08246,10845,909
Russell60,93960,93957,58951,899
Hokianga27,71522,26420,17213,469
Whangarei140,390140,249214,241221,574
Kaipara37,5618,26213,9723,377
Whangaparapara..     ..     4,8564,856
Auckland938,6531,232,031794,1031,249,861
Onehunga141,588139,69484,62384,797
Coromandel18,78618,7869,3559,355
Whitianga..     ..     9,3399,339
Thames120,301114,90085,12585,138
Tauranga47,91646,38459,77059,252
Whakatane..     ..     51,98646,047
Gisborne617,170630,024298,302344,078
Napier815,028813,087444,026457,425
Waitara82,91886,78237,47337,513
New Plymouth180,521180,787118,302124,049
Patea20,38020,37818,00417,911
Wanganui167,063167,986126,042145,228
Foxton25,84225,6806,6566,656
Wellington2,562,9592,402,3952,272,6121,863,696
Wairau20,34520,2467,2237,127
Picton428,771428,836301,948301,948
Nelson394,334393,786222,500221,686
Westport688,389661,871252,532238,749
Greymouth381,738367,491202,479174,569
Hokitika4,9194,810915940
Lyttelton2,105,5902,084,1451,360,1751,424,186
Timaru432,094433,608236,035251,088
Oamaru167,798163,86678,46879,715
Dunedin956,674931,083551,417407,255
Bluff404,470401,582131,229157,275
               Totals12,081,89612,089,9827,366,1297,367,874

PRINCIPAL PORTS.

Viewed from the standpoint of shipping handled in 1920, Wellington is the principal port of the Dominion, followed by Auckland and Lyttelton. Wellington and Lyttelton are the termini of the daily inter-Island ferry service, and to this fact is due a large part of the coastwise shipping entered and cleared from these two ports. The table which follows summarizes the shipping of the principal ports of the Dominion for the year 1920:—

Port.Oversea.Coastwise.Total.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
 Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    
Wellington553,024931,2422,272,6121,863,6965,620,574
Auckland1,092,675612,964794,1031,249,8613,749,603
Lyttelton168,74896,5431,360,1751,424,1863,049,652
Dunedin60,361191,633551,417407,2551,210,666
Napier29,79910,402444,026457,425941,652
Gisborne27,5089,966298,302344,078679,854
Wairau (including Picton)1,930683308,418309,075620,106
Timaru17,7928,724236,035251,088513,639
Westport32415,534252,532238,749507,139
Nelson..     ..     222,500221,686444,196
Greymouth40033,493202,479174,569410,941
Bluff56,22630,475131,229157,275375,205

Information as to pilotage, port charges, wharfage rates, &c., at these and certain other ports of the Dominion is given in the 1914 issue of this book. Particulars concerning the graving-docks at Auckland, Lyttelton, and Port Chalmers (2), and the patent slips at Wellington and Lyttelton, will be found in the same issue.

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES.

The examinations for masters, mates, engineers, &c., of vessels are controlled by the Marine Department, and the regulations relating to these examinations are based upon those of the Imperial Board of Trade, with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions, but the British Board of Trade recognizes the following New Zealand certificates only as of Imperial validity: Master, extra; master, ordinary; master, steamship; first mate, only mate, and second mate, ordinary and steamship; first- and second-class marine engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the British Board of Trade.

New methods of examination were adopted by the Board of Trade in 1918, and corresponding regulations were made in New Zealand and came into force on 1st October, 1918.

During 1920-21 some 521 candidates sat for examinations. Of the 441 who passed, 229 were masters, mates, and engineers of sea-going ships, and 36 of ships plying within restricted limits; 60 were engineers of sea-going motor-propelled boats, and 116 engineers of such boats plying within restricted limits.

SURVEY OF SHIPS.

The Shipping and Seamen Act of 1908, and its amendment of 1909, provide for an annual survey by Government surveyors of all vessels, with a view to ensuring their seaworthiness. Certificates of survey were issued in 1920-21 to 250 steamers, 412 oil-engine vessels, and 55 sailing-vessels.

LIGHTHOUSES.

The long coast-line of the Dominion is marred in many places by hidden rocks or reefs and other perils to navigation. This has compelled the erection of some sixty-five lighthouses of various types. No fewer than fifteen of these are situated in the stormy area of Cook Strait and the bays opening therefrom, reaching from where the red and white rays of Cape Farewell light give warning of the seven-mile-long Sandspit at the northern extremity of the South Island to the bluff shore marked by the Cape Palliser light at the southern point of the North Island.

The buildings are of varying kinds, as necessitated by their respective situations. In some thirty-three cases the light apparatus is classed as of the dioptric order—i.e., a central lamp sending its rays through a combination of surrounding lenses. The Aga light is used in seventeen lighthouses, while the remainder have the Pintschgas system, port lights, or Wigham beacon-lamps.

The most powerful light is that of Stephen Island, which, placed some 70 ft. above high water, is visible at a distance of 32 1/2 miles. Next in order come the Cape Brett light (altitude 510ft.), visible at 30 1/2 miles; Godley Head (altitude 450ft.), visibility 29 miles; Cuvier Island light (altitude 390 ft.), Manukau (altitude 385 ft.), and Mokohinau (altitude 385 ft.), all of which have a visibility of 27 miles. Seventeen other lights have a range of 20 miles or over.

The majority of lighthouses are equipped with flags and lamps, the keepers being competent to receive or transmit messages. Lights outside the bounds of the various harbour authorities are maintained by the Marine Department. The Government steamer “Hinemoa” is largely used in connection with the supply of stores, &c., to the more inaccessible lights.

The average cost of erection and equipment of the coastal lighthouses was about £6,000 per light. The two most costly were Cape Brett Lighthouse (£11,237) on the Auckland Peninsula, and Dog Island Lighthouse (£10,481) in Foveaux Strait. The average cost of maintenance for 1920-21 was: Salaries, £515; oil and stores, &c., £334: total, £849. Light dues collected at the various ports in 1920-21 were as follows: Auckland, £19,821; Wellington, £12,046; Lyttelton, £4,607; Dunedin, £1,725; other ports, £6,783: making a total of £44,982.

WRECKS.

In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in or near the coast of New Zealand a Collector of Customs, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer where the damage has resulted from his wrongful act or default.

Should any wreck occur on the coast the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

During the year 1920-21 seventy-eight inquiries into shipping casualties were held, fifteen of which were Magisterial. Lives lost during the year numbered thirty-one, including seventeen in the presumed foundering of the auxiliary schooner “Jubilee” in the vicinity of Nice Island, six in the capsizing of the auxiliary schooner “Omaka” at Wellington Heads, and four in the loss of the auxiliary schooner “Kahu,” supposed to have foundered.

A summary of shipping casualties in or near New Zealand coasts in the past year is as follows:—

 No.Tonnage.
Strandings—
     Total wrecks5244
     Partial loss4865
     Slight damage71,978
     No damage711,825
Foundered3154
Collisions—
     Partial loss26,960
     Slight damage101,458
     No damage3126
Fires—
     Total loss19
     Partial loss59,906
     Slight damage913,789
     No damage623,810
Miscellaneous1936,160
                 Totals81107,284

Chapter 13. SECTION XIII.—RAILWAYS.

RRAILWAY history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860 only. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton. The first portion of this line was opened on the 1st December, 1863, so that to Canterbury Province belongs the honour of first having railway communication within its borders. Four years later the Lyttelton Tunnel (1 1/2 miles long) had been pierced and the fine completed. Meanwhile other lines were being proceeded with inland towards the Canterbury Plains. Following the lead of Canterbury Province, the Provincial Council of Southland commenced in 1863 a line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour, which was opened on the 5th February, 1867. Driven by the necessity for efficient military transport, the Provincial Council of Auckland in 1863 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

The effect of the various short railways being constructed by different authorities is apparent in the divers gauges adopted. The General Government recommended the adoption of a 5 ft. 6 in. gauge; nevertheless the Canterbury lines were using a 5 ft. 3 in. gauge, while the Auckland and Otago fines had the standard English gauge of 4 ft. 8 in.

Happily, these troubles were solved by the historic Railways Act of 1870. At this date only forty-six miles of railway were in operation. This Act, which was part of the public-works policy of the late Sir Julius Vogel, provided a general railway policy for the colony. Six years later, when the abolition of provinces placed the earlier-constructed lines in the hands of the General Government, railway mileage had risen to 718 miles.

Although practically all the railways are State-owned, some were built by private enterprise. Of these the more important were constructed by the Midland and Wellington-Manawatu Railway Companies. The former line, of which some eighty-seven miles were in use, was taken over by the Government on the 27th May, 1895. As yet the work on this route is still incomplete owing to the engineering difficulties obtaining. Through rail communication between Canterbury and the “Coast” will be effected shortly, the piercing of the Alps having now been effected, though the Otira Tunnel will not be ready for traffic for some time. The second line of consequence ran from Wellington to Longburn, a distance of some eighty-four miles. It was acquired for the State by purchase in December, 1908.

STATE RAILWAYS.

At the present time there are some 3,009 miles of State railways open for traffic, divided into nine distinct sections, as follows:—

Section.Length.
 Miles.
North Island main lines and branches1,133
Whangarei80
Kaihu20
Gisborne49
           Total, North Island1,282
South Island main lines and branches1,417
Westland157
Westport36
Nelson61
Picton56
           Total, South Island1,727

Government railways are constructed by the Public Works Department, and are transferred to the Railways Department when completed.

The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., and a steel rail of 70 lb. weight per lineal yard is the standard for the permanent-way, and is in use on some 1,299 miles of line. Some 1,515 miles are still in. 53 lb., 55 lb., and 56 lb. steel rails, and most of the remainder is of lighter material. Sleepers, which are laid down to the number of 2,100 to the mile, are principally Australian hardwoods or New Zealand silver-pine or totara.

ROLLING-STOCK.

Since 1901 all carriages and wagons required for use on the State railways have been manufactured in the railway workshops of the Dominion. The locomotives also are now all built in the Dominion, mostly in the railway workshops. A new passenger locomotive, Class AB, was brought into operation during 1915, and has been adopted as a standard type. This is a simple superheated tender-engine of the “Pacific” type—weight in working trim, 79 tons; tractive power, 20,000 lb. The AB locomotive is of sufficient power to be also easily adapted for use as a goods engine. The standard goods locomotive used is of the four-cylinder balanced compound type, weighs 94 tons, and has a tractive power of 29,840 lb. Standard carriages are 50 ft. in length, fitted with chair seats to accommodate forty-four passengers, and lighted by the Pintsch-gas system. The Westinghouse brake is fitted to all rolling-stock with the exception of that on the Kaihu, Picton, Nelson, and Westport Sections.

Information as to the rolling-stock in use on the State railways of Australia and New Zealand is given in the following table. The Australian figures are for the year ended 30th June, 1920; the New Zealand figures for the year ended 31st March, 1921.

ROLLING-STOCK, STATE RAILWAYS OF AUSTRALASIA.
State.Miles open
for Traffic.
Locomotives.Passenger
Vehicles.
Other
Vehicles.
  Number.Number.Number.
Queensland5,68566686014,653
New South Wales5,0151,2791,66522,962
Victoria4,2147881,69320,442
South Australia2,3164906619,506
Western Australia3,53942342610,097
Tasmania635801761,857
New Zealand3,0096081,49223,119

New Zealand railways, it is apparent, carry more rolling-stock in proportion to mileage than do the Australian lines.

PASSENGERS AND GOODS.

The following statement shows the number of miles of Government railways open in the Dominion, the number of train-miles travelled and of passengers carried. and the tonnage of goods traffic for the past twenty years:—

Year ended
31st March.
Length
open
(Miles).
Train-mileage.Passengers.Season
Tickets
issued.
Goods and
Live-stock.*
* The equivalent tonnage for live-stock has been given.
 Tons.    
19022,2355,066,3607,356,136100,7783,667,039
19032,2915,443,3337,575,390118,4313,918,261
19042,3285,685,3998,306,383129,9194,259,217
19052,3746,107,0798,514,112140,4534,185,468
19062,4076,413,5738,826,382147,9894,415,166
19072,4586,755,4549,600,786165,5044,824,563
19082,4747,051,2749,756,716185,1745,070,176
19092,6747,458,23610,457,144192,5475,135,408
19102,7177,889,16611,141,142199,3715,490,018
19112,7538,141,07511,200,613222,1045,863,674
19122,798,371,68711,891,134236,9575,887,908
19132,8519,016,22413,123,879265,2596,246,128
19142,8549,319,26813,355,893287,0376,019,633
19152,9459,383,42013,565,772302,9126,453,472
19162,9609,356,52214,201,506330,6226,370,945
19172,9609,146,33114,173,115355,8326,239,172
19182,9837,468,64611,408,156322,4875,742,968
19192,9837,477,58311,374,521351,1245,613,739
19202,9967,408,60812,760,814400,6216,000,279
19213,0099,303,39215,315,640464,6918,487,279

The principal commodities carried on the State railways during each of the past twenty years were—

Year ended
31st March.
Wool.Timber.Grain.Minerals.Cattle.Sheep
and Pigs.
* Information not available.
 Tons.   Tons.   Tons.   Tons.   Number.Number.
1902101,878427,153813,3451,443,79283,4582,780,019
1903116,309436,008718,3761,604,426102,4613,883,177
1904101,316509,712820,4531,744,323107,4353,826,646
1905107,625493,327732,4801,806,360110,9243,490,752
1906116,086534,533772,2581,938,548119,3113,441,387
1907128,161567,835770,7062,135,446133,0314,776,223
1908120,593616,892739,5682,319,913150,7514,719,087
1909137,916582,860793,7932,342,048159,8845,329,115
1910151,051523,8451,044,4682,486,121176,4125,253,692
1911143,247627,1071,013,2982,655,250210,8486,071,670
1912141,607718,414949,5562,676,783207,5465,601,711
1913147,735695,0601,181,8992,760,983221,5955,524,935
1914155,709676,8581,050,3952,551,614254,2917,006,268
1915162,002621,9631,103,3522,988,028314,2197,086,461
1916154,633625,8661,061,9872,831,959371,5297,387,269
1917*579,428*2,787,523402,7697,269,544
1918*523,784*2,572,576362,1346,502,090
1919*487,729*2,444,007346,5446,691,760
1920*611,171*2,300,760357,9767,316,556
1921*717,701*2,515,464376,7457,129,222

COST OF CONSTRUCTION.

The total cost of construction of open lines up to the 31st March, 1921, was £37,235,254. The amount spent on lines in course of construction and not handed over to the Working Railways Department for traffic purposes was £4,190,242, making the total capital invested in State railways £41,425,496. The figures for each of the past five years are given.

CAPITAL INVESTED IN STATE RAILWAYS, 1916-17 TO 1920-21.
1916-17.1917-18.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.
 £       £       £       £       £       
Lines open for traffic35,378,66436,001,43236,167,68136,390,11537,235,254
Lines under construction2,808,5092,796,7313,093,2013,607,2254,190,242
             Totals38,187,17338,798,16339,260,88239,997,34041,425,496

So varied are the geographical features of the Dominion that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. The numerous mountain-chains and the innumerable rivers fed by the heavy rainfall make railway-construction in general both difficult and expensive, as the next statement shows:—

COMPARISON OF COST AND REVENUE OF EACH SECTION, 1920-21.
Section.Capital Cost of
Open Lines to
31st March, 1921.
Capital Cost
per Mile
(Open Lines).
Net Revenue
per Mile of
Open Line, 1920-21.
* Loss.
North Island—£      £      £     
     Whangarei857,35210,717−6.76*
     Kaihu100,1595,008−64.28*
     Gisborne686,08714,002132.96
     Main line and branches16,691,57314,732886.05
                       Totals18,335,17114,302786.73
South Island—
     Westland2,196,31613,989158.17
     Westport606,58116,850494.58
     Nelson444,9347,294− 90.36*
     Picton683,13612,19916.75
     Main line and branches14,774,62010,427160.02
                       Totals18,705,58710,831150.50
Lake Wakatipu steamer service43,708..     ..     
Stock of stores, &c.150,788..     ..     
                       Grand totals37,235,25412,375422.71

The cost of construction has been relatively greater in the North Island than in the South, but the net revenue per mile of open line in the year under review was five times greater in the North than in the South.

REVENUE.

The railways of New Zealand have been looked upon more as adjuncts to the settlement of the country and the development of its natural resources than as an investment from which large profits should directly accrue. For many years a profit of 3 per cent. was regarded as sufficient, and any excess over this rate was followed by reductions in passenger charges or in freights. Consequent on the extension of settlement and the soundness of the Dominion's industries, a higher rate than 3 per cent. has been aimed at in recent years. The rate looked for in 1909-10 was 3 3/4 per cent., in 1910-11 4 per cent., followed in 1911-12 by a return to 3 3/4 per cent. These rates were obtained, as will be seen from the table following. The rates for 1913-14 and 1914-15 fell below expectations, a result due in the earlier year to the extended strike which obtained during nearly three months of the year and to the outbreak of smallpox in the North Island, and in the later year to the outbreak of the European War. In 1915-16 and 1916-17, however, there were considerable increases, bringing the revenue up to 4 3/4 per cent. and 5 1/4 per cent. respectively. The returns for the next three years all fell slightly below the figure for 1916-17, and in 1920-21 there was an abrupt fall to somewhat less than 3 1/2 per cent., this being due to greatly increased running-costs.

Information as to the revenue of the railways during each of the past twenty years is given in the following table:—

RAILWAY REVENUE, 1901-2 TO 1920-21.
Year ended
31st March.
Gross Revenue fromTotal
Gross
Revenue.
Net
Revenue.
Percentages
of Net Revenue
to Capital Cost.
Passenger-fares.Parcels,
Luggage,
and Mails.
Goods and
Live-stock.
Rents and
Miscellaneous.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      £      s.d.
1902621,01979,5611,110,57563,4311,874,586622,349386
1903625,69887,2731,189,10171,9661,974,038630,623361
1904704,660110,1511,293,16972,6612,180,641741,9173118
1905738,158115,0511,277,97678,0462,209,231716,331360
1906786,873142,6421,346,03874,1512,349,704728,465349
1907892,053151,9131,498,68681,9482,624,600812,118391
1908912,978176,8761,582,32889,7562,761,938812,179368
19091,011,658187,0401,630,704100,1242,929,526814,711327
19101,171,040192,5851,772,547113,6183,249,7901,080,3163160
19111,223,412193,7891,961,078115,9033,494,1821,190,910413
19121,319,114203,3342,032,785121,2763,676,5091,210,6133197
19131,461,873215,2092,157,686136,2343,971,0021,265,393409
19141,450,480236,7612,209,398146,6894,043,3281,163,0053123
19151,482,382227,5212,249,399146,1554,105,4571,185,0023107
19161,722,702236,7052,423,493165,4564,548,3561,637,4734144
19171,873,048243,8322,498,862185,0684,800,8101,873,9465511
19181,802,597254,1102,465,241165,7524,687,7001,644,79341111
19191,950,281258,5252,608,336171,4904,988,6321,680,05741211
19202,303,987290,4532,956,237201,8105,752,4871,647,4204108
19212,658,079335,7543,676,665238,0336,908,5311,271,931384

The revenue from passenger-fares during the year 1920-21 represented an expenditure on railway travel of £2 2s. 5d. per head of mean population, including Maoris. The total revenue was equal to £5 10s. 4d. per capita.

A table is added showing information as to railway revenue in each of the Australian States for the year ended the 30th June, 1920. Figures for New Zealand for the year ended 31st March, 1920, are also given.

REVENUE OF STATE RAILWAYS IN AUSTRALASIA, 1919-20.
State.Miles of
Line open.
Train-miles
run
(,000 omitted).
Gross
Revenue
(,000 omitted).
Net Revenue.
Amount
(,000 omitted).
Per
Train-mile.
Per Cent.
of Capital.
* Loss.
   £     £     s.d. 
Queensland5,68510,4444,96063712 3/41.59
New South Wales5,01522,83513,0843,513314.43
Victoria4,21415,0228,2252,166210 1/23.72
South Australia2,165,1922,72671929 1/43.76
Western Australia3,5394,8512,29229112 1/21.61
Tasmania6351,2675061161102.21
Federal lines1,733726316−102*−29 3/4*−0.92*
Totals for Australia23,14760,33732,1097,34025 1/43.18
New Zealand2,9967,4095,7521,64745 1/44.53

EXPENDITURE.

Expenditure on State railways open for traffic during the year ended the 31st March, 1921, amounted to £5,636,601, or 81.59 per cent. of the gross revenue, as compared with 71.37 per cent. in 1919-20 and 60.97 per cent. in 1916-17. The figures for each of the past twenty years are as follows:—

Year ended
31st March.
Expenditure.
 Amount.Per Cent.
of Revenue.
 £        
19021,252,23766.80
19031,343,41568.05
19041,438,72465.98
19051,492,90067.58
19061,621,23969.00
19071,812,48269.06
19081,949,75970.59
19092,114,81572.19
19102,169,47466.76
19112,303,27265.92
19122,465,89667.07
19132,705,60968.13
19142,880,32371.24
19152,920,45571.14
19162,910,88364.00
19172,926,86460.97
19183,042,90764.91
19193,308,57566.32
19204,105,06771.37
19215,636,60181.59

The expenditure under various heads for each of the past ten years has been as follows:—

Year ended
31st March.
Maintenance
of Way.
Locomotive
Power.
Carriages
and Wagons.
Traffic.Lake
Wakatipu
Steamers.
Head and
Departmental
Offices.
Total.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      £      
1912735,546743,443209,039670,6315,997101,2402,465,896
1913765,860833,146226,146768,9366,619104,9022,705,609
1914763,207921,564232,745838,2227,046117,5392,880,323
1915738,550954,868228,145870,3926,085122,4152,920,455
1916740,349934,737225,968889,9916,377113,4612,910,883
1917720,840937,780238,868904,3186,602118,4562,926,864
1918710,655962,222283,248954,1427,664124,9763,042,907
1919752,5581,075,489306,3081,032,6096,985134,6263,308,575
1920837,9101,397,993387,4981,301,9357,964171,7674,105,067
19211,053,0492,124,877531,9351,712,37610,458203,9065,636,601

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES.

The number of men employed in operating the State railways at the 31st March, 1921, was 14,252. The staff is divided into two divisions—namely, the first or clerical division, and the second or out-of-door division—and is further classed in four branches, as shown in the following table, which gives the number of employees in March of each of the past ten years:—

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES, 1911-12 TO 1920-21.
As at 31st March.General.Traffic.Maintenance.Locomotive.Total.
19126734,0644,3084,47813,523
19137184,4694,2404,78614,213
19146004,6763,9524,94814,176
19156324,7534,0655,16414,614
19166935,0413,9315,30314,968
19176754,7983,5864,64913,708
19186604,6123,4104,32013,002
19196614,5053,3473,87812,391
19208764,7403,3644,40513,385
19219274,9303,5764,81914,252

Railway employees are under a system of classification, first introduced in 1896, and revised at various times since then.

Appeal Boards (one in each Island) have been constituted to hear and redress grievances of men dissatisfied with decisions respecting the withholding of annual increments, promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline involving fines in excess of £2. Each Board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railway service elected by the members thereof. The Minister of Railways has the power of veto in respect of any decision of the Board.

A superannuation fund in connection with the Railway service was established in 1903. Full information concerning this is given in the section dealing with “Pensions and Superannuation Funds.”

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.

The history of railways in New Zealand has been one of comparative freedom from accidents of a serious nature. A table is given dealing with railway accidents during each of the past ten years.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS, 1911-12 TO 1920-21.
Year ended
31st March.
To
Passengers.
To
Employees.
To
Others.
Fatal.Serious.Minor.Total.
19121880622236817846
1913886839225888915
1914181,008252741,0201,051
191515973282879811,016
19162891927336935974
19172585222248867899
191811765292213770805
191933715292322732777
192022827394234812888
1921109874124449701,038

Of the persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1920-21, 2 were passengers, 6 employees, and 16 neither passengers nor employees. Of the non-fatal accidents, 99 were classified as train accidents, 228 as accidents on line, (other than train-running), 101 as shunting accidents, 265 as accidents on wharves and in sheds, and 321 as accidents in railway workshops.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS.

Private railways have a total mileage of 138 miles. A complete list is as follows:—

Railway.Location.Length of
Railway.
 M.C.L.
Waipa Railway and Collieries (Limited)Ngaruawahia5500
Taupo Totara Timber Company (Limited)Putaruru50400
Waihi Gold-mining Company (Limited)Waikino5720
Sanson TramwaySanson-Himatangi1700
Castlecliff RailwayWanganui-Castlecliff3400
Napier Harbour Board's linePort Ahuriri12450
Homebush Coal CompanyCoalgate3370
Waronui Coal CompanyMilton5330
Taratu Coal CompanyLovell's Flat7470
Kaitangata Coal CompanyStirling5450
Dunedin City Corporation Ocean Beach RailwayDunedin (about)3140
Nightcaps Coal CompanyWairio-Nightcaps23363
Ohai RailwayFrom Wairio5600
Westport Harbour BoardWestport-Cape Foulwind and Quarries16140
Denniston Incline (Westport Coal Company's line)Waimangaroa-Conn's Creek120
Paparoa Company's Railway(Worked by N.Z.R.)16821
Reefton Coal CompanyReefton2200
Tongariro Timber CompanyKakahi..
                       Total mileage                   ..138400

Chapter 14. SECTION XIV.—POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC.

POST-OFFICES.

AT the 31st December, 1920, there were 2,207 post-offices in New Zealand, this number being exclusive of 35 receiving offices and 10 travelling post-offices. At the same date there were 1,876 street letter-boxes in the Dominion; The number of post-offices, reckoning only those which are combined receiving and delivering offices, has shown a decrease in each of the last five years, the figures for which are—

Year.Number of
Post-offices.
19162,341
19172,305
19182,288
19192,240
19202,207

POSTAL BUSINESS.

The following table, showing the number of articles posted and delivered during each of the last ten years, gives an indication of the extent to which the people of New Zealand utilize the postal facilities:—

Year.Letters and
Letter-cards.
Post-cards.Books and
Pattern-packets.
Parcels.Newspapers.
1911205,450,62712,255,47758,828,4363,327,37943,801,719
1912214,184,11911,252,52761,364,9173,359,39743,460,016
1913223,961,20010,462,89456,127,6844,275,83443,572,759
1914233,901,32010,585,04265,709,9085,055,14743,779,983
1915242,547,8599,242,79257,693,1305,724,57641,311,535
1916242,121,3618,133,69748,868,5376,085,10341,807,999
1917245,796,9457,549,86744,934,2186,314,87540,366,792
1918242,527,3697,145,60642,301,2306,376,46935,476,212
1919247,143,1837,292,92244,320,3856,193,47535,498,263
1920259,743,2346,937,55449,619,1616,588,29337,859,247

The average number of letters, &c., actually posted in the Dominion per head of mean population in the past ten years is as shown in the next table:—

ARTICLES POSTED PER HEAD OF MEAN POPULATION, 1911-20.
Year.Letters and
Letter-cards.
Post-cards.Books and
Parcels.
Newspapers.Total.
191197.855.3531.2818.66153.14
1912102.065.0031.5218.89157.47
1913101.914.3628.1417.81152.22
1914105.014.5133.3718.15161.04
1915111.533.7731.4016.94163.64
1916109.543.2025.8017.20155.74
1917110.273.0024.4716.60154.34
1918112.572.9423.5715.14154.22
1919111.332.9924.2714.64153.23
1920109.092.6225.0414.18150.93

During recent years the Post Office has made very substantial extensions in the establishment of rural-mail deliveries. Many of these are performed by officers mounted on motor-cycles. By means of such deliveries it has been possible to give settlers living in the back country an efficient service.

PARCEL-POST.

The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and without the Dominion have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 11 lb. in weight being sent to almost all the important countries of the world, and up to 28 lb. in weight for inland parcels for or from places served the whole way by railway or steamer.

The following table shows the number of parcels exchanged with the United Kingdom, the Australian States, &c., in 1920:—

Country.Number of Parcels.
Received.Despatched.
 Number.lb.     Number.lb.     
United Kingdom and foreign countries, via London211,2141,219,88121,54079,283
United States of America62,447430,9753,18611,906
Canada4,56627,8799573,138
Victoria23,218126,3473,98912,701
New South Wales33,733158,1697,83124,496
South Australia6692,0426151,827
Queensland1,3064,6841,0332,920
Tasmania2615895941,474
Western Australia4621,0934261,195
Fiji3979491,4705,202
Ceylon3951,841117459
Cape of Good Hope8533,508110402
Natal..     ..     2981,003
India1,5088,0027243,449
Tonga542158253,501
Tahiti583277815,123
Hong Kong2,73524,0863161,337
Straits Settlements145403183624
                   Totals344,0212,010,99044,995160,040

The declared value of the parcels received from places outside the Dominion during 1920 was £2,250,828, on which the Customs duty amounted to £450,266.

NEWSPAPERS.

There are (January, 1921) 249 publications on the register of newspapers for New Zealand. Of these, some 62 are published daily, 17 being morning papers and 45 evening papers. Twenty-three appear three times per week, 27 twice per week, 67 weekly, 7 fortnightly, and 63 monthly.

MONEY-ORDERS AND POSTAL NOTES.

The number of offices open for the transaction of money-order business at the end of 1920 was 823.

During 1920, 699,674 money-orders, for a total sum of £5,276,776, were issued at the various post-offices. The money-orders from places beyond New Zealand and payable in the Dominion numbered 33,168, for the amount of £183,297.

The number of offices open for the sale of postal notes at the end of 1929 was 1,055: 2,280,219 postal notes were sold, value £705,027. The notes paid numbered 2,284,354, of a total value of £692,103.

British postal orders issued in the Dominion during the year numbered 83,682, of a value amounting to £51,020. Those paid numbered 36,375, and represented £20,925.

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.

Up to the 31st March, 1921, a total sum of £4,409,446 had been expended on telegraph construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1920-21 was £335,696.

There were 13,724 miles of telegraphic and inter-urban telephone pole line open at the end of March, 1921, carrying 51,228 miles of wire. Of the latter, 11,066 miles were in use exclusively for telephone toll traffic, 14,532 exclusively for telegraphic traffic, and 25,630 simultaneously for toll and telegraphic traffic, making totals of 36,696 available for toll traffic and 40,162 for the transmission of telegrams. A total of 9,176 miles of wire have been gained to the 31st March, 1921, for the purpose of telegraphic transmission, by the superimposing of existing telephone circuits.

During the year ended 31st March, 1921, telegrams to the number of 14,000,851 were transmitted, 13,884,466 of these being “paid” messages, and the balance service messages of the Post and Telegraph Department. The revenue from telegrams was £691,483, to which should be added £533,535 revenue of telephone exchanges, and £12,745 miscellaneous receipts, making a total telegraph and telephone revenue of £1,237,763.

TELEPHONES.

At the 31st March, 1921, there were 296 telephone exchanges in the Dominion, being an increase of 5 during the year.

The telephone-exchange system in use is generally of the magneto type, branching multiple switchboards being installed in the principal exchanges. In three installations the common battery system is in operation.

Automatic-telephone exchanges (Western Electric type) were opened at Masterton on the 31st May, 1919, Courtenay Place and Wellington South on the 18th October, 1919, Blenheim on the 28th April, 1920, and Hamilton on the 29th August, 1920. The installations at Courtenay Place and Wellington South form part of the Wellington urban network, which will eventually include additional exchanges in Featherston Street, Kelburn, Khandallah, and the Hutt Valley.

The installation of automatic exchanges (Western Electric type) is now proceeding At several Auckland stations (where the system will eventually embrace the whole of the urban area), Palmerston North, Kelburn, and Oamaru. At Wanganui the installation of an automatic exchange (Strowger type) has been commenced. At other centres at which it has been decided to install automatic exchanges buildings are being erected to accommodate the necessary equipment.

The demand for telephone connections at the four centres has been exceptionally heavy; and, as the original manual boards could not be further extended, auxiliary branch exchanges—both automatic and manual—have been installed as a temporary relief of the situation.

The number of telephone connections at 31st March, 1921, was 88,439, including 13,749 extensions. Service telephones numbering 1,270, and 2,644 telephone bureau stations, are included. The average distance of subscribers from the exchanges with which they are connected is 71 chains for the Dominion as a whole, and 96 chains for the average of the four chief centres.

The distribution of telephones to the population of the Dominion and of the four principal centres on the 31st March, 1921, was as follows:—

 Inhabitants per
Telephone.
Dominion14
Auckland16
Wellington10
Christchurch13
Dunedin12

The “party” line system of telephone service is being largely availed of, particularly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from the exchange. In March, 1921, the number of party-line connections was 5,394, with a total of 18,599 subscribers.

The first coin-in-slot telephones erected in the Dominion were installed at Wellington on the 17th August, 1910. There are now 319 such instruments in use in the Dominion, the charges for which are as follows:—

One penny257
Twopence40
Threepence14
Sixpence8

The revenue of slot telephones during the year ended 31st March, 1921, was £18,512.

The telephone-exchange system included on the 31st March, 1921, 5,441 miles of pole line and 192,027 miles of wire, of which 134,908 miles were in use.

Originally the system was worked by single aerial earth-connected wires, but these were replaced some years ago at the more important exchanges by aerial and subterranean lead-covered cables, and the circuits made wholly metallic. The system of subterranean and aerial cabling is now being extended to the smaller exchanges, and work in connection with the conversion of earth-working exchanges to metallic-circuit exchanges is proceeding.

An analysis of the wire in use in connection with telephone exchanges is as follows:—

In lead-covered cables—Miles.
         Underground49,650
         Aerial45,553
Open aerial—
         Metallic circuit34,907
         Earth-working4,798
 134,908

The capital expenditure on the equipment, &c., of the several telephone exchanges up to the 31st March, 1921, was £2,641,167, equal to an average cost of £35 7s. 3d. for each connection. The telephone-exchange revenue for the twelve months ended 31st March, 1921, was £533,535, which fell short of working-expenses to the extent of £10,655.

RADIO-TELEGRAPH.

The first wireless-telegraph station opened for commercial use was that of Wellington, on the 26th July, 1911. Details of the seven stations now under the control of the Post and Telegraph Department are—

Station and Call-sign.Hours of Service.Wave-length, in Metres
(Normal in Black Type).
Daylight Range
(in Knots) on
Normal Wave-length.
Awanui (V.L.A.), 173° 18′ E., 34° 54′ S.6.30 p.m. to midnight. Continuous listening service300, 600, 1,000, 2,000, 2,500, 3,500S.W. 500; L.W. 1,200.
Awarua (V.L.B.), 168° 23′ E., 46° 30′ S.6.30 p.m. to midnight. Continuous listening service300, 600, 1,000, 2,000, 2,500, 3,500S.W. 500; L.W. 1,200.
Apia, Samoa (V.M.G.), 171° 49′ W., 13° 51′ S.Continuous300, 600, 1,000, 2,000, 2,400, 2,800, 3,300, 4,000S.W. 500; L.W. 1,500.
Wellington (V.L.W.), 174° 46′ 39″ E., 41° 17′ 5″ S.Continuous300, 600300.
Chatham Islands (V.L.C.)., 176° 57′ W., 43° 57′ S.4 p.m. to midnight300, 600300.
Auckland (V.L.D.), 174° 46′ 8″ E., 36° 50′ 37″ S.Continuous300, 600300.
Rarotonga, Cook Islands (V.M.R.), 159° 48′ 30″ W., 21 12″ S.6 p.m. to 2 a.m.330, 600, 1,000, 1,700300, 450 on 1,700 metres.

The Rarotonga station is of the Marconi synchronous gap type; the remainder use the Telefunken quenched gap (500 cycles) system. The aerial system in most cases comprises an umbrella aerial with earthed counterpoise for long waves and a T aerial for short waves.

The radio business transacted by the New Zealand coast stations during the past five years was as follows:—

Year ended
31st March.
Forwarded.Received.
Messages.Words.Value.Messages.Words.Value.*
* Amount earned by New Zealand.
 £       £     
19173,01863,8723,0234,65173,1493,032
19182,85160,3933,0824,33873,0503,330
19194,48293,5075,2456,570235,8896,227
192011,589192,8229,11419,109248,0635,272
192111,267181,8537,20120,756246,4074,861

The above table does not include free (service) messages.

The general rate for transmission of radio-telegrams has been fixed at 5d. a word for all vessels on the Australian or New Zealand register.

The New Zealand coast stations are all reliably connected with the land-line systems. Complete arrangements exist for the prompt transmission of wireless telegrams over them, and for ensuring that distress-signals shall be immediately communicated to the proper authorities.

OCEAN CABLES.

The cable open for traffic between New Zealand and Australia and Fiji on the 9th April, 1902, was completed to Bamfield, Vancouver Island, on the 31st October following, and opened for international business on the 8th December, 1902.

The route is from Auckland to Vancouver, via Norfolk Island, Fiji, and Fanning Island. The Australian connection is at Norfolk Island. The deep-sea portion of the Vancouver - Fanning Island cable is stated to be the longest in the world. Following the opening of the cable a much faster service with America and Europe has resulted.

Direct communication between Auckland and Sydney was established on the 31st December, 1912, thus giving the Pacific Cable Board an alternative route to Australia.

During the year 1920-21 the Pacific route took 70 per cent. of the outward business, and the Eastern route 30 per cent.

The length of submarine cable in use in the Dominion, apart from ocean-cable services, is 416 knots.

AERIAL SERVICES.

Aerial transport of mails in New Zealand is as yet in the experimental stages only. Trial mail-carrying flights have been successfully carried out in both the North and South Islands.

STAFF.

The huge volume and multifarious business of the Post and Telegraph Department entails the employment of a numerous staff. The Secretary, under the Ministerial control of the Postmaster-General, is the administrative head.

A return of the staff as at 31st March, 1921, is as follows:—

Classified staff,—31st March,
1921.
         Permanent7,762
         Temporary605
                             Total8,367
Employees not on classified staff1,140
                             Grand total9,507

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.

The receipts and payments of the Post and Telegraph Department for the financial year 1920-21 are shown in the following table:—

RECEIPTS.
Items.Postal.Telegraph.Total.
 £       £       £       
Postages1,253,513..      1,253,513
Money-order and postal-note commission47,543..      47,543
Money-order commission received from foreign offices1,077..      1,077
Private box and bag rents28,470..      28,470
Miscellaneous receipts22,07412,74534,819
Paid telegrams..      691,483691,483
Telephone exchanges..      533,535533,535
                 Totals1,352,6771,237,7632,590,440
PAYMENTS.
Item.Postal.Telegraph.Total.
* Balance of payments over receipts.
 £       £       £       
Salaries (classified officers)665,908908,8171,574,725
Salaries (country Postmasters and telephonists, and contributions to Railway Department)26,61435,48662,100
Conveyance of mails by sea54,196..      54,196
Conveyance of inland mails148,858..      148,858
Conveyance of mails by railway81,279..      81,279
Money-order commission credited to foreign offices3,427..      3,427
Maintenance of telegraph and telephone lines..      143,526143,526
Miscellaneous241,726281,949523,675
                 Totals1,222,0081,369,7782,591,786
Balance of receipts over payments130,669*132,015*1,346

SCOPE OF SERVICE.

In addition to its ordinary business, the Post and Telegraph Department performs an enormous amount of work for almost every other Department of State. The monetary value of this business reaches many millions of pounds annually, and the operations during fifteen months ended 31st March, 1921, range from the receipt of land and income-tax payments (£8,527,000) to the sale of fishing licenses (£1,857), and from the payment of pensions (£3,519,516) to the performance of marriage ceremonies.

Chapter 15. SECTION XV.—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

OCCUPATION OF LAND.

THE total area of the Dominion, excluding Cook and other Pacific islands annexed in 1901, is 66,292,232 acres. Of this total, 43,546,757 acres were returned in 1921 as being in occupation, including reserves and Native lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, holdings of less than 1 acre in extent, and Native land held on the communal system. Of the balance, it is estimated that 2,729,095 acres are barren, and 2,246,509 acres are occupied by lakes, rivers, and roads.

The numbers of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation in groups of sizes, as returned at the past five collections, are given below:—

OCCUPIED LANDS.—HOLDINGS.
Area, in Acres.Number of Holdings.Percentages of Total.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
       (Inclusive)
         1 to 1015,83215,73515,67415,55415,74619.9119.6319.4819.0618.73
       11 to 5013,09713,23213,29113,86713,66216.4516.5116.5216.3816.25
       51 to 1009,3999,4799,52410,03910,70811.8211.8311.8412.3112.74
     101 to 20012,60912,69612,74513,07913,80115.8515.8415.8416.0316.41
     201 to 3208,1578,2178,2778,5008,71810.2610.2510.2810.4210.37
     321 to 6409,8009,94010,03110,16610,37512.3212.4012.4612.4612.34
     641 to 1,0004,0224,1204,1334,0804,1865.065.145.135.004.98
  1,001 to 5,0005,5405,6235,6995,7225,7936.977.027.087.016.89
  5,001 to 10,0005625655625505510.710.710.700.670.66
10,001 to 20,0002812912872993130.350.360.360.370.37
20,001 to 50,0001731851831741630.220.230.230.210.19
Over 50,000 acres64616262600.080.080.080.080.07
               Totals79,53680,14680,46881,59284,076100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Seventy-five per cent. of the holdings are seen to be not more than one-half a square mile in area. These, however, represent only 13 per cent. of the total area of occupied land in the Dominion, and from the two following tables showing areas of holdings in occupation by size-groups, and the percentage each group represents of the total area in occupation, it is seen that 69 per cent. of the occupied land is held in areas of over 1,000 acres, and 42 per cent. in areas of over 5,000 acres.

OCCUPIED LANDS.—AREAS.
Sizes of Holdings,
in Acres.
Aggregate Area of Group (Acres).
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
       (Inclusive) 
         1 to        1072,07172,41372,52472,19173,452
       11 to        50368,068372,509373,737376,722386,046
       51 to      100730,703737,054741,469780,437830,488
     101 to      2001,873,9681,890,1521,895,1191,942,2522,041,412
     201 to      3202,096,8272,114,8022,129,4492,186,2332,238,596
     321 to      6404,465,0094,525,3864,576,7824,641,7794,734,534
     641 to   1,0003,242,4273,330,3643,365,1453,301,2923,376,221
  1,001 to   5,00010,911,71611,015,76111,199,38511,305,73311,432,485
  5,001 to 10,0003,929,6183,949,5003,905,0733,824,6233,826,981
10,001 to 20,0003,975,1054,091,0224,033,0384,235,6894,424,373
20,001 to 50,0005,442,5675,727,3995,654,0735,371,2154,991,560
Over 50,000 acres5,636,6405,385,7175,396,9125,434,9135,190,609
         Totals42,744,71943,212,07943,342,70643,473,07943,546,757
Sizes of Holdings,
in Acres.
Percentage of Total Area occupied.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
       (Inclusive) 
         1 to        100.160.170.170.170.17
       11 to        500.860.860.860.870.88
       51 to      1001.711.711.711.801.92
     101 to      2004.384.374.374.474.69
     201 to      3204.914.894.915.035.14
     321 to      64010.4510.4710.5610.6810.87
     641 to   1,0007.597.717.767.597.75
  1,001 to   5,00025.5325.4925.8426.0026.25
  5,001 to 10,0009.199.149.018.808.79
10,001 to 20,0009.309.479.319.7410.16
20,001 to 50,00012.7313.2613.0512.3511.46
Over 50,000 acres13.1912.4612.4512.5011.92
           Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Taking the years 1916 and 1921 it is now possible to show the increase or decrease in the percentages of numbers and areas of holdings according to size-groups.

OCCUPIED LANDS.—INCREASE OR DECREASE IN PERCENTAGES OF NUMBERS AND AREAS OF HOLDINGS BY SIZE-GROUPS.
Size of Holdings,
in Acres.
1916.1921.
Per Cent. of Total.Increase or Decrease compared
with Percentages of 1916.
Number.Area.Number.Area.
         (Inclusive) 
         1 to        1020.010.17−1.28..     
       11 to        5016.510.87−0.26+0.01
       51 to      10011.811.72+0.93+0.20
     101 to      20015.754.39+0.66+0.30
     201 to      32010.324.98+0.05+0.16
     321 to      64012.3910.56−0.05+0.31
     641 to   1,0005.047.63−0.06+0.12
  1,001 to   5,0006.8425.12+0.05+1.13
  5,001 to 10,0000.678.71−0.01+0.08
10,001 to 20,0000.369.41+0.01+0.75
20,001 to 50,0000.2112.42−0.02−0.96
Over 50,000 acres0.0914.02−0.02−2.10

The following table gives the numbers and average areas of holdings for each land district in the Dominion as ascertained at the 1921 collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics.

As regards counties, Eden County is the most closely settled, the average area of holdings being 16.04 acres, while Fiord County shows the largest average—viz., 9,009 acres. There are no counties in the North Island having an average in excess of 2,500 acres, but in the South Island there are no fewer than seven—viz., Awatere, Amuri, Tawera, Mackenzie, Vincent, Lake, and Fiord.

The average area of holdings for the Dominion is 517.95 acres, and this average is exceeded by twenty-five counties out of seventy-seven in the North Island, and twenty-seven out of fifty-two in the South Island, The average area for the North Island is 375.85 acres, and for the South 722.15 acres.

TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBERS AND AVERAGE AREAS OF HOLDINGS FOR EACH LAND DISTRICT IN THE DOMINION.
Land District.Number of
Holdings.
Total Area
occupied.
Average Area
of Holdings.
 Acres.    Acres.   
North Auckland13,2913,010,032226.47
Auckland11,8784,393,183369.86
Hawke's Bay6,6714,700,866704.67
Taranaki6,4701,711,730264.56
Wellington11,2684,818,304427.01
Nelson3,9291,324,999337.24
Marlborough1,9892,569,2581,291.73
Westland1,5351,772,1841,154.52
Canterbury13,2478,078,165609.81
Otago7,9147,919,4501,000.69
Southland5,8843,248,586552.10
               Totals, Dominion84,07643,546,757517.95

TENURE OF OCCUPIED LANDS.

Land in occupation in each land district tabulated according to tenure is given below. The acreage in the fifth column does not agree exactly with the figures published in the report of the Lands and Survey Department, for the reason that, although these figures include Crown reserves leased, they do not include Crown lands alienated but not in occupation at the time of collecting the agricultural and pastoral statistics. Further, all land held on deferred payment is shown as freehold, irrespective of whether in process of purchase from the Crown or not; also, the figures given in the fifth column are as at the 31st January, whilst the figures published by the Lands and Survey Department are as at the 31st March.

OCCUPIED LANDS.—TENURE, 1921.
Land District.Total of
Holdings.
Freehold
(occupied by Owner).
Leased from
Private
Individuals or
Public Bodies.
Leased
from
Natives.
Held from
Crown under
different
Tenures.
Tenure not
specified.
 Acres.   Acres.   Acres.   Acres.   Acres.   Acres.   
North Auckland3,010,0322,344,592137,76279,616448,00458
Auckland4,393,1832,629,883192,605439,1111,131,5813
Hawke's Bay4,700,8662,792,268344,242680,480883,876..   
Taranaki1,711,730880,543192,273115,161523,753..   
Wellington4,818,3043,198,342461,879368,475789,323285
Nelson1,324,999597,16065,74914,776647,314..   
Marlborough2,569,258794,07351,79226,0921,697,301..   
Westland1,772,184160,24523,0865,0881,583,765..   
Canterbury8,078,1653,079,769612,29310,3974,375,706..   
Otago7,919,4501,657,502292,1466,8115,962,991..   
Southland Totals3,248,5861,536,878215,7724,7981,491,138..   
         Totals43,546,75719,671,2552,589,5991,750,80519,534,752346

In point of area the most important Crown-lands tenure is “pastoral run,” the area for 1921 being 10,066,101 acres. Considerable areas are also held under the following tenures: Small grazing-runs, 2,782,702 acres; lease in perpetuity, 1,712,518 acres; occupation with right of purchase, 1,412,249 acres; renewable lease, 1,970,942 acres.

Further details of tenure, &c., of Crown lands will be found in Subsection B of this section.

Lands in occupation are, however, not strictly comparable with Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands have passed into the hands of Europeans which were never made waste lands of the Crown. It must also be remembered that of the freehold land in the Dominion a considerable area is unoccupied and unused.

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS.

A special classification of holdings (according to purpose for which principally used) is made triennially. The following table gives a comparison of the last two triennial classifications—viz., 1916-17 and 1919-20. Figures exclude borough holdings and holdings under 1 acre in extent.

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS, 1916-17 AND 1919-20.
Classification.1916-17.1919-20.
Number of
Holdings.
Area.Number of
Holdings.
Area.
 Acres.    Acres.   
Agricultural12,5092,792,76110,1462,220,207
Dairying24,3493,775,67229,1114,244,986
Pastoral and other (including unspecified)42,67836,176,28642,33537,007,886
               All holdings79,53642,744,71981,59243,473,079

Maori holdings are classified in the same way each year, and a comparison of the last two years is given, 1916-17 being given in addition for comparison with the above. It should be noted that Maori holdings include those held and worked by full-blooded, three-quarter-caste, and half-caste Maoris. Maori lands held on the communal system are excluded.

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS (MAORIS ONLY), 1916-17, 1919-20, AND 1920-21.
Classification.1916-17.1919-20.1920-21.
Number of
Holdings.
Area.Number of
Holdings.
Area.Number of
Holdings.
Area.
 Acres.    Acres.    Acres.   
Agricultural1688,31118012,70415810,077
Dairying578112,262757104,335740110,601
Pastoral and other (including unspecified)1,735695,8471,848778,5511,935759,980
               All holdings2,481816,4202,785895,5902,833880,658

The area of Native land worked individually is being continually increased by subdivision of communal lands, and at the same time reduced by sale or lease to the Grown or to Europeans. The effect of these two influences has been to increase the number of holdings in 1920-21 as compared with 1919-20, but to reduce the total area worked by Maoris, other than on the communal system.

CONDITION OF OCCUPIED LAND.

The land in occupation in the Dominion for the season 1920-21 is classified according to condition and use as follows:—

 Acres.
In grain and pulse crops883,129
In grasses and clovers (for hay and seed) and green and root crops1,027,338
In fallow137,898
In grasses and clovers, not cut for hay or sand15,912,803
In vineyards and orchards31,692
In market gardens, nurseries, and seed-gardens3,949
In private gardens and pleasure-grounds58,802
In plantations104,218
                 Total area in cultivation18,159,829
Unimproved land25,386,928
                 Total area in occupation43,546,757

Further details of land in cultivation and of the various crops grown are given under their respective headings in Subsection B of the next section. Unimproved lands are not again referred to, and accordingly a table is appended showing by land districts more detailed information as to the condition of unimproved occupied land.

UNIMPROVED OCCUPIED LAND, 1920-21.
Land District.Phormium
Tenax.
Tussock and
other Native
Grasses.
Fern, Scrub,
and Second
Growth.
Standing
Virgin Bush.
Barren and
Unproductive
Land.
Total Unimproved
Occupied Land.
 Acres.   Acres.   Acres.   Acres.   Acres.   Acres.   
North Auckland3,326231,155748,579382,408103,6391,469,107
Auckland8,058292,7931,034,875736,55957,7512,130,036
Hawke's Bay1,026739,285466,463312,89665,5631,585,233
Taranaki6319,92564,411247,2216,912338,532
Wellington16,943461,958309,999422,458101,9521,313,310
Nelson2,031314,298140,750460,88349,228967,190
Marlborough8421,374,374281,512199,787333,8912,190,406
Westland4,378190,74473,486955,382410,9881,634,978
Canterbury7264,343,009108,187210,466658,8625,321,250
Otago8555,612,426384,021282,991245,6326,525,925
Southland5,7541,413,479158,683240,59792,4481,910,961
         Totals44,00214,993,4463,770,9664,451,6482,126,86625,386,928

LAND TRANSFER AND DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Prior to 1870 conveyancing in New Zealand was based upon the English laws of real property as existing at the date of the constitution of the colony, varied in some important particulars by the Conveyancing Ordinance of 1842 and other colonial legislation, now embodied in the Property Law Act, 1908. Considerable areas of land in all parts of the Dominion are still held and dealt with under this system. Although provision is made for the registration of deeds affecting such land, registration is no guarantee of their validity, and a purchaser has to rely for the security of his title upon the skill and care of his legal adviser.

By the Land Transfer Act, 1870, the system of title by registration was introduced. The title to land under this system is not affected by the execution of documents. Registration is the fundamental principle, and it is only on registration that any interest passes. The Land Transfer Department assumes all responsibility for the registration, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Provision has existed since 1841 and is now contained in the Deeds Registration. Act, 1908, for the registration of deeds and instruments affecting land which is not subject to the provisions of the Land Transfer Act. Registration is not essential to the validity of the instrument, but it is highly important as a record and to secure priority. The Act provides that every deed shall be void as against any person claiming for valuable consideration under any subsequent deed duly registered unless the earlier deed was registered before the subsequent one. The Department is not responsible for the form or matter of the instruments registered beyond seeing that they are duly stamped and contain a sufficient description of the land to identify it.

Provision is made for the deposit of instruments in the Deeds Registry Office for safe custody and reference, and such deposit operates as a release from any covenant for production.

The Deeds Index and all recorded and deposited instruments are open to public inspection, and certified copies may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fees.

Information as to transactions under the Deeds Registration Act for each of the last six years is given in the following statement:—

Year ended
31st March.
Deeds
recorded.
Fees.
 £      
191615,34815,429
191715,66414,371
191813,67313,226
191912,79813,148
192024,65025,157
192138,12232,251

LAND TRANSFER.

The land-transfer system in New Zealand originated, as stated above, with the Land Transfer Act, 1870. This re-enacted with amendments is now the Land Transfer Act, 1915.

The land subject to the Land Transfer Act comprises all land alienated from the Crown since 1870, all land included in any order under the Native Land Acts vesting such land in any person in freehold tenure, and all land vested in any person in fee-simple by virtue of any Act of the General Assembly, besides land which has been brought under the Act on the application of the proprietors after investigation and acceptance of the title by the Department.

Full information concerning the land-transfer system is given in the 1914 and preceding issues of this book.

Information as to applications to bring land under the Land Transfer Act during each of the past five years is given in the next table:—

Year ended
31st March.
Applications.
Number.Area.Value.
Town and
Suburban.
Country.
 Acres.Acres.   £       
191740913337,4471,029,143
19183169989,388965,089
191929113376,441776,403
192049717585,2371,343,243
192161920870,5361,767,397

The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the past ten years. Included in the totals are those certificates issued in lieu of Crown grants, 1,512 being the number for 1920-21.

CERTIFICATES OF TITLE ISSUED.
Year ended
31st March.
Number.
191212,907
191313,075
191412,867
191511,074
191610,525
191710,350
191810,230
19197,988
192011,637
192116,010

The table next following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during each of the past five years:—

TRANSFERS REGISTERED.
Year ended
31st March.
Number.Area.Consideration-money.
Town and
Suburban.
Country.
 Acres.Acres.   £       
191722,18779,3162,676,69134,288,831
191819,9496,1562,008,37018,083,634
191922,49621,1561,992,31225,197,384
192045,128107,4323,775,25162,446,574
192155,74616,1544,557,32881,790,063

Information as to mortgages registered under the Land Transfer Act is contained in the section of this book dealing with mortgages.

SUBSECTION B.—CROWN LANDS.

ADMINISTRATION.

THE Crown lands are administered under the authority of the Land Act, 1908, by the Minister of Lands at Wellington, his executive officer being the Under-Secretary of Lands, who is the permanent head of the Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand is divided into eleven land districts, each being under the local direction of a Commissioner of Crown Lands and a Land Board. The Commissioner's office is known as the principal land office, and in some of the larger districts there are one or more local land offices. It is with these land offices the selector has to transact all business, from the first consultation of the maps to the final receipt of the Crown title.

The names of the land districts and of the towns where the principal office of each is situated are as under:—

Land District.Principal Land
Office situated at
North AucklandAuckland.
AucklandAuckland.
TaranakiNew Plymouth.
Hawke's BayNapier.
WellingtonWellington.
NelsonNelson.
MarlboroughBlenheim.
WestlandHokitika.
CanterburyChristchurch.
OtagoDunedin.
SouthlandInvercargill.

Commissioners of Crown Lands are executive officers of the land districts, having large discretionary powers under the Act. Each is the Chairman of the Land Board of his district, and transacts all its routine business in the sale, letting, and occupation of Crown lands. The Commissioners deal with trespassers and intruders (persons and cattle), removing the former and prosecuting the owners of the latter; they recover all penalties, ascertain the boundaries of Crown lands, enforce all contracts for the disposition of Crown lands, recover rents and other moneys, deal with determinable contracts, prosecute and defend suits, and do whatever is necessary in the course of their duties.

LAND BOARD.

A Land Board consists of five members—viz., the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district (who is ex officio Chairman), three members nominated by the Governor-General, and one member elected by the Crown tenants of the district.

The Boards transact all business connected with the sale, letting, disposal, and occupation of Crown lands, and all matters connected with the management and control of the public lands in their hands. They are the sole judges of the fulfilment of conditions in leases and licenses, and they can declare them forfeit. All meetings are open to the Press and public, with certain limitations.

APPLICATIONS FOR LAND.

A selector may purchase for cash, or may select for occupation with right of purchase or for renewable lease. Every applicant must be of the age of seventeen years or upwards, and must apply for Crown land solely for his own use and benefit, and not directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other person, whilst, including the land he applies for, he is not to be the owner, holder, or occupier under any tenure of more than one year's duration, either severally or jointly or in common with any other person or persons, of any land anywhere in New Zealand exceeding in the whole 5,000 acres of land, computed as follows:—

  1. Every acre of first-class land is reckoned as 7 1/2 acres;

  2. Every acre of second-class land is reckoned as 2 1/2 acres;

  3. Every acre of third-class land is reckoned as 1 acre.

The annual rental payable for occupation-with-right-of-purchase selections is 5 per cent. on the cash price of the land, and for lands selected, for renewable lease the annual rental is 4 per cent. on the cash price of the land.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND.

Crown land may be selected and occupied under the following tenures and systems:—

  1. Town, suburban, and village lands—

    1. For cash and deferred payment, by public auction;

    2. By lease for terms up to ten years;

    3. By renewable lease for thirty-three years

  2. Rural land (unimproved), (under optional system)—

    1. For cash, by application;

    2. Occupation with right of purchase for twenty-five years;

    3. Renewable lease for sixty-six years.

  3. Village settlements—

    Under the three foregoing tenures of optional system.

  4. Improved-farm settlements (rural land)—

    Under special conditions, and either (a) on occupation-with-right-of-purchase license or (b) on renewable lease.

  5. Special settlements (rural land)—

    On renewable lease for sixty-six years and under special regulations.

  6. Land-for-settlement estates (improved rural and pastoral land)—

    Under renewable lease for thirty-three years, with limited right to acquire freehold.

  7. Pastoral land—

    1. By small-grazing-run lease for twenty-one years, with right of renewal (maximum area, 20,000 acres);

    2. By pastoral license on terms up to twenty-one years, as follows: (a) Pastoral lands suitable exclusively for pasturage, and not capable of being used with profit in areas of a carrying-capacity of less than 5,000 sheep; and (b) pastoral agricultural lands, with areas not exceeding 5,000 acres.

  8. Land within mining districts—

    1. On pastoral licenses under special regulations, with right to acquire the freehold or exchange to a renewable lease;

    2. On occupation leases under special regulations, with similar rights as to purchase of freehold and exchange.

  9. Miscellaneous—

    1. Temporary occupation on terms up to five years;

    2. Sale or occupation for special purposes)

    3. Outlying land.

CONDITIONS OF OCCUPATION AND LEASES.

Full particulars are given in the Crown Lands Guide, issued periodically and obtainable at any land office, as to the conditions of lease and occupation. A certain amount of improvements is required to be effected on rural land purchased for cash or held under occupation-with-right-of-purchase or renewable-lease tenures, and residence is compulsory for certain periods on many Crown leaseholds. Rebate of rent is given in many cases when the half-yearly instalment of rent is paid within thirty days of its becoming due. Applications for mortgage, transfer, and sublease of a Crown leasehold have to be approved by the Land Board of the district in most cases.

DISPOSAL OF ENDOWMENTS AND RESERVES ADMINISTERED BY LAND BOARDS.

National endowments may be disposed of under renewable lease, small-grazing-runs lease, or pastoral license. These lands are occupied on the same conditions as ordinary Crown lands, with the exception that the freehold cannot be acquired while such lands continue to be included in the endowment. Under section 11 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1920, the Governor-General is authorized to remove from the endowment certain lands comprised therein, including lands occupied by discharged soldiers under any tenure, and small grazing-runs held under leases issued under the Land Act, 1892, or the Land Act, 1908, up till the 10th December, 1918. Upon the removal of such lands from the endowment the occupiers thereof can acquire the freehold in manner prescribed by section 11 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1920.

Education endowments are available for leasing under the Education Reserves Amendment Act, 1910 (modifying the Education Reserves Act, 1908), which permits of a lease being granted under the Public Bodies' Leases Act, 1908, as well as under the Land Act, 1908. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

Public reserves not vested in trustees or a local authority may be leased, under the Public Reserves and Domains Amendment Act, 1911, for any term not exceeding twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

LANDS OPENED FOR SELECTION.

During the year ended 31st March, 1921, an area of 38,044 acres of land was offered for selection under the various tenures provided by the Land Act, Land for Settlements Act, and Education Reserves Acts.

Under renewable lease an area of 2,319 acres was offered, 1,320 acres being national endowment and 1,000 acres other endowment lands. The pastoral-run area comprised 3,500 acres.

In addition to the above a total area of 61,112 acres of Crown, settlement, and national-endowment lands was set apart for selection by discharged soldiers under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act and the Land for Settlements Act, and the special tenures of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act. Fuller particulars regarding these lands will be found at the end of this subsection.

The total selections during the year covered an area of 585,400 acres; by 2,256 selectors. These figures include, however, 301 purchases of small town, suburban, and rural lands, aggregating 17,997 acres, offered for sale at auction. The ordinary Crown lands holdings represented 212,337 acres; land for settlements and Cheviot Estate, 174,769 acres; national endowment, 177,542 acres; and educational, 2,755 acres; Selections by discharged soldiers are included in the foregoing totals.

SELECTIONS UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS.

Areas under this heading include all lands sold for cash or selected on the deferred-payment system, small grazing-runs, and leases under the following tenures: Renewable lease, occupation with right of purchase, mining districts land occupation leases, educational-endowment leases, and pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations. A five-years summary is as follows:—

Year ended
31st March.
Sold for
Cash.
Deferred-payment
Licenses.
Leases and Licenses
(Ordinary Settlement).
Small
Grazing-runs.
Totals.
191731337868161,234
1918180147085907
1919127445731745
1920253941,007111,365
19213011291,260171,707

The acreage represented by the selections included in the foregoing table is as follows:—

Year ended
31st March.
Sold for
Cash.
Deferred-payment
Licenses.
Leases and
Licenses
(Ordinary
Settlement).
Small
Grazing-runs.
Totals.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.   Acres.   Acres.   
19175,414680231,477135,691373,262
19184,696992151,85431,093188,635
19192,225632136,7542,532142,143
19203,9572,110247,925128,437382,429
192117,9974,433304,58278,029405,041

CROWN LAND HELD OR MADE FREEHOLD.

The following table shows in a condensed form the area of Crown land held at 31st March, 1921, the yearly rental payable, and the area made freehold:—

Tenure.Total Number
of Selectors.
Total Area
held.
Total Yearly
Rental or
Instalment Payable.
Total Area made
Freehold
Number of
Purchasers.
Area.
 Acres.   £       Acres.   
Cash lands..     ..     ..     ..     13,205,641
Deferred payment1,306279,93153,70010,1141,206,538
Perpetual lease24019,6911,2653,046852,934
Occupation with right of purchase4,5851,412,249109,2233,9701,063,521
Lease in perpetuity7,9481,712,518200,4692,700498,582
Renewable lease6,7291,970,942433,15018433,811
Agricultural lease12319141,408140,896
Mining districts land occupation leases67519,7991,477782,832
Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations877209,2535,2075411,266
Small grazing-runs8602,782,702100,2614252,843
Pastoral runs69410,066,10186,822..     ..     
Miscellaneous leases and licenses6,6221,341,39041,520..     ..     
               Totals30,54819,814,8951,033,10821,59617,068,864
Thermal-spring leases (Rotorua)3253,3612,053..     ..     
Education endowments—
     Primary3,264742,50599,927386
     Secondary42839,0507,364..     ..     
               Totals4,017784,916109,344386
               Grand totals34,56520,599,8111,142,45221,59917,068,950
Other endowment lands768360,43617,44814095,445

SUBDIVISION OF LAND.

Much of the land legislation of recent years has been in the direction of preventing large areas of good land from being acquired or retained by a single individual. The Land Laws Amendment Acts of 1912 and 1913 went further in the direction of encouraging or compelling subdivision of land held in large areas. Part III of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1912, makes provision for agreements between the Minister of Lands and the owner in fee-simple of any land for the subdivision of that land, and for the disposal by public tender of the allotments by way of sale or by way of lease with right of purchase.

Section 49 provides for similar agreements between the Minister and the owners of Native freehold land in respect of the disposition by sale or lease of that land.

In Part VI of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1913, provision is made whereby the Minister of Lands may at any time in writing notify an owner of land that such land or a portion thereof is required for purposes of settlement. The owner of land is required, within six months after such notice has been gazetted, to notify the Minister whether he elects (a) to himself subdivide and offer the land for sale in subdivisions, or (b) to enter into an agreement with the Minister as above, or (c) that the land shall be taken compulsorily under the Land for Settlements Act.

In Part VII of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1913, provision is made for compulsorily taking private land (not within a borough or town district) in cases where in the opinion of the Board of Land Purchase Commissioners such land has been acquired by way of aggregation, and where such aggregation is contrary to the public interest. Compensation is payable for all land so taken.

LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS.

The purchase of private lands by the Crown for closer settlement purposes is authorized by the Land for Settlements Act, 1908, and amendments thereof. In each land district is a local Land Purchase Board, of which the Commissioner of Crown Lands is the Chairman, and its recommendations are dealt with by the Dominion Land Purchase Board (Wellington), consisting of the Land Purchase Controller (Chairman), the Under-Secretary of Lands, the Surveyor-General, and a nominated member.

The number of estates offered during the year ended 31st March, 1921, was 204, of an area of 296,482 acres. This is only about half the number offered in the previous year. There were, however, a considerable number submitted direct to the Commissioners of Crown Lands of the several districts and considered by the local Boards. The figures given herein do not include any purchases under section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917. The area purchased and settled by ballot, together with several properties purchased during the. previous year but not settled, is 57,927 acres, of a value of £843,162. The area purchased for individual soldiers (114) under section 3 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917, is 22,023 acres, of a value of £434,809. In addition, 7,539 acres, valued. at £201,032, have been purchased and have since been settled or are in course of disposal.

SUMMARY OF ESTATES ACQUIRED UP TO THE 31ST MARCH, 1921.
Land District.Number.Area.Purchase-money.
 Acres.   £       
Auckland90384,7191,463,767
Hawke's Bay60301,4702,291,637
Taranaki2326,601350,315
Wellington138154,6752,122,020
Marlborough20223,277734,580
Nelson1448,821150,473
Westland25,1258,343
Canterbury171447,1623,443,502
Otago68288,4741,689,828
Southland2590,637457,561
                     Totals6111,970,96112,712,026

The transfer of certain areas from Crown to settlement lands, and the adjustment of areas to account for ascertained surpluses or deficiencies, bring the total area to 2,110,249 acres at the 31st March, 1921. Of this, 183,481 acres have been sold for cash or made freehold, the total purchase-money being £696,425; and 24,163 acres are occupied by roads or by reserves unlet. At the 31st March, 1921, 6,752 selectors were holding a total of 1,762,771 acres, the annual rental for which amounts to £566,312; and the remaining 139,834 acres were unlet. The figures for each land district are as follows:—

POSITION OF LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS AT THE 31ST MARCH, 1921.
District.Net Area
acquired,
including
ascertained
Surplus.
Area occupied
by Roads and
Reserves unlet.
Area of land
unlet, including
Land forfeited,
surrendered, or
resumed and not
relet, and also
Land not yet
offered for
Selection.
Total Area purchased for Cash
or made Freehold to Date.
Number of
Purchasers.
Area.Price
realized.
 Acres.Acres.Acres. Acres.£     
North Auckland37,4689371,9571601,66920,507
Auckland346,7497,173100,053553114,260242,920
Hawke's Bay300,1342,7312,58611021,188134,666
Taranaki25,0791954,694391,18927,446
Wellington133,6941,0723,4531106,85874,210
Nelson59,39887917,38961,6352,953
Marlborough235,1772,686846306,44220,764
Westland5,08099..     2192116
Canterbury604,1174,50749319413,457104,258
Otago266,1542,9018,059425,84927,939
Southland97,1999833047410,74240,646
           Totals2,110,24924,163139,8341,320183,481696,425
District.Total Lands leased to Date.Rent and other
Payments received
during the Year.
Total Receipts
from Inception to
31st March, 1921.
Number of
Selectors.
Area.Annual
Rental.
 Acres.   £     £     £     
North Auckland23832,90513,27812,70788,747
Auckland860125,26339,84377,415621,820
Hawke's Bay828273,629107,611119,135228,781
Taranaki13619,00113,00114,826107,253
Wellington827122,31185,12386,493482,831
Nelson5339,4954,3964,91933,570
Marlborough489225,20337,57038,486477,003
Westland304,78953657010,932
Canterbury1,889585,660169,010177,7512,087,071
Otago1,054249,34575,15676,894949,642
Southland34885,17020,78834,102287,402
                     Totals6,7521,762,771566,312643,2985,375,052

LAND-SETTLEMENT FINANCE ASSOCIATIONS.

On the 1st January, 1910, the Land Settlement Finance Act, which is described fully in the 1915 issue of this book, came into force. The associations incorporated now number forty-four.

LAND FOR DISCHARGED SOLDIERS.

Under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, and amendments, any person is entitled to the benefits of the Act who has been a member of a New Zealand Naval or Expeditionary Force, has served beyond New Zealand in connection with the late war, has returned to New Zealand and has received an honourable discharge, together with any person who immediately prior to the commencement of the war was a bona fide resident of New Zealand, and has also served during the war with some portion of His Majesty's Naval or Military Forces (not being Forces raised in New Zealand) and has received an honourable discharge therefrom. In addition, all discharged members of an Expeditionary Force who, having been classed as medically fit for service beyond the seas, have served as members of that Force in a camp of military training and remained attached to that camp on the 12th November, 1918 (being the date of the cessation of hostilities with Germany), are entitled to apply for advances or private land under sections 2 or 3 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917. (See paragraphs headed “Private Land” and “Financial Assistance.”)

Any discharged soldier wishing to take up land should obtain a provisional application form, answer the questions thereon, and forward it to the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district in which he desires to settle. Provisional application forms may be obtained at any land office or from the Discharged Soldiers' Information Department, Wellington. On receipt of a provisional application the Commissioner will supply the applicant with information regarding all available Crown lands in his land district, and the Land Board will endeavour to place the applicant on a suitable holding.

TENURES UNDER WHICH LAND MAY BE SELECTED.

There is power to dispose of land under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act, 1908, and the Land for Settlements Act, 1908—i.e., for cash, or occupation with right of purchase, or on renewable lease under the former Act, and renewable lease under the latter Act; also under the “special tenures” of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, which are cash, deferred payment, or a renewable lease with a purchasing clause. The various tenures mentioned may be explained as under, and are given under two headings—viz., “Ordinary Tenures” and “Special Tenures.”

(A.) Ordinary Tenures.

Cash.—In all cases of purchase of land for cash the applicant is required to pay one-fifth of the purchase-money at the date of the sale, and the balance, with the Crown-grant fee, within thirty days from the date of the approval of the application.

Occupation with Right of Purchase.—Term, twenty-five years; rental, 5 per cent. on the capital value of the land; right of purchase after the license has been held six years, provided the residence and improvement conditions have been complied with. If the licensee does not acquire the freehold prior to the expiration of the term of twenty-five years he has a prior right to a renewable lease.

Renewable Lease under the Land Act.—Term, sixty-six years, with a perpetual right of renewal; rental, 4 per cent. on the capital value of the land. There is no right to the freehold.

Renewable Lease under the Land for Settlements Act.—Term, thirty-three years, with perpetual right of renewal; rental, 4 1/2 per cent. on the capital value of the land. Right of purchase at any time during the currency of the lease. Purchase of the freehold may be made on the deferred-payment system if desired.

(B.) Special Tenures.

Cash.—The remarks already under “Cash” heading apply to cash selections under “Special Tenures.”

Deferred Payment under Special Tenures.—Term, such period as the Board may determine, usually nineteen years; licensee to deposit 5 per cent. of the purchase-money, and thereafter pay the balance of 95 per cent. by equal annual payments, together with interest at 5 per cent., payable half-yearly, on all outstanding balances. The licensee has the right to pay off the whole or any part of the outstanding money at any time during the currency of the license.

Renewable Lease with Purchasing Clause under Special Tenures.—Term may be for any period not exceeding thirty-three years in the case of settlement land, and sixty-six years in the case of Crown land, with perpetual rights of renewal for thirty-three years or sixty-six years as the case may be. Freehold may be acquired any time during the currency of the lease. Purchase of the freehold may be made on the deferred-payment system if desired.

PRIVATE LAND.

Under section 3 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917, one or more discharged soldiers may apply to the Land Board with a view to the acquisition by the Crown on their behalf of any private land. The Land Board, however, cannot deal with such application until an offer in writing to sell the land to the Crown has been submitted to the Board by the owner of the, land. It can then consider the application and offer, and forward them to the Minister of Lands with such recommendations as it thinks proper. The Minister may thereupon refer the offer to the Land Purchase Board for consideration, and if the land or any part thereof is acquired by the Crown it may then be disposed of under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act to the applicant. (See also under heading of “Financial Assistance.”)

SOLDIERS ' DWELLINGS.

The Minister may set land apart for the purpose of soldiers' dwellings, and may erect suitable buildings thereon. The land and dwellings may then be disposed of to discharged soldiers in the same manner generally as in the case of workers by the Workers' Dwellings Act, 1910.

TRANSFERS.

No transfer of land selected under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act will be permitted for a period of ten years, except with the approval of the Land Board and the Minister of Lands.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE.

Section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917, provides that financial assistance may be given to discharged soldiers for the following purposes: (a) The purchase of private or Native land; (b) the acquisition by assignment or transfer of the lease of any land; and (c) the discharge of any mortgage affecting any land owned by a discharged soldier or held by him under license or lease from a Land Board. The maximum amount for any of these purposes that may be advanced to any one person is £2,500, with a further advance of £750 for improvements, stock, &c., where necessary. Repayment of advances may be secured by flat mortgage for ten years, with interest at 5 per cent., or by instalment mortgage extending over a period of thirty-six years and a half, with an annual charge of 6 per cent., which includes interest and sinking fund.

If assistance is required for the purchase of a residential site with dwelling thereon an advance not exceeding £1,000 may be made, or, in the event of the site being owned by the applicant, an advance not exceeding £900 may be made towards the erection of a dwelling thereon. Repayment of advances may be secured by flat mortgage for ten years, with interest at 5 per cent., or by instalment mortgage extending over a period of twenty-five years and a half, with an annual charge of 7 per cent., which includes interest and sinking fund.

Valuation fees are payable with applications.

In addition, financial assistance may be given to discharged soldiers who own freehold land or are the lessees or licensees of any land administered by a Land Board, for any of the following purposes: The clearing, fencing, draining, and general improvement (including erection of buildings) of the land, and the purchase of plant, stock, implements, seeds, trees, &c. Except in the case of a house to be built on other than rural land, the maximum total amount that may be advanced for all the foregoing purposes is £500 (not more than £250 of this being for a dwelling and other buildings), unless there be special circumstances in which the amount would be inadequate, when the Minister may authorize an additional advance not exceeding £250.

Advances are secured by a mortgage over the land, with the addition, at the option of the Minister, of a bill of sale over the stock, implements, &c. The rate of interest is 5 per cent.

Advances for improvements or buildings may be made by progress-payments up to 75 per cent. of the value of any work done.

Applications for assistance, giving full particulars, must be made to the Land Board for the district in which the land affected is situated. Before making its recommendation the Board will require the applicant to appear personally before it, or before such person as it may Appoint. No application for an advance to assist in the purchase of land can be considered unless accompanied by an option to purchase the fee-simple, or lease, or license, as the case may be.

At the 31st March, 1921, advances amounting to £17,941,980, to 20,293 settlers, had been authorized. Advances actually made to the same date reached a total of £16,256,786, of which £904,313 has already been repaid.

The following table shows the total area proclaimed under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915. Of the total area proclaimed, ordinary Crown lands amounted to 528,801 acres, Cheviot Estate to 3,356 acres, land for settlements to 363,209 acres, and national-endowment land to 425,725 acres.

District.Under Section 3 of the Act.
(Ordinary Tenures.)
Under Section 4 of the Act.
(Special Tenures.)
Total Area proclaimed.
For the
Year ended
31st March, 1921.
Total to
31st March, 1921.
For the
Year ended
31st March, 1921.
Total to
31st March, 1921.
For the
Year ended
31st March, 1921.
Total to
31st March, 1921.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland5,74619,45516,98230,50222,72849,957
Auckland19,96560,57648,088133,37968,053193,955
Hawke's Bay10,60527,26347,295148,66457,900175,927
Taranaki4,09515,65719,95136,91924,04652,576
Wellington8992,49012,47998,93813,378101,428
Nelson9,29435,38018,38226,51927,67661,899
Marlborough..     ..     6,92319,8536,92319,853
Westland16,56627,752..     48016,56628,232
Canterbury21,200254,22819,22346,34740,423300,575
Otago121,403239,78035,53271,982156,935311,762
Southland68410,8242,47814,1033,16224,927
               Totals210,457693,405227,333627,686437,7901,321,091

During the year ended 31st March, 1921, 5,396 applications were made under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, and allotments were made in the case of 1,087 applicants. The following table shows the number of applications for land in each of the several land districts of the Dominion, and also the number of applications granted, together with the areas so allotted:—

District.Applications.Allotments.
Number.Area.
 Acres.
North Auckland16111421,220
Auckland1,06126153,058
Hawke's Bay57013147,944
Taranaki2499820,616
Wellington45719651,833
Nelson232116,181
Marlborough1,161278,980
Westland491017,488
Canterbury7109924,291
Otago86296148,284
Southland93344,972
                     Totals5,3961,087414,867

SUBSECTION C.—NATIVE LANDS.

NATIVE lands and Native affairs generally are administered by the Native Department as indicated below.

The Native Land Court is the Court of Record of Titles, and deals, inter alia, with the partition and exchange of Native lands, succession, probate and letters of administration, consolidation of interests, incorporation of owners, and alienation.

Maori Land Boards, of which there are seven, all located in the North Island, are concerned with the confirmation and approval of alienations, the administration of Native lands by way of sale or lease, and the administration of estates as farms.

The Registrars of the Native Land Courts are also the administrative officers of the Maori Land Boards of the various districts.

The purchase of lands on behalf of the Crown is conducted by a Native Land Purchase Board.

Maori Councils elected for defined districts, and composed of Natives, supervise matters generally affecting the Maori settlements and kaingas, more particularly as regards sanitary arrangements.

The terms “partition” and “individualization,” as applied to Native Land Court dealings, are often confused. To individualize is to partition in severalty, and not merely to define relative interests, which may be done without further partition. To partition is to cut out certain interests in a block of land, and may not necessarily be for an individual The term “customary land,” which is also sometimes misunderstood, is applied to land not yet clothed with a Native Land Court title. Customary land was formerly known as papatupu land.

NATIVE LAND COURT.

Particulars of the business dealt with by the Native Land Court during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1921, are as follows:—

Number of sittings109
Number of cases notified27,032
Number of cases for which orders were made8,672
Number of cases dismissed4,344
Number of cases adjourned sine die14,016
Number of partitions made813
     Area affected (acres)317,842
Number of investigations of title14
     Area affected (acres)325
Number of succession orders made6,642
Number of other orders made2,027

From the Native Land Court an appeal lies to the Native Appellate Court.

MAORI LAND BOARDS.

The total area vested in and administered by the various Maori Land Boards up to 31st March, 1921, was 942,632 acres.

During the year 2,906 acres of vested land were disposed of by lease, 2,396 acres were sold, while 1,052 acres were revested in the Native owners, as against 1,021 acres alienated by way of lease in the previous year.

With regard to Native freehold land, the Boards during the year approved of 403 leases, comprising 39,979 acres, and confirmed 1,345 transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 91,597 acres of freehold land.

NATIVE-LAND PURCHASE.

During the year some 117 blocks, comprising 82,909 acres, were proclaimed Crown land. The actual purchases made during the year totalled an area of 56,595 acres. In the Urewera Reserve an area of 9,404 acres was secured, making the Crown purchases in the Urewera total 329,982 acres as at the 31st March last.

During the eleven years which have elapsed since the coming into operation of the Native Land Act, 1909, the total area of Native land alienated by way of sale has been approximately 2,530,593 acres. Of this total an area of some 1,133,165 acres has been acquired on behalf of the Crown for settlement purposes, at a purchase price of £2,768,529.

EXTENT OF NATIVE LANDS.

The total area of lands held by Maori owners at 31st March, 1921, was 4,915,604 acres, of which 4,639,573 acres were situated in the North Island. Dealing with the North Island only, the position was—

 Acres.   
Leased through Maori Land Boards2,853,012
Leased and farmed by East Coast Trust Commissioner158,432
Leased by Public Trustee139,728
Leased under special enactments9,538
Occupied by Maori owners (estimated)380,000
Unoccupied1,098,863
                               Total4,639,573

A high proportion of the unoccupied land consists of pumice land, mountain-tops, sand-dunes, &c. The position is briefly that there is barely sufficient Native land for the requirements of the Natives themselves.

By the Native Trust Act, 1920, provision was made for the appointment of a Native Trustee, who will administer all Native reserves and undertake the functions, with regard to Natives, formerly vested in the Public Trustee, except in the case of the estates of deceased Natives who may have died intestate. Mr. W. E. Rawson, Judge of the Native Land Court, has been appointed the first Native Trustee, and he has entered upon the duties of his position.

Chapter 16. SECTION XVI.—AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

THE Dominion of New Zealand is a country specially favoured for primary production. The soil covering is varied in character, a considerable portion of it being of exceptional fertility; but even the poorer soils are largely capable of profitable utilization by reason of the comparatively mild and equable weather conditions. The best grasses and fodder plants flourish in the congenial environment, and the country has gained a world-wide reputation for the quality of its pastures. Numerous streams intersect the country and present to the farmer a great potential source of cheap power, which is already being used in individual cases for shearing sheep, separating milk, crushing grain, cutting firewood, and lighting the home.

A conspicuous feature of New Zealand farming is that the stock do not require to be stalled in the winter, though the pastures are more or less supplemented by fodder crops in the colder months of the year. This fact, combined with the factor of soil-fertility, enables the New Zealand farmer to produce stock at a much smaller cost than the farmer in countries where artificial feeding has to be employed or where droughts periodically occur.

New Zealand is primarily a grazing-country, and, while more of the land is every year being given up to the cultivation of fodder crops, its future will, no doubt, be inseparably associated with stock-raising, principally of dairy cattle and sheep. Though less than a century has elapsed since the colonization of New Zealand, sixteen million acres of land in the Dominion have been sown down in English grasses; and when it is considered that the area under pasture in Great Britain is only about twenty million acres, the splendid progress made by the farmers of New Zealand will be realized. A great proportion of the crops grown in the Dominion are for the production of such commodities as meat, wool, and dairy-produce.

Grain crops, principally oats and wheat, are grown on a fairly large scale in the eastern and southern districts of the South Island. Barley is also grown, but to a very much smaller extent. Much of the crop of oats produced is chaffed for stock-feeding purposes within the country. Root crops, principally turnips, are grown on a large scale for winter feed and for stock-fattening purposes, more particularly in the South Island. Owing to the comparative difficulty of growing large areas of turnips free from disease, other stock-foods are coming into prominence. Mangolds are being cultivated to a larger extent, and farmers are beginning to realize the great value of lucerne, while silver-beet for feeding to dairy stock has had considerable attention. Ensilage-making, particularly in the stack form, is increasing in the dairying districts. Quite a feature of milk-producing operations is the growing of green fodder crops to maintain the milk-supply during the drier months of the year, and for this purpose maize is specially favoured, though such crops as barley and tares, also silver-beet, are increasing in use. It will be seen that live-stock in New Zealand. are almost entirely maintained on food produced on the farm itself, there being no such thing as the use of concentrated foodstuffs, except in the case of calf and pig meals, much of which is locally manufactured.

THE NORTH ISLAND.

The North Island of the Dominion is remarkable for the congenial environment it furnishes for many phases of primary production. In no part is the winter really severe, and the question of stalling stock during the colder months of the year has not to be considered. It is more a grazing than an agricultural country, and practically all the cereal crops raised are used for feeding to farm stock. The dominant industries are dairying and sheep-farming. There is probably no finer sheep-country in the world than the limestone downs of the province of Hawke's Bay, while on the west coast the Waimate Plains provide an ideal environment for dairy cattle. It may be said with every confidence that there is more butter-fat produced to the acre on many farms in the Taranaki District than on any equal area in the world when it is considered that all the food provided for the stock is produced on the farm itself. The standard of dairy-farming is steadily improving, not only by reason of special fodder being provided for the drier parts of the summer and the colder months of the year, but on account of the fact that the farmer is coming to realize the value of herd testing and culling.

Sheep-farming in the North Island has also made great headway, and with the steady increase in the area of land taken up for this purpose, particularly in the back country, the gain made in the number of the flocks more than compensates for the sheep-breeding areas on the better lands being taken up for dairy-farming.

In various parts of the Island fruitgrowing, principally of apples, pears, and peaches, is being placed on a sound commercial basis. In the northern portion citrus fruits can be successfully produced, and with the adoption of better methods oranges and lemons should be cultivated on a considerable scale. Outdoor grapes are freely grown. Both the North and the South Islands have established an export trade in apples.

The remarkable demonstration provided by the Department of Agriculture at the Te Kauwhata Horticultural Station (late Waerenga Experimental Farm) in the utilization of poor pipeclay or “gum” land, considered useless for ordinary agricultural purposes, for the production of fruit has provided a key to the unlocking of a very large area of land in the North Island. That fruit of the best quality can be successfully produced on such country is now an accomplished fact. In connection with the demonstration work at Te Kauwhata a number of fruit-farms were laid out and, as they reached the profit-making stage, were disposed of. It has also been demonstrated at this station that wattle-trees thrive in some northern lands. The Department has established on the property large plantations of black-wattle that are periodically harvested for their bark, which is ground on the property and sold at remunerative prices for tanning purposes.

During recent years it has been discovered that the Waikato district and the Auckland Province in general are admirably adapted for the industry Of milk-production, and dairying has made remarkable headway. The Auckland District, in fact, has become easily the largest exporter of butter in the Dominion.

With the adoption of improved methods in the treatment of the land, and the demonstration, particularly at the Ruakura Farm of Instruction, of correct manurial treatment, farming in the Auckland Province has been placed on a much more stable basis. Assisted by a favourable climate, of which a short and mild winter is a feature, stock-raising of all descriptions is being carried on with conspicuous success. The country is eminently adapted for the production of root and fodder crops, and stock can be brought to maturity and fattened for the market at a minimum of cost.

THE SOUTH ISLAND.

The South Island was the portion of the Dominion where agriculture proper was first established, the settlement of the land being greatly facilitated by the fact that on the eastern, southern, and northern portions large fertile plains, rolling downs, and hills were available devoid of the forests which in a very large portion of the North Island have had to be cleared before the land could be utilized by the farmer. Agricultural operations in the South have been maintained at a high standard for many years, principally in Otago and Canterbury, many of the pioneers of which districts were British yeomen farmers who brought with them the best methods of the Old Land. So in the breeding of live-stock, many of the original holders of land in the South and the shepherds and herdsmen they employed were well trained in stock-management by live-stock breeders of the Mother-country. The South Island may be fairly said to have been the nursery of the live-stock of the Dominion, and the high quality of the stock bred in the country is in a large measure due to the capacity of the men who founded and developed the flocks and herds in the eastern and southern districts of the South Island.

While the climate in the southern districts of the South Island is not so congenial as that in the northern, there are only a few portions where the winter is at all rigorous. The Nelson Province, in the north-west corner of the Island, is noted for its climate, which is remarkably equable in character. Nelson has a sunshine-record which is equalled in but few parts of the Temperate Zone. The district is specially suitable for fruitgrowing, which is being developed on a rapidly expanding commercial scale. At the other end of the Island, in Central Otago, a peculiar configuration of the country enables fruitgrowing to be prosecuted with unique success. The winter is comparatively severe, but the warm summer sun and the absence of wind make it an ideal environment for fruitgrowing.

Generally, however, stock-raising is the main industry in the southern half of the Dominion, while in some sections, particularly in Canterbury, Otago, and Marlborough, grain-growing is prosecuted on a considerable scale. The Canterbury Plains, extending a hundred and fifty miles north and south and running inland for forty miles from the sea, represent an area of over 3,000,000 acres. This forms the principal grain-growing area. Wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated to a large extent. In Otago and Southland oats are the grain principally produced. In some of the richer lands the yield of wheat has reached very high figures, even up to 80 or 90 bushels per acre, while over 100 bushels to the acre have been recorded for crops of oats. In root crops up to 70 tons per acre of turnips have been secured, while the yield of mangolds has frequently reached 90 tons.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture the Department of Agriculture is a service which is mainly concerned in advancing the interests of primary production, having special branches dealing with the leading phases of the latter. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Directors of Divisions of Live-stock, Dairy, and Horticulture, also a Chemist and a Biologist in charge of sections.

While the service is mainly educative, it also carries out important inspection, work. All meat exported is inspected by qualified officers. Cattle are inspected for tuberculosis and-other bovine troubles; sheep and swine also receive attention; slaughterhouses are licensed and controlled, and all stock exported and imported are examined by the veterinary surgeons of the Department.

Dairy-produce is inspected and graded prior to shipment, a close supervision being also exercised over the moisture in butter and cheese, as well as over the weights of such produce; dairy-farm premises are inspected; herd-testing is promoted, and a system of semi-official testing of purebred dairy cows is in operation. Milk-samples are tested for dairy companies and farmers.

A close supervision is exercised over the control of noxious weeds and the suppression of rabbits, and assistance is rendered in connection with the system of co-operative field experiments. A special staff is employed to grade New Zealand phormium-fibre prior to export.

The Horticulture Division is charged with the inspection of fruit and trees imported and offered for sale, inspects orchards and apiaries, and generally controls diseases of plants and bees.

There are several experimental farms and horticultural stations which carry out experiments and demonstrations of national as well as local import, including plant-breeding experiments and the breeding of purebred cattle. Several of the farms were established to solve local problems, and the objective in each case has been attained.

The instructional work covers a comprehensive field, all classes of farmers being assisted by advice. Thousands of farmers visit .the experimental farms, while, large numbers of letters of advice are written by the managers. Comprehensive educational displays are made at the several winter shows, largely illustrative of the experiments conducted at the farms of the Department. Several hundred farmers are co-operating with the Department in conducting experiments on their farms. A monthly journal is published at a nominal subscription, and bulletins are frequently issued. Any farmer can obtain advice regarding his soil, have his seed examined for germination-capacity and purity, his milk tested for butter-fat content or for the presence of disease, plants identified, and diseases of either animals or plants described, and remedies suggested—all these services being rendered free of charge.

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

By an Act of Parliament passed in 1913 provision was made for the establishment of a Board of Agriculture, consisting of not more than twelve members appointed by the Governor-General, of whom not more than four were to be appointed on the recommendation of the agricultural and pastoral societies of the North Island, and an equal number on the recommendation of such societies in the South Island. The functions of the Board are to advise the Minister of Agriculture on matters relating to the development of agricultural and other rural industries in New Zealand. In particular, but without limiting the application of the term “agricultural and rural industries,” the functions of the Board extend to the following matters:—

  1. The aiding, improving, and developing of agriculture and all rural industries, including fruit-culture, horticulture, forestry, dairying, the breeding of stock and poultry, beekeeping, and the flax industry;

  2. The prevention and control of disease in stock and poultry, the control of rabbits and noxious weeds, and the dipping of sheep;

  3. The establishment of agricultural colleges and agricultural education generally; and

  4. The aiding or facilitating of the carriage and distribution of produce.

COLLECTION OF AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL STATISTICS.

In the years previous to and inclusive of 1908-9 complete agricultural and pastoral statistics were collected annually by sub-enumerators appointed by the Department of Agriculture; in 1909-10 full statistics were not collected, but the areas under the principal grain and root crops were ascertained and an estimate made of the yields; for 1910-11 complete information was obtained in connection with the 1911 census. In the four succeeding years returns were collected by post regarding the acreage and yield of the principal crops; but this method of collection was found to be less satisfactory than the personal visit, and the figures for these years are probably not quite accurate.

Beginning with the 1915-16 season, a new and comprehensive system of collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics was instituted. Under this system complete collections of agricultural and pastoral statistics are made annually by the Census and Statistics Office through the agency of officers of the Police Department. Practically every holding of 1 acre or over (with the exception of those within borough boundaries and Maori lands held on the communal system) is canvassed personally. Interim returns of principal crops and live-stock are published in the New Zealand Gazette, and when the collection is completed the full statistics are gazetted, and are also included in Vol. iii of “Statistics of the Dominion of New Zealand.”

In addition to the main collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics the following supplementary inquiries are undertaken: Areas sown or intended, to be sown in wheat and oats (taken at the end of September); stocks of flour, wheat, and oats in the hands of millers, merchants, storekeepers, and farmers (at the end of November); estimated yields of wheat and oats (early in February); and returns of wheat and oats threshed (throughout the threshing season). The results of these first three inquiries are gazetted, and they are also, together with the figures of threshings, published from time to time in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

FARM MACHINERY AND EMPLOYEES.

Summarized statistical information concerning agricultural and pastoral production will be found in Subsections B and C respectively of this section. Farm machinery and farm employees are probably best dealt with together (the more particularly as part of the machinery in use cannot be definitely allocated to one branch or the other of farming), and are accordingly referred to in this subsection.

Information concerning farm machinery is of value as showing in some measure the degree of reliance placed upon mechanical labour. The number of persons employed upon farms (including working proprietors or managers) is also given in the appropriate tables.

DAIRYING MACHINERY.

The number of milking plants shown in the returns for 1921 was 10,450, as against 8,806 in 1920. Cream-separators numbered 32,024, being an increase of 5,346 over the number shown for 1920 (26,678).

DAIRYING MACHINERY AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1920-21.
Land District
(excluding Interior Boroughs).
Persons employed on Holdings used principally
for Dairying Purposes (including Working Proprietors or Managers).
Milking Plants
(all Holdings
except Boroughs).
Cream-separators
(all Holdings
except Boroughs).
Males.Females.Total.
North Auckland7,7843,34811,1321,2565,369
Auckland9,6733,95813,6312,9394,580
Hawke's Bay2,0941,1243,2184932,286
Taranaki6,8013,36210,1632,318950
Wellington6,0671,9548,0211,6383,233
Nelson1,1272551,3821981,258
Marborough286156442161869
Westland63825689469395
Canterbury2,5001,3643,8645796,644
Otago2,1631,3823,5452403,713
Southland2,9011,7494,6505592,727
     Totals, 1920-2142,03418,90860,94210,45032,024
     Totals, 1919-2037,26318,43255,6958,80626,678

PASTORAL MACHINERY.

The number of shearing plants returned in 1921 was 5,354, controlling 17,618 stands. As against this, the number of shearing plants was 5,155 in 1920, and the number of stands was 17,242. Wool-presses totalled 7,903 in 1921, as against 7,893 in 1920.

PASTORAL MACHINERY AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1920-21.
Land District
(excluding Interior Boroughs).
Persons employed on Holdings used
principally for Pastoral and other
(including unspecified) Purposes
(including Working Proprietors or Managers).
Shearing Machines
(all Holding except Boroughs).
Wool-presses
(all Holdings
except Boroughs).
Males.Females.Total.Plants.Stands.
North Auckland4,1697404,909294722286
Auckland4,5657165,2813631,079511
Hawke's Bay6,4571,1877,6441,1805,1401,304
Taranaki2,2693222,591273846424
Wellington8,0801,4179,4971,7135,3022,050
Nelson1,52931,64591211290
Marlborough1,4842331,717186605405
Westland48243525102427
Canterbury8,2472,52110,7688182,4591,403
Otago4,6741,6846,358302900918
Southland2,9818973,878124330285
     Totals, 1920-2144,9609,85354,8135,35417,6187,903
     Totals, 1919-2049,61610,74860,3645,15517,2427,893

AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY.

Agricultural tractors numbered 380 in 1921 (324 in 1920), with a nominal horsepower of 6,694 (as against 5,291 in 1920). The number of reapers-and-binders was 13,105; of threshing-machines, 387; and of chaffcutters, 3,140. In 1920 reapers-and-binders numbered 12,879, threshing-machines 390, and chaffcutters 3,202. Particulars regarding other machinery used specifically for agricultural purposes are not collected.

AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1920-21.
Land District
(excluding Interior Boroughs).
Persons employed on Holdings
used principally for Agricultural Purposes
(including Working Proprietors or Managers).
Agricultural Tractors
(all Holdings except Boroughs).
Reapers-and-binders
(all Holdings except Boroughs).
Threshing-machines
(all Holdings except Boroughs).
Chaffcutters
(all Holdings
except Boroughs).
Males.Females.Total.Number.Nominal
Horsepower.
North Auckland921871,0082955020225523
Auckland42847475931,60628720366
Hawke's Bay6671187853560044039229
Taranaki23..  23473492109
Wellington810110920641,17164750323
Nelson950921,042121482334101
Marlborough42584331115349629104
Westland5..  524723381
Canterbury6,8011,6858,486661,2325,683130325
Otago2,2245612,785325602,89767883
Southland1,1074361,543325542,1481896
     Totals, 1920-2114,3613,14417,5053806,69413,1053873,140
     Totals, 1919-2012,8063,38416,1903245,29112,8793903,202

ENGINES.

Farm engines cannot be allocated to any definite branch of the farming industry. Information concerning the various classes of farm engines is given below for the season 1920-21, and 1919-20 figures are given for comparative purposes:—

FARM ENGINES AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1920-21.
Land District
(excluding Interior
Boroughs).
Total Persons
(including Working
Proprietors or
Managers) employed on
Holdings, 1920-21.
Stationary Engines.Portable or
Traction
Engines.
Water- or Motors.Electric Motors.Steam.Internal Combustion.
Number.Approximate
Horsepower.*
Number.Nominal
Horsepower.
Number.Nominal
Horsepower.
Number.Nominal
Horsepower.
Number.Nominal
Horsepower.

* Being aggregate power of cases where specified.

† Not available.

North Auckland17,049189040132522591,7255,64541298
Auckland19,3873931147240884703,3179,67539292
Hawke's Bay11,64732672297814571,5085,8002401,264
Taranaki12,77726151861185502232,2436,2971061
Wellington18,43854339782451909583,14610,5922101,212
Nelson4,06920864104320829096378250
Marlborough2,59215941328341543501,42635252
Westland1,424937413137183247532
Canterbury23,11888596153566764101,6136,5452221,551
Otago12,688743782368422507663,048100703
Southland10,071231121127503016442,01259398
     Totals, 1920-21133,2606402,8284561,6117193,76115,68552,2501,0396,313
     Totals, 1919-20132,2496213,43513,98146,5891,1346,671

SUBSECTION B.—AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION.

GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS.

OF the total area of 18,169,829 acres under cultivation in 1920-21 only 883,129 acres were in grain and pulse crops. If from this total be deducted areas under crops not intended for threshing, the total is reduced to 440,326 acres. The areas and the total and per-acre yields of grain and pulse crops for threshing are given below for each of the last ten years:—

GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS, 1911-12 TO 1920-21.
Areas.
Season.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas and
Beans.
 Acres.   Acres.   Acres.   Acres.Acres.   
1911-12215,528403,66831,6446,094..     
1912-13189,869386,78637,4864,683..     
1913-14166,774361,74132,0225,942..     
1914-15229,600287,56118,3475,477..     
1915-16329,207212,68830,2048,0869,209
1916-17218,942177,3229,6486,35911,905
1917-18280,978156,20218,8608,15111,685
1918-19208,030172,68618,7539,79217,929
1919-20139,611179,80022,9079,06414,416
1920-21219,985147,55946,80211,51414,466
Total Yields.
Season.Wheat.,Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas and
Beans.
* The figures shown for 191-12 to 1914-15 (Inclusive) do not represent actual results, but were obtained by applying to ascertained, average yields per acre the areas stated by growers to be intended for threshing. It would appear, however, that In many cases farmers included under the heading “Oats for Threshing” areas which were Intended or used for chaffing or other purposes. The yields given are therefore probably overstated.
 Bushels.   Bushels.   Bushels.   Bushels.Bushels.
1911-127,261,13819,662,668*1,254,648278,252..      
1912-135,179,62613,583,924*1,377,610222,115..      
1913-145,231,70014,740,946*1,205,628307,736..      
1914-156,644,33611,436,301*596,828275,274..      
1915-167,108,3607,653,208820,174340,372163,273
1916-175,083,2775,371,249758,935274,332243,297
1917-186,807,5364,942,769568,702367,761312,582
1918-196,567,6296,884,609710,932413,595505,950
1919-204,559,9346,967,862815,807405,775369,306
1920-216,872,2626,225,1151,586,711500,845355,395
Average Yields per Acre.
Season.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas and
Beans.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
1911-1233.6948.7139.6545.66..   
1912-1327.2835.1236.7547.43..   
1913-1431.3740.7537.6551.79..   
1914-1528.9439.7732.5350.26..   
1915-1621.5935.9827.1542.0917.73
1916-1723.2230.2925.6043.1420.43
1917-1824.2331.6430.1545.0926.73
1918-1931.5739.8837.9142.1728.16
1919-2032.6638.7535.6144.7625.62
1920-2131.2435.4133.9043.5024.54

Information as to yields of wheat, oats, and barley per acre over a longer series of years is disclosed by the accompanying diagram, the most noticeable points being the violent fluctuations, the regularity with which yields of all three crops have increased or decreased simultaneously, and the generally higher yields in later years as compared with earlier.

WHEAT.

Wheat is principally grown in the central and southern portions of the South Island. Seventy-seven per cent. of the grain produced now comes from Canterbury; Otago and Southland together produce 20 per cent., while the remainder of the South Island and the whole of the North Island contribute the remaining 3 per cent. The area under wheat for threshing in each season since 1874-75 is given below:—

Year.Area for
Threshing.
 Acres.
1874-75105,673
1875-7690,804
1876-77141,614
1877-78243,406
1878-79264,861
1879-80270,198
1880-81324,949
1881-82365,715
1882-83390,818
1883-84377,706
1884-85270,043
1885-86173,891
1886-87253,025
1887-88357,359
1888-89362,153
1889-90335,861
1890-91301,460
1891-92402,273
1892-93381,245
1893-94242,737
1894-95148,575
1895-96245,441
1896-97258,608
1897-98315,801
1898-99399,034
1899-1900269,749
1900-1208,084
1901-2167,474
1902-3195,255
1903-4230,959
1904-5258,896
1905-6222,183
1906-7206,185
1907-8193,031
1908-9252,391
1909-10311,000
1910-11322,167
1911-12215,528
1912-13189,869
1913-14166,774
1914-15229,600
1915-16329,207
1916-17218,942
1917-18280,978
1918-19208,030
1919-20139,611
1920-21219,985

The area (for threshing) and the production of wheat per head of population (including Maoris) for the last ten years are now given. The population is taken at the 31st March, a date corresponding approximately to harvest-time.

Year.Per Head of Population.
Area.Production.
 Acres.Bushels.
1911-120.206.72
1912-130.174.71
1913-140.165.03
1914-150.205.78
1915-160.296.18
1916-170.194.42
1917-180.245.90
1918-190.185.57
1919-200.113.69
1920-210.175.42

Unless there is a considerable carry over from the previous season, importation of wheat requires to be made when the production falls below about 6 bushels per head of population. The carry-over from 1911-12 made up the deficiency of the 1913 harvest; but in 1914, 121,737 bushels were imported; in 1915, 522,617 bushels; in 1916, 51,512 bushels; in 1917, 719,977 bushels; in 1918, 1,370,542 bushels; in 1919, 1,336,222 bushels; and in 1920, 1,905,163 bushels.

Wheat grown for purposes other than threshing is insignificant.

CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT.

It is estimated that New Zealand annually requires an average of about 7,500,000 bushels of wheat, about 6,850,000 bushels of this total being milling-wheat, and representing 142,700 tons of flour at the rate of 48 bushels of wheat to the ton of flour. Of the remaining 650,000 bushels of wheat about 450,000 bushels are annually required for seed purposes, and, roughly, 200,000 bushels are of threshing-millers' seconds. The latter would probably be used entirely for fowl-wheat.

In former years the Dominion produced considerably more wheat than was required within the country, but the position is now reversed. This is shown by the fact that in 1880 the export of wheat amounted to 3,120,643 bushels, whilst forty years later (1920) the quantity imported reached 1,905,170 bushels.

The following information is based on the production figures as ascertained at the last five collections of agricultural and pastoral statistics, whilst due weight is given to imports and exports of wheat and estimated carry-over. It must be borne in mind that the population. of the Dominion during the period under review was temporarily lessened by an appreciable proportion of the manhood of the country, and this has had a double effect—firstly, the population available for the production of wheat was below normal, and. secondly, the consumption was thereby lessened. The following calculations give an estimated annual consumption of 7,253,226 bushels; but allowing for a somewhat greater population, coupled with a more efficient (proportionally) producing population, it would seem that about 7,500,000 bushels are now required each year for all purposes.

WHEAT-CONSUMPTION, 1917-20.
Year.Production of
Wheat at Harvest.
Excess of Imports
over Exports of
Wheat.*
Total.
* Including flour converted on the basis of 48 bushels of wheat to ton of flour.
 Bushels.   Bushels.   Bushels.   
19175,083,2771,075,5616,158,838
19186,807,5361,403,9688,211,504
19196,567,6291,187,8167,755,445
19204,559,9341,780,8636,340,797
Total for four years23,018,3765,448,20828,466,584
Average5,754,5941,362,0527,116,646
       Plus average net decrease in carry-over136,580
       Estimated average annual consumption7,253,226

Information concerning carry-over or surplus at the end of the season was first collected under the present system in 1916. At the 30th November, 1920, there was a surplus (allowing for flour) of 1,583,490 bushels, whilst the carry-over from the 30th November, 1916, was 2,130,108 bushels (or the equivalent), the surplus having thus suffered a net reduction during the four years of 546,618 bushels, or at the rate of 136,580 bushels annually.

The amount of wheat sown per acre for seed purposes varies in different districts, but after making due allowance for these differences it is estimated that on the average about 1 1/2 bushels are sown to the acre throughout the Dominion. The following table gives particulars upon which this estimate is based:—

District.Amount of
Seed sown
per Acre.
Mean Sowings
per Acre.
Area under
Wheat in
1920-21.
Estimated
Sowings,
1920-21.
 Bushels.Bushels.Acres.Bushels.
North Auckland, Auckland2 to 2 1/22.2508871,996
Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa1 1/4 to 21.6252,4333,954
Taranaki, Wellington (excluding Wairarapa)2 to 2 1/22.2502,8416,392
Nelson, Marlborough, Westland, Canterbury, North Otago1 to 1 3/41.375196,388270,033
South Otago, Southland2 to 32.50020,29450,735
           Dominion totals1 to 31.495222,843333,110

Taking an average of the last five seasons it is found that 217,303 acres are annually put down in wheat for all purposes, and at the rate of 1 1/2 bushels per acre this would represent an average annual seed requirement of 325,960 bushels, For reasons already indicated it is estimated that the area sown in wheat in the next few years will average considerably more than 217,303 acres, and in fact the estimated area sown or to be sown for the season 1921-22 is 363,000 acres. A reasonable estimate of the annual seed requirements would therefore be about 450,000 bushels.

The amount of fowl-wheat annually consumed within the Dominion is extremely difficult to assess. Wheat for this purpose comes into competition with oats, and therefore price-variations must necessarily play a prominent part among the various factors concerned in the amount used for this purpose. The proportions of millers' second;? and of firsts for the last three seasons are given below, these being the only seasons for which such information is available:—

Season.Proportion of Total Yield.
Firsts.Seconds.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
1918-1996.773.23
1919-2096.483.52
1920-2196.843.16

The average for the three seasons gives 3.30 per cent. as seconds, and this represents about 200,000 bushels annually. It is noteworthy that the proportion of millers' seconds is greatest when the harvest is poorest, and least when the harvest is exceptionally good.

The total amount of wheat consumed annually within the Dominion has (as stated before) been put at 7,500,000 bushels. Of this, 450,000 bushels are estimated to be required for seed purposes, and 200,000 bushels are fowl-wheat—a total of 650,000 bushels. By deduction the total amount of milling-wheat would therefore be 6,850,000 bushels, or 5 1/2 bushels per head of the present population.

WHEAT CONTROL AND GUARANTEE.

In 1917 it was considered advisable to control the price of wheat, and on the 6th February, 1917, the following maximum wholesale prices were fixed by the Government for good milling-wheat:—

Sold for Delivery inPrice per Bushel.
Velvet or
Pearl.
Hunters
(Varieties).
Tuscan or
Longberry.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.
February to April, 1917595857
May, 191759 1/258 1/257 1/2
June, 19175105958
July, 1917510 1/259 1/258 1/2
July, 1917 (or later)51151059

Wheat inferior to “good milling-wheat” was later (May, 1918) fixed at a retail price of 15 per cent. in advance of the wholesale price legally chargeable by a broker or merchant f.o.b. Lyttelton.

On the 25th February, 1919, it was announced that Government brokers would buy good milling-wheat f.o.b. nearest port at the following prices:—

Sold for Delivery inPrice per Bushel.
Grown in North Island,
Nelson, or Marlborough.
Grown in Remainder
of South Island.
 s.d.s.d.
January-June, 191961066
July, 1919610 1/266 1/2
August, 191961167
September, 1919611 1/267 1/2
October, 1919 (or later)7068

Wheat would be purchased for delivery otherwise than f.o.b. nearest port at prices equivalent, as regards the seller, to those quoted above.

For the season 1919-20 the following were the prices payable by Government brokers for good milling-wheat on the same terms as the 1918-19 purchase:—

Sold for Delivery inPrice per Bushel.
Velvet or
Pearl.
Hunters
(Varieties).
Tuscan or
Longberry.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.
January-April, 1920797673
May, 192079 1/276 1/273 1/2
June, 19207107774
July, 1920710 1/277 1/274 1/2
August, 19207117875
September, 1920711 1/278 1/275 1/2
October, 1920 (or later)807976

North Island wheat, and wheat grown in Nelson and Marlborough Provinces, would be purchased at a rate of 4d. in advance of the above; and the same provisions as before were made in regard to wheat other than f.o.b. nearest port.

The minimum prices guaranteed for wheat of the 1921-22 season, as shown below, are considerably lower than in the previous year:—

Sold for Delivery inPrice per Bushel.
Velvet or
Pearl.
Hunters
(Varieties).
Tuscan or
longberry.
 S.d.s.d.s.d.
January-April, 1922635956
May, 192263 3/459 3/456 3/4
June, 192264 1/2510 1/257 1/2
July, 192265 1/4511 1/458 1/4
August, 1922666059
September, 192266 3/460 3/459 3/4
October, 1922 (or later)67 1/261 1/2510 1/2

These are guaranteed minimum prices, and it is provided that, should the market price exceed these, then the market price will be paid.

The following varieties of wheat are included under the headings outlined:—

“Pearl”—Pearl, Velvet, Bobs.

“Hunters”—Hunters, Webb's Challenge, Webb's Stand-up White, Velvet-ear, Redchaff.

“Tuscan”—Tuscan, Talavera, Dreadnought, Red Marvel, Federation, Yandalla King, John Brown, McCallum's Bordier, Sensation, and Victor; also all varieties not classed as Hunters or Pearl above.

WHEAT-PRODUCTION IN AUSTRALASIA, 1920-21.

The area and yield of wheat in 1920-21 for each State in the Commonwealth of Australia and in New Zealand were as follows:—

State.Wheat Crop.
Area.Total Yield.Average Yield
per Acre.
 Acres.   Bushels.   Bushels.
Queensland175,7504,174,15523.75
New South Wales (including Federal Territory)3,124,37053,715,84017.19
Victoria2,295,86539,468,62517.19
South Australia2,163,64634,236,91415.82
Western Australia1,275,67512,248,0809.60
Tasmania28,284565,87420.00
       Totals for Commonwealth9,063,590144,409,48815.93
New Zealand219,9856,872,26231.24
         Grand totals9,283,575151,281,75016.30

The average production per acre for the last ten seasons is—for New Zealand, 28.58 bushels per acre; and for Australia, 10.77 bushels per acre.

It may be said that although from twenty to thirty countries in the world generally produce more wheat than does New Zealand, only three or four European countries have a better record of production per acre. This says much for the fertility of the soil of the Dominion, for cultivation here is naturally less intensive than it is in the closely settled Continental countries.

OATS.

In point of area oats is the most important grain crop of the Dominion. About 80 per cent. is grown in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, 5 per cent. in the remainder of the South Island, and 15 per cent. in the North Island. The greater portion of the oat crop is usually converted into chaff without threshing, but the proportion so dealt with depends on market conditions. In 1915-16, 33-12 per cent. of the crop harvested was threshed; in 1916-17, 33.36 per cent.; in 1917-18, 33.41 per cent.,; in 1918-19, 36.40 per cent.; in 1919-20, 35.82 per cent.; and in 1920-21, only 25.07 per cent.

The total and average yields per acre of grain and of chaff, hay, or ensilage for the past five seasons were as follows:—

Season.Grain.Chaff, Hay, or Ensilage.
Total Yield.Average
per Acre.
Total Yield.Average
per Acre.
 Bushels.Bushels.Tons.Tons.
1916-175,371,43630.26432,8781.22
1917-184,942,75931.64419,4341.35
1918-196,884,60939.87461,7391.53
1919-206,967,86238.75467,6401.45
1920-215,225,11535.41557,0231.36

EXPORT OF OATS.

New Zealand has no regular export of oats, and in some years has practically no surplus available for export. In 1901 the export reached 10,514,924 bushels, in 1909 5,133,473 bushels, and in 1912 4,123,920 bushels, as compared with only 3,250 bushels in 1918. The quantity exported in each of the last ten years was as follows:—

Year.Bushels.
191172,826
19124,123,920
1913239,268
19141,323,362
1915682,652
1916220,265
19175,767
19183,250
1919144,827
1920227,027

OAT CROP OF AUSTRALIA.

The oat crop for 1918-19 in the States of the Commonwealth of Australia was as follows:—

 Acres.Bushels.Average per Acre.
Bushels.
Queensland2983,63212.19
New South Wales86,4211,272,41114.72
Federal Capital Territory531,34125.30
Victoria342,8675,274,98415.38
South Australia160,8231,540,6039.58
Western Australia141,4591,499,68910.60
Tasmania36,231848,42023.42
           Totals for Commonwealth768,15210,441,08013.59

BARLEY.

The area under barley for threshing for the season 1920-21 was 46,802 acres, the crop amounting to 1,586,711 bushels, an average of 33.90 bushels per acre. In 1919-20 the area under barley was 22,907 acres, and the yield 815,807 bushels, or 35.61 bushels per acre.

MAIZE.

The returns for 1920-21 show that there were 11,514 acres sown for grain, being an increase of 2,450 acres on the area for the previous season (9,064 acres). The yield in 1921 was 500,846 bushels of corn, an average of 43.50 bushels per acre, and in 1920 405,775 bushels, an average of 44.76 bushels per acre. With the exception of a few acres in the South, maize is grown only in the North Island. In 1920-21 the Land District of North Auckland had 488 acres; Auckland, 7,095 acres; Hawke's Bay, 3,899 acres; Taranaki, 1 acre; Wellington, 8 acres; Canterbury, 8 acres; and Otago, 15 acres.

PEAS AND BEANS.

The area under peas and beans for threshing in the season 1920-21 was 14,466 acres, yielding 355,395 bushels. The area under these crops in 1919-20 was 14,419 acres.

New Zealand has a considerable export of peas and beans, the figures for the past ten years being—

EXPORT OF PEAS AND BEANS, 1911 to 1920.
Year.Bushels.
1911332,227
1912464,609
1913339,998
1914305,053
1915201,942
191684,168
1917111,175
191890,495
1919451,595
1920208,414

CHAFF, HAY, ENSILAGE, AND GREEN FODDER.

Particulars of the areas under cereals, grasses, and clovers cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage, or for use as green fodder, are next given for each of the last six seasons, together with information as to yields. Similar information for the four seasons prior to 1916-16 is not available.

CEREALS AND GRASSES FOR CHAFF, HAY, OR ENSILAGE, AND FOR GREEN FODDER.
Areas.
-—Wheat for
Chaff, &c.
Oats for
Chaff, &c.
Barley for
Chaff, &c.
Maize for
Ensilage. &c.
Grasses and
Clovers for Hay.
Green
Fodder.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1915-166,215429,4372,04062494,330229,496
1916-173,738354,5501,240711106,723218,452
1917-182,258311,316634613111,181180,867
1918-191,646301,724530272131,657149,622
1919-202,125322,174711589117,110166,758
1920-211,623410,059670667161,820185,284
Yields.
-—Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Hay.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
1915-167,440572,4353,3873,493177,165
1910-175,186432,8782,1515,107179,505
1917-183,549419,4341,2403,335180,436
1918-192,554461,739981,378225,549
1919-203,172467,6401,1822,909184,115
1920-212,481557,0231,2204,418272,515

LINSEED.

The area sown in linseed has come into increasing prominence in late years, the “seat of production” being Canterbury, where 9,388 acres out of the 9,663 acres sown in the season 1920-21 were grown. The yield for this season was 4,552 tons, or an average of 0.47 tons per acre. The figures for the 1919-20 season were: Area, 5,046 acres (5,011 acres in Canterbury); yield, 2,291 tons; average, 0.45 tons per acre. The areas for the only other seasons for which information is available are—1916-17, 1,431 acres; 1917-18, 1,466 acres; 1918-19, 3,890 acres. The yield is not available for these seasons.

SEED AND ROOT CROPS.

The areas and yields of seed and root crops for each of the six years 1915-16 to 1920-21 are next given. It should be understood that the areas shown for seed crops represent only those crops actually cut for seed.

SEED AND ROOT CROPS.
Areas.
Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings
Fescue.
Red Clover
and Cow-grass.
White
Clover.
Potatoes.Turnips.Mangolds.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1915-1643,09513,2935,7871,64388829,809572,13713,046
1916-1779,13516,1345,5142,9781,33026,156526,2839,073
1917-1870,22016,5954,3726,9073,72222,854450,8198,712
1918-1931,25019,3182,3296,6826,79819,169438,0458,233
1919-2039,58016,7893,4256,1812,28424,933542,3109,546
1920-2156,47117,5273,4696,3473,35622,068551,1909,170
Yields.
Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings
Fescue.
Red Clover
and Cow-grass.
White
Clover.
Potatoes.
* Of 20 lb.
 Bushels.*lb.      lb.      lb.      lb.      Tons.   
1915-16795,4161,577,2851,230,219385,638141,469128,807
1916-171,152,4871,907,0431,247,545443,861143,465133,642
1917-181,355,6122,410,5571,013,0421,076,360461,853100,596
1918-19646,1943,761,814551,5881,255,478958,360105,483
1919-20652,6722,201,729827,7691,146,882335,203144,705
1920-211,015,5072,724,816680,1161,554,770512,480126,648

POTATOES.

The area under potatoes in 1920-21 was 22,068 acres, yielding a return of 126,648 tons, or at a rate of 5.72 tons per acre, against 24,933 acres and 144,705 tons (or 5.79 tons per acre) in 1919-20.

These figures do not include areas of less than a quarter of an acre, so that a considerable quantity of potatoes grown for private use has not been taken into account.

The following table shows the average yield per acre of potatoes in each of the Australian States and in New Zealand from 1915-16 to 1919-20. Later figures for Australia are not available.

AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE OF POTATOES, 1915-16 TO 1919-20.
State.1915-16.1916-17.1917-18.1918-19.1919-20.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Queensland1.282.182.061.721.77
New South Wales2.272.022.211.452.49
Victoria3.052.552.722.662.71
South Australia2.994.292.724.043.23
Western Australia2.902.882.522.973.69
Tasmania2.711.952.582.262.32
Federal Territory3.572.922.271.503.43
Commonwealth2.752.382.552.342.58
New Zealand4.335.114.385.505.79

TURNIPS AND MANGOLDS.

Turnips form a most important crop in a sheep-breeding country such as New Zealand, and in 1920-21 the area under this crop was 551,190 acres, while there were 9,170 acres of mangolds.

The figures for these crops for 1919-20 were 542,310 acres and 9,546 acres respectively.

GRASSES AND CLOVERS FOR SEED.

The area under rye-grass for seed in the season 1920-21 was 56,471 acres, yielding 1,015,508 bushels of 20 lb., or an average of 17.89 bushels per acre, as against 652,672 bushels from 39,580 acres (average 16.42 bushels per acre) in 1919-20.

In cocksfoot there were 17,527 acres, which yielded 2,724,816 lb., or an average of 155.46 lb. per acre. The area in the previous season was 16,789 acres, and the total yield 2,201,729 lb., the average yield per acre being 131.14 lb. The area returned by farmers as being under cocksfoot is decreasing steadily, having been 41,918 acres in 1910-11, although there was a slight recovery in 1920-21. Much of the waste land of the Dominion is laid down in cocksfoot, including a large proportion of the land enclosed with, the State railway-lines. Much of this is harvested, but no record of the amount obtained from this source is kept. Second or catch crops are taken account of in these figures, the total yield including crops obtained from areas which had previously yielded some other crop in the season concerned. The areas do not include second crops. Average yields cannot therefore be obtained by the mere division of the total yield by the area shown.

HOPS.

There were 484 acres under hops in 1920-21, 480 acres of this area being in the Nelson Land District. The total produce amounted to 684,718 lb., an average of 1,415 lb. per acre.

PHORMIUM TENAX.

Large areas (44,002 acres in 1920-21) in various parts of New Zealand are covered with phormium tenax, the fibre of which is largely used for ropemaking, &c. At the census of industrial manufacture for the year 1919-20 forty-seven mills were returned, employing 1,010 hands, the total value of output being £409,329. The export of fibre and tow during each of the past ten years was as follows:—

PHORMIUM EXPORTED, 1911 TO 1920.
Year.Fibre.Tow.
 Tons.Tons.
191117,3663,283
191218,6413,388
191328,0926,299
191419,7024,226
191523,2203,465
191627,6744,578
191723,5162,500
191825,1671,815
191922,3473,262
192018,9493,126

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS.

In 1920-21 there were 3,578 acres in market gardens, 371 acres in nurseries and seed-gardens, and 58,802 acres in private gardens and pleasure-grounds. The area in plantations (not virgin bush) was 104,218 acres.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY.

The area in orchard in 1920-21 (exclusive of that within borough boundaries) was 31,507 acres; in 1919-20 there were 33,179 acres exclusive of boroughs.

The following table gives particulars, by land districts, of areas for private use and for commercial purposes:—

AREA IN ORCHARD, 1920-21.
Land District.For Private
Use only.
For Commercial Purposes.Total Area
in Orchard.
Not bearing.Bearing.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland1,3832,2092,7996,391
Auckland9461806501,776
Hawke's Bay4266281,6562,710
Taranaki150736193
Wellington621454301,096
Nelson2664,1835,97610,425
Marlborough10683600789
Westland32..     1951
Canterbury9957451,2492,989
Otago5471,1503,1754,872
Southland197513215
Dominion5,6699,23516,60331,507

Commercial orchards are defined for statistical purposes as “those producing fruit for sale to the value of £50 and upwards annually, or, if not in full bearing, or if for any reason the crop has been a failure, that are calculated to produce fruit for sale to that value when in full bearing or in normal seasons, as the case may be.” Private orchards consist chiefly of small areas the produce of which is consumed principally on the holding, or, if sold, does not aggregate an annual value of £50. Larger areas which, through age, disease, or other cause, are incapable of producing a yearly revenue of the stipulated amount are also included in private orchards.

Large areas are continually being planted in fruit-trees, especially in the Nelson Land District, where tracts of land which until recently bore nothing but stunted manuka, and were looked upon as practically useless, have now been proved to be eminently suitable for growing fruit, particularly apples. A good market exists locally for choice clean fruit, but, as the large areas recently planted come into bearing, growers will have to look to outside markets to take the surplus, and it is hoped that the export of fruit will become in time one of the largest in the Dominion.

The Department of Agriculture assists orchardists by supplying information on fruitgrowing generally, and as to the most up-to-date methods to adopt for the control of diseases and insect pests, pruning, &c. Practical demonstrations of pruning, spraying, and the grading and packing of fruit are given regularly by the Orchard Instructors attached to the Department.

Co-operative fruit-testing plots are established in various parts of the Dominion. These plots are for the purpose of—(1) Ascertaining which varieties of fruit are best adapted to particular districts; (2) demonstrating various methods of pruning; (3) conducting modified manurial experiments.

Extensive experiments have been carried out in the growing of tomatoes and the control of diseases affecting them, many thousands of pounds having been lost through failure of the tomato crops grown under glass during the last few years. The results of these experiments have proved of great value, and have enabled growers to adopt successful methods for the production of large and profitable crops.

The total acreage in vineyards outside of borough boundaries is 253 acres. The growing of outdoor grapes is chiefly confined to the districts situated between the North Cape and Hawke's Bay. The greater portion of the crop is used for wine-making, but a considerable quantity of outdoor-grown grapes is sold for table use.

Copies of full plans and specifications of a cool store capable of holding 4,000 cases of fruit have been prepared by the Department of Agriculture, and are supplied free on application.

The canning of fruit is also another important feature of the fruit industry. Plans and specifications for the building and equipment of a factory capable of turning out 4,000 cans per day are also available, free of charge, for those contemplating the erection of a factory.

Since 1913 the State has had authority to borrow money for the purpose of making advances for the establishment of cold stores for fruit and of fruit-canning works, and otherwise for the assistance of the fruitgrowing industry. The total amount borrowed for this purpose up to gist March, 1921, was £69,610.

The Orchard-tax Act, 1916, provided for the levying, in each year from 1916 to 1921, of a tax of Is. per acre on commercial orchards (with a minimum of 2s. 6d.), the proceeds to be paid over to the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation (Limited), and to be expended in aid of the fruitgrowing industry.

PASTURE GRASSES.

New Zealand is essentially suited for grazing purposes. Wherever there is light and moisture English grasses thrive when the natural bush and fern are cleared off— in fact, the white clover gradually overcomes the fern; and, from the mildness of the winter season, there are few places where there is not some growth even in the coldest months of the year. In all parts of the Dominion stock live, although in varying condition, without other food than such as they can pick up.

Sown-grass land, as might be expected, heads the list of cultivations. At the beginning of the year 1921 there were 15,912,803 acres under artificial (pasture) grasses, a decrease of 212,462 acres from the area in 1920.

Seeds for sowing pasture lands are used much as in Great Britain, the following being a common mixture: Perennial rye-grass, 25 lb. to 30 lb. per acre; cocksfoot, 2 lb.; alsike, 2 lb.; timothy, 3 lb.; cow-grass, 2 lb.; red clover, 2 lb.; white clover, 2 lb.; rape, 1 lb.: total, 39 lb. to 44 lb. per acre. Pastures are renewed at intervals of from four to eight years, according to the nature of the land.

In addition to the artificially sown pastures, the returns for 1920-21 show that 14,993,446 acres in tussock or native grass belonged to the occupied holdings, and were available for stock-feeding by the sheep and cattle farmers.

SUBSECTION C.—PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUMMARY OF LIVE-STOCK.

THE numbers of live-stock of various kinds at each of the last five annual enumerations are as shown in the following table. With the exception of the figures for sheep as disclosed by the special annual collection of sheep returns as at the 30th April, the figures relate to the 31st January.

-—1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Horses373,600378,050363,188346,407337,259
Asses and mules320253296262245
Dairy cows777,439793,215826,135893,4541,004,666
Cattle (including dairy cows)2,575,2302,869,4653,035,4783,101,9453,139,223
Sheep shorn during season22,462,29123,749,70023,720,81823,075,25021,923,009
Lambs tailed during season10,745,38611,194,16710,485,3519,447,7529,614,548
Sheep (including lambs) as at 30th April25,270,38626,538,30225,828,55423,919,97023,285,031
Pigs283,770258,694235,347266,829349,892
Goats—
     Angora6,8365,9316,4465,4475,533
     Other11,39911,79910,478. 9,08711,834

The following table gives the number of the principal kinds of e-stock in Australasia for the year 1919-20:—

State.As atSheep.Cattle.Horses.Pigs.
* Sheep, 30th April, 1920; others, 31st January, 1920.
New South Wales30 June, 192029,077,5143,075,954660,751253,338
Victoria1 Mar., 192014,422,7451,631,120513,500186,810
Queensland31 Dec., 191917,379,3325,940,433730,32699,593
South Australia30 June, 19206,014,565349,562264,90160,295
Western Australia31 Dec., 19196,697,951880,644174,91958,155
Tasmania1 Mar., 19201,781,425214,44239,45235,530
Northern Territory31 Dec., 19198,811610,53435,8391,675
Federal Territory30 June, 1920171,7398,3781,513572
Totals for Commonwealth..     75,554,08212,711,0672,421,201695,968
New Zealand*23,914,5063,101,945346,407266,829

The following diagram will give an idea of the large increase in the number of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs in New Zealand since 1858:—

NOTE.—The base of each small rectangle represents an interval of one year, and the vertical height the number of animals, as follows: Sheep, one million; cattle, one hundred thousand; horses and pigs, each fifty thousand.

SHEEP.

The Dominion is eminently suited for sheep-breeding, practically every description of sheep finding a favourable local habitat. In the hilly and down country of the South Island the merino has been bred for very many years, and was the original sheep depastured. In fact, the merino ewe furnished the foundation of the crossbred stock which has made Canterbury mutton famous on British meat-markets. In the early days of the Canterbury meat trade the English Leicester of the original type was the favourite ram for putting to the merino ewe. Of later years the Lincoln has been largely employed to cross with the merino, and black-faced rams have been further employed to put to the crossbred ewes. In the North Island the Romney sheep, which suits the rather moist climate of this portion of the Dominion, has become the most popular sheep; it is also increasing in numbers in the South Island. The Lincoln and the Border Leicester are also favoured in both Islands, while the Southdown is displacing other breeds for fat-lamb production throughout the Dominion.

A table appears on page 331 giving the average weight of fleece obtained in the last five seasons.

The flocks of the North Island increased from 5,285,907 sheep in the year 1886 to 10,009,731 in 1906 and 13,880,799 in 1916, or at the rate of 89.37 per cent. in the first twenty years of the period, and of 38.67 per cent. between 1906 and 1916; 1921 shows a decrease of 2.65 per cent. from the previous year.

The number of sheep in the South Island has fluctuated considerably, decreases from previous years having occurred in 1911, 1912, 1913, 1915, 1916, 1917, 1919, 1920, and 1921.

YearNorth Island.South Island.Total.
18865,285,9079,888,35615,174,263
191212,618,08911,132.06423,750,153
191313,145,44511,046,36524,191,810
191413,155,95811,642,80524,798,763
191513,315,91611,585,50524,901,421
191613,880,79910,907,35124,7,150
191714,567,12810,703,25825,270,386
191814,758,27811,780,02426,538,302
191914,211,94411,616,61025,828,554
192013,166,75010,753,22023,919,970
192112,774,32310,510,70823,285,031

There were fewer sheep in the Dominion in 1921 than in any year since 1908.

In the table given above the Chatham Islands are included in the South Island, as they form portion of the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District. In dealing with land districts, however, they are included with Wellington.

The following table shows the number of sheep and of breeding-ewes in the Dominion on the 30th April, 1921 and 1920. It will be noted that of the land districts Hawke's Bay had most sheep in 1921, Wellington came next, and Canterbury occupied third place.

Land District.Sheep on 30th April,Breeding-ewes on 30th April,
1921.1920.1921.1920.
North Auckland687,219664,455325,507305,639
Auckland930,647911,135442,912386,836
Hawke's Bay5,274,7255,454,4272,703,6832,456,875
Taranaki800,462860,365352,569330,068
Wellington5,177,8015,363,7532,522,1972,393,806
Nelson488,606451,374253,183255,117
Marlborough1,095,6201,011,741531,622541,059
Westland62,49166,10030,88834,151
Canterbury4,499,8674,727,8822,749,2442,709,306
Otago2,782,4832,807,0981,409,3051,376,813
Southland1,494,1101,601,640826,678780,005
               Totals23,285,03123,919,97012,147,78811,569,675

There is an increase in the number of breeding-ewes almost equal to the decrease in the total sheep, and this fact is significant as pointing to a wise conservation for future breeding requirements. The number of rams (stud and flock) in the Dominion on the 30th April, 1921, was 322,144, as against 306,621 in 1920, an increase of 15,523. The following table shows the number of breeding-ewes and of rams in the Dominion for the last five years; the number of dry ewes is also given.

As at 30th April,Rams
(Stud and Flock).
Breeding-ewes.Dry Ewes.
1917329,23013,260,1691,072,647
1918325,11113,022,0341,598,749
1919321,30412,341,9001,811,397
1920306,62111,569,6751,824,194
1921322,14412,147,7881,345,819

The number of breeding-ewes has varied considerably from time to time, the maximum having been attained in 1917, in which year the number of rams in the Dominion was also the greatest. The number of dry ewes recorded on the 30th April, 1917, was the lowest since 1909.

The number of lambs returned in 1921 was the smallest since 1906. The figures for the last live years are as follows:—

 Number of Lambs.
As at 30th April, 19177,150,516
As at 30th April, 19187,895,888
As at 30th April, 19197,431,321
As at 30th April, 19206,317,738
As at 30th April, 19215,834,481

Although there has been a substantial decrease in the total number of sheep since 1918, the number of flocks has actually increased. From the following table it will be seen that the whole of the increase has occurred in flocks under 500 in number, flocks of over 500 having fallen from 12,600 to 11,349 between 1918 and 1921. Especially in flocks of over 5,000 is this decrease noticeable.

NUMBER OF FLOCKS.
Size of Flocks.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Under 50011,81211,56211,71912,28613,045
     500 and under   1,0005,0715,6035,4665,2495,167
  1,000 and under   2,5004,2794,7474,6374,4114,236
  2,500 and under   5,0001,3751,4071,4401,3141,276
  5,000 and under 10,000629622611636505
10,000 and under 20,000176187162139140
20,000 and upwards3840302524

The average size of the flocks is found to have been 1,081 sheep in 1917, 1,098 in 1918, 1,073 in 1919, 998 in 1920, and 957 in 1921.

The numbers of the different classes composing the flocks in April, 1921, were as follows:—

-—North Island.South Island.Total in
Dominion.
Stud sheep (entered in Flock-book)—
     Merino..     20,91120,911
     Lincoln23,7463,62627,372
     Romney90,62047,235137,855
     Border Leicester81621,26022,076
     English Leicester1,44127,13128,572
     Shropshire5311,8042,335
     Southdown14,7785,83120,609
     Corriedale3834,10634,144
     Other breeds3287231,051
               Totals132,298162,627294,925
Sheep of a distinctive breed, but not entered in Flock-book—
     Merino15,279766,931782,210
     Lincoln187,79620,343208,139
     Romney2,013,848583,6092,597,457
     Border Leicester7,881121,277129,158
     English Leicester3,623102,789106,412
     Shropshire2,58910,86013,449
     Southdown27,11910,72537,844
     Corriedale38,801527,851566,652
     Half-bred..     1,110,6721,110,672
     Other breeds1,3227,5398,861
               Totals2,298,2583,262,5295,560,854
Flock sheep—
     Crossbreds and others not otherwise enumerated10,343,7677,085,48517,429,252
               Grand totals12,774,32310,510,70823,285,031

Statistics for each of the last two seasons show that the Romney was the predominating breed in all land districts with the exception of Marlborough and Canterbury, where half-breds occupied the premier position.

MUTTON AND LAMB.

Figures showing sheep and lambs slaughtered for food purposes during each of the last ten years, together with the exports of frozen mutton and lamb, are given in the tables following.

In addition to the figures of slaughterings given below there are the killings by farmers for their own use. During the 1920-21 season farmers killed 708,473 sheep and 60,174 lambs for food, and on the basis of these figures it is estimated that about 5,500,000 sheep, representing a weight of 330,000,000 lb., and 500,000 lambs, of a weight of 18,000,000 lb., were killed by farmers for local consumption during the ten years shown. This gives a total of approximately 1,350,000,000 lb., equal to an average annual consumption per head of population, including Maoris, of about 120 lb.

SHEEP.
Year ended
31st March.
Sheep slaughtered for
Food Purposes.
Frozen Mutton exported.
Number.Approximate
Weight.
Number of Carcases,
including Pieces at
60 lb. to a Sheep.
Weight.
  Cwt.       Cwt.      
19123,189,5271,708,6751,867,828912,926
19133,306,5881,771,3862,208,3301,092,692
19144,019,8312,153,5702,557,6391,271,935
19153,999,4602,139,8892,522,4481,244,399
19164,018,5782,152,8092,939,6111,498,843
19173,601,2841,929,2592,409,8991,228,696
19183,631,3441,945,3632,150,5051,118,014
19194,381,0052,346,9671,300,047680,732
19205,512,4822,953,1164,127,8532,097,678
19214,615,5202,472,2945,488,9762,740,493
       Totals for ten years40,275,61921,573,32827,573,13613,886,410
LAMBS.
Year ended
31st March.
Lambs slaughtered for
Food Purposes.
Frozen Lamb exported.
Number.Approximate
Weight.
Number or
Carcases.
Weight.
  Cwt.       Cwt.      
19123,192,1081,026,0343,093,091932,835
19133,505,9861,126,9242,956,249901,146
19144,338,1801,394,4153,854,3481,186,638
19154,471,8611,597,0933,692,0031,120,682
19164,091,0851,314,9913,750,5901,152,736
19173,431,9431,103,1252,797,290838,569
19182,695,443866,3922,048,612623,022
19192,950,316948,315916,914277,822
19203,280,6011,054,4783,420,2201,070,340
19213,563,9701,161,4604,350,9641,342,193
       Totals for ten years35,521,49311,593,22730,880,2719,445,983

SHEEP IN AUSTRALASIA.

The number of sheep in the Australian States and in New Zealand for the years 1900, 1905, 1910, 1915, and 1919 was as follows:—

-—1900.1905.1910.1915.1919.

* Includes Northern Territory.

† Figures for April following.

Queensland10,339,18512,535,23120,331,83815,950,14417,379,332
New South Wales40,020,50639,506,76445,560,96932,874,35929,077,514
Victoria10,841,79011,455,11512,882,66510,545,63214,422,745
South Australia*5,283,2476,339,5426,324,7173,744,7476,023,376
Western Australia2,434,3113,120,7035,158,5164,831,7276,697,951
Tasmania1,683,9561,583,5611,788,3101,624,4501,781,425
Federal Territory..     ..     ..     134,679171,739
New Zealand 19,355,19519,130,87523,996,12624,788,15023,919,970
       Totals, Australasia89,958,19093,671,791116,043,14194,493,89899,474,052

SHEEP FLOCKS OF THE WORLD.

The following figures, compiled primarily from “The Statesman's Year-book” (1921 edition), give some idea of the sheep flocks in the principal countries in respect of which the information is available:—

Country.Number of Sheep.

* Including 1918 figures for towns, villages, and Native reserves, 1920 figures not being available.

† Russia-in-Europe only, and not including Siberia, Poland, and the Caucasus.

‡ Including goats.

Australia (1919-20)75,554,082
United States (1920)47,114,000
Argentine Republic (1920)45,303,419
South African Union (1920)29,305,241*
United Kingdom (1920)26,993,072
New Zealand (1920)23,919,970
British India (1919-20)21,983,573
Spain (1919)19,337,427
Russia, Soviet (1919)15,910,000
Italy (1918)11,753,910
Uruguay (1916)11,472,852
Brazil (1917)10,949,930
Jugo-Slavia (1919)9,791,985
France (1920)9,376,630
Algeria (1919)9,139,722
Bulgaria (1917)7,340,904
Morocco. French (1920)6,700,000
Germany (1920)6,630,000
Greece (1918)5,467,828
Hungary (1917)5,123,271
Chile (1919)4,500,196
Portugal (1920)3,850,733
Canada (1920)3,721,000
Tunis (1919)2,661,579
Rumania (1917)1,655,110
Sweden (1919)1,563,654
Mexico (1920)1,089,976
Norway (1918)1,207,923
Finland (1918)827,791
Lithuania (1920)730,000
Paraguay (1915)600,000
Iceland (1919)580,000
Denmark (1920)504,241
Netherlands (1919)437,075
Esthonia (1920)436,259

In addition to the above there were 4,800,000 sheep (including goats) in Syria in 1914; 2,428,101 sheep in Austria in 1910; 1,640,372 sheep in Czecho-Slovakia in 1910; and 402,124 sheep in Guatemala in 1914.

PRODUCTION OF WOOL.

Wool obtained from sheep for the season 1920-21 amounted to 164,239,779 lb. (excluding boroughs), whilst lambs yielded 4,714,539 lb. The following table shows the amount of wool produced in each land district in the Dominion during the reason 1920-21, whilst figures for 1919-20 are also given for purposes of comparison:—

WOOL PRODUCED, 1919-20 AND 1920-21.
Land Distric (excluding
Interior Boroughs).
Wool obtained during Season
1920-21 from
Wool obtained during Season
1919-20 from
Sheep.Lambs.Sheep.Lambs.
 lb.      lb.      lb.      lb.      
North Auckland4,558,004173,1144,484,031192,856
Auckland6,600,462460,3216,785,837505,460
Hawke's Bay41,598,3221,233,50841,874,8631,706,977
Taranaki6,923,621480,9657,124,552620,158
Wellington41,083,1982,267,50740,350,9602,575,260
Nelson2,371,11010,172,323,11615,215
Marlborough7,500,68411,9026,613,85929,247
Westland313,8418,536324,83812,965
Canterbury28,554,02364,50530,161,38328,512
Otago16,506,8343,23217,708,2902,225
Southland8,229,6801329,365,9131,515
             Totals164,239,7794,714,539167,117,6425,690,390

The following table gives the average weight of fleece for each land district in each of the last five years:—

AVERAGE WEIGHT OF FLEECE, 1916-17 TO 1920-21.
Land District.1916-17.1917-18.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
North Auckland6.926.616.606.486.83
Auckland6.626.726.996.937.16
Hawke's Bay8.397.637.897.588.15
Taranaki6.886.727.207.457.76
Wellington8.147.858.127.888.24
Nelson5.615.695.895.595.82
Marlborough7.217.127.296.867.61
Westland5.755.945.925.935.76
Canterbury7.287.317.297.087.05
Otago6.986.876.716.716.62
Southland6.796.906.656.536.15
               Dominion7.587.327.457.257.48

The quantity of wool exported in 1920 was 162,327,176 lb., a decrease of 111,919,437 lb. as compared with the quantity exported in the previous year. The approximate annual production of wool for the past twenty years, taking the exports for the twelve months immediately preceding the commencement of shearing and adding thereto the quantity used in the Dominion for manufacturing purposes, is shown in the next table, but no addition has been made for wool on sheep-skins exported, nor for loss in scouring and washing.

Year ended
30th September.
Quantity exported.Quantity purchased
by Local Mills.
Total.
 lb.lb.lb.
1901143,064,7894,629,924147,694,713
1902155,652,5634,203,312159,855,875
1903160,919,6935,294,652166,214,345
1904141,031,6995,191,451146,223,150
1905146,889,7673,651,343150,541,110
1906152,765,2324,372,472157,137,704
1907164,006,5794,116,722168,123,301
1908163,930,7224,779,198168,709,920
1909187,619,1815,202,821192,822,002
1910194,472,9345,642,113200,115,047
1911184,854,1496,048,164190,902,313
1912180,553,7236,284,114195,837,837
1913195,353,5336,823,545202,177,078
1914196,499,8966,846,960203,346,856
1915208,908,1186,628,019215,536,137
1916200,119,0168,772,467208,891,483
1917162,043,6347,590,445169,634,079
1918110,054,3157,488,932117,543,247
1919258,363,5246,720,400265,083,924
1920165,821,5088,599,212174,420,720

The following summary is interesting as showing the various classes of wool purchased by the New Zealand mills. For 1919-20 greasy wool represents over 99 per cent. of the total. More than half of the wool used at mills is shown to behalf-bred, one-quarter crossbred, and less than one-quarter merino.

-—Merino.Half-bred.Crossbred.Total.
 lb.      lb.      lb.      lb.      
Greasy1,988,6084,371,5492,204,1538,564,310
Washed..       ..       ..       ..       
Scoured1,03812,90519,67833,621
Sliped1,281..       ..       1,281
         Totals, 1919-201,990,9274,384,4542,223,8318,599,212
         Totals, 1918-191,217,1753,538,0251,965,2006,720,400

The percentages of greasy, scoured, and washed wool to the total quantities. exported during the last ten years are,—

Year.Greasy.Scoured
and Sliped.
Washed.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
191180.6319.160.21
191280.9618.770.27
191383.2816.430.29
191483.4516.280.27
191578.6221.090.29
191679.2720.240.49
191781.7718.070.16
191877.9221.210.87
191971.7828.070.15
192065.5334.290.18

The following diagram shows the increase in the weight of wool exported since 1882, also the great expansion of the frozen-meat trade in the same period. The decrease during the war period is attributable to lack of snipping facilities.

CATTLE.

Most of the leading breeds of the cattle of Great Britain are represented in the Dominion by herds bred on sound lines, though the beef-breeds of later years are not making much headway owing to the advance taking place in dairying operations. There are still very many fine Shorthorn herds of the beef type, while Aberdeen-Angus and Hereford cattle are also bred. There are herd-books for each of these breeds.

The breeding of dairy cattle has made considerable progress in recent years. A special Jersey herd-book has been in existence for some time, and herd-book societies are how well established for the Friesian, Ayrshire, and Milking Shorthorn breeds as well. The various societies have heartily co-operated in a scheme for establishing registers of merit in connection with purebred dairy cattle, thus giving a great fillip to the breeding of pure dairy stock. The dairy-farmer is encouraged to use purebred bulls and thereby to assist materially in raising the standard of the dairy stock of the country. He is now coming to appreciate the value of herd-testing work, and thus, knowing the re profitable cows in his herd, will be anxious to secure a bull which will enable them to perpetuate their good qualities.

An important factor responsible for the improved position of dairy cattle in New Zealand is the milking-machine, which is making the farmer more independent of hired labour. With the increasing price of land there is a gradual tendency towards smaller farms and the keeping of fewer but better cows. Also, there is a growing realization of the necessity of a more liberal system of feeding, particularly in the direction of growing special fodder crops to maintain the milk-flow at all seasons of the year. Generally, dairy-farming in New Zealand is being conducted on a sound and profitable basis, and the outlook for the industry is most encouraging.

Details for 1921 for each land district are given in the next table.

TABLE SHOWING DETAILS OF CATTLE FOR EACH LAND DISTRICT IN THE DOMINION AS AT 31ST JANUARY, 1921.
Dairy Cattle.
Land District
(including Interior Boroughs).
Bulls of
All Ages.
Cows and Heifers
Two Years Old over.
Total Dairy
Cattle.
Total
Cattle.
In Milk.Dry.
North Auckland6,359124,55318,149149,061419,398
Auckland10,139212,70025,326248,165630,957
Hawke's Bay2,20944,5769,90456,689456,300
Taranaki7,708159,62112,881180,210362,379
Wellington6,826138,61916,175161,620619,244
         Totals, North Island33,241680,06982,435795,7452,488,278
Nelson1,21219,8463,48824,54659,555
Marlborough78111,7771,62114,17943,333
Westland5048,9072,60012,01142,399
Canterbury3,54369,7949,73383,070205,904
Otago2,51843,8317,47953,828136,307
Southland2,77555,9967,09065,861163,447
         Totals, South Island11,333210,15132,011253,495650,945
         Totals, Dominion44,574890,220114,4461,049,2403,139,223
Cattle other than Dairying.
Land District
(including Interior Boroughs).
Bulls of
All Ages.
Cows and Heifers
Two Years Old
and over.
Heifers under
Two Years Old.
Steers Two Years
Old and over.
Steers under
Two Years Old.
Total Cattle
other than
Dairying.
North Auckland1,21150,47791,31967,24960,081270,337
Auckland1,50865,754128,426106,93980,165382,792
Hawke's Bay5,240146,44885,74894,07968,096399,611
Taranaki63924,90084,65043,14928,831182,169
Wellington4,508128,655118,678126,21079,573457,624
     Totals, North Island13,106416,234508,821437,626316,7461,692,533
Nelson1545,96612,7617,8828,24635,009
Marlborough1716,5488,9756,6196,84129,154
Westland1997,3928,5018,0216,27530,388
Canterbury36718,88144,52729,82429,235122,834
Otago33813,70829,10519,87219,45682,479
Southland43920,90831,78123,02121,43797,586
     Totals, South Island1,66873,403135,65095,23991,490397,450
     Totals, Dominion14,774489,637644,471532,865408,2362,089,983

A policy which has been partly responsible for placing the breeding of dairy cattle on up-to-date principles has been the establishment of purebred herds at three of the State experimental farms, where they are bred according to an exact record of performance. High-priced stock have been imported in order that the foundation herds at the farms may be of the best quality. The milk of all the cattle is daily weighed and periodically tested, official check tests being conducted by experts of the Dairy Division of the Agriculture Department. The yearling bulls from these State milk-record herds command high values. The appreciation of the farming community for this officially tested stock has been chiefly responsible for the gratifying manner in which private breeders of pedigree stock have participated in the official register-of-merit scheme of the Department and the herd-book societies. In the season of 1910-11 the Department established a model herd-testing association in the Wairarapa district, carrying out the work of testing and of recording results free of all charge to the farmers taking part. This had the effect of creating at once wide interest in the important herd-testing movement, and the following season model associations were established in several leading dairying districts. This was intended not only to demonstrate the value of herd-testing when properly conducted and with full comparative records published at the end of the season, but also to encourage farmers to establish co-operative testing associations on their own account. The object was achieved, and many associations are now in operation.

The total number of cattle in the Dominion at the enumeration of 1921 was 3,139,223, as against 3,101,945 in 1920. The comparative figures for the two years, according to the classification in use, are as follows:—

Dairy cattle—1920.   1921.   
     Bulls of all ages40,14544,574
     Cows and heifers two years old and over893,4541,004,666
Other cattle—
     Bulls of all ages17,85414,774
     Cows and heifers two years old and over511,502489,637
     Heifers under two years old644,699644,471
     Steers two years old and over509,932532,865
     Steers under two years old484,359408,236
                 Totals3,101,9453,139,223

The greater proportion of the increase in cattle appears in the Auckland and Canterbury Land Districts. Hawke's Bay, Nelson, and Southland are the only land districts showing a decrease on the previous year's figures. The increases and decreases for each district are as follows:—

Land District.Increase.Decrease.
North Auckland7,150..     
Auckland13,696..     
Hawke's Bay..     9,214
Taranaki4,473..     
Wellington3,611..     
Nelson..     348
Marlborough3,366..     
Westland1,838..     
Canterbury12,656..     
Otago1,983..     
Southland..     1,933
         Total increase37,278..     

Out of a total of 3,139,223 cattle, the North Island is shown to have had 2,488,278, or 79.27 per cent. while the South Island had 650,945, or 20.73 per cent.

The total number of dairy cows and heifers intended for dairying was 1,004,666, and of this number the North Island had 762,504, or 75.90 per cent., and the South Island 242,162, or 24.10 per cent.

CONSUMPTION OF BEEF.

The following table shows the number and approximate weight of cattle slaughtered for food purposes in each of the past ten years, together with the weight of beef exported:—

Year ended 31st March.Cattle slaughtered for Food Purposes.Weight of Frozen
Beef exported.
Number.Approximate
Weight.
  Cwt.     Cwt.     
1912237,6961,697,829210,629
1913259,9351,856,679260,880
1914299,4092,139,529325,593
1915347,3532,481,093716,289
1916369,6472,640,336750,938
1917385,1292,750,9211,008,689
1918341,3002,437,857882,982
1919355,3572,538,264804,512
1920413,2062,951,471576,054
1921366,5652,618,421810,322
         Totals for ten years3,375,59724,112,4006,346,888

In addition to these figures there were 4,098 bullocks and cows and 2,677 calves slaughtered by farmers for local consumption during the twelve months ended the 31st January, 1921.

BREEDS OF CATTLE.

In connection with the enumeration of five-stock in 1918 information was collected as to breeds of cattle, horses, and pigs in addition to the usual details of age, sex, &c. A summary of the results of this enumeration as regards cattle is given below. More detailed information giving particulars according to land districts will be found in the 1918 issue of this book.

A similar detailed collection was made in 1921, but the information is not yet tabulated.

TABLE SHOWING DETAILS OF CATTLE IN THE DOMINION ON 31ST JANUARY, 1918, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO BREED, SEX, AND AGE.
Breed.Bulls of
All Ages
for Stud.
Cows and
Heifers
over Two
Years Old.
Heifers
under Two
Years Old.
Steers
over Two
Years Old.
Steers
under Two
Years Old.
Total
Cattle.
Purebred—
     Jersey2,0482,7741,33714556,228
     Alderney23..     ..     ..     5
     Friesian (Holstein)1,0821,93992016764,033
     Ayrshire318659339..     31,319
     Shorthorn1,5502,624903631005,240
     Hereford1,4552,5759134734,993
     Polled Angus538846304325922,105
     Devon2210..     ..     ..     32
     Other breeds214125..     ..     87
Crossbred with predominating strain of—
     Jersey and other Channel Island breeds5,823214,14498,1466,62930,505355,247
     Friesian (Holstein)5,54290,16854,47010,75237,110198,042
     Ayrshire1,05329,67712,2011,3495,53649,816
     Shorthorn23,068675,057335,131296,282330,7361,660,274
     Hereford5,188109,13955,24464,19155,700289,462
     Polled Angus2,66958,81726,75730,06226,873145,178
     Other (dairy cattle)31539,23814,8263,0849,31466,777
     Other (beef cattle)19314,8098,27715,44811,06249,789
                 Totals50,8871,242,520609,793428,262507,1652,838,627
Boroughs (breeds unspecified)1,04820,1996,6711,0691,85130,838
                 Grand totals51,9351,262,719616,464429,331509,0162,869,465

THE WORLD'S CATTLE.

Such information as is available concerning cattle in the main countries of the world is appended hereto. Figures have been compiled mainly from the 1921 edition of “The Statesman's Year-book,” though some figures are extracted from “Agricultural Statistics, 1920” (Vol. lv, Part III—Cmd. 1363), published by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London.

Country.Number of Cattle.

(a.) Russia in Europe and not including Siberia, Poland, and the Caucasus.

(b.) Including 1918 figures for towns, villages, and Native reserves, 1920 figures not being available.

(c.) Cows.

(d.) Bullocks.

(e.) Including buffaloes.

(f.) Cattle two years of age.

(g.) Excluding livestock in towns.

British India (1919-20)117,428,365
United States (1920)68,369,000
Brazil (1917)30,705,400
Argentine Republic (1920)27,392,126
Germany (1920)16,789,844
France (1920)13,213,840
Australia (1919-20)12,711,067
United Kingdom (1920)11,770,274
Canada (1920)9,477,380
Russia, Soviet (1919)(a)9,433,000
Uruguay (1916)7,802,442
South African Union (1920)(b)7,655,072
Italy (1918)6,239,741
Hungary (1917)5,934,833
Jugo-Slavia (1919)5,496,531
Paraguay (1915)5,249,043
Turkey (1919)4,118,000
Cuba (1918)3,965,000
Spain (1919)(c)3,396,573
New Zealand (1920)3,101,945
Siam (1919-20)(d)2,620,682
Sweden (1919)2,550,828
Denmark (1920)2,286,408
Chile (1919)2,163,141
Mexico (1920)2,162,984
Netherlands (1919)1,968,609
Bulgaria (1917)(e)1,885,620
Belgium (1920)1,487,361
Switzerland (1920)1,382,116
Morocco, French (1919)1,322,173
Japan (1918)1,307,120
Algeria (1919)1,092,996
Finland (1918)(f)1,076,271
Rumania (1917)1,049,702
Ceylon (1919)1,047,047
Norway (1918)(g)1,045,938
Lithuania (1920)865,000
Portugal (1920)740,693
Tunis (1919)634,823
Egypt (1920)561,515
Greece (1918)527,173
Esthonia (1920)363,263

In addition to the above there were 9,160,009 cattle in Austria in 1910; 4,793,247 cattle in Czecho-Slovakia in 1910; 655,386 cattle in Guatemala in 1914; and 500,000 cattle in Syria in 1914.

DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The Dairy Industry Act, 1908, a consolidation of previous legislation, provides for the appointment of inspectors of dairy stock and factories or other places used for the manufacture of dairy-produce, and power is given to condemn or forbid their use, if necessary. The sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy-produce is prohibited, and provision is made for the inspection, grading, and shipping of all such produce exported. Provision is made for the framing of regulations for the registration of dairies, the licensing of persons carrying on the manufacture or sale of the produce, the registration of trade-marks or brands, and for inspection and grading. A fine not exceeding £50 may be inflicted for any offence under this part of the Act.

Authority is given for State advances to dairy companies, on the security of their assets, for the purposes of acquiring land or of erecting buildings and machinery for carrying on the manufacture of dairy-produce. Loans are repayable by equal half-yearly instalments within fifteen years, and bear interest at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum.

The Act also provides for the registration of co-operative dairy companies, and shareholders are protected in the event of certain contingencies.

A short amending Act was passed in 1915, but does not affect the main points of the measure as summarized.

The census of industrial manufacture showed that during the year ended 31st March, 1920, 577,065 cwt. of butter was produced by butter-factories in the Dominion. The quantity exported during this period amounted to 310,283 cwt., whilst, in addition to this, returns furnished by farmers show that 46,179 cwt. of butter was produced on holdings of 1 acre and over during the twelve months ended 31st January, 1921.

Returns from cheese-factories give the quantity manufactured during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1920, as 1,262,892 cwt. The quantity of cheese exported during 1919-20 amounted to 1,540,949 cwt.

The total export of butter and cheese in the past twenty years, and the total quantity of each commodity sent to the United Kingdom, are tabulated below:—

Year.Total Export
of Butter.
Butter exported
to the
United Kingdom.
Total Export
of Cheese.
Cheese exported
to the
United Kingdom.
 Cwt.   Cwt.   Cwt.   Cwt.   
1901201,591170,903104,29474,510
1902253,998170,20774,74650,325
1903285,106249,01674,78064,661
1904314,360299,17184,52682,046
1905305,722282,27588,56285,653
1906320,225306,739131,206129,321
1907328,4314,081236,833234,517
1908229,9211,242280,798276,212
1909321,108301,693400,607398,619
1910356,535345,400451,915449,167
1911302,387283,505439,174435,616
1912378,117316,857577,070572,562
1913372,258288,224611,663608,933
1914434,067361,381863,776859,986
1915420,144371,959817,258803,917
1916358,632336,412949,416942,773
1917254,397250,721885,751865,152
1918431,023415,250883,445844,198
1919345,818336,6061,572,3551,517,102
1920312,009282,6791,222,0701,220,409

Exports of butter to countries other than the United Kingdom in 1920 include 19,526 cwt. to Canada, 4,843 cwt. to the United States, 1,528 cwt. to Australia, and 1,133 cwt. to Fiji.

The quantities of butter and cheese exported continued about equal till the close of the year 1895. During the period 1896-1907 butter assumed the lead, reaching its maximum of comparative importance in 1903, in which year the export was nearly four times that of cheese. A remarkable rise then took place in the cheese-exports, and the increase in the exports continued so rapidly that 1920 saw the quantity of cheese nearly five times that of butter.

HORSES.

There were 337,259 horses in the Dominion on 31st January, 1921, being a decrease of 9,143 on the total for the previous year. The following table gives details by land districts:—

Land District
(including Interior Boroughs).
Stallions
for Stud.
Geldings
over Two
Years Old.
Dry Mares
over Two
Years Old.
Mares with
Foal at
Foot or
to Foal
this Season.
Fillies
under Two
Years Old.
Colts or
Geldings
under Two
Years Old.
Other Horses
and Horses
unspecified.
Total
Horses.
North Auckland20618,91015,8361,1356225291,04338,281
Auckland22523,34420,7761,7801,6491,36570549,844
Hawke's Bay18716,00514,2211,7391,3311,1831,06335,729
Taranaki6610,54110,50945437127223922,452
Wellington21120,65419,6511,5461,0879591,18245,290
Nelson463,6513,7172111591361538,073
Marlborough413,2723,189279247249267,303
Westland301,1571,1389073421022,632
Canterbury25729,13827,2802,2591,8711,6531,39363,851
Otago14116,18215,7111,3211,0568831,09436,388
Southland6312,61712,42982273252822527,416
     Totals, Dominion1,473155,471144,45711,6369,1987,7997,225337,259

As previously stated, particulars as to breeds of horses were obtained at the enumeration of 1918, and detailed tables giving particulars by land districts were published in that year's issue of this volume. A summarized table is subjoined.

TABLE SHOWING DETAILS OF HORSES IN THE DOMINION ON 31ST JANUARY, 1918, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO BREED, SEX, AND AGE.
-—Thoroughbred.Draught.Other Breeds
(Harness and Saddle).
Ponies under
14 Hands.
Total
Specified
Breeds.
Boroughs
(Breeds
unspecified).
Total
Horses.
Stallions for stud4079224081231,8601582,018
Geldings two years old and over1,77272,29976,7073,753154,53111,00165,611
Dry mares two years old and over1,89564,11671,1444,083141,2386,875148,113
Mares with foal at foot or to foal this season9286,9058,28150516,61962217,241
Fillies under two years old6377,9718,70145917,76840618,174
Colts or geldings under two years old5116,4527,08341314,4593,02217,481
Other horses and horses unspecified1771,0225,8975687,6641,7489,412
               Total horses6,327159,687178,2219,904354,13923,911378,050

The numbers of horses in each of the last five years are as follows:—

Year
(31st January).
Number of
Horses.
Numerical
Increase
or Decrease.
Increase or
Decrease
per Cent.
1917373,600..     ..     
1918378,050+4,450+1.19
1919363,188−14,862−3.93
1920346,407−16,781−4.62
1921337,259−9,148−2.64

Additional information in regard to horses over two years old was collected for the first time in 1919. Horses over two years old were classified in three classes—(1) Draught; (2) spring-cart or light artillery; and (3) light (including thoroughbred and trotting). This information is available only in respect of holdings that are over one acre in extent and that are not situated within borough boundaries. The number of horses included in this classification at the 31st January, 1921, was 302,069, of which 131,848 were draught and 86,087 light, whilst spring-cart or light artillery horses numbered 34,134.

The following table gives details by land districts:—

HORSES OVER TWO YEARS OLD, 31ST JANUARY, 1921.
Land District
(excluding Interior
Boroughs).
Draught.Spring-cart
or Light
Artillery.
Light (including
Thoroughbred
and Trotting).
Total Horses
over Two
Years Old.
North Auckland8,33812,32212,66633,326
Auckland16,24416,41612,36645,026
Hawke's Bay8,9757,48315,48831,946
Taranaki5,9469,1286,03321,107
Wellington11,55814,81113,12239,491
Nelson2,9682,3101,6626,940
Marlborough3,2421,9021,2526,396
Westland5661,0116452,222
Canterbury36,6898,56612,53857,793
Otago19,9685,8186,43832,224
Southland17,3544,3673,87725,598
               Totals131,84884,13486,087302,069

ASSES AND MULES.

Asses and mules numbered 245 as at the 31st January, 1921, being a decrease of 17 on the figures for 1920.

PIGS.

There were 258,694 pigs in the Dominion on the 31st January, 1918. The following table shows the classification by breeds:—

Breed.Boars of
All Ages
for Stud.
Sows of All
Ages used or
intended for
Breeding.
Other Pigs.Total Pigs.
Pure Berkshire3,99013,13749,48366,610
Pure Yorkshire5522,0644,6007,216
Other purebred pigs2191,1153,0664,400
Crossbred pigs1,83816,692156,508175,038
                 Totals6,59933,008213,657253,264
In boroughs (breeds unspecified)1166324,6825,430
                 Grand totals6,71533,640218,339258,694

As regards the numbers of pigs in recent years, a decrease of 23,347 was recorded between 1918 and 1919, but a recovery of 31,482 was shown between 1919 and 1920. The number of pigs returned as at 31st January, 1921 (349,892), was the largest ever shown for the Dominion, being an advance of 83,053 on the figure for 1920. Details by land districts for 1921 are as follows:—

Land District
(including Interior
Boroughs).
Boars of
All Ages
for Stud.
Sows of All
Ages used or
intended for
Breeding.
Other Pigs.Total Pigs.
North Auckland1,3326,92340,77149,026
Auckland2,10111,68661,05474,841
Hawke's Bay5953,20217,08320,880
Taranaki1,3646,89643,05051,310
Wellington1,6528,49243,94154,085
Nelson3401,66310,30012,303
Marlborough2171,1036,2267,546
Westland1115043,3233,938
Canterbury1,0356,53942,71250,286
Otago4022,10213,32915,833
Southland2261,1198,4999,844
               Totals9,37550,229290,288349,892

During the ten years ended the 31st March, 1921, 1,986,005 pigs were slaughtered in New Zealand for food purposes, the weight of pork, bacons, and hams being 2,296,350 cwt. For the twelve months ended the 31st January, 1921, 43,707 pigs were slaughtered by farmers on holdings of one acre or more outside borough boundaries. During the ten-yearly period, roughly, 19,000 cwt. of hams and bacons were exported, leaving 99 per cent. for home consumption.

Figures showing the slaughter for each of the ten years are given below:—

Year ended
31st March.
Number
of Pigs.
Weight of
Pork, Bacon,
and Hams.
  Cwt.   
1912232,091269,391
1913192,407223,330
1914191,797222,622
1915241,683280,525
1916219,041254,244
1917202,834235,432
1918179,540208,395
1919155,960181,024
1920200,952233,104
1921169,700196,852

GOATS.

The number of Angora goats in the Dominion on the 31st January, 1921, was 5,533, an increase of 56 since 1920. Other goats increased during the period, the number in 1921 being 11,834.

POULTRY.

The number of poultry in New Zealand at the taking of the 1921 census was ascertained to be 3,991,009, an increase of 525,371 over the number for the year 1916 (3,465,638).

The figures of poultry for each of the List four censuses are as follows:—

Census Year.Fowls.Ducks.Geese.Turkeys.Total.
19062,784,269281,99944,30077,1013,187,669
19113,215,031329,23045,38997,9333,687,583
19163,141,354220,80846,95556,5213,465,638
19213,491,567379,98846,23473,2203,991,009

In connection with the census of 1921 statistics were compiled as to the sizes of flocks of fowls, and the results are instructive as showing that, though poultry-farming as a definite branch of fanning exists to some small extent, poultry-keeping is generally carried on merely as a side-line. The classification of flocks of fowls is,—

Size of Flock.Number
of Flocks.
Under 1243,913
     12 and under      2554,130
     25 and under      5032,180
     50 and under      758,285
     75 and under    1002,102
   100 and under    1501,414
   150 and under    200422
   200 and under    250205
   250 and under    300113
   300 and under    400147
   400 and under    50071
   500 and under    60033
   600 and under    70016
   700 and under    80023
   800 and under    90016
   900 and under 1,0008
1,000 and under 1,25021
1,250 and under 1,5005
1,500 and under 1,7006
1,700 and under 2,0005
2,000 and under 2,2501
2,250 and under 2,5001
2,500 and under 3,000..     
3,000 and over2
               Total143,119

The average number of fowls per flock was thus only two dozen. The total number of households keeping poultry of any kind was 145,993, of which no fewer than 61,459 were in boroughs.

BEES.

Bees were first introduced into New Zealand in 1839, and after early vicissitudes bee-farming has steadily increased. The census returns of 1921 show that there were 8,426 households keeping bees in the Dominion, the number of colonies being 85,861. Comparative figures for the last four censuses are given.

Census Year.Number of
Households
keeping Bees.
Number of
Beehives.
Honey produced
during Year.
Beeswax produced
during Year.
   lb.      lb.      
190615,39674,3411,003,94031,682
191111,01171,6051,457,42928,061
19168,24457,5401,363,33431,032
19218,42685,8612,807,34651,180

Of the colonies in 1921, 29,672 were of black, 26,184 of hybrid, 25,925 of Italian, and 4,080 of other (including unspecified) bees.

A classification of the number of hives in apiaries at the census of 1921 is given below for each provincial district:—

BEES.—SIZE OF APIARIES.
Provincial District.Number of Cases in which the Number of Hives in the Apiary wasTotal Number
of Apiaries.
Under 5.5 and
under 10.
10 and
under 25.
25 and
under 50.
50 and
under 100.
100 and
over.
Auckland1,4733662378356542,269
Hawke's Bay23454341553345
Taranaki2889545141010462
Wellington60916597382021950
Marlborough2025020542283
Nelson40682562274577
Westland9327221143160
Canterbury9232812088838381,576
Otago—
     Otago portion705224163392541,160
     Southland portion4121207220128644
                 Totals5,3451,4649543351811478,426

Exports of honey for the last five years were—

Year.Quantity.Value.
 lb.     £     
1916144,0292,787
1917248,3415,589
1918172,0145,964
19191,701,80159,846
1920935,81134,122

The Department of Agriculture maintains apiary instructors and inspectors, who give practical instruction in management, preparation of products for market, &c. The grading of honey for export is now compulsory.

Regulations gazetted under the Apiaries Amendment Act, 1913, require all beekeepers to make application to the Director of the Horticulture Division, Department of Agriculture, for registration of their apiaries. Registration must be re-effected every third year. In the case of apiaries being established or transferred from one beekeeper to another, application for registration of such establishment or transfer must be made within twenty-one days.

Chapter 17. SECTION XVII.—FORESTRY.

HISTORY OF FORESTRY IN NEW ZEALAND.

THE importance of applying to New Zealand forests a system of scientific management was first realized about 1873; and in 1874 the Government brought Captain Campbell Walker from India to make a report on New Zealand forests and to submit proposals for their management. In 1875 Captain Walker was appointed Conservator of State Forests; he spent a year in investigating the forests, and made a report submitting proposals for the establishment of an organization to manage them. As, however, a period of financial depression occurred at this time Captain Walker's recommendations were not given effect to, and he left the country in 1877. In 1880 a French forester (A. Lecoy) also made a report. In 1886 Mr. T. Kirk was appointed Chief Conservator of Forests, but he was given no administrative or executive authority, and after he had held the appointment for two years he was retrenched on the grounds of economy. Subsequent to this the State forests and most forests on Crown lands were administered by the Lands Department through the Commissioners of Crown Lands, who were ex officio Conservators of State Forests. In mining districts there existed the anomaly of the Goldfields Wardens being the authorities to grant sawmilling rights. In 1913 a Royal Commission on Forestry advised that the Forestry Branch of the Lands Department should be put under a special administrative officer, and that an advisory Board should be set up to advise him. In 1915 Mr. (afterwards Sir) D. E. Hutchins, a professional forester with a, world-wide reputation, was invited to come to New Zealand for the purpose of reporting on the forests of the Dominion. He advised the creation of an independent Department and the engagement of trained foresters to manage the forests. Sir D. E. Hutchins remained in New Zealand until his death in 1920, and devoted his time and energy to educating the people of the Dominion with regard to the great importance of their forests and the necessity for placing them under the management of technically trained foresters. He was also the originator of the New Zealand Forestry League, which did valuable work in stirring up an interest in forestry. In November, 1918, the separation of the office of Commissioner of State Forests from that of Minister of Lands took place. The urgent necessity for providing a constant supply of timber for both present and future use led to the inclusion in the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act, 1918, of a section providing for the proclamation of any Crown lands as “provisional” State forests. Under this authority 5,134,651 acres have already been proclaimed, and had this not been done it is certain that large areas of land, suitable only for forestry, would have been sacrificed to the insistent demands of land-seekers. At this time also a Chief Forest Officer was appointed with control over all State forests and afforestation activities. The Commissioners of Crown Lands, however, continued to function as district Conservators of Forests. In 1919 a complete divorce from the Lands Department took place, and the Forestry Department was formed, with the former Chief Officer as Secretary. The Forestry Department was reorganized in 1920 as the State Forest Service, a Director of Forestry, a Chief Inspector and five Conservators, together with a staff of field and clerical officers, being appointed. The secretaryship of the new service was retained by the Secretary of the old organization.

AREA OF INDIGENOUS FORESTS, AND FOREST RESERVATION.

The total area of New Zealand is 103,284 square miles, and at the time when organized European settlement was first started (about 1840) there were about three-fifths (62,000 square miles) of this area under forest. The rapid advance of settlement (too often indiscriminate), the operations of sawmills, and the ravages caused by fires of kauri-gum diggers, mining prospectors, and other pioneers, have resulted in this area being rapidly reduced, so that at the present time it is estimated (in the absence of correct surveys) that the remaining total area of forest in New Zealand is only about 11,500,000 acres. A considerable proportion of this area, however, being ordinary Crown land, Native land, and privately owned land, will probably be deforested and surrendered for settlement. The area of permanent State forest reserves is 1,668,319 acres, and of provisional State forests 5,134,651 acres, making a total of 6,802,970 acres controlled by the State Forest Service. A considerable part of this area is, however, alpine meadow-land, or subalpine scrub-land, and until further surveys have been made the area containing merchantable forest cannot be safely stated.

DESCRIPTION OF FORESTS.

The forests of New Zealand consist of two classes—the rain forest and the southern-beech forest. With one or two exceptions most of the lowland forests belong to the first class. From the number of species, the abundance of lianes, perching plants, tree-ferns, filmy ferns, &c., the rain forests have the appearance and general character of tropical forests. The components of the rain forests vary, however, in different localities, and often one or two species dominate the association to such an extent as to warrant the application of a type name—e.g., “tawa association,” “tawhero association.”

The southern-beech forest is found generally on the higher elevations, but near Wellington, at the Marlborough Sounds, and at the south-east extremity of the South Island it descends to sea-level. As a rule it is composed of one or two of four species of southern beech (Nothofagus) (called “birch” by the settlers), but in some localities there is an admixture of rain-forest trees. Unlike, the rain forest the southern-beech forest has few lianes (they are often absent) and tree-ferns, and comparatively little undergrowth. It has a close relationship to the southern-beech forests of western Tasmania and of Patagonia.

FOREST MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION.

Up to the present time there has been no attempt to apply any system of silvi-cultural management to the native forests. A sawmiller was granted, through the Commissioner of Crown Lands (as Conservator of Forests or as Commissioner), or by the Warden, an area of forest, and so long as he cut out the timber regularly and paid the royalties his operations were not interfered with. In the Auckland District, however, where the presence of kauri made the forest more valuable, administration was better, as there the timber was measured up, appraised, and disposed of by auction or tender. The former method of management was responsible for vast waste of timber, loss of revenue to the State, and too often the complete destruction of forest on land which should have been retained for the yield of future crops of timber or for protection purposes. It is the aim of the present State Forest Service to prevent this wasteful and short-sighted management, and to substitute for it such control and direction as will prevent waste in supplying the requirements of present citizens, and will also ensure supplies of timber for their successors.

Though the forest-trees of New Zealand are ninety-nine in number, there are but about twenty of them which are of value as timber-trees; in fact, at present only six are being used to any extent by sawmillers, and of these five are coniferous (softwood) timbers. There are already indications that the high prices and growing scarcity of many of our best timbers will bring about the use of many of those now neglected. There are several timbers—e.g., puriri, kohekohe, pukatea—which possess very high qualities, but which are now to be obtained only in such small quantities that they are of little commercial importance. The chief timber-trees of New Zealand are described at the end of this section.

The output of sawn timber for the year ended 31st March, 1921, was 306,172,916 superficial feet, made up as follows: White-pine, 78,056,047; rimu, 150,708,970; kauri, 19,663,955; matai, 22,776,424; totara, 17,901,178; beech, 7,545,651; tawa, 1,401,505; cedar, 43,101; rata, 2,000; puriri, 100,000; silver-pine, 53,941; taraire, 4,608; pukatea, 664; hinau, 597; rowarewa, 60,000; Pinus insignis, 6,240,428; blue-gum, 207,706; poplar, 153,819; various and mixed, 1,252,322.

AFFORESTATION.

The method first adopted in New Zealand for inducing the planting of forest-trees for production of timber was by means of “land grants”—a settler being given a free grant of land if he planted a certain portion of his land with suitable trees. In Canterbury, where the system was adopted in the early “seventies,” as much as two acres of Crown lands for one acre planted with trees was sometimes granted. Several large plantations that were established in Canterbury by this method may now be seen; and in some cases very good returns have during late years been obtained from the milling of these. The returns got from Pinus insignis plantations have been extraordinarily good. The Selwyn and Ashburton County Councils planted a considerable area of their reserves with trees, and the Railway Department planted on the railway reserves in Canterbury and Auckland Districts a large quantity of trees with the idea of subsequently utilizing them for railway-sleepers, &c. In 1896 an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed, and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island, and at Rotorua in the North Island. Shortly afterwards afforestation was started on an extensive scale at those and other localities.

The total expenditure on State afforestation up to the 31st March, 1921, has been £571,679. None of the State plantations is yet sufficiently old to produce saw-timber, but a small revenue has been received from thinnings from the first-planted larch and eucalyptus. The rapid-growing Pinus insignis has been extensively planted only during the last six years.

The total area of State plantations is 38,460 acres.

STATE AFFORESTATION, NORTH ISLAND.

Tree-planting Activities.

The State plantations in the North Island are mainly in the Rotorua County, where several large, contiguous blocks of land have been reserved for tree-planting; and to a small extent at Puhipuhi, North Auckland, where about 1,200 acres of cut-out kauri forest have been replanted with exotic trees.

Tree-planting work was commenced in the year 1898, when a nursery was started at Whakarewarewa, two miles from Rotorua Township. This station, known officially as “Rotorua Nursery,” has been gradually developed, and is at present the headquarters for the afforestation activities in the North Island. Here all the trees required in the State plantations, as well as the trees sold to private planters, are raised. Since the inception of this nursery trees have been raised and distributed as follows:—

To plantations61,715,686
To farmers, soldier settlers, public bodies, schools, &c.2,410,532
Balance in stock in nursery at 31st March, 192111,000,000
                              Total trees raised75,126,218

Coincident with the propagation of trees for the plantations, experiments have been made with a great number of exotic and indigenous trees and shrubs, specimens of which have been planted in the nursery-grounds. In this way a fairly comprehensive collection of useful trees has been gathered together, which, besides having a distinct educative value, make the nursery-grounds very attractive.

Plantations.

The area afforested by the State in the Rotorua region amounts to 24,868 acres, being made up as follows;—

 Acres.
Whakarewarewa Plantation7,983
Waiotapu Plantation9,539
Kaingaroa Plains Plantation7,346

The reserve known as Whakarewarewa Plantation is situated immediately behind Rotorua Nursery, whence it extends in a southerly direction for a distance of seven miles. Waiotapu Plantation, which is twenty miles distant by road from Rotorua, comprises a large block of undulating country lying to the east of the Rotorua-Taupo Road. Joining this plantation on the east are the two reserves on the Kaingaroa Plains, distant from Rotorua some thirty miles, and comprising a comparatively small part of the extensive plateau which lies between the Rangitaiki River on the east and the Waiotapu Valley on the west. Here are situated the youngest portions of the State plantations and the present centre of the tree-planting activities.

Species planted.

Whilst a considerable number of species were experimented with in the initial stages of the work, the chief species used to any considerable extent were European larch, Austrian pine, Corsican pine, Western yellow-pine, and a variety of eucalypti. Of more recent years the species used for planting have been Douglas fir, Western yellow-pine, Pinus insignis, Corsican pine, and, to a smaller extent, Weymouth pine.

The Planting of Shelter Trees by Settlers.

In the year 1915 Government decided to supply settlers with trees for planting shelter-belts, at cost price, and since the inauguration of the scheme in that year up to the 31st March, 1921, the total thus disposed of in the North Island is 1,172,000. It has been found that settlers generally want a species of tree which, while being useful for shelter, will produce a durable timber suitable for fencing purposes, and consequently a large demand for several species of eucalypti has been made. Pinus insignis, too, has been in great demand, particularly by farmers who are desirous of obtaining quick shelter.

From the continued increase in the demand for trees it is justifiable to conclude that the scheme is both popular and successful. The wisdom of the policy of encouraging and assisting farmers to plant trees may not be generally felt at the present time, but it will not be many, years before it is realized that the planting now being done is of very great importance to the Dominion. Each farmer who plants a shelter-belt derives a direct benefit to himself therefrom, and if tree-planting is undertaken by many farmers in a district the aggregate of this is of distinct benefit to the district from a climatic, scenic, and economic point of view. The value of the State's share in this work lies in the supplying of suitable trees, true to name and of the best strain, and thus ensuring the planting of only such kinds as are valuable in their respective classes.

STATE AFFORESTATION, SOUTH ISLAND.

The Planting of Exotic Trees by the State.

The total area of State plantations in the South Island is 12,392 acres, of which the largest units are at Hanmer Springs and Tapanui.

During the period over which State afforestation has been in progress practically all the best-known commerce trees of the Northern Hemisphere have been experimented with, but many have been discarded as unsuitable for various reasons, until at the present time operations are being conducted with a comparatively small range of conifers of proved economic importance, which experience has shown will most readily adapt themselves to local conditions. The principal species now being raised for afforestation purposes are Pinus radiata, P. ponderosa, P. Laricio, and Douglas fir.

Through the Great War various factors arose which have in late years had an important bearing in the progress of State planting operations. Foreign tree-seeds were either in short supply or unprocurable, while toward the latter end of the period labour troubles reached an acute stage. A gradual decrease in the area planted annually resulted; and, although circumstances are now much more favourable, it will probably take a further two years for the nurseries to regain their pre-war efficiency and attain their maximum output.

Of the 12,392 acres of South Island State plantations, 3,952 acres are in the northern portion of the Canterbury Land District, 1,997 acres in Central Otago, and 5,984 acres in South Otago, whilst the balance of 459 acres consists of small experimental plots in various localities.

The area occupied by the chief varieties of trees is as follows: Pinus Laricio, 2,764 acres; larch, 2,597 acres; Pinus radiata, 1,507 acres; Pinus Laricio and Pinus ponderosa mixture, 1,395 acres; Pinus ponderosa, 1,117 acres; Pinus austriaca, 1,004 acres.

The Planting of Exotic Trees by Settlers and Local Bodies.

The efforts of the State Forest Service to encourage private enterprise by supplying planting-material to farmers and local bodies at a reasonable cost is meeting with gratifying results, and the distribution of trees to private planters promises in the near future to become a business of considerable magnitude. Throughout the country the increasing difficulty of obtaining the miscellaneous timbers indispensable to his calling is bringing home to the settler the value of the farm wood-lot, while local bodies see in the planting of suitable exotics the opportunity to beautify and make productive their waste lands, and at the same time to make an investment which will add materially to their future revenues. During the past winter 291 applicants in the South Island were supplied, in consignments varying from 100 to 25,000, with an aggregate total of 267,000 plants, an increase of 154,000 over the number distributed during the previous season. Private planters generally evince a decided preference for Pinus radiata, which is not only an excellent shelter tree, but, considering the early age at which it reaches maturity and the immense volume of timber produced, is probably the most profitable of the exotics for milling purposes. Approximately two-thirds of the total trees supplied were Pinus radiata, and had the available stocks of this species been twice as large no difficulty in their disposal would have been experienced. A fair demand exists for the better-class timber-trees—Pinus ponderosa, P. Laricio, and Douglas fir, the first-named being the principal species supplied to the settlers of Central Otago, who find that it is eminently suitable to withstand the semi-arid conditions of that region. The value of Cupressus macrocarpa as a shelter tree and a general-farm-purpose timber-tree is widely recognized, inquiries for this species being always numerous.

One of the chief difficulties with which the private individual was faced, and which undoubtedly deterred many from planting extensively, was the selection of trees to suit local conditions. During the past season the matter has received special attention, an expert officer of the Service being detailed to make inspections and act as adviser to local bodies and settlers requiring assistance.

STATE ASSISTANCE IN AFFORESTATION.

Under section 69 of the Reserves and other Lands Disposal and Public Bodies Empowering Act, 1915, and the regulations made thereunder, provision is made for the sale of forest-trees to farmers. Under this authority trees are grown at the State nurseries and disposed of at cost price to farmers. Advice on tree-planting is also given to farmers, and tree - planting experts travel through the Dominion giving lectures at the country centres. Discharged soldier settlers receive trees gratis. Section 27 of the State Forests Act, 1908, authorizes the granting of subsidies and the co-operation of the State with local bodies in tree-planting. These systems of afforestation are being increasingly availed of, and under them it is expected that the area of exotic plantations in the Dominion will be largely increased.

FORESTRY EDUCATION.

Section 23 of the State Forests Act, 1908, gives power to establish schools of forestry and agriculture within any State forest; and section 29 of the Act empowers the Commissioner of State Forests to establish a school of forestry and agriculture on a block of land called the Kioreroa Block, near Whangarei. Nothing has yet been done under these powers, but Government has decided to establish at an early date a school of forestry at one of the University colleges, and the sum of £3,020 has been appropriated for this purpose. It Is intended that this school shall be of the highest class, so that those who graduate at it will have a professional standing equal to that of graduates of the best forestry schools of Europe and America. With a school of forestry in New Zealand, students will from their first year be able to study the special characteristics of the forests which they will subsequently help to manage and they will become acquainted with general local conditions. Provision will also be made at the school for the training of young men who wish to qualify for appointment to the lower grades of the Forest Service, or who wish to accept employment with local bodies or private firms.

FORESTRY LEGISLATION.

The conservation of Crown timber lands in New Zealand was first enacted by the New Zealand Forests Act, 1874, which was described as being “An Act to provide for the establishment of State forests and for the application of the revenue derivable therefrom.” The provisions of this Act were modified or added to by subsequent Acts, till in 1908 the enactments then in force were consolidated by the enactments of the State Forest Act, 1908. This Act provides, inter alia, for the appointment of one of the responsible Ministers of the Crown to be Commissioner of State Forests; the establishment of a State Forests Account and the borrowing of money to be paid to this account; the granting of licenses to cut timber; the appointment of forestry officers; the making of regulations; the establishment of schools of forestry; and the co-operating with local authorities in afforestation. Under section 34 of the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act, 1918, authority is provided for the following: The cutting and selling of timber by the Commissioner of State Forests and the purchase of private lands; the proclamation of Crown lands as and for provisional State forests; the constitution of every afforestation purpose as a public work under the Public Works Act, 1908; the limiting of the export of timber; and the prohibiting of the sale of, and the granting of licenses to cut, standing timber on public or private lands of any tenure, except subject to such conditions as may be prescribed.

The State Forests Amendment Act, 1919, provided for the proclamation of national-endowment lands as provisional State forests. In the Finance Acts of 1916, 1918, and 1920 authority was provided for raising moneys (not exceeding £500,000 in the aggregate) for forestry purposes. Section 315 of the Land Act, 1908, provided for the leasing for farming purposes of open areas of State forest reserves. Section 69 of the Reserves and other Lands Disposal and Public Bodies Empowering Act, 1915, gave authority for the disposal of young forest-trees to farmers and the giving of advice on tree-planting. A new Forests Act in which there is embodied the necessary provisions of the existing Acts, and containing additional provisions which experience has proved to be necessary, was passed in the session of 1921.

FOREST POLICY.

The present forest policy may be summarized as follows: (1) The assurance of ample timber-supplies at reasonable prices for both the present and the future population of New Zealand; (2) the protection and regulation of stream-flow by the maintenance of protection forests at the headwaters of all important streams; (3) the maintenance of forests as productive forest capital on non-agricultural areas which, if deforested, might be turned into useless impoverished wastes; and (4) the transference to forest management of all existing and future forests where stream-flow, soil-fertility, climate, and public health are dependent upon them.

The chief basic requirements for the effective operation of this policy are: (1) Continuity and stability of policy; (2) a modern and comprehensive forest law; (3) a progressive timber-sale policy; (4) permanent dedication by Act of Parliament of all forested non-agricultural Crown lands to forest management (up to the limits required to produce, by a sustained-yield management, the Dominion's timber needs); and (5) adequate forest - development funds for afforestation, forest - protection, education, and research.

The foregoing requirements have already been achieved to the following extent: A State Forest Service with an organized staff of officers has been created; the Dominion has been divided into seven conservation regions; over 5,000,000 acres of land have been proclaimed provisional State forests; forest research and forest demarcation have been started; a forest atlas of the Dominion has been compiled; the system of disposing of timber has been reformed; and the export of timber has been brought under Government control.

The Government has decided on the establishment of a school of forestry in order that officers with high technical training may be available for the requirements of the Forest Service.

CHIEF FOREST-TREES.

KAURI (Agathis australis).—This is the largest tree of the New Zealand forest, and as far as volume of timber is concerned it is also one of the largest trees of the world. The average height of kauri is about 100 ft. The maximum diameter which has been measured is 22 ft., and a few trees now exist with diameters of 14 ft. The average diameter is, however, about 40 in. It grows only to the north of 38° south latitude. The timber is light yellowish-brown in colour; it is straight in the grain, strong, easily worked, and remarkably free from knots and defects; probably there is no more generally useful softwood in the world. Though formerly much used for house-building, its present high price confines its use to such purposes as railway-carriage building, cabinet and general joinery purposes. Mottled and figured kauri is much prized for cabinet work. The kauri-tree yields a very valuable resin called kauri-gum. It is regrettable that the remaining stand of this valuable timber is now very limited.

TOTARA (Podocarpus Totara and P. Hallii).—Totara is found more or less throughout the whole of New Zealand, though in many localities it is rare. It is most plentiful in the forests of the central portion of the North Island. The average height is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber is reddish when first cut, seasoning to a reddish-brown. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, but somewhat brittle. Its great durability has caused it to be much used for railway-sleepers, wharf-piles, telegraph-poles, and posts. Its high price and its freedom from warping and shrinking are now, however, causing it to be used for such special purposes as window and door frames; it is also much used for veranda-posts, flooring, and steps.

RIMU, or RED-PINE (Dacrydium cupressinum).—This, the principal timber-tree. of the New Zealand forest, is to be found more or less in all forests except the pure beech forests. The average height is about 100 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber when first cut is reddish-brown, which changes when seasoned to a light brown with darker and lighter streaks. It is fairly straight in the grain, and easily worked. It is the chief timber used in housebuilding. It is often beautifully figured, and such timber is used for furniture, doors, and panelling.

KAHIKATEA, or WHITE-PINE (Podocarpus dacrydioides).—This tree is found more or less in all forests (except the beech forests) from north to south of the Dominion; formerly it was found in almost pure stands in swampy areas, but most of these stands have now been exploited. The average height of the tree is about 120 ft., and the average diameter about 32 in. The sapwood, which comprises the greater part of the log, is white, and the heartwood yellow. The timber is straight in the grain, easily worked, and long clean lengths can be obtained. The yellow heartwood is durable, but the sapwood is very susceptible to the attacks of the larvæ of the white-pine borer. The timber is inodorous, and is used mainly for butter-boxes, cheese-crates, and other packages.

MATAI, or BLACK-PINE (Prumnopitys spicata).—The distribution of this tree ranges from the extreme north to the extreme south of the Dominion. The average height of the tree is about 66 ft., and the average diameter about 24 in. The timber is light yellowish-brown in colour, straight in the grain, easily worked, but somewhat brittle and rather heavy. In the ground it is of second-rate durability, but it is very durable out of the ground. It is used chiefly for weatherboarding and flooring.

YELLOW SILVER-PINE (Dacrydium Colensoi).—The distribution of this tree ranges from Hokianga in the north to the extreme south of the Dominion. The average height of the tree is about 45 ft., and the average diameter about 18 in. Though the tree is small, there is a large proportion of heartwood. The timber is whitish when first cut, darkening to a light yellowish-brown; it is straight in the grain and easy to work. Owing to its extreme durability it has been used mainly for railway-sleepers, telegraph-poles, and posts; it is occasionally beautifully mottled, and is then used for cabinet-work. The remaining supplies are now very limited.

KAIKAWAKA, or MOUNTAIN-CEDAR (Libocedrus Bidwillii).—Though the distribution of this tree is often local, its range extends from the Hauraki Gulf to the forests of South Otago. It is most plentiful on the west coast of the South Island. The average height of the tree is about 50 ft., with an average diameter of about 18 in. The timber is dark red in colour, easy to work, light, and rather weak; it has considerable resemblance to totara, but it is not so strong, and generally not so durable. The timber has been used for telegraph-poles, shingles, and palings; and with the lessened supply of totara, its use for these purposes will increase.

RED-BEECH (Nothofagus fusca).—This tree is more commonly known under the names red, brown, or black birch. Its distribution extends from near Mangonui in the north to the extreme south of the Dominion. In many places it is found in almost pure stands. The average height of the tree is about 100 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber when first cut is a pinkish-red in colour, turning to a light brown on seasoning; it is hard, strong, easily split, durable, and of about the same weight as English ash. Red-beech is liable to warp in seasoning, and for this reason it has not been much used for house-building; its chief use at present is for posts and mine-props, and it is used to a small extent for sleepers and bridge-work. With the increasing scarcity of Australian hardwoods it is likely to have a much more extended use in the future.

SILVER-BEECH (Nothofagus Menziesii).—This tree is more commonly known under the names silver, white, cherry, or totara birch. Its distribution extends from the Hauraki Gulf to the extreme south of the Dominion, in some places being found as the dominant forest-tree. The average height of the tree is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about 2 ft. The timber is of a pinkish colour when first cut, but it changes to a light brown with exposure. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, strong, and of about the same weight as red-beech; it is, however, not durable in contact with the ground. It is now being used for furniture, agricultural implements, tool-handles, and packing-cases, and its use for these and in other directions is sure to extend.

PURIRI (Vitex lucens).—The inland distribution of this tree extends from the North Cape to the vicinity of Te Aroha, but it follows the coast on the east as far south as Poverty Bay and on the west to New Plymouth. The average height of the tree is about 40 ft., and the average diameter about 22 in. The timber when seasoned is a dark rich brown; it is extremely hard, dense, strong, durable, and heavy. Owing to its interlaced fibres it is difficult to work. It has been so much used for railway-sleepers, posts, and house-blocks that the supply is now almost exhausted. It is an extremely beautiful tree, and, being of quick growth, it should be planted for ornamental purposes in frost-free localities.

TAWA (Beilschmiedia Tawa).—This tree is to be found in most forests of the North Island up to an altitude of about 1,700 ft. In the South Island it exists in small quantities in the coastal forests of Nelson and Marlborough. The average height of the tree is about 60 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber is light brown in colour, rather hard, straight in the grain, but somewhat brittle. At present it is used to a small extent for inside lining and packing-cases only, but with preservative treatment its use could be much extended.

TARAIRE (Beilschmiedia Taraire).—This tree is plentiful in forests to the north of Auckland, but to the south it occurs occasionally only in forests as far south as the East Cape on the east coast and. Raglan Harbour on the west coast. The average height is about 50 ft., and the average diameter about 18 in. The timber is light brown in colour, straight in the grain, easily worked, and somewhat resembles plain oak in appearance. It has a limited use for furniture-making, but with preservative treatment its use could be much extended.

RATA (Metrosideros robusta and M. lucida).—The first-mentioned of these trees is found in most forests below 2,000 ft. in the North Island; it is rather rare in the South Island, being found only occasionally in the lowland forests of Marlborough, Nelson, and Westland. This tree generally starts as a “perching-plant” in the forks of other large trees, and therefrom sends down huge roots, which generally envelope and strangle the supporting tree. These roots generally (but not always) coalesce; and when they do they form a huge bole (with an average diameter of about 54 in.) which is generally hollow. The other rata, though found only rarely in the North Island, is plentiful in the South Island. It has the same habit of growth as an ordinary tree; its average height is about 50 ft., and the average diameter is about 20 in. The timber of both trees is reddish-brown in colour, extremely hard, heavy, strong, and (out of the ground) very durable; it is highly valued as firewood, but is also used to a small extent for arms for telegraph-poles and for wheelwrights' work. Its use could be much extended.

KAMAHI, or TAWHERO (Weinmannia racemosa).—This tree is to be found in most forests from north to south of the Dominion. Its habit of growth and size vary considerably in different localities; in some places it has a short irregularly formed bole which is often hollow, but in some localities (especially in the South Island) it forms a clean solid bole. The average height of the tree is about 50 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber is dark brown or reddish in colour, and often has dark streaks running through it; it is strong and tough, but rather irregular in the grain; when worked up it has a very handsome appearance, but it is difficult to season without warping and checking. At present it is used to a limited extent only as rails for bush tram-lines, but owing to its abundance it has considerable possibilities, especially for manufacture of wood-pulp.

TANEKAHA, or TOATOA (Phyllocladus trichomanoides).—This tree is found in the North Island locally from the North Cape to Taranaki and Hawke's Bay; in the South Island it is found only in the northern parts of Marlborough and Nelson down to Westport on the west coast. The timber is yellowish-white, free from knots, close-grained, dense, heavy, and very strong, and shrinks very little in seasoning. It is of uncertain durability in the ground, but is very durable out of the ground. In the past it was used for bridge-building, sleepers, and mine-props. It is now used in railway-carriage construction. The bark is very valuable, containing as much as 28 per cent. of tannin.

PUKATEA (Laurelia novae zealandiae).—The pukatea was formerly abundant throughout the North Island, especially in swampy situations; though still well distributed, it is nowhere plentiful. In the South Island it is found in Nelson, Marlborough, and Westland, but is rare and local. It is a tall tree with an average height of about 90 ft. and an average diameter of about 2 ft. above its big supporting buttresses. The wood of the pukatea is pale brown in colour, often with darker or paler streaks, and often very ornamental. Though soft it is strong, very tough, light, difficult to split, and takes a fine finish. In the ground it is of uncertain durability, but it is very durable out of the ground. It is a timber which has been much neglected, having been used only to a small extent for boatbuilding, weatherboards, furniture, and posts in sandy land.

MANUKA, or KANUKA (Leptospermum ericoides); TEA-TREE.—The distribution of the manuka extends from the North Cape to the Bluff. The manuka, according to locality, may be a shrub or tree, reaching occasionally 60 ft. in height and a diameter of 3 ft. The wood is red, dense, heavy, straight-grained, hard, very strong, tough, and elastic. Owing to its exceptionally good burning qualities it has been very much used for fuel, but settlers and miners have made considerable use of it for handles of axes, picks, bill-hooks, &c. It makes good wheel-spokes. There is another manuka (L. Scoparium) which is often called “red manuka,” but it seldom exceeds the size of a shrub.

BLACK-MAIRE (Olea Cunninghamii).—The black-maire occurs in all forests (except the beech forests) throughout the North Island, but it is only in the central portion that it is at all plentiful. In the South Island it is found only in the Marlborough District, and is there very rare. It occasionally reaches a height of 70 ft. and a diameter of 4 ft., but the average height and diameter are 40 ft. and 18 in. respectively. The wood is light brown, often with dark streaks, with considerable resemblance to that of its relative, the European olive. It is extremely dense, heavy, hard, strong, and (out of the ground) durable; it has been used to a small extent for framing for machinery and for bridge-building, but owing to its exceptional heat-giving property its chief use has been for firewood. It is quite suitable for all those turnery purposes for which the wood of the European olive is used.

REWAREWA, or HONEYSUCKLE (Knightia excelsa).—In the North Island this tree is common in most forests (it is absent from the beech forest), but in the South Island it is rare and is found only in the forest on the lands bordering Cook Strait. The rewarewa occasionally reaches a height of 90 ft. and a diameter of 3 ft.; but the average height and diameter are respectively about 60 ft. and 20 in. The timber of rewarewa is yellowish-brown, and when cut on the quarter the medullary rays show as reddish-brown splashes; the timber is then extremely handsome. It is very strong, tough, and elastic. Its chief use is for cabinet-work, ornamental turnery and inlaid work, and its use in these directions might be much extended.

MANGEAO, or TANGEAO (Litsea calicaris).—The mangeao is found from the North Cape to the East Cape on the east coast and Mokau on the west coast, hut it is nowhere plentiful. It reaches a maximum height of 60 ft., with diameter of 3 ft., but the average height is 40 ft. and the average diameter 18 in. The timber is light brown in colour, tough, strong, and of great elasticity, and of about the same weight as English ash. It is used in coach and railway-carriage building, and only its scarcity prevents its wider use.

HINAU (Elaeocarpus dentatus).—The hinau is fairly common from the North Cape to South Otago. It is a tree from 40 ft. to 60 ft. in height, and from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter. The sap is white in colour, and the heartwood is dark brown; it is heavy, very strong, tough, and durable. The trees are very often hollow, and are seldom milled. Owing to the great durability of the heart timber it is much used for fencing-posts.

KOHEKOHE (Dysoxylum spectabile).—The kohekohe (occasionally called “cedar”) is abundant in forests near the coast of the North Island. In the South Island it is found only in the forests bordering the Marlborough Sounds and on D'Urville Island. The kohekohe reaches a maximum height of 60 ft., with a diameter of 3 ft.; the average height is about 45 ft., with a diameter of about 18 in. The timber is reddish in colour, rather soft, but strong and tough, very ornamental, and easily worked. It much resembles Honduras mahogany, and could be used for the same purposes. Unfortunately kohekohe is not now found in large quantities, and the tree also suffers from heart-rot.

Chapter 18. SECTION XVIII—FISHERIES.

LIST OF EDIBLE FISHES.

IN the issue of the Journal of Science and Technology for June, 1921, appeared an article by Mr. W. J. Phillipps, F.L.S., on the edible fishes of New Zealand. The following list of eighty-five principal food fishes found in New Zealand waters is taken from the article referred to:—

Common Name.Scientific Name.
Groper; hapukuPolyprion oxygencios.
Bass; moeonePolyprion americanus.
Red perchCaesioperca lepidoptera.
SowfishMaccullochia labiosa.
KahawaiArripis trutta.
Red bait-fishEmmelichthys nitidus.
MokiLatridopsis ciliaris.
Red mokiLatridopsis aerosa.
Trumpeter; koiroLatridopsis lineata.
Marble-fish; kekeAplodactylus meandratus.
TarakihiDactylopagrus macropterus.
PoraeDactylopagrus douglasii.
Maratea; nanuaChironemus spectabilis.
Mangrove-fish; paroreGirella tricuspidata.
Blue-fish; korokoropounamuGirella cyanea.
DrummerKyphosus sydneyanus.
Snapper; tamurePagrosomus auratus
Red mulletUpeneichthys vlamingii.
MaomaoScorpis violaceus.
Scarlet parrot-fishPseudolabrus miles.
Girdled parrot-fishPseudolabrus cinctus.
SpottyPseudolabrus celidotus.
Spotted pigfish; pakurakuraVerreo oxycephalus.
Banded pigfishVerreo oxycephalus var bellis.
Kelp-fishOdax, vittatus.
Butterfish; marariCoridodax pullus.
Trevally; araaraCaranx platessa.
Yellowtail; koheruDecapterus koheru.
Horse-mackerel; hatureTrachurus novœ-zelandiae.
Kingfish; hakuSeriola lalandi.
Southern mackerel; tawatawaScomber australasicus.
Long-finned albacoreGermo germon.
BonitoGymnosarda pelamis.
Barracouta; mangaThyrsites atun.
Southern kingfishJordanidia solandri.
Frost-fish; paraLepidopus caudatus.
Anchovy; kokowhawhaEngraulis antipodum.
Pilchard; mohimohiSardinia neopilchardus.
Sprat; kupaeClupea antipoda.
SmeltRetropinna retropinna.
Common eel; tunaAnguilla australis.
Conger-eel; koiroLeptocephalus conger.
Silver-eelCongarmuraena habenata.
Yellow-eel; puhikorokoroMuraena krullii.
GudgeonGalaxias brevipinnis.
Minnow; inangaGalaxias attenuatus.
KoaroGalaxias huttoni.
Grayling; upokororoPrototroctes oxyrhynchus.
SkipperScombresox forsteri.
Garfish; piper; takekeHemiramphus intermedius.
Grey mullet; kanaeMugil cephalus.
Common mullet; auaAgonostomus forsteri.
Silver-fishSeriolella punctata.
WarehouSeriolella brama.
BreamEurumetopos johnstonii.
Javelin-fishCoelorhynchus australis.
WhitingMerluccius gayi.
Red cod; hokaPhysiculus bachus.
Golden snapper; koareaAustroberyx affinis.
Sea-perch; pohuiakaroaHelicolenus percoides.
Red rock-cod; matuawhapukuScorpaena cardinalis.
Pigfish; puramoruaCongiopodus leucopaecilus.
John-dory; kuparuZeus faber.
Silver-doryCyttus novae-zealandiae.
MegrimCaulopsetta scapha.
BrillAmmotretis guntheri.
TurbotAmmotretis nudipinnis.
Lemon solePelotretis flavilatus.
Sand-flounder; patikiRhombosolea plebeia.
Yellow-flounder; patiki-totaraRhombosolea millari.
Green-back flounderRhombosolea tapirina.
Black flounder; patiki-mohoaoRhombosolea retiaria.
Common sole; patikiroriPeltorhamphus novae-zeelandiae.
Red gurnard; kumukumuChelidonichthys kumu.
GurnardLepidotrigla brachyoptera.
Spotted gurnardPterygotrigla picta.
FlatheadKathetostoma giganteum.
Star-gazerLeptoscopus macropygus.
Blue cod; rawaruParapercis colias.
Maori chiefNotothenia macrocephala.
Ling; hokarariGenypterus blacodes.
Leather-jacket; kokiriCantherines convexirostris.
Skate; whaiRaja nasuta.
Elephant-fish; reperepeCallorhynchus milii.
Spiny dogfish; piokeSqualus fernandinus.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES.

Provision exists in the Fisheries Act, 1908, whereby owners of boats and fish-curers may be required to make returns to the Marine Department in such form and in such manner as may be prescribed by the Governor-General in Council, but advantage of this provision has not yet been taken to enable information to be collected as to quantity of fish caught.

The Chief Inspector of Fisheries estimates that approximately 241,072 cwt. of fish, exclusive of oysters and the products of the whale-fisheries, was brought in from the fishing-grounds during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1921, representing a value of £344,334. In addition, the produce of the oyster-fisheries was valued at £22,657, and of the whale-fisheries at £19,307. The figures for each fishing-port are as follows:—

Port.Kinds of Fish caught.Total Weight.Total Value.
* Wholesale value.
   £    
WhangaroaHapuku, kahawai, snapper, kingfish, mullet, flounder, and crayfish      300 cwt.750
HokiangaSnapper, mullet, flounder, and kahawaiNo return supplied.
RussellMullet, snapper, tarakihi, trevally, kahawai, flounder, hapuku, kingfish, and crayfish18,000 cwt.8,500
Whale-oil     200 tons9,600
Bonedust       40 tons
Oysters  3,058 sacks*3,030
KaiparaSnapper, mullet, flounder, gurnard, and kahawai  9,140 cwt.11,095
WhangareiHapuku, flounder, snapper, mullet, and trevally  4,767 cwt.8,040
AucklandSnapper, flounder, sole, mullet, hapuku, tarakihi, kahawai, kingfish, and crayfish68,560 cwt.84,763
Oysters  3,739 sacks*3,739
ThamesFlounder, snapper, trevally, tarakihi, hapuku, gurnard  8,200 cwt.28,719
TaurangaSnapper, hapuku, flounder, herring, mullet, garfish, trevally, barracouta, kahawai, and gurnard  1,000 cwt.2,800
GisborneFlounder, sole, gurnard, snapper, tarakihi, hapuku, moki, and red cod  1,949 cwt.5,103
Port.Kinds of Fish caught.Total Weight.Total Value.
* Mostly whitebait.
   £    
NapierSnapper, gurnard, flounder, sole, butterfish, moki, ling, barracouta, warehou, and kingfish24,830 cwt.29,850
Crayfish     500 sacks750
Whitebait  8,000 lb.800
New PlymouthSnapper, blue cod, flounder, hapuku, ling, gurnard, herring, kahawai, and crayfish     900 cwt.1,200
WanganuiBlue cod, hapuku, flounder, snapper, kahawai, mullet, barracouta, and gurnard     190 cwt.458
FoxtonFlounder, snapper, kahawai, hapuku, mullet, and whitebait     300 cwt.1,200
WellingtonFlounder, sole, snapper, hapuku, hake, warehou, moki, tarakihi, gurnard, butterfish, blue cod, red cod, kahawai, and crayfish17,250 cwt.24,230
PictonBlue cod, red cod, hapuku, butterfish, moki, flounder, sole, herring, garfish, mackerel, and crayfish  2,000 cwt.2,750
Whale-oil     218 tons7,242
Bonedust       40 tons200
BlenheimBlue cod, flounder, sole, snapper, tarakihi, red cod, hapuku, hake, butterfish, kahawai, and whitebait     800 cwt.2,240
NelsonFlounder, sole, hake, hapuku, snapper, butterfish, blue cod, red cod, gurnard, moki, kahawai, and whitebait  1,095 cwt.1,271
WestportWhitebait, flounder, sole, hapuku, snapper, kahawai, herring, gurnard, red cod, and crayfish1,199 1/2 cwt.2,002
GreymouthWhitebait, snapper, red cod, hapuku, and flounder         5 cwt.119
HokitikaWhitebait, herring, red cod, flounder, and snapper     77 1/2 cwt.147
Whitebait     980 lb.49
KaikouraTrumpeter, groper, ling, kingfish, blue cod, red cod, butterfish, and crayfish  6,265 cwt.12,308
Whale-oil       63 tons2,220
Spermaceti     100 gal.45
RangioraWhitebait, flounder, and herring       34 cwt.295
KaiapoiWhitebait, flounder, herring, and red cod    *240 cwt.2,000
New BrightonWhitebait and flounder         7 cwt.75
SouthbridgeFlounder, herring, and red cod  2,220 cwt.4,979
Lyttelton and SumnerFlounder, sole, groper, tarakihi, kingfish, moki, butterfish, ling, gurnard  6,643 cwt.13,942
AkaroaBlue cod, red cod, moki, trevally, groper, butterfish, flounder, sole, ling, tarakihi, barracouta, and crayfish  4,740 cwt.6,370
TimaruGroper, flounder, sole, moki, tarakihi, ling, gurnard, red cod, kingfish, and barracouta  1,600 cwt.4,000
OamaruGroper, blue cod, red cod, moki, barracouta, ling, tarakihi, warehou, and gurnard  3,367 cwt.3,687
MoerakiGroper, red cod, blue cod, moki, barracouta, ling, warehou, and gurnard  3,560 cwt.4,765
Dunedin and Port ChalmersSole, flounder, brill, skate, groper, kingfish, ling, tarakihi, moki, blue cod, red cod, barracouta, trumpeter, trevally, garfish, gurnard, and kahawai45,220 cwt.49,942
InvercargillGroper, blue cod, red cod, flounder, sole, ling, barracouta, moki, trevally, and crayfish  1,320 cwt.2,866
BluffBlue cod, red cod, flounder, sole, groper, trumpeter, trevally, and moki  5,941 cwt.12,820
Oysters26,703 sacks16,689
Stewart Is.Blue cod, groper, butterfish, trumpeter, and moki  4,645 cwt.6,988
Chatham Is.Blue cod and hapuku  1,738 cwt.1,550

Included in New Zealand produce exported during the past five years were—

Item.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Fish37,47523,81819,20217,37727,522
Oysters1,3402441,1143421,323
Whalebone280..     ..     ..     3,100
Whale-oil1,6475,51112,61822,90823,304
Ambergris..     ..     ..     ..     1,700
Other products of fisheries1,75120125..     ..     
            Totals42,49329,77432,95940,62756,949

The value of fish imported in 1920 was £259,682.

VESSELS AND PERSONS EMPLOYED IN FISHING INDUSTRY.

A further table is given below showing the number of steam trawlers, oil-engine trawlers, and other vessels employed in line and net fishing, with the number of fishermen employed, and approximately the total number of persons engaged in the fishing industry at each port for the year ended the 31st March, 1921:—

Name of Port.Steam Trawlers.Oil-engine Trawlers.Line- and Net-fishing Vessels.Number of Fishermen employed.Persons other than Fishermen employed.Total Number of Persons employed.
Whangaroa..     ..     127..     7
Hokianga..     ..     1423..     23
Russell..     ..     5112060180
Whangarei..     ..     1217..     17
Kaipara..     ..     36571067
Auckland6..     16513470204
Thames..     ..     32702595
Tauranga..     ..     2430..     30
Gisborne3..     2450959
Napier10..     601414145
New Plymouth..     ..     34601070
Wanganui..     ..     109211
Foxton..     12540141
Wellington1..     62143135278
Picton1..     2635641
Blenheim..     ..     1218422
Nelson..     ..     6215..     15
Westport1..     910..     10
Greymouth..     ..     1116622
Hokitika..     ..     12..     2
Kaikoura..     ..     2347350
Rangiora..     ..     1821..     21
Kaiapoi..     ..     2424..     24
Southbridge..     ..     2335..     35
Lyttelton and Sumner162030434
Akaroa..     ..     1428..     28
Timaru181130838
Oamaru..     ..     918..     18
Moeraki..     ..     2436..     36
Otago District277714690236
Invercargill..     ..     920..     20
Bluff..     ..     54115..     115
Stewart Island..     ..     2865873
Chatham Islands..     ..     918826
            Totals26221,0251,6304632,093

The registration and licensing of fishing-boats and of boats engaged in taking oysters was made compulsory in July, 1904. A table is appended showing the number of registered and licensed fishing-boats at the various ports of the Dominion during the year 1920:—

Port.Number.
Auckland216
Bluff and Invercargill81
Chatham Islands7
Dunedin86
Gisborne17
Greymouth18
Hokianga16
Hokitika..     
Kaipara91
Lyttelton509
Napier79
Nelson81
New Plymouth33
Oamaru32
Patea4
Picton35
Russell52
Tauranga27
Thames45
Timaru17
Wairau13
Wanganui24
Wellington103
Westport10
        Total1,566

OYSTER-PICKING.

The principal oyster-beds round the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland Peninsula. The Foveaux Strait beds are very extensive, and are considered to be inexhaustible. An official prospecting cruise was carried out in respect of these beds in 1904, resulting in a number of new beds being discovered and reliable information being ascertained concerning the areas and qualities of the various beds.

During the 1920 season 26,703 sacks of oysters, valued at £16,689, were picked from the Foveaux Strait beds. Of these, 1,855 sacks, valued at £1,219, were exported to Australia.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, including the leasing of the beds to individuals and the licensing of pickers to take oysters on payment of a fee, but owing to stripping of the beds close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. For some years an export duty of 6d. per hundredweight was payable on all North Island oysters exported, and in 1899 the export of rock-oysters and also of mangrove-oysters was absolutely prohibited. A further step towards conserving the beds was taken in 1908, when the picking of rock-oysters from the North Island beds was undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited. A table is given showing the quantity and value of oysters picked and sold by the State during each of the last five years; also the cost of picking and selling, this item including interest and depreciation on the cost of the oil-launches used by the Inspectors. It will be seen that a profit accrues to the State, and the scheme has, moreover, resulted in the conservation of the beds.

Season.Oysters sold.Prices realized.Cost of Picking and Selling.
 Sacks.£     £     
19168,1725,6934,282
191710,3576,8905,819
191810,4227,5176,822
19197,2565,3313,765
19206,7975,9685,495

Mangrove-oysters grow on the roots of the mangrove-trees in the northern part of Auckland, but there is no market for them in New Zealand. As stated above, the export of mangrove and rock oysters has been prohibited for some years past. An inspection of the beds during 1915 showed that the quantities of these oysters were not nearly so great as was thought.

Various attempts were made several years ago to form artificial oyster-beds, but none of these met with success. A further attempt to plant rock-oysters in the Marlborough Sounds has been made recently, and, so far as can be seen at present, this has resulted successfully.

WHALING.

In the earlier part of the nineteenth century New Zealand was the centre of an important whale-fishery, many whaling-stations being established in the North of Auckland and in Cook and Foveaux Straits. The industry gradually declined in importance until at present only two or three stations remain. The whales caught are mostly of the hump-back variety. At Whangamumu, North Auckland, a whaling-steamer, fitted with the most modern appliances for killing and handling whales, has been placed in commission, and a very serviceable whaling plant has been established. Forty-four whales were taken last season in this locality, yielding 200 tons of oil and 40 tons of bonedust, of a total value of £9,600. Whaling operations are also carried on from Kaikoura and Tory Channel, in Marlborough. The value of the product of the Marlborough whale-fisheries in 1920-21 (281 tons of oil and 100 gallons of spermaceti) was £9,707, the number of whales caught being sixty-four.

An attempt to revive the whaling industry on a large scale was made some few years ago, and a fleet of vessels was sent out from Norway, but their operations did not meet with the success anticipated.

SEALS.

A close season for seals existed in New Zealand from the end of August, 1894, until 1913, but owing to poaching, which it was found impossible to stop, the seals did not increase to any great extent. It was proposed a few years ago to grant licenses for the right to take seals, one of the conditions of which was that a royalty should be paid on each skin. Tenders were invited for the licenses, but none were received. At present the taking of seals is prohibited.

MARINE FISH-HATCHERY.

A site for a marine fish-hatchery was selected at Purakanui, Otago, in 1900, but this being found unsuitable for its intended purpose another site was chosen at Portobello, in Otago Harbour. The erection of the hatchery was carried out by a Board set up to superintend the work of the hatchery, funds being provided by the State, and grants being made by the Otago Institute, the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, and a number of acclimatization societies. The State makes an annual grant towards the maintenance of the hatchery, the buildings and equipment of which have also been added to from time to time.

Experiments have been carried out with a view to introducing English food-fishes to New Zealand waters, and these have been fairly successful as regards the three species dealt with so far—viz., lobsters, edible crabs, and turbot. Much valuable work has also been done in the direction of hatching the spawn of various indigenous fishes and in making a study of their life habits.

INLAND FISHERIES.

As early as 1867 attempts were made to introduce English brown trout into New Zealand. The first attempt was not successful, but from ova imported in the two following years and hatched at Opoho the bulk of the trout now inhabiting the streams and lakes of the Dominion have descended. In later years Loch Leven and Scottish brown trout were introduced, as also rainbow trout, perch, carp, and tench.

Beginning in 1874, various attempts were made to introduce salmon into New Zealand. Up to 1889, ova of Atlantic salmon to the number of 474,000 had been imported and the fry liberated in the Aparima and other rivers considered suitable in the South Island, but no salmon have been caught in those rivers. Similarly, quinnat-salmon fry were liberated in the Waitaki and a few other rivers from 1875 to 1880, but up to 1900 none of the fish had been caught. Beginning with 1901, several more shipments of quinnat-ova were imported by the Government, and quinnat-salmon are now firmly established as an adjunct to the Dominion's fisheries. The run of salmon during the past season was the largest yet experienced in New Zealand, especially in the Waitaki and Rangitata Rivers, and also in the Clutha River. Numbers of small salmon were caught off the Timaru wharf and breakwater, and also off Bank's Peninsula, while later on fish believed to be quinnat-salmon were noticed in Lake Wairarapa in the North Island.

Ova of the sockeye or blue-back salmon were imported in 1902, and specimens of this fish were caught in 1907. Further efforts to introduce the Atlantic salmon in the Waiau River (Southland) have also been made in recent years, but at present it is impossible to say whether or not these attempts have met with success.

Several shipments of whitefish-ova have been made since 1898, the fry being liberated in Lakes Kanieri and Tekapo. Reports as to the fish having been seen are received from time to time, but so far as is known none have yet been caught.

MUNICIPAL FISH-MARKETS.

Municipal fish-markets have been established at Wellington and Auckland with a view to bringing the fishermen and the public into closer contact, and enabling the former to dispose of his catch at a figure which ensures a good return to himself and is reasonable from the point of view of the public.

AUCKLAND.

The market is under the management of a Markets Committee appointed by the City Council. The office and premises are situated at Hobson Street Wharf, where the two Municipal trawlers discharge their loads of fish. Two motor-lorries are engaged delivering the fish to the various hotels and fish-shops in Auckland City and suburbs, while an increasing trade is also being done with country districts. At the market facilities are provided for handling and treating fish, and for the performance of necessary work in connection with the industry.

The market is open from 6 a.m. to 5 p.m. daily, and a night staff is provided for receiving, cleaning, and smoking fish for the next day's business. The sales at the wholesale market for the year ended 31st March, 1921, totalled £35,488. In addition, at the retail premises in Queen Street, conducted by a manager, four salesmen, cashier, and oyster-opener, the turnover was £14,270.

The quantity of fish brought in by the Municipal trawlers was 29,730 baskets (approximately 100 lb. each) of mixed fish, largely snapper. The quantity of fish brought in by net and line fishermen was 189 tons 10 cwt.

WELLINGTON.

For several years a Municipal Fish-market was conducted by the Wellington City Corporation in a building situated on Jervois Quay, near the waterfront. The building is now conducted as a shop only.

Chapter 19. SECTION XIX.—MINING.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN no other country of equal size to New Zealand are indications of a greater number of economic minerals to be found, yet, with the exception perhaps of iron-ore, the known mineral reserves are not great in comparison with those in many other countries. The coal reserves of the Dominion are considerable, however, and their duration will be extended by the utilization of the enormous hydro-electric-power resources of the country.

The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, has for a number of years continued to decline in importance, in common with the experience of most other gold-producing countries. The causes of such decline are found in the approaching exhaustion of the most accessible known alluvial-gold deposits, the exhaustion of ore from the zones of secondary enrichment, and the increased cost of material and labour.

The quantities and values of gold and other minerals exported, also the output of coal from mines in the Dominion, during the years 1919 and 1920, and the total value since the 1st January, 1853, are as follows:—

Metal or Mineral.1920.1919.Total since 1st January, 1853.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.

* In respect of gold, ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards.

† Including for 1920: lime, 15 tons; greenstone, 3/5 ton; building-stone, 37 tons; pumicestone, 104 tons: pumice sand, 2,739 tons; also marble and dressed stone of weight unspecified by the Customs Department.

‡ For a number of years prior to 1918 the value of the output of coal-mines consumed in the Dominion was estimated at 10s. per ton, being pit's-mouth cost. During 1918 and 1919 the estimated value was increased to that of exported coal, f.o.b., while the estimated value for 1920 is on the basis of £1 per ton at the pit's mouth.

 Oz.    £       Oz.    £       Oz.    £       
Gold*212,973883,748320,2101,334,40522,591,50589,012,107
Silver369,40087,665453,567103,03722,616,8792,648,950
Copper-ore..     ..     ..     121,50419,390
Chrome-ore..     ..     ..     ..     5,86938,002
Antimony-ore..     ..     ..     ..     3,78155,045
Manganese-ore210..     ..     19,36661,915
Hæmatite ore..     ..     ..     ..     77469
Tungsten-ore10 1/101,378130 9/1029,4892,304 13/20299,311
Quicksilver1 13/209008 6/104,61914 3/47,641
Sulphur (crude)..     ..     ..     ..     4,92713,241
Mixed minerals2,895 3/58,7451,089 14/204,03959,946 1/20250,112
Coal (New Zealand) exported80,088128,500138,174201,3835,113,1054,986,562
Coke exported20634511316,81825,688
Coal, output of mines in Dominion (less exports)1,763,6171,763,6171,709,6742,491,78046,771,28827,190,210
Oil-shale..     ..     ..     ..     14,4447,236
Kauri-gum6,481556,7564,128255,812366,90119,137,820
     Total value..     3,431,391..     4,424,689..     143,753,699

GOLD-MINING.

Gold-mining operations in New Zealand are divided into three branches, viz: (1) Quartz-mining, (2) Alluvial mining, and (3) Dredging.

The following statement shows the quantity and value of bullion-production, the dividends paid by registered companies, and the number of productive claims and gold-dredges during 1920 and 1919:—

Class of Gold-mining.Production of Bullion.Dividends paid by Registered Companies.Number of Productive Claims and Dredges.
1920.1919.1920.1919.1920.1919.
 Oz.    £      Oz.    £      Oz.    £       
Quartz451,122415,868555,666574,020100,981118,8312337
Alluvial16,57677,77720,62080,2734,4452,068122131
Dredging6,95234,67212,37647,838..     2,8451219
     Totals474,650528,317588,662702,131105,426123,744157187

As regards dredges and alluvial mining, the bullion-production is from all dredges and claims, whereas the dividends paid are only obtainable from those few which are owned by registered companies.

QUARTZ-MINING.

The most important gold-mining operations in New Zealand consist in the working of quartz lodes and the extraction of the precious metals therefrom. Quartz-mining is conducted in the North Island in the Ohinemuri County, and to a less extent in the Thames and Coromandel Counties. The mountain ranges and hills of andesite and other volcanic rocks which form the Hauraki Goldfields are intersected by lodes containing gold and silver. In the South Island quartz-mining operations are carried on in the Reefton and Blackwater districts, also to a small extent in the Wakamarina Valley (Marlborough). In Otago the only quartz-mining operations of importance are in connection with the working of quartz-mines in which scheelite is associated with gold.

ALLUVIAL-GOLD MINING.

Alluvial gold is found chiefly on the west coast of the South Island and in Otago, where mining operations have been conducted over an area of 17.000 square miles. On the West Coast the auriferous alluvium originated from the weathering and denudation of the gold-bearing lodes during countless ages. The rich leads or defined placers of auriferous wash are the result of concentration. The first transportation of auriferous gravel from the mountains was by streams, and following this the glaciers carried much material from the interior seawards. During the advance and retreat of these glaciers immense masses of drift were deposited all over the low lands and even high up on the lower hills. Since glacial times the rivers have continued the movement of auriferous gravel from the interior to the sea. In Otago the conditions are different—the alluvial gold rests in the hollows of the denuded surface of the schistose rocks, from which it has most probably been derived.

The method of working these deposits depends on the depth of the superincumbent strata and the elevation at which they occur; where there is ample fall and a good supply of water hydraulic sluicing has been generally adopted; but where the material is mainly or partly below water-level, and is comparatively free from hard boulders or hard matrix, hydraulic sluicing and elevating or dredging is employed.

GOLD-DREDGING.

This system of gold-mining, which originated in New Zealand, is generally employed upon rivers and streams and at places where the sluicing method may not be advantageously applied owing to the absence of water-supply or to excessive water in the deposits. Gold-dredging is rapidly declining in importance, the number of productive dredges having decreased from 167 during 1906 to twelve during 1920.

The greatest weekly output by a New Zealand gold-dredge was attained by the “Lady Ranfurly” during six days ended the 4th November, 1904, when operating on the River Molyneux (Clutha), 1,273 oz. of gold being obtained.

The following table shows the result of dredge-mining operations in New Zealand from 1911 to 1920 inclusive:—

Year.Total Number of Dredges working.Value of Production.Average Production per Dredge.Dividend-paying Dredges owned by Registered Companies.Number of Persons employed.
Number.Dividends.
  £      £      £      
191193297,9003,2033145,318775
191287257,3332,9582838,841694
191374195,8482,6461118,750621
191464191,1122,9861623,080491
191552164,6053,1652126,333427
191645125,3172,785109,915392
19173591,6662,61964,800260
19182863,6912,27454,925187
19191947,8382,46442,845138
19201234,6722,88911,400112

GOLD-PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD.

The following figures showing the world's gold-production are taken from the Statistical Abstract of the United States:—

WORLD'S GOLD-PRODUCTION, 1898-1918.
Year.Fine Ounces.
189813,877,806
189914,837,775
190012,315,135
190112,625,527
190214,354,680
190315,852,620
190416,804,372
190518,396,451
190619,471,080
190719,977,260
190821,422,244
190921,965,111
191022,022,180
191122,348,313
191222,549,335
191322,249,596
191421,240,416
191522,674,568
191621,970,788
191720,289,546
191818,427,232

SILVER.

Nearly the whole of the silver-production of New Zealand, amounting in value at the end of 1920 to £2,648,950, was obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz-mines, principally from those of the Hauraki Goldfield, where the two precious metals are found alloyed, the ratio of the two metals in the alloy varying greatly. No other silver-mining operations have been carried out profitably in this country.

IRON-ORES.

Iron-ore occurs in New Zealand at Parapara, Golden Bay; on the seashore in Taranaki; at Kerr Point and Waitangi River, North Auckland; in the Raglan-Kawhia district; on Mount Peel, Nelson; on Mount Royal, near Palmerston North; on Table Hill, near Milton; in the Lake Wakatipu district; and in the Mount Cook district, Westland.

The most extensive iron-ore deposits occur at Parapara, Golden Bay, in the Nelson Province, where it is estimated that the amount of limonite-ore on the surface exceeds 63,000,000 tons; but in the absence of any thorough system of prospecting this estimate must be regarded as inconclusive.

Samples of outcrop ore taken from the Parapara deposit some years ago were found to contain 51.38 per cent. of metallic iron. By moans of prospecting-drives during 1913 more definite information concerning the ore was obtained, and the samples analysed showed the percentage of metallic iron to be 45.02. A comparison of the surface ore and ore taken from the drives is given,—

 Outcrop Ore:
Average of
28 Samples.
Ore from Drives:
Average of
15 Samples.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
Silica9.5616.42
Alumina3.365.39
Ferric oxide71.2564.32
Ferrous oxide1.94..     
Manganous oxide0.650.71
Lime0.51..     
Magnesia0.100.16
Titanium oxide0.630.49
Phosphoric anhydride0.350.31
Sulphuric anhydride0.210.18
Carbon dioxide0.100.46
Alkalies0.08
Water, and loss on ignition11.8411.56
 100.58100.00
Equivalents.
Metallic iron51.3845.02
Phosphorus0.150.13
Sulphur0.080.75

Along the seashore from Patea to New Plymouth occur large quantities of magnetic ironsand more or less titaniferous. This has originated through the disintegration of hornblende-andesites and their tufas, which occur very extensively near New Plymouth around the volcanic cone of Mount Egmont. It is quite impossible to give any definite idea of the quantity of this ironsand; undoubtedly, however, it exists in immense quantities, and is measurable in millions of tons.

The most extensive deposit of ironsand occurs near Patea, the quantity of which has been estimated to be at least 5,374,000 tons of high-grade ore in addition to a great quantity of low-grade ironsand.

Between the years 1869 and 1918 there have been several attempts made to smelt Taranaki ironsand.

Near the Breakwater, New Plymouth, the New Zealand Iron-ore Smelting Company (Limited), which was formed for working the beach ironsand, commenced smelting during the latter part of 1917, and after several trials pig iron was obtained in grades varying from white to grey.

The following is an analysis of the ironsand which, after magnetic concentration, was used in the blast-furnace charge:—

* Equivalent to phosphorus, 0.30 per cent.

† Equivalent to metallic Iron, 56.36 per cent.

 Silica (SiO2)5.40
Alumina (AlO3)1.53
Lime (CaO)1.81
Magnesia (MgO)2.80
Phosphoric anhydride*0.69
Titanium dioxide (TiO2)10.45
Ferrous oxide (FeO)28.71
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)48.61
  100.00

At Kerr Point the deposit of iron-ore consists of limonite, but does not probably exceed 100,000 tons. The iron-ore near the head of the Waitangi River is also limonite of excellent quality, but does not exceed 100,000 tons. The limonite-deposits in the Kawhia-Raglan district and on Table Hill, so far as known, are not large. Little authentic information exists concerning the iron-ore deposits at Mount Peel or at Mount Royal. In the Lake Wakatipu district from Moke Creek, through Benmore in the direction of Mount Gilbert, a band of hæmatite has been reported to occur, also at Maori Point, Shotover River. On the Westland side of Mount Cook large quantities of magnetite are disseminated through chlorite schist.

TUNGSTEN-ORE.

Scheelite, one of the principal ores of tungsten, is mined at the gold-scheelite-quartz mines near Glenorchy, Paradise, Macrae's, Stoneburn, Hyde, and Barewood, Otago; also at Wakamarina Valley, Marlborough; at which places milling and concentrating plants have been installed.

The following statement shows the quantity and value of scheelite exported since the year 1899:—

Year.Quantity exported.Value.
 Tons.£     
1899322,788
1900542,635
1901283
1902391,200
1903421,439
190417791
1905281,848
1906553,407
190713715,486
1908686,055
1909584,263
191014315,070
191113811,853
191213513,347
191322122,933
191420421,498
191519427,784
191626649,070
191716128,972
1918169 1/237,922
191913129,489
192010 2/201,378
     Totals2,304 12/20299,311

Since the termination of the war there has been a considerable collapse in the tungsten-ore-mining industry owing to the great decline in price on the Home market due greatly to accumulated stocks. During the war the Empire's supply was commandeered, and the price increased to £3 8s. per unit (on a 65-per-cent. WO3 basis per ton); the price now quoted is 12s. 6d. per unit.

COPPER.

Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in no fewer than thirty-two localities, but during the past fifty years attempts at their successful exploitation have been unprofitable, the total recorded copper-production at the end of 1920 amounting in value to only £19,390. Prior to the inauguration of systematic records there was a considerable production from mines on Great Barrier and Kawau Islands.

Copper-mines have been worked on Kawau and Great Barrier Islands in the Hauraki Gulf, and on the Dun Mountain, near Nelson. Underground prospecting has been carried on near Kaeo, Whangaroa; at Maharahara, near Woodville; and at Mount Radiant, near Karamea; but no conclusive results have been obtained.

MANGANESE-ORE.

Manganese-ore has been found at Otau, Wairoa, Bay of Islands, Purua Bay, Mangapai, Otonga, Waiheke Island, and Taieri Mouth. Many years ago a considerable amount of manganese-ore was mined at Tikiora, near Bay of Islands. At a later period operations were carried on at Waiheke Island, distant about twelve miles from Auckland. On that Island manganese-ore may be traced for several miles, where it occurs in massive but bunchy form and of excellent quality, bulk analyses returning 56.5 per cent. metallic manganese. Some thousands of tons have been exported, but it is supposed that fluctuating prices prevented expansion of this industry. The total quantity of manganese-ore exported to the end of 1920 amounted to 19,366 tons, value £61,915.

CINNABAR.

After several unsuccessful attempts, extending over a number of years, to work cinnabar-deposits in the Auckland Province, satisfactory results have been obtained by the New Zealand Quicksilver-mines (Limited), whose mine and furnace are situated at Puhipuhi, about twenty-eight miles by road from Whangarei. This company, to the end of 1920 had produced 14 3/4 tons of quicksilver, valued at £7,641.

For the purpose of encouraging cinnabar-mining industry the Government in 1917 notified that a bonus of 4d. per pound would be paid on the production of the first 100,000 lb. of good marketable retorted quicksilver, free from impurities, from any mine in New Zealand on the following conditions:—

  1. At least one-half of the quantity, to be produced on or before the 31st March, 1920, and the remaining half on or before the 31st March, 1921.

  2. The first instalment of the bonus to be paid when 50,000 lb. of quicksilver has been produced as stipulated to the satisfaction of an officer to be appointed by the Minister of Mines, and on whose certificate alone the bonus will be paid.

  3. In the event of more than one person producing the required quantities of quicksilver before the dates named, inquiry to be made by the officer above referred to, when, if it is found that each applicant is equally entitled to a bonus, the amount will be divided in proportion to the quantities produced by each applicant, but in no case shall any bonus be paid until at least 50,000 lb. of quicksilver has been produced in the aggregate.

TIN.

Cassiterite in the form of “stream-tin” occurs near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, where it has been worked to some extent. “Lode-tin” has been found in the same locality, and is now being prospected. Small quantities of cassiterite have also been detected in the stream-gravels of the Reefton, Greymouth, and Westport districts. Among other localities in which traces of tin occur are Wet Jacket Arm (Otago) and Campbell Island.

PLATINUM.

In the published lists of minerals of New Zealand platinum is stated to occur in several places associated generally with gold in gravel. It is only from Southland, however, that platinum has been mined and exported.

The Customs Department has not kept any separate record of the quantity and value of platinum entered for exportation, the value of this metal exported being included in a general total of exports by parcel-post, by which means platinum has generally been despatched from the Dominion.

In Southland native platinum occurs in auriferous wash, and is distributed on the beaches and coastal terraces from Blue Cliffs, west of Invercargill, to Longbeach, Waikawa River, east of Invercargill, over a distance of about ninety-two miles. It is probable that the platiniferous sands of Southland have been derived from serpentine or other olivine-bearing rocks, which are known to occur in Fiordland. In Russia and in Lapland platinum has been found in a matrix of serpentine (altered peridotite).

Native platinum has been obtained in payable quantities from claims at Cameron Creek, Groveburn, Orepuki, Pahi, Round Hill, Steel Head, Bushy Point, Waipapa, Otara Beach, Twelve-mile Beach, and Waikawa. The coarsest and heaviest samples have been obtained from west of Waiau River, that obtained east of Otara being extremely fine. Direct from the gold-saving mats at the alluvial workings at the Waikoau River, Rowallen, as high a proportion as 1 oz. platinum to 3 oz. gold has been obtained.

The platinum is collected by miners as a residue, after amalgamation, of alluvial gold, and is reduced by further washing to about a 50-per-cent. concentrate, the remainder of the concentrate being chiefly iridosmine (osmiridium).

During the earlier and more prosperous era of gold-mining alluvial miners did not save the platinum, as the banks would not give more than a few shillings per ounce for mat concentrates of platinum and osmiridium; consequently by far the greater proportion collected on the gold-saving matting at alluvial claims was thrown away. As years passed the price increased; about 1907 it reached £6 per ounce for new refined platinum; during 1917 it was quoted on the London metal-market at £14 10s. per ounce.

The following are the results of assays of concentrates taken direct from the gold-saving mats of Smith's Claim, Round Hill: No. 1 sample—Gold per ton of concentrate, 55 oz.; platinum per ton of concentrate, 72 oz. No. 2 sample—Gold per ton of concentrate, 15 oz.; platinum per ton of concentrate, 51.5 oz.

The following is the result of an assay of a sample of concentrate from rich wash from the Otara Claim: Osmiridium, 15 dwt. 7 gr. per ton: platinum, 7 dwt. 14 gr. per ton; gold, 4 dwt. 22 gr. per ton; monazite, 2.07 per cent.; thoria, 0.67 per cent.

SULPHUR.

Native sulphur in sufficient quantity to be profitably worked is known to occur only in the thermal districts of the North Island, near Rotorua and Lake Taupo, and at White Island. With the exception of the small lake deposit on White Island, all the known native sulphur in payable quantity occurs in the form of pockets in pumice, or sinter around fumaroles or thermal springs (from which it has been sublimed in crystalline form), and as black sulphur. The fumarolic deposits, although of high grade generally, are inextensive when compared with those of massive form in seams or in veins as extensively worked in Japan, Sicily, and North America.

The only recent operations in connection with the sulphur-deposits were carried out at Rotorua, near the Postmaster Bath at the southern shore of the lake, by the New Zealand Drug Company.

COAL.

Coal, varying in grade from anthracite to lignite, occurs in many parts of New Zealand. In proportion to the present yearly consumption of somewhat under 2,500,000 tons (10 to 15 per cent. of which is in normal times imported), the supply may be considered relatively large, but in comparison with probable future needs it is decidedly small. It is likely, indeed, that the proved bituminous-coal resources of the Dominion will be practically exhausted within a hundred years. The resources of brown coal are very much greater.

The following is an estimate of the proved and probable coal in New Zealand by the Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand:—

Class of Coal.Proved.ProbablePossible.
 Imperial Tons.Imperial Tons. 
AnthraciteVery little.  Very little.  Small.
Bituminous187,000,000477,000,000Moderate.
Semi-bituminous68,000,000196,000,000Moderate.
Brown194,000,000728,000,000Large.
Lignite161,000,000420,000,000Large.
             Totals610,000,0001,821,000,000Large.

No individual coal-seam has yet been traced for more than a few miles in any direction. The variations in thickness are extraordinary. There are many instances of seams 10 ft. to 20 ft. thick thinning to 1 ft. or 2 ft. in distances of a quarter of a mile or less. The following instances of thick seams may be mentioned: In the Waikato district (Auckland), 50 ft. to 60 ft. of brown coal; in the Buller-Mokihinui district (Nelson), 53 ft. of bituminous coal; in the Kaitangata district (Otago), 30 ft. or more of brown coal; at. Coal Creek, near Roxburgh, Central Otago, 80 ft. (or, according to Professor Park, 100 ft.) of lignite; at Nightcaps (Southland), 36 ft. of brown coal.

In New Zealand the difficulties in settling the relative ages of the principal coalfields are such that for many years the subject has been a controversial one. The known facts may be summarized as follows: In south-east Otago (Waikawa, Catlin's River) and in Southland (Hokonui Hills) small seams of coal occur in Jurassic rocks, but in no case is a workable seam known to be present. The chief coal-bearing rocks are probably of early Tertiary age, but late Cretaceous coal-seams almost certainly occur. There are also considerable quantities of lignite of Miocene, Pliocene, and possibly even Pleistocene age.

The output of coal during 1920 amounted to 1,843,705 tons, as compared with 1,847,848 tons during 1919, being a decrease of 4,143 tons.

The following is a comparative statement of the coal and lignite raised during the years 1918, 1919, and 1920:—

Inspection District.Output for 1919.Output for 1920.Increase or
Decrease, 1920.
Output for 1918.Increase or Decrease
between Years
1919 and 1918.

* Decrease.

† Increase.

 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Northern (North Island)511,451483,49227,959*549,77838,327*
West Coast (of South Island)845,826821,50724,319*997,089151,263*
Southern (Canterbury, Otago, and Southland)490,571538,70648,135487,3833,188
                    Totals1,847,8481,843,7054,143*2,034,250186,402*

The following table shows the output of coal from each coalfield:—

Name of Coalfield.Output.Increase.Decrease.Approximate Total
Output up to
31st December, 1920.
1920.1919.
 Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    
North Auckland102,801115,390..     12,5893,957,494
Waikato (including Mokau)380,691396,061..     15,3706,131,164
Nelson15,34412,0373,307..     369,622
Buller488,546506,314..     17,76816,628,910
Inangahua56,45220,00636,446..     371,970
Grey261,165307,469..     46,30410,125,407
Canterbury32,45736,004..     3,547825,596
Otago307,807285,04022,767..     10,036,739
Southland198,442169,52728,915..     3,437,491
            Totals1,843,7051,847,848..     4,14351,884,393

The comparative tonnage of the various classes of coal raised for the years 1919 and 1920 is summarized as follows:—

Class.Output for 1920.Output for 1919.Increase or Decrease
for 1920.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.       
Bituminous and semi-bituminous923,575961,107Decrease 37,532
Brown coal715,709684,331Increase 31,378
Lignite204,421202,410Increase 2,011
                 Totals1,843,7051,847,848Decrease 4,143

The increase in brown-coal and lignite output is due to the greater production from Otago and Southland, which more than compensates for the Waikato coalfield decline.

The quantity of coal imported into the Dominion constituted a record, being 476,343 tons, as against 391,434 tons during 1919. The quantity of coal exported amounted to 80,088 tons, as against 150,293 tons during the previous year.

The following statement shows the tons of coal and shale raised, persons employed, lives lost by accidents in or about coal-mines, &c., from 1901 to 1920:—

YearOutput.Persons employed above and below Ground.Tons raised per each Person employed Underground.Lives lost.
Number.Per Million Tons raised.Per Thousand Persons employed.
* Year of Ralph's (Huntly) explosion.
19011,239,6862,75460032.421.09
19021,365,0402,88565521.460.69
19031,420,2292,85266542.811.40
19041,537,8383,28860942.601.21
19051,585,7563,26965163.781.83
19061,729,5363,69268763.461.62
19071,831,0093,910662126.553.07
19081,860,9753,89464152.681.28
19091,911,2474,19163373.651.79
19102,197,3624,599634167.283.55
19112,066,0734,290706146.773.26
19122,177,6154,32868194.132.08
19131,888,0054,25059063.181.38
1914*2,275,6144,7346394921.5310.35
19152,208,6244,15671194.072.16
19162,257,1353,98875062.651.50
19172,068,4193,98371541.931.00
19182,034,2503,99470362.951.50
19191,847,8483,944648105.412.53
19201,843,7054,07863010.540.24
Totals to date51,898,836..     ..     346..     ..     

STATE COAL-MINES.

The State Coal-mines Act of 1901 provided for the acquisition and working of State coal-mines in New Zealand under the direct control of the Minister of Mines.

Up to 1920 two State collieries—viz., Point Elizabeth and Liverpool—were worked, but during the year the former ceased operations owing to exhaustion of the seams.

A valuable extension of the Point Elizabeth coal-measure has been proved in the low coastal hills to the north of the Point Elizabeth Colliery towards Nine-mile Creek. This area is now being developed as the James State Colliery. The coal-seam has been proved by boring to cover an area of at least 200 acres, and averages 7 ft. in thickness, and is probably identical, with that formerly mined at Point Elizabeth.

An area of coal-bearing land at Waikokowai, in the Waikato district, has recently been purchased by the Government for the establishment of a State colliery, which is now being developed.

During 1920-21 the Liverpool Colliery produced 147,523 tons of marketable coal, an increase of 31,873 tons on the previous year's production. The output from this colliery constituted a record, being 20,710 tons in excess of the output for the year ended 31st March, 1917, during which the highest previous output was obtained. The disposal, allowing for stock on hand at beginning of year, was as follows:—

Supplied toScreened.Unscreened.Small.Total.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Depots7,92730,245..     38,172
Railways3079,667..     9,974
Other Government Departments9188..     197
Shipping companies3328,9682,21831,219
Gas companies17039,20746039,837
Other consumers3,66718,6786,49928,844
                 Totals12,113126,9539,177148,243

The total sales of State coal for the year amounted to 148,335 tons (including 91 tons of Point Elizabeth coal), of a value of £222 127, as compared with 149,850 tons, value £192,958, for the previous year, a decrease of 1,515 tons, but an increase in value of £29,169.

The average price per ton realized on the total sales for the year was £1 9s. 11.4d., an increase of 4s. 2.36d. on the previous year's average.

The sales of coal, &c., through the medium of the depots totalled 60,912 tons, value £137,910, as against 40,157 tons, value £80,083, for 1919-20.

There was an increase of sales at the Liverpool Colliery of 33,069 tons, with a value of £62,860.

The total profit at the mines was £17,681, and after deducting losses at the depots, &c., there remained a balance of £13,962, out of which £6,828 was applied to Sinking Fund Account and £222 to Bad Debts Reserve, leaving £6,912 to be carried forward.

WORLD'S COAL -PRODUCTION.

According to the figures published in the Statistical Abstract of the United States the world's coal-production in the eight years 1910 to 1917 was approximately as shown below. The quantity is stated in short tons (of 2,000 lb.).

 Short Tons.  
19101,141,600,000
19111,309,600,000
19121,377,000,000
19131,478,000,000
19141,346,000,000
19151,169,600,000
19161,242,900,000
19171,317,900,000

Included in the totals for Germany and Austria-Hungary are 80,935,000 and 35,422,000 tons of lignite respectively. The figures for United States and France also include a small proportion of lignite.

PETROLEUM.

Drilling for petroleum has been carried on in Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, and Westland. Throughout the Dominion twenty-five deep bore-holes in search of petroleum have been drilled or are in progress, the deepest being that of the Blenheim Oil Company at Moturoa, near New Plymouth, which has attained a depth of 5,726 ft., drilling being still in progress. Petroleum of good quality but in limited quantity has been proved at Moturoa, but up to the present time boring for petroleum in the Dominion has only attained a small and intermittent flow.

Oil-prospecting operations throughout the Dominion have received very liberal financial assistance from the Government in the forms of bonus, subsidies, and loans.

KAURI-GUM.

The kauri-gum industry is under the administration of a separate Department controlled by a Superintendent.

During 1920 6,481 tons of kauri-gum, valued at £556,756, was exported, the total quantity of gum exported to the end of 1920 being 366,901 tons, valued at £19,137,820.

The European market for this fossil resin—used in the manufacture of varnish and linoleum—being greatly restricted by the recent war, new but smaller markets were obtained. The Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1914, providing for State purchase of gum from diggers and the disposal of the gum, served a useful purpose in enabling the industry to keep going in spite of the disorganization occasioned by the war.

PHOSPHATE ROCK.

At Clarendon and Milburn, Otago, considerable deposits of phosphate rock were discovered in 1902, and have since been actively worked. A thin bed of phosphatic rock has recently been identified at Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff, in Marlborough. A similar bed occurs near Port Robinson. Phosphatic nodules are found in the Kaikorai Valley (near Dunedin), at Weka Pass (North Canterbury), and elsewhere. A limestone containing 10.6 per cent. of tricalcic phosphate occurs in the neighbourhood of Onewhero, Waikato district. Other districts where phosphatic material of good quality, though, so far as known, not in commercial quantity, is found are Amberley, Dipton, Oamaru, Waimate, Wangapeka, Clarence Valley, Tutira Block (Mangaharuru Survey District, Hawke's Bay), and Whangarei.

Phosphatic minerals, the most common of which is the hydrous iron phosphate, vivianite, have been discovered in numerous other localities besides those mentioned above, but commercially these occurrences are of little importance.

The only operations during 1920 in connection with the quarrying of phosphates were those of the Ewing Phosphate Company at Clarendon and Milburn, Otago, which produced about 5,341 tons.

GREENSTONE.

The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone,” whenever observed in situ, occurs as rounded segregations in talc or talc-serpentine rocks. There segregations vary up to 2 ft. or even more in lateral dimensions. As a rule they average loss than 1 ft. in width. So far a8 known, the mineral has only been found in its original locus in the Griffin Range, Turiwhate Survey District, North Westland.

Pounamu is a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches. With the wearing-away of the enclosing matrix the segregations are freed as rounded masses, and were once transported by the Arahura, Taramakau, and other glaciers, and are now found as boulders in the glacial debris along the lower streams of the Arahura and Taramakau Valleys. From boulders all greenstone ornaments have hitherto been manufactured.

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES.

New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building-stones scattered throughout both Islands. In Auckland there is basalt, andesite, porphyrite, and quartz biotite-diorite, known in the building trade as Coromandel “granite,” a hard, coarsely crystaline rock, capable of taking a fine polish. Besides these rocks are the Whangarei limestone and Raglan stone, the former an excellent building-stone, the latter a good freestone. Taranaki has the hornblende andesites of New Plymouth and Mount Egmont, and Wellington the andesites of Ruapehu.

In Nelson there is a granite of Tata Island and Tonga Bay, and the marble and crystalline limestones of the Pikikiruna (Riwaka) Range. Marble of fine quality from a quarry on the last-named range is now being used for the now Parliamentary Buildings at Wellington. West Nelson and Westland are well provided with granites and limestones of good quality, well adapted for building purposes; and in the Griffin Range, North Westland, there is found an abundance of finely coloured serpentine, unsurpassed as a decorative stone. Building-stone is scarce in Marlborough, but Canterbury is well supplied, having an abundance of Lyttelton bluestone (andesite) and Mount Somers stone, a limestone of exceptional quality. In Otago there is an abundance of excellent building-stone, ranging from the well-known Oamaru stone to the granite, gneiss, and limestones of Fiordland, all close to deep water. In Southland there is the so-called Ruapuke “granite,” the norite of the Bluff, and the granites of Stewart Island.

Many of the principal buildings in New Zealand have been constructed in stone from local quarries.

The following is a table containing the number of quarries, the number of persons employed, also the output during 1920 from stone-quarries and places which come under the operations of the Stone-quarries Act. The value of the production of 241 stone-quarries which are under the operation of the Act amounted to £314,470.

Provincial District.Number of Working Quarries under the Act.Number of Persons ordinarily employed.Output of Crude Stone.
Stone or Gravel for Macadamizing or Ballast.Stone for Harbour-works.Building-stone.Limestone for Agriculture.Limestone for Cement or Mortar.Phosphate for Agriculture.Fireclay for Bricks or Tiles.Sand for Building or Asphalting.Value at Quarry.
* Unknown.
   Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.£     
Auckland105532271,31679,66113,71233,867102,626..  1,600..  105,764
117515,734..   295..  ..   ..  ..  ..  8,997
Hawke's Bay206914,50074,323..  18,720..   ..   ..  ..  13,806
Taranaki118017,404136,870..  ..   ..   ..  ..  ..  18,453
Wellington4321671,27010,802..  11,916..   ..  ..  ..  26,333
Canterbury117888,5174,9931,201..   6,000..  ..  ..  21,627
Nelson and Westland131443,8247721,2861,65429,716..  ..  ..  15,587
Otago and Southland2727495,69710,0402,52976,09531,6115,341..  ..  103,903
Totals, 19202411,468578,262317,46119,023142,252169,9535,3411,600..  314,470
Totals, 19192191,409587,901183,00027,051102,010143,1824,0002,5006,685*

ACCIDENTS AT MINES AND QUARRIES.

The year 1920 has been the most immune from mining and quarry accidents since such industries were established in the Dominion, only two fatal accidents having occurred in connection with coal and metalliferous mining, and none at stone-quarries.

Upon those industries 7,476 persons were ordinarily employed during the year. The proportion of fatal accidents per 1,000 persons employed was 0.26.

At metalliferous mines one serious accident occurred, resulting in the loss of one life; at such mines the proportion of fatal accidents per 1,000 persons employed was 0.51.

At stone-quarries, at which 1,468 persons were employed, the only serious accident consisted of a broken arm.

In or about coal-mines only one fatal accident occurred, this being due to the neglect of the sufferer, a co-operative miner, to erect timber support to the roof under which he was working. The proportion of fatal accidents per 1,000 persons employed at collieries was 0.24, and per 1,000,000 tons raised 0.54, being the lowest fatal-accident rate in the Dominion for thirty-four years, and but one-third of the lowest proportion ever attained at the collieries of the United Kingdom, which are among the most immune from colliery accidents in proportion to the number of persons employed.

The following is a table showing the number and proportion of persons killed at coal-mines, metal-mines, and at quarries and places under the Stone-quarries Act for ten years past:—

Year.Coal-mines.Metal-mines.Stone-quarries.
Number of
Deaths.
Proportion per
1,000 Persons
employed.
Number of
Deaths.
Proportion
per 1,000
Persons employed.
Number of
Deaths.
Proportion
per 1,000
Persons employed.
* Year of the explosion at Ralph's Colliery, Huntly.
1911143.2650.674Unknown.
191292.0350.9521.00
191361.38102.0221.90
191449*10.3561.3421.00
191592.16102.3821.27
191661.5092.4221.23
191741.0072.0322.00
191861.5020.7721.40
1919102.5341.8210.71
192010.2410.51..     ..     
PERSONS EMPLOYED AT MINES AND AT PLACES UNDER THE STONE-QUARRIES ACT.
—-1919.1920.Increase or Decrease.
Metalliferous mines2,2011,930271 (Decrease).
Coal-mines3,9444,078134 (Increase).
Stone-quarries1,4091,46859 (Increase).
Totals7,5547,47678 (Decrease).

STATE AID TO MINING.

In no other country does the State offer so liberal and varied assistance to miners and prospectors as in New Zealand. During and since the war State aid to mining in this Dominion has been given in several forms, as—

(1) Geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) Government prospecting-drills; (4) loans for mining operations; (5) schools of mines; (6) subsidized roads to mining-fields; (7) Government water-races.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND REPORTS

Since the first discovery of coal and the precious metals in New Zealand the Government has employed skilled geologists, who have reported, after examination, on all the known mineral deposits. Since 1916 the Geological Survey Branch of the Mines Department has been enlarged, and has included on its staff the most eminent geologists of the Dominion.

During the past year geological surveys have been conducted in the Whangarei, Tokomaru (north of Gisborne), Kawhia, and Tangarakau districts. The total area surveyed amounted to about 2,400 square miles. In the course of field-work, as in previous years, special attention was given to the collection of data bearing directly on the mineral and other natural resources of each district.

FINANCIAL AID TO PROSPECTING.

As an aid towards the development of the mining industry the Government offers varied and liberal assistance to prospectors in the form of subsidies, loans, expert and technical advice, use of plant, &c. Subject to the provisions of the Mining Act, the holder of a valid miner's right is entitled to prospect for gold or any other metal or mineral (except coal) on any Crown land. He may also obtain authority from the Governor-General to prospect on Native land, and he may also prospect on private land with the consent of the owner. Wardens in mining districts and Commissioners of Crown Lands in other districts may, with the consent of the Minister of Mines, grant prospecting licenses for coal.

Assistance is offered to prospectors as under:—

  1. Subsidies for prospecting (vide Regulation 127 under the Mining Act):—

    1. For prospecting new ground by parties of not less than two men, a subsidy not exceeding £1 10s. per week per man.

    2. For sinking in dry ground by parties of not less than two men—from surface to 15 ft., 1s. 6d. per foot; from 15 ft. to 30 ft., 2s. 6d. per foot; from 30 ft. to 60 ft., 3s. per foot; over 60 ft., 4s. per foot.

    3. For sinking in wet ground where slabbing is necessary, double the foregoing rates. For sinking in solid rock by blasting, 7s. 6d. per foot; but if the cost exceeds £1 10s. per foot, then 10s. per foot may be paid.

    4. For tunnelling or driving through drift or blue reef—up to 400 ft., 1s. 6d. per foot; 400 ft. to 700 ft., 2s. 6d. per foot; 700 ft. to 1,000 ft., 3s. per foot; over 1,000 ft., 4s. per foot.

    5. For tunnelling or driving through hard rock by blasting, a subsidy of 5s. per foot is offered; but if the cost exceeds £1 per foot, then 6s. 8d. per foot may be paid. When timbering by sets is necessary, then a subsidy not exceeding 2s. per foot of driving, or one-half the cost of the timber, may be paid.

    By amended regulation gazetted on the 9th September, 1920, the above subsidies were increased by 30 per cent.

  2. Subsidies for prospecting deep levels for gold-quartz lodes down to a depth of not less than 1,000 ft., and for alluvial drift not less than 250 ft. (vide Regulation 125 under the Mining Act): Such subsidies up to half the estimated cost of the work, but not to exceed £10,000.

  3. The identification and assaying, free of charge, of samples from bona fide prospectors, at the Dominion Laboratory, Wellington, or at the goldfields school of mines.

  4. Any prospector desiring information regarding favourable localities, or the most suitable method of prospecting, or any other matter connected with mining, may receive free advice upon application to the Mines Department, Wellington.

    During the year ended 31st March, 1921, eighteen approved prospecting-parties were granted subsidies amounting to £6,545, of which £1,456 was expended during the past financial year, in addition to £697 granted during previous years. Upon these operations 122 persons were intermittently employed during the year. Practically the whole of the prospecting operations in the Dominion have been subsidized by the Government.

GOVERNMENT PROSPECTING-DRILLS.

Prospecting-drills of various types suitable for the conditions existing in the Dominion are lent to bona fide prospectors free of all charge except that of maintenance in good order and condition, as security for which a deposit of £50 is required. The Government pays the salary of the expert drill-superintendent who has charge of the drill. The hirer is required to furnish to the Mines Department weekly journals of boring-results.

For boring in rock for coal and oil-shale seams or for mineral lodes (reefs) the following drills are available:—

  • Three Schram-Harker steam-power-driven diamond drills of 2,500 ft., 1,500 ft., and 600 ft. capacity respectively.

  • One Sullivan C.N. steam-power-driven diamond drill of 900 ft. capacity.

  • The above drills produce cores of the rocks penetrated.

  • One oil-engine-driven percussion drill of 300 ft. capacity. This drill produces samples in the form of debris.

For boring in gravel or other alluvium for alluvial gold:—

  • Three Keystone percussion traction drills, driven by steam-power, of 150 ft. capacity in favourable ground.

The results obtained by Government drills have been very satisfactory, and considerable use has been made of them. During 1920 an aggregate of 6,822 ft. was drilled in seventy-nine holes, resulting in the discovery of a valuable coal area in Canterbury, and a cinnabar-deposit in North Auckland.

So important are the results of preliminary boring now considered by mining engineers that it is unusual to develop coal or alluvial-gold mines without such tests. Among the principal areas thus explored and proved are the Rimu gold-dredging area, the State Colliery at Waikokowai, the James Colliery near Runanga, the Otago gold-dredging fields, and the North Auckland cinnabar-fields.

LOANS FOR MINING.

A number of loans of sums amounting to £10,000 have been made to mining companies and operators, and in two cases the loan has been repaid.

SCHOOLS OF MINES.

For the education of prospectors and mining students seven schools of mines are subsidized or entirely supported by the Government, in addition to the Otago University School of Mines. The schools of mines are situated at Coromandel, Thames, Waihi, Huntly, Reefton, and Westport.

The expenditure on these schools by the Government during the year ended the 31st March, 1921, was £4,427 9s. 6d.

The attendance of mining students was poor, but numerous young people avail themselves of the schools for technical and secondary education.

SUBSIDIZED ROADS.

The expenditure on roads and tracks by subsidies and direct grants out of the Public Works Fund vote “Roads on Goldfields” during the year ended 31st March, 1921, amounted to £11,050.

GOVERNMENT WATER-RACES.

To enable alluvial-gold mining to be carried on in the neighbourhood of Kumara (Westland) and Naseby (Central Otago), the Government, during former years, constructed or acquired water-races of great capacity, at an approximate cost of about £350,000, and for a number of years the water from these races, which was supplied to parties of miners at a reasonable price, enabled considerable quantities of gold and silver to be won, and thus gave profitable employment to many persons. Of late years, however, the gold-production has greatly declined.

During the year ended 31st March, 1921, claims, employing 31 miners, were supplied with water from Government races, and gold to the approximate value of £4,188 was obtained.

FAVOURABLE FIELDS FOR PROSPECTING FOR GOLD.

Another form of Government assistance to mining consists of the publication of information as to localities recommended to the attention of prospectors. The undermentioned localities are so recommended:—

North Island.—Gold-silver Quartz Lodes.

Coromandel County.—Between Cabbage Bay and Tokatea, also from Mahakirau to Gumtown. In different parts of these localities loose specimen ore has been found. Numerous lodes varying in size have been discovered, some of which by assay contain payable values; but the source of the rich specimen ore referred to has not hitherto been located. At Mahakirau there is a small Government battery.

Thames County.—A large area of unprospected country occurs on the main range between Waikawau and Whangamata. The locality which offers the best prospects lies between Tararu and Tapu Creek. Some rich pockets have been found, but in most cases this ore is accompanied by lead and zinc, and the treatment plants installed, with the exception of that at the New Sylvia Mine, have failed to reduce this class of ore.

Thames Borough.—All the auriferous ground within this borough has been well prospected. Numerous shoots of exceedingly rich ore have been found above the 500 ft. level, but these invariably gave out at depth. The total value of bullion obtained within the borough exceeds £5,000,000. Prospecting by driving at the 1,000 ft. level proved nothing of value, and operations were stopped on account of large quantities of carbon-dioxide gas being given off in the workings, rendering mining dangerous. By cessation of pumping the mine-water has been allowed to rise to sea-level.

Ohinemuri County.—A large area of promising unprospected country exists behind the Talisman Mine and Te Aroha Mountain. Large lodes are known to exist, and it is possible that rich ore may be found.

Piako County.—The low levels of Hardy's Mine, Waiorongomai, expose a large mineralized lode which for 100 ft. assayed up to £3 per ton.

Tauranga County.—No attempt has yet been made to prospect the country surrounding the recently opened mine of Muir's Gold Reefs (Limited), near Te Puke. Quartz lodes outcrop on the main range two miles from that mine, the country there being similar to that at the mine.

South Island.—Gold quartz and other Lodes.

Buller and Waimea Counties.—Between Karamea and Wangapeka, embracing all the country up to Collingwood. In the far north of this area a number of quartz lodes have been worked more or less in past years, and a variety of minerals has been found; this somewhat inaccessible region has not been systematically prospected, it being difficult to convey supplies.

Westland County.—The locality of the Upper Arahura River, including the Wilberforce River country. Auriferous quartz lodes have been found in this locality. The country is difficult of access, and owing to its altitude can not be prospected during winter. The Bald Hill Range, in Totara Survey District, due east from Mount Greenland, deserves attention, as lodes are in evidence. At the head of Donnelly's Creek small quartz lodes have been worked. In the ranges eastward of Okarito, which are rough and difficult of access, some quartz lodes have been found, but owing to difficulty of access but little prospecting has been done, although there are reasonable prospects of the discovery of gold-quartz lodes.

Otago and Southland.—Gold-silver and Scheelite Lodes.

Payable returns were obtained from quartz-mines in the following localities in the early days of mining, and there are possibilities of new lodes or new lenses of known lodes being found at lower levels than hitherto developed.

Taieri County.—Hindon and Barewood.

Tuapeka County.—Waipori.

Vincent County.—Bendigo, Carrick Range, and Old Man Range.

Lake County.—Macetown, Upper Shotover, and head of Lake Wakatipu.

Alluvial gold Deposits.

Deep leads of auriferous-quartz drifts are known to occur in Central Otago, in the Maniototo County at St. Bathan's, Matakanui, Block No. 3, Hamilton, and Hyde. These leads may best be prospected by Keystone drills, which are lent free of charge by the Government to bona fide prospecting-parties. The conditions on which they may be had are obtainable from the Mines Department, Wellington.

BOARD OF EXAMINERS.

Examinations are held by the Board of Examiners annually of candidates for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, battery-superintendents, and dredgemasters under the Mining Act, 1908, and for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, underviewers, and firemen and deputies under the Coal-mines Act, 1908. No candidate is permitted to present himself for examination unless he holds an authority from the Secretary to the Board of Examiners stating that his certificates of service comply with the Acts and regulations, and have been accepted by the Board.

COAL-MINERS' RELIEF FUND.

As required by the Coal-mines Act, 1908, the owner of every coal-mine contributes 1/2d. per ton on all coal sold, for the relief of the coal-miners who may be injured whilst working, and for the relief of families of coal-miners who may be killed or injured. The proceeds of this levy are administered partly by the Public Trustee, under the above title, and partly by miners' medical associations, under the title of “Sick and Accident Fund.”

The following is a statement of the accounts of the fund during the last two-financial years:—

 Year ended
31st March,
1920.
Year ended
31st March,
1921.
 £     £     
Contributions1,6371,753
Allowances on account of accidents, &c.1,4011,163
Balance carried forward10,43311,526

MINER'S PHTHISIS ACT.

Provision is made in this Act for a pension of £1 10s. per week being paid to a married man or a widower with young children, and £1 per week to a single man who is or becomes totally incapacitated for work owing to miner's phthisis contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand. In addition to this the widow of any pensioner under the Act who dies from that disease is entitled to a pension of 12s. 6d. per week for two years, and 7s. 6d. a week for each child. The aggregate receipts by a widow and her children from all sources (including any other pension or allowance) shall not, however, exceed £1 5s. a week, together with 10s. a week in respect of any child.

The following is a statement by the Commissioner of Pensions showing the amount of pensions payable, in force, and granted to the 31st March, 1921:—

 £     s.d.
Amount of Pensions payable.
Six months from 1st October, 1918, to 31st March, 19196,340192
Year ended 31st March, 192016,65212
Year ended 31st March, 192126,971186
 £49,9641810
Pensions in force and granted.
Annual value of pensions in force29,685100
Average pension payable per annum62127
Number of pensions in force474
Number of pensions granted to unmarried miners133
Number of pensions granted to married miners266
Number of pensions granted to widows of miners391

As an additional precaution against miner's phthisis, provision was made in the Mining Amendment Acts of 1919 and 1920 that no rock-drills, other than those having an axial water-feed, shall be used in any metalliferous mine after the 31st December, 1920.

Chapter 20. SECTION XX.—INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURE.

SSTATISTICS of industrial manufacture were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the population census—viz., in 1867, 1871, 1874, 1878, and 1881, and quinquennially thereafter. Commencing with the year 1918-19, the collection became an annual one.

Under the regulations authorizing the collection of statistics of industrial manufacture a “factory” is defined as an establishment engaged in manufacture, repair, or preparation of articles for wholesale or retail trade or for export which employs at least two hands or uses motive power, with the exception of the following, which are expressly excluded: Bakeries, butcheries, laundries, smithies, waterworks, shops engaged in retail trade only, and farmers or others using motive power for their own individual and private use. The following are, however, required to furnish returns even although employing less than two hands and not using motive power: Tanneries: bacon, butter, cheese, soap or candle factories; brickyards; and limeworks.

The definition is fairly comprehensive, and clearly includes such industries as, for instance, jewellery and watch repairing, boot, shoe, and saddlery repairing, and similar trades. In former years a number of small establishments thus engaged were included in the statistics, but it has now been decided to exclude such unless also engaged in actual manufacture employing at least two hands. This has had the effect of showing an apparent decrease in the number of establishments in some industries and also in the total of all industries; but in other respects the effect on the statistics is negligible, the number of employees, materials used, products, &c., thus excluded in the trades concerned being comparatively small.

It should be noted that these statistics do not cover and do not purport to cover all establishments registered as factories in the Dominion, for the following reasons: “One-man” businesses are excluded, with the exception of tanneries, bacon, butter, cheese, soap or candle factories, brickyards, or limeworks; some small repair-shops (as explained previously) are excluded, even although they may employ two or more hands; and in some cases where a factory has two or more branches it has been found impracticable to obtain separate returns, and all the branches have been treated as one establishment.

In comparing previous years with the 1918-19 and 1919-20 collections the foregoing remarks should be borne in mind, and also the fact that in some of the earlier years, owing to the longer intervals between collections, lax methods of book-keeping more widely prevailing, less understanding of the requirements of the Statistical Office, and less appreciation of the necessity for and value of the statistics compiled, no doubt to a certain extent impaired the accuracy of the published results.

NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS.

As previously stated, the omission of small repair-shops from the 1919-20 collections has resulted in an apparent decrease in the number of establishments as compared with 1915-16, the comparative figures being, 1915-16, 4,670, and 1919-20, 4,357, respectively. The industries principally affected by the omissions referred to are—boot and shoe making, saddlery and harness making, coachbuilding, and tinned-plate and sheet-metal working.

The numbers and per-cent. increases or decreases in the principal industries since 1901 are as follows:—

Industry.1900-1
Number.
1910-11.1919-20.
Number.Increase or
Decrease
per Cent.
Number.Increase or
Decrease
per Cent.
* Comparison invalidated owing to inclusion in some years of small repair-shops.
Meat freezing and preserving344120.65021.9
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacturing24834037.142625.3
Sawmilling and sash and door making33453459.8330−38.2
Engineering37120248.61210.8
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding13824128.22472.5
Coachbuilding16018012.5156−13.3
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring11979−33.670−11.4
Furniture and cabinet making14420743.82258.7
Woollen-milling1010..     1110.0
Tailoring175448156.0334−25.4
Dress and millinery making29038231.7286−25.1
Boot and shoe making12674*64*
Clothing-manufacture2169228.6161133.3
Flax-milling10181−19.847−42.0

EMPLOYEES.

The most nearly comparable figures of employees (those returned as productive) are given for the years 1900-1, 1910-11, 1919-20, together with the increase or decrease per cent. for all and for the principal industries.

Industry.1900-1.1910-11.1919-20.
Number.Number.Increase or
Decrease
per Cent.
Number.Increase or
Decrease
per Cent.
All industries46,84756,234..   64,951..   
Deduct figures for industries included in some years and not in others..     1,761..   1,598..   
Comparative figures for industries common to all years46,84754,473+16.363,353+16.3
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving2,2824,095+79.48,305+102.8
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,1881,504+26.62,823+87.7
Sawmilling, sash and door making6,8126,877+1.06,656−3.2
Engineering1,4423.747+159.82,843−24.1
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding3,1344,222+34.73,708−12.2
Coachbuilding1,1851,439+21.4982−31.8
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,9631,372−30.11,536+12.0
Furniture and cabinet making1,3101,689+28.92,027+20.0
Woollen-milling1,6931,410−16.72,025+43.6
Tailoring1,6214,225+160.62,899−31.4
Dress and millinery making2,8884,128+42.92,748−33.4
Boot and shoe making2,6962,072−23.12,322+12.1
Clothing-manufacture2,5122,947+17.35,104+73.2
Flax-milling1,6981,244−26.7984−20.9

Previous to 1918-19 productive employees only were asked for; employees are now, however, required under three heads—viz., administrative, productive, and distributive. In the light of information now available it is obvious that on previous occasions employees other than those directly productive were often included, so that no strictly comparable figures are available.

Employees returned in 1915-16 numbered 57,823, while productive employees were returned in 1919-20 as 64,951, an increase of 7,128, or 12.3 per cent. The increase is in reality greater, for the reason stated.

Total employees, 1919-20, were classified as follows (all and principal industries):—

EMPLOYEES IN MANUFACTORIES, 1919-20.
Industry.Administrative.Productive.Distributive.Total.
Male.Female.Male
and
Female
Per Cent.
of Total.
Male.Female.Male
and
Female
Per Cent.
of Total.
Male.Female.Male
and
Female
Per Cent.
of Total.
Male.Female.Male
and
Female
All industries2,1493482,4973.449,97614,97564,9518914,8416005,4417.556,96615,92372,889
 Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving166271932.38,234718,30597.04816640.78,4481148,562
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture3801939911.92,7171062,82384.2101291303.93,1981543,352
Sawmilling, sash and door making15871652.36,622346,65691.6423214446.17,203627,265
Engineering91141053.52,805382,84393.86517822.72,961693,030
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding249513006.72,8218873,70883.33578744410.03,4271,0254,452
Coachbuilding2152.62.69671598296.84260.6992221,014
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring395442.71,525111,53694.5433462.81,607191,626
Furniture and cabinet making3911502.31,8911362,02794.34626723.41,9761732,149
Woollen-milling103130.69071,1182,02598.910..     100.59271,1212,048
Tailoring372391.39751,9242,89997.03517521.71,0471,9432,990
Dress and millinery making1016260.9152,7332,74896.92041612.2452,7902,835
Boot and shoe making47451211,4948282,32294.95915743.01,6008472,447
Clothing-manufacture4410541.06974,4075,10497.74621671.37874,4385,225
Flax-milling16..     161.6983198497.473101.01,00641,010

The average number of employees per establishment at various enumerations is shown below. It should be borne in mind that the rejection of schedules from small establishments engaged in retail repairs only has decreased the number of establishments in 1919-20, and consequently is responsible for a portion of the considerable increase in the number of employees per establishment. All administrative and distributive employees are also included in 1919-20.

Industry.1900-11905-6.1910-11.1915-16.1919-20.
All industries12.713.512.812.416.7
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving67.188.199.9132.9171.2
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture4.95.84.65.47.9
Sawmilling and sash and door making20.420.512.920.122.0
Engineering38.530.320.416.925.0
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding16.616.317.515.818.0
Coachbuilding7.48.07.94.46.5
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring16.513.517.320.123.2
Furniture and cabinet making9.18.98.17.19.6
Woollen-milling169.3154.9141.0189.7186.2
Tailoring9.39.79.46.38.9
Dress and millinery making9.99.010.810.89.9
Clothing-manufacture119.683.242.743.132.5
Flax-milling16.816.915.416.521.5

SALARIES AND WAGES.

Both the total amount paid in wages (nominal) to productive workers and also the average wage per worker show large increases from one census to another, particularly since 1905-6, the average wage per worker having nearly doubled during this period. No distinction is made as regards ages of workers, so that the subjoined figures include adults and young persons of each sex.

—-Males.Females.Males and Females.
Total.Average.Total.Average.Total.Average.
 £      £   £      £   £      £   
All industries, 1900-12,972,19381.9330,45431.33,302,64770.5
All industries, 1905-63,979,59388.5478,02641.94,457,61979.1
All industries, 1910-114,865,426115.1706,84450.65,591,27099.4
All industries, 1915-165,868,788133.5785,71656.76,654,504117.1
All industries, 1918-197,033,491159.41,009,21668.88,042,707136.8
All industries, 1919-208,821,821176.51,197,22279.910,019,043154.3
Principal Industries, 1919-20.
Meat freezing and preserving1,502,083182.47,00898.71,509,091181.7
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture462,675170.08,61681.3471,291166.9
Sawmilling and sash and door making1,288,107194.53,23895.21,291,345194.0
Engineering484,461172.72,97778.3487,438171.5
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding528,996187.573,22782.6602,223162.4
Coachbuilding154,747160.01,28985.9156,036158.9
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring291,118190.91,399127.2292,517190.4
Furniture and cabinet making296,409156.711,66885.8308,077152.0
Woollen-milling174,001191.8104,77493.7278,775137.7
Tailoring187,695192.5180,51393.8368,208127.0
Dress and millinery making2,487165.8186,11168.1188,59868.6
Boot and shoe making255,263170.971,83686.8327,099140.8
Clothing-manufacture133,549191.6355,82980.7489,37895.9
Flax-milling164,641167.51111.0164,652167.3

In 1919-20 total salaries and wages paid on account of administration, production, and distribution were returned as shown in the next table. Percentages of total salaries and wages are given in each case for purposes of comparison (all and principal industries).

—-Administrative.Productive.Distributive.
Amount.Per Cent.
of Total.
Amount.Per Cent.
of Total.
Amount.Per Cent.
of Total.
 £       £           £       
All industries643,8245.510,019,04386.2966,5398.3
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving56,3363.61,509,09195.612,5730.8
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture61,23111.0471,29185.021,9264.0
Sawmilling, sash and door making50,0303.51,291,34590.880,4925.7
Engineering27,8815.3487,43892.610,7912.1
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding94,73012.4602,22379.164,5988.5
Coachbuilding6,2993.9156,03695.69410.5
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring13,7204.3292,51792.510,1403.2
Furniture and cabinet making12,4733.8308,07792.711,5833.5
Woollen-milling6,0972.1278,77597.12,2370.8
Tailoring11,9663.1368,20894.88,0302.1
Dress and millinery making7,7773.8188,59892.86,9333.4
Boot and shoe making19,2875.3327,09990.216,2254.5
Clothing-manufacture18,3293.5489,37894.410,82821
Flax-milling3,9322.3164,65296.81,6020.9

MOTIVE POWER.

The total horse-power in use in 1919-20 was 193,784, an increase of 47,743 since 1915-16. The average horse-power per establishment was 44-48, and per employee 2.98—increases of 7.10 and 0.28 respectively. Comparative figures for the last five collections are given in the following table:—

—-1900-1.1905-6.1910-11.1915-16.1919-20.
All Industries.
Total horse-power39,11360,335100,587146,041193,784
Deduct figures for industries included in some years and not in others..     ..     1274031,282
Comparative figures for industries common to all years39,11360,335100,460145,638192,502
Average per establishment10.714.422.931.2744.48
Average per productive employee0.81.71.82.532.98
Principal Industries (Total Horse-power).
Meat freezing and preserving7,0579,49816,53128,76736,555
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture2,3993,7595,99512,8909,650
Sawmilling, sash and door making8,74413,27819,48416,81619,470
Engineering5411,1093,3333,3223,899
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding9561,5203,3704,2404,544
Coachbuilding1283956571,018695
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,1089801,9271,8904,672
Furniture and cabinetmaking3697061,3391,8532,096
Woollen-milling1,5541,9452,6413,0803,315
Boot and shoe making184328680831960
Clothing-manufacture67135576488694
Flax-milling1,1903,0872,5163,3162,888

A comparison is now given between 1915-16 and 1919-20, showing the numbers of engines and motors of each kind in use in each provincial district and in the principal industries:—

—-Steam.Gas.Oil.Electric.Water.Other and
Unspecified.
Total.
1915-16.1919-20.1915-16.1919-20.1915-16.1919-20.1915-16.1919-20.1915-16.1919-20.1915-16.1919-20.1915-16.1919-20.
Provincial districts—
    Auckland55350924321280927121,16337482..     1,6272,024
    Taranaki33919817221815991868660..     ..     559481
    Hawke's Bay1261195468162876151334..     279369
    Wellington355379222263415058985811201..     1,2191,570
    Marlborough31488123614212..     ..     5770
    Nelson9397313312113514916..     ..     180171
    Westland1121271817133184..     ..     142152
    Canterbury2291711237227334711,0192216..     ..     8721,311
    Otago2061665945214144467252363..     785960
    Southland187190342420287312077..     ..     321369
               Dominion (all industries)2,2312,0048097682393072,5164,18626321210..     6,0417,477
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving34827046661012525887343..     ..     9631,238
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture58358026231313338034383..     692734
Sawmilling and sash and door making5025723117101376..     7..     ..     525676
Engineering4333714813131252031213..     ..     264310
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding7615104274042849624271..     640673
Coachbuilding10340234037636951..     ..     158133
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring53528146104917427..     ..     118257
Furniture and cabinet making2878758..     178820141..     ..     207284
Woollen-milling161558..     ..     142112..     ..     3646
Boot and shoe making5..     2517..     ..     701041..     ..     ..     101121
Clothing-manufacture33146..     1912241..     ..     ..     109234
Flax-milling722824275126117..     ..     11469

As regards kind of power used, the most remarkable development is the large increase in electric motors. Where electric current is available new installations of power are almost invariably of this type, and with increasing facilities no doubt will become correspondingly preponderant. The subjoined table shows the number of engines or motors of each kind in use at the last five censuses, together with the percentage each represents of the total number of engines or motors in the respective years:—

Kind of Power.1900-1.1905-6.1910-11.1915-16.1919-20.
No. of
Engines
or
Motors.
Per Cent.
of Total.
No. of
Engines
or
Motors.
Per Cent.
of Total.
No. of
Engines
or
Motors.
Per Cent.
of Total.
No. of
Engines
or
Motors.
Per Cent.
of Total.
No. of
Engines
or
Motors.
Per Cent.
of Total.
Steam1,35964.71,37259.92,21847.42,23136.92,00426.8
Coal-gas40719.445219.785318.280913.45247.0
Suction gas2443.2
Oil311.5974.22314.92394.03074.1
Electric150.7552.41,08423.22,51641.64,18656.0
Water21610.31978.62294.92363.92122.9
Others and unspecified733.41205.2651.4100.2..     ..     
         Totals2,101100.02,293100.04,680100.06,041100.07,477100.0

MATERIALS USED OR OPERATED UPON.

The value of materials used or operated upon does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry and another, for the reason that the change made during the process of manufacture varies very considerably. For instance, materials used or operated upon in the tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring industry were in 1919-20 valued at £3,984,846, while those used in printing, publishing, and bookbinding were valued at £886,794 only; on the basis of materials, then, it would appear that fellmongering, &c., had about four times the importance of printing, &c., but when the question of added value is considered it is found that the latter is more than two and a half times the importance of the former.

This added value is dealt with later in this section. The appended table gives the value of materials used in all and the principal industries as ascertained in 1900-1, 1910-11, and 1919-20:—

COST OF MATERIALS USED OR OPERATED UPON.
Industry.1900-1.1910-11.1919-20.
* Information not available.
 £       £       £       
All industries6,997,48020,810,21147,037,931
Deduct figures for industries included in some years and not in others..     146,202640,270
Comparative figures for industries common to all years6,997,48020,664,00946,397,661
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving*6,533,36312,735,888
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,195,6003,304,99310,430,165
Sawmilling and sash and door making*1,253,1531,499,617
Engineering186,208315,371443,793
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding200,243314,763886,794
Coachbuilding88,229156,829210,259
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,391,3231,788,7723,984,846
Furniture and cabinet making101,595215,031458,652
Woollen-milling196,081248,187591,257
Tailoring122,853364,389682,218
Dress and millinery making173,211285,573297,566
Boot and shoe making273,325334,880888,847
Clothing-manufacture241,854297,9131,200,312
Flax-milling53,06473,835115,285

PRODUCTS.

The following table gives values of products of all and principal industries for the years 1900-1, 1910-11, and 1919-20, together with the percentage increase during each period:—

Industry.1900-1.1910-11.1919-20.
Value of Products.Value of Products.Increase per Cent.Value of Products.Increase per Cent.
 £       £        £        
All industries12,863,96931,729,002..     69,780,296..     
Deduct figures for industries included in some years and not in others..     618,515..     1,277,798..     
Comparative figures for industries common to all years12,863,96931,110,487141.868,502,498120.2
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving3,834,8917,422,18793.516,364,394120.5
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,535,1503,919,184155.312,495,670218.8
Sawmilling and sash and door making1,268,6892,699,888112.83,244,87020.2
Engineering361,958751,485107.61,250,56766.4
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding704,2851,377,92695.62,639,36291.5
Coachbuilding216,077396,01283.3482,70921.9
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,888,1072,036,7707.94,941,998142.6
Furniture and cabinet making241,024497,681106.5990,23399.0
Woollen-milling359,382377,7135.11,143,265202.7
Tailoring301,356936,237210.71,375,27646.9
Dress and millinery making312,436575,05984.1610,5516.2
Boot and shoe making529,254619,87317.11,443,436132.9
Clothing-manufacture446,173507,12513.72,029,579300.2
Flax-milling203,492284,39939.8409,32943.9

For comparative purposes value of output per productive employee is frequently calculated and given over a period of years, but owing to increased prices of commodities it would appear that such a procedure would show to a considerable extent a fictitious increase in the productivity of labour. It has been thought advisable, therefore, to substitute for the unit “productive employee” an arbitrary unit “£100 expended in productive wages.” The results of this are now given from 1900-1 to 1919-20

VALUE OF OUTPUT PER £100 EXPENDED IN PRODUCTIVE WAGES.
—-1900-1.1905-6.1910-11.1915-16.1919-20.
 £   £   £   £   £   
All industries541526569683696
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving1,8131,1281,2801,6371,084
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,5921,9692,3052,9392,651
Sawmilling and sash and door making247255349204251
Engineering283260289281257
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding247266281287438
Coachbuilding259254264297309
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,1851,7911,4811,8801,562
Furniture and cabinet making264246279212321
Woollen-milling321378275382410
Tailoring293269273282374
Dress and millinery making398292308277324
Boot and shoe making275292313336441
Clothing-manufacture326293299384415
Flax-milling201722512608249

FIXED (REAL) ASSETS.

In connection with the following table it should be understood that the figures given are of necessity only approximate, the principal reason for this being that where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries an apportionment has to be made between the industries, and this cannot be done with absolute accuracy. Furthermore, in many instances fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an understatement owing to appreciated site-value, or an overstatement owing to insufficient allowance being made for depreciation, obsolescence, &c. Where premises occupied are rented or leased (particularly if only a portion) it has been found impossible to arrive at the correct value; in the latter case it must obviously be so. In such circumstances the practice has been to ascertain the annual rental value and capitalize this.

APPROXIMATE VALUE OF LAND, BUILDINGS, MACHINERY, AND PLANT, 1900-1, 1910-11, AND 1919-20.
—-1900-1.1910-11.1919-20.
 £       £       £       
All industries7,959,63114,430,35533,436,120
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving893,7201,741,1704,798,934
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture388,750954,1222,190,329
Sawmilling and sash and door making703,6201,806,6282,139,670
Engineering155,081514,809783,490
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding559,5381,302,4971,604,355
Coachbuilding150,811320,974320,053
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring235,952261,456433,326
Furniture and cabinet making170,338327,682532,632
Woollen-milling277,422289,089502,044
Tailoring211,016483,719831,576
Dress and millinery making193,998359,819410,386
Boot and shoe making176,992227,057302,951
Clothing-manufacture97,092194,481527,242
Flax-milling64,446342,638515,318

CHARACTER OF ORGANIZATION.

As previously mentioned, a number of small repair-shops in some industries have this year been omitted from the statistics, and as these were practically all either under individual ownership or carried on as partnerships, this will account for a considerable portion of the apparently large decrease in the number of establishments thus organized. Details for the last three collections are as follows:—

Character of Organization.1915-16.1918-19.1919-20.
No.Output.No.Output.No.Output.
  £        £        £       
Individual2,2225,371,4791,6615,706,0541,6877,021,699
Private firm or partnership1,0423,881,7189214,693,3319525,668,372
Public registered company44521,623,87044723,179,56342827,891,088
Private registered company5956,833,22076113,744,61178814,972,331
Municipal3667,743,897701,334,5861102,067,966
Co-operative and miscellaneous3949,716,36239212,158,840
                 Totals4,67045,454,1844,25458,374,5074,35769,780,296

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIES.

Appended is a table showing the number of all and principal industries in each provincial district in 1919-20:—

—-Auckland.Taranaki.Hawke's Bay.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago.Southland.Dominion.
All industries110824028895647153926335872534357
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving945911..     710450
Butter, cheese, and condensed milk manufacture907525849138343355426
Sawmilling and sash and door making10192057103131192131330
Engineering35553012316195121
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding72111155373373513247
Coachbuilding5510833172201010156
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring11291311..     1512670
Furniture and cabinet making7517155017330207225
Woollen-milling1..     11..     ..     ..     34111
Tailoring82202568296515516334
Dress and millinery making61131959..     95505317286
Boot and shoe making241..     18..     ..     ..     128164
Clothing-manufacture462148..     ..     ..     29341161
Flax-milling13..     122..     2221447

AGES OF INDUSTRIES.

A table is now given showing for all industries, and individually for the principal industries, the number established during the periods indicated:—

—-Prior to 1860.1860-69.1870-79.1880-89.1890-99.1900-9.1910-14.1915-19.Not stated.Total.
All industries631742433754699667828124734357
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving12..     1456712350
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture..     ..     319731021085962426
Sawmilling and sash and door making4517202575579334330
Engineering410991222241219121
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding72532363448301421247
Coachbuilding3913162427211627156
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring236121313561070
Furniture and cabinet making310811225253588225
Woollen-milling..     ..     351..     11..     11
Tailoring467253886757023334
Dress and millinery making3116201751758221286
Boot and shoe making..     277616614664
Clothing-manufacture611012123333477161
Flax-milling..     ..     ..     2..     17614847

The following table gives a general summary of various particulars as at the 31st March, 1920:—

—-Number of Establishments.Average Number of Employees for Year ended 31st March, 1920.Total Amount paid in Salaries and Wages during Year ended 31st March, 1920.Total Horse-power available.Cost of Materials used or operated upon.Value of Products.Approximate Value of Land, Buildings, Machinery, and Plant.
* Information not shown where the number of establishments is so small that individual particulars might be identified.
Animal food—  £        £       £       £       
   Meat freezing and preserving508,5621,578,00036,555 1/412,735,88816,364,3944,798,934
   Ham and bacon curing3619940,825466 1/2434,367515,908136,750
   Fish curing and preserving1212822,256148 1/268,25495,89354,377
   Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture4263,352554,4489,650 1/210,430,16512,495,6702,190,329
Vegetable food—
   Grain-milling52584115,9044,2642,411,7342,807,916572,933
   Biscuit and confectionery manufacture491,654194,5961,534632,7721,077,956424,546
   Fruit-preserving and jam-making1132536,903196 1/2144,493210,61272,821
   Sugar-refining1******
   Baking-powder manufacture47714,00632 1/2140,022158,19113,712
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants—
   Brewing and malting571,090228,2352,121 1/2484,1851,084,121648,870
   Colonial-wine making3******.
   Aerated-water and cordial manufacture11455194,459551 1/4102,977343,329222,851
   Coffee and spice grinding and preparing119313,230262 3/470,02995,21636,455
   Tobacco-preparing and cigarette-making41068,7338463,16087,99442,401
   Sauce, pickle, and vinegar making1628042,737194 1/4103,206172,76168,319
   Tea blending and packing1619723,45234387,604473,08369,152
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)—
   Soap and candle making1834456,402672349,132479,511147,591
   Sausage-casing manufacture1832661,75534163,753245,77631,073
   Boiling-down and manure-making62616108,7633,090 1/2686,435996,319351,523
Working in wood—
   Coopering and casemaking2729648,779713 1/2218,986334,12195,010
   Sawmilling and sash and door making3307,2651,421,86719,4701,499,6173,244,8702,139,670
   Woodware and turnery manufacture118619114,2551,364 1/2181,444377,396216,546
Vegetable produce for fodder—
   Grain-crushing6458,20616331,86948,82822,104
Paper-manufactures—
   Paper-milling3******
   Paper-bag and box making918020,1286538,62183,46541,570
Heat, light, and power—
   Gas making and supply461,745273,916..     466,4981,189,7543,121,119
   Electricity generation and supply68834153,89567,049425,035647,0713,168,659
   Electric tramways112,405432,544..     509,926983,4503,441,726
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.—
   Stone-crushing1814526,2061,1057,32949,48843,324
   Lime crushing or burning and cement-making19621123,5076.949 3/4206,185367,874624,397
   Brick, tile, and pottery making56870142,6292,556 1/220,883275,942404,711
   Asphalt-making3******
   Monumental masonry2821043,59213846,862115,40448,289
   Leadlight-making and glass-bevelling1311219,0889226,83355,15129,947
   Electroplating9495,87655 1/25,12517,14920,280
   Concrete block or pipe and fibrous-plaster making139617,2874719,21342,68124,941
Metals other than gold or silver—
   Tinned-plate and sheet-metal working84804130,553452288,916493,511266,983
   Iron and brass founding, boilermaking31546100,6971,121152,501350,086177,585
   Engineering1213,030526,1103,899443,7931,250,567783,490
   Electrical engineering2327735,17210859,273109,63471,303
   Rangemaking832953,85434056,868133,73488,971
   Wireworking1415022,12213563,223113,98840,042
Precious metals—
   Jewellery and watch making4623837,96168 1/266,742135,226137,577
Books and publications—
   Printing, publishing, and bookbinding2474,452761,5514,544886,7942,639,3621,604,355
Musical instruments—
   Piano, &c., making and repairing108813,670179,22526,09279,584
Ornaments and minor art products—
   Picture-frame making20467,0851915,17831,38653,695
   Basket, perambulator, &c., making2917518,892824,59663,64244,544
Equipment for sports and games—
   Billiard-table making2******
—-Number of Establishments.Average Number of Employees for Year ended 31st March, 1920.Total Amount paid in Salaries and Wages during Year ended 31st March, 1920.Total Horse-power available.Cost of Materials used or operated upon.Value of Products.Approximate Value of Land, Buildings, Machinery, and Plant.
* Information not shown where the number of establishments is so small that individual particulars might be identified.
Designs, medals, type, and dies—  £      £     £     £     
   Engraving and stamp-making11527,24119 1/24,01120,37827,717
Ammunition and explosives—
   Ammunition, explosives, and fireworks making2******
Machines, tools, and implements—
   Agricultural-machinery making27930162,970706224,285519,040221,266
   Brush and broom making919725,95715546,21490,05535,442
Carriages and vehicles—
   Coachbuilding1561,014163,276695210,259482,709320,053
   Motor and cycle engineering3341,921293,9891,151 1/2345,567821,8101,057,535
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware—
   Saddlery and harness making5647175,37858154,300248,922149,093
   Leather-goods manufacture1319823,1038 1/270,664116,75527,744
   Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring701,626316,3774,6723,984,8464,941,998433,326
Ships, boats, and their equipment—
   Ship and boat building251,270202,290602164,451389,90399,120
   Sail, tent, and oilskin making3425328,920105164,016221,63588,139
House-furnishings—
   Furniture and cabinet making2252,149332,1332,095 3/4458,652990,233532,632
   Blindmaking4111,23314 1/25,0308,3244,557
   Mattress-making1122326,936106 1/2105,391157,20933,614
Chemicals and by-products—
   Ink-manufacture2******
   Starch-manufacture2******
   Chemicals-manufacture1013119,59517286,261141,66667,789
   Paint and varnish manufacture6294,1487930,05142,15734,511
   Sheep-dip manufacture1******
   Match-manufacture2******
   Boot-polish manufacture6475,92114 1/431,31249,36611,920
   Patent medicines and preparations manufacture1819122,65713373,613149,79345,648
Textile fabrics—
   Woollen-milling112,048287,1093,315591,2571,143,265502,044
   Flock-milling4254,377168 1/219,93227,85110,609
Apparel—
   Tailoring3342,990388,20470 3/4682,2181,375,276831,576
   Dress and millinery making2862,835203,30819 1/2297,566610,551410,386
   Boot and shoe making642,447362,611960888,8471,443,436302,951
   Hosiery-making816116,58144 1/254,432130,91631,000
   Umbrella-making6456,6404 1/217,15529,53722,602
   Clothing and waterproof making1615,225518,535693 1/21,200,3122,029,579527,242
Fibrous materials—
   Rope and twine making921133,056991 1/299,365181,82365,012
   Bag and sack making3**c****
   Flax-milling471,010170,1862,888115,285409,329515,318
Industries (included above) for which the number of schedules received was so small that operations of individual establishments might be identified..     929150,9023,406 1/41,652,6231,994,375274,540
Miscellaneous (not included above)2813921,92762 1/283,305127,88379,675
                 Totals4,35772,88911,629,406193,784 1/447,037,93169,780,29633,436,120

Chapter 21. SECTION XXI.—WATER-POWER.

ALTHOUGH abundant water-power is available throughout New Zealand, comparatively little use had been made of it before 1900, but since then the development has been extensive, and promises to be still more extensive in the early future. In 1903 water-power to the extent of 9,911 horse-power was actually in use. By 1913 this amount had risen to 34,956 horse-power, and by 1921 to 51,114 1/2. Recently interest in. hydro-electric power has been accentuated by the partial failure, from various causes, of the coal-supply and the high cost of imported coal.

The Public Works Act, 1908, vests the sole right to use the water-power of the Dominion in His Majesty, subject to any existing rights, and gives the Government the right to develop such power, or to delegate such power to any local authority, or, outside a mining district, to any person or company, subject to conditions. Advantage has been taken of this in several cases, the right in the case of local authorities being issued subject to a royalty of 1s. per year per kilowatt of maximum output, and in the case of private concerns developing water-power for electrical distribution, subject to a royalty of 4s. per year per kilowatt of maximum output.

POWER IN USE.

The following table shows the actual horse-power in use in the various districts at the 31st March in the years indicated:—

 1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Auckland12,15315,20615,11315,47315,42317,152 1/2
Hawke's Bay3555 1/29094109137
Taranaki2,9683,1223,2553,3743,1204,054 1/2
Wellington711713749844859863 1/2
Marlborough and Nelson874681 3/4636666153153 3/4
Westland3,5793,6093,6113,6114,1414,034 1/2
Canterbury9,6429,040 1/212,46812,45511,49112,324 1/2
Otago10,73510,78910,62510,50410,71510,447 1/2
Southland1,9211,9251,9391,9491,9721,946 3/4
            Totals42,61845,141 3/448,48748,97047,98351,114 1/2

It will be observed from these figures that progress during the years 1918-19 and 1919-20 was exceedingly slow, but that 1920-21 shows a distinct forward movement.

The following table gives the analysis of the purposes for which water-power-was employed as on the 31st March, 1921:—

WATER-POWER IN USE ON THE 31ST MARCH, 1921.
District.Mining.Electric Supply.Flax-mills.Sawmills.Flour-mills.Dairying.Construction-work.Freezing-works.Paper-mills.Miscellaneous.Total.
Auckland North..     2,680..     ..     ..     20..     ..     ..     72,707
Auckland2,6606851020..     10946..     1,4524,937
Auckland South..     9,42560..     ..     3..     ..     ..     20 1/29,508 1/2
Hawke's Bay..     79..     15..     27..     ..     ..     16137
Taranaki North..     1,931 1/2..     3024599..     ..     ..     1082,692 1/2
Taranaki..     90710..     ..     296 1/2..     ..     ..     148 1/21,362
Wellington North..     55250..     ..     3..     ..     ..     ..     605
Wellington..     50 1/2..     45..     73..     ..     ..     90258 1/2
Nelson and Marlborough12 3/42646308..     ..     ..     ..     31153 3/4
Westland1,291 1/21,9033377..     12600..     ..     1184,034 1/2
Canterbury..     11,9396..     12210..     ..     ..     98 1/212,175 1/2
Canterbury South..     5830..     54..     ..     ..     ..     7149
Otago..     10,154 1/2..     ..     5616..     ..     ..     22110,447 1/2
Southland68534629452..     1,20045053 3/41,946 3/4
        Totals4,032 1/440,443 1/22912463091,071 1/26941,2064502,371 1/451,114 1/2

The following table gives details of the chief hydro-electric installations from which power is distributed for public supply. Of the twenty-four stations mentioned, seventeen are operated by local authorities, three by the State, and four by private companies.

Locality.Supply Authority.Power installed.Max. Load, Kw.,
Year ending
31st March, 1921.
Distance
transmitted:
Miles.
Voltage of
Transmission.
H.P.Kw.

* Lake Coleridge plant.

† Overload.

‡ Waipori plant.

§ Deisel auxiliary.

∥ Gas auxiliary.

¶ Steam auxiliary.

Canterbury*Public Works Department8,0006,0007,4126566,000
HorahoraPublic Works Department8,4006,3003,6005550,000
DunedinCity Council8,0006,0006,2503735,000
RotoruaTourist Department380200180136,600
Hawera§Electric Light Company600445338125,500
Wairua FallsWilsons (N.Z.) Cement Co.3,3002,0001,6402222,000
Stratford§Borough Council1509018722,200
New PlymouthBorough Council1,15085087556,600
InglewoodBorough Council2001206233,200
WaverleyTown Board60403022,300
PateaBorough Council70505043,000
Thames§Borough Council1501051051460
Te Aroha§Borough Council25515015033,300
OhakuneBorough Council1601204712,400
RaetihiTown Board80605443,300
TaurangaBorough Council2131601901811,000
AkaroaBorough Council5030301220
TaihapeBorough Council1331001512460
MangawekaTown Board47353232,400
BrightwaterWaimea Electric Company53404842,300
ReeftonElectric Supply Company8060801230
OamaruBorough Council15011298..     3,300
KapongaTown Board604532..     230
GoreBorough Council320240170611,000

LAKE COLERIDGE WORKS.

The Aid to Water-power Works Act of 1910 empowered the State to establish hydro-electric-supply installations, and the first is now in operation at Lake Coleridge, sixty-five miles west of Christchurch. This plant has been designed for a total capacity of 12,000 kilowatts (16,000 horse-power), but natural features of the lake and adjacent rivers allow of a very large extension of the supply up to 58,000 h.p. During March, 1921, the Harper River was diverted into the lake, and the level of the water in the lake has been appreciably raised thereby, thus ensuring an ample supply to meet the present demands.

The transmission-line is constructed in duplicate by separate routes to Christchurch, thus ensuring continuity of supply, each line having a capacity of 5,000 kw. The installed plant capacity is 12,000 h.p., and further plant of 4,000 h.p. capacity is now on order for extensions. The population being served is over 110,000, and a large demand for power is being made. Contracts have been made for the bulk supply to the Christchurch City Council and some fifteen other local bodies for retail distribution, the Christchurch Tramway Board, and the power-supply to the large meat-freezing works and dairy factories, tanneries, flour-mills, woollen-mills, and other factories and industries of Canterbury. The contract entered into with the Christchurch City Council provides for a charge for the first 300 kw. (400 h.p.) of £8 13s. 4d. per annum per kilowatt of maximum load (equivalent. to £6 10s. per horse-power), and all over 300 kw. at £5 per annum per kilowatt of maximum load (equivalent to £3 15s. per horse-power). This enables the Council to retail it to the public for lighting at 5d. per unit, flat rate, or 6d. per unit for forty hours of maximum demand and 1d. per unit thereafter, and at 1 1/2d. per unit for power in small units, and special rates ranging from 1/2d. to 1/3d. per unit for special contracts. The standard rate of sale by the Public Works Department is based on £16 per kilowatt year (£12 per horse-power year).

The growth of the supply and the general financial results are as follows:—

Results of
Operation for
First Year
(ending March, 1916).
Second Year
(ending March, 1917).
Third Year
(ending March, 1918).
Fourth Year
(ending March, 1919).
Fifth Year
(ending March, 1920).
Sixth Year
(ending March, 1921).
Capital outlay£320,330£366,984£389,754£403,157£422,076£499,957
Working-costs£9,383£12,889£14,449£17,138£17,760£21,341
Interest, 4 per cent.£11,398£13,743£14,871£15,692£16,863£18,639
Depreciation, 2 per cent.£5,386£6,078£7,013£7,329£7,623£7,946
Total costs£26,167£32,710£36,333£40,159£42,246£47,926
Total revenue£8,518£20,754£32,092£37,324£45,831£51,373
Maximum load, kw.—
   Power-house1,3724,3665,4385,9007,0667,412
   Substation1,2203,9004,8005,3406,2606,712
Units output—
   Power-house4,880,26014,774,96022,403,66027,495,72033,010,13036,309,580
   Substation4,128,23212,934,23020,539,43024,548,55429,572,16032,588,320
Total units sold3,994,76711,664,96119,844,67623,387,54628,017,97631,402,351
Average weekly load factor, per cent.—
   Power-house44.352.958.059.159.961.4
   Substation43.353.158.458.458.660.5
Working-cost per unit sold0.56d.0.265d.0.175d.0.176d.0.15d.0.15d.
Capital charge per unit sold1.01d.0.41d.0.265d.0.236d.0.21d.0.20d.
Total cost per unit sold1.57d.0.675d.0.44d.0.412d.0.36d.0.36d.
Revenue per unit sold0.51d.0.45d.0.388d.0.383d.0.39d.0.39d.
Total cost per kw. substation maximum£21.4£8.4£7.57£7.52£6.75£7.14

To the above costs must be added the cost of retailing by the various local authorities, and the gross results of distribution in the district for the year ending 31st March, 1921, are given in the following table:—

GROSS FINANCIAL RESULTS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAKE COLERIDGE POWER IN CANTERBURY, 31ST MARCH, 1921.
Distributing Authority.Number of Consumers.Capital Outlay.Revenue from Consumers.Paid for Electricity.Maintenance Expenses.Interest.Sinking Fund.Depreciation.Net Profit.

* After deducting amount of sales to other distributing bodies.

† Net loss.

‡ During 1920-21 no Loan Account reticulation work, therefore included in management expenses, &c.

§ From July, 1920, only.

  £     £     £     £     £     ££     £     
Public Works Department425499,95725,363*..     21,34118,639..     7,9463,447
Christchurch City Council10,108338,43676,856*17,70020,38511,649..     22,9366,721
Halswell County Council805,0006352996714150100−22
Heathcote County Council56413,2962,7931,26237341279..     667
Kaiapoi Borough Council3594,5001,92079063823645..     271
Lyttelton Borough Council1545,0002,028692693250100..     293
Riccarton Borough Council4286,0001,961682646269150340126
Rangiora Borough Council2006,8361,52261826734555274−37
Rangiora County Council15911,0551,05945224328950..     25
Spreydon Borough Council3676,8301,71861472230060..     22
Sumner Borough Council3986,6821,85156750431560143262
Tai Tapu Dairy Company1306,0001,66580036042060150−125
Waimairi County Council1,70040,1527,6391,5433,3812,034..     ..     681
Woolston Borough Council4056,9351,64267195533870..     −392
Eyre County Council§662,3642108927671535−23
Totals               15,543959,043128,86226,77950,60235,70479431,92411,604

The column “Revenue from Consumers” omits, in the cases of the Public Works Department and Christchurch City Council, the revenue from the sale of energy to other local authorities for distribution, as this is resold and the actual revenue from the consumers is included in the revenue of the distributing local authority. The amounts thus paid for power in bulk for resale are shown in the column “Paid for Electricity.”

Practically all the local authorities were carrying out construction during the year. As interest during construction is paid in all cases out of capital, the period on which the amount of interest included in the columns “Interest” and “Sinking Fund” is based does not in many cases cover the whole year.

WAIKATO ELECTRIC-POWER SUPPLY.

In November, 1920, the Waihi Gold-mining Company's electric-power plant at Horahora was acquired by the State for £212,500. The capital account to the 31st March, 1921, stands at £249,746.

The main features of the plant acquired are the headworks and generating-station on the Waikato River at Horahora, seventeen miles from Cambridge, with a plant capacity of six generators each capable of generating 1,050 kw. or a total of 6,300 kw.; the transmission-line of three No. O.S.W.G. copper conductors on steel towers from Horahora to Waikino (fifty-five miles); and the transformer-station at Waikino, for transforming the energy supplied to the Waihi Company's mine. Designs for extending the power-house installation by the addition of two 2,000 kw. units have been approved, and tenders have been invited for the necessary plant.

As shown in the accounts, the operations for the twelve months ending 31st March, 1921, resulted in a gross revenue of £14,663, or £8,309 in excess of working-expenses. Interest on the purchase-money amounted to £10,625, and depreciation at 2 per cent. per annum as required by law to £4,025, leaving a deficiency after paying working and capital charges of £6,341.

The total number of units generated over the twelve months was 16,729,050, and the number delivered to consumers was 15,376,000, so that 1,353,050 units, or 8.1 per cent. of the amount generated, were lost in transmission. The maximum demand on the power-house was 3,600 kw.

The following shows the average cost of production for the year ended 31st March, 1921:—

—-Costs.Per Unit
generated.
Per Unit
sold.
Per Kilowatt of
Power-house
Max. per Year.
 £    d.   d.   £    
Generating3,8440.0550.0601.070
Transmission9570.0140.0100.265
Distribution6460.0090.0150.180
Management9070.0130.0140.250
       Total working-costs6,3540.0910.0991.765
Interest10,6250.1520.1662.950
Depreciation4,0250.0580.0631.120
       Total costs21,0040.3010.3285.835

The revenue represented a return of 0.21d. per unit generated, 0.229d. per unit sold, and £4.075 per annum per kilowatt of power-house maximum.

The total power installed at Horahora (6,300 kw., or 8,400 h.p.) will be dealt with as follows:—

 Horse-power.
Spare standby unit1,400
For Waihi Gold-mining Company3,300
For Arapuni construction-works200
For special industries500
For losses in transmission600
Available for local authorities2,400
 8,400

In allocating the power the population and other considerations, such as existing installations, have been taken into account, and the following allocation is the result of a careful investigation into the whole of the factors:—

 Horse-power.
Thames Valley Power Board900
Te Awamutu Power Board600
Cambridge Power Board200
Central Power Board350
Hamilton Borough Council300
Waihi Borough Council50
 2,400

WAIPORI WATER-SUPPLY.

The only other hydro-electric development of any size is the power-station of the Dunedin City Council on the Waipori River, thirty-two miles from the city. This plant was started in 1907 with two units of 1,000 kw. (1,340 h.p.) each. Two more similar units were added in 1910, and two more were installed in 1913, which brings the total capacity up to 6,000 kw. (8,000 h.p.). The retail rates charged range from 5d. to 1d. per unit for lighting, and from 2d. to 1/2d. per unit for power purposes.

The output for the year 1920-21 was as follows:—

 Units
sold.
Average Price
per Unit.
 Number.d.
Private lighting2,974,4743.60
Public lighting494,8702.23
Power and heating9,763,4410.82
Tramways3,105,5060.68
               Total supply16,338,2911.35

The total outlay to the 31st March, 1921, was £582,760, including distribution, standby plant, and public lighting; the total revenue for the year ended the 31st March, 1921, £95,926; and the total expenditure, including interest, sinking fund, depreciation, and renewal funds, £79,023, leaving a net profit of £16,902. The number of consumers supplied was 10,034, and the total capacity of all connections to the mains at the 31st March, 1921, was 16,300 kw.

STATE SCHEME FOR NORTH ISLAND.

A larger and comprehensive scheme is now under construction for the supply of electrical energy in the North Island, with the object of making it generally available, as far as possible, to all the towns and districts throughout the Island. It is anticipated that the productiveness of the country will be greatly increased, the dairying industry in particular being capable of expansion with the provision of cheap electric power.

A complete scheme was outlined in a report dated October, 1918, by Mr. Evan Parry, B.Sc, M.I.C.E., M.I.E.E., recently Chief Electrical Engineer of the Public Works Department. He estimates the demand at 0.2 h.p. per head of population, exclusive of large blocks of power required for electro-chemical and metallurgical industries, and allowing for losses in transmission and distribution the power required on this basis for the North Island is 160,000 h.p. This it is proposed to obtain from three sources—the Mangahao River, near Shannon (24,000 h.p.), Lake Waikaremoana (40,000 h.p.), and the Arapuni Rapids, on the Waikato, near Putaruru (96,000 h.p.). Of these the Waikaremoana scheme is capable of further development up to a total of 130,000 h.p., and Arapuni to a total of 160,000 h.p. In connection with Mangahao, contracts for the construction and erection of the pipe-lines have been let, and tenders for the generating plant, &c., closed on the 29th November, 1921. Contracts for the supply and erection of 1,000 h.p. construction plant at Waikaremoana have been let, of which 500 h.p. will be reserved for the Wairoa Electric-power Board.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE.

The complete estimate to provide for the general scheme of electricity-supply, based on 12 per cent. in excess of pre-war costs, is as follows:—

—-Amount.Per
Horse-power.
Generating-stations (total plant capacity 160,000 h.p.)—£       £   
 H.P.Cost.
£
Per H.P.
£
  
       Mangahao24,000438,65418.30
       Waikaremoana40,000544,36913.16
       Arapuni96,0001,078,70010.80
 2,061,72312.88
 160,000  
Main transmission-lines1,553,88011.22
Extra branch transmission-lines at lower voltage to main substations not on main lines241,360
Main substations838,8085.24
Distribution-lines and secondary substations2,086,00013.04
 6,781,77142.38
Interest during construction271,2711.69
Assistance to local authorities and power-users100,0000.62
Working capital150,0000.94
                                   Total7,303,04245.63

The capital charges for interest, depreciation, and sinking fund at 7 1/2 per cent. will amount to £547,728 per annum. The working-expenses should not exceed £220,000 per annum, making a total annual expenditure of £767,728, requiring an average return of £5.9 per horse-power per annum of maximum load—i.e., about £8 per kilowatt.

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS.

The policy of the Government generally is to supply power in bulk, leaving the reticulation and retail supply in the hands of the local authorities. In the past the only local authorities available have been the cities, boroughs, counties, and town districts, but with the extension of electric supply into the country areas a stronger organization became necessary, and this has been provided under the Electric-power Boards Act of 1918. This Act provides for several local districts to combine for the purpose of electric-power distribution, and to set up a special Electric-power Board to carry out the work, with rating-powers over the district concerned.

Amendments to the original Act, based on the results of experience, have been passed in 1919 and 1920 respectively.

The provisions of this Act have now been taken advantage of by fourteen districts, details of which are set out in the table herewith. The total area covered by these fourteen districts is 18,869 square miles, being 18.1 per cent. of the total area of the Dominion, and the total population included is 158,157, being 12.95 per cent. of the population of the Dominion. Nine of the Boards have laid out their reticulation systems and submitted the necessary loans to the ratepayers for approval. Of these, one (Southland) includes a generating-station at Lake Monowai, and the other eight provide for taking power in bulk from the Public Works Department.

The total amount of loans authorized by the ratepayers of these nine districts amounts to £2,950,000. This is £21.6 per head of population concerned, and 6.7 per cent. of the unimproved rateable value.

Name of
Electric-power District.
Proclamation
constituting
District
gazetted.
Number of
Members
on Board.
Approximate
Area of
District.
Population.Value of
Rateable
Property
(unimproved).
Amount
of Loan.
Voting for
Loan Poll.
For.Ag'nt.
   Square
Miles.
 £       £         
Southland19/11/19129,98665,45013,600,4711,500,0006,516415
Thames Valley8/1/20122,30416,0006,814,993550,0001,50328
Te Awamutu8/1/20103096,0001,759,558120,000359..     
Cambridge8/1/2081045,0001,683,63260,0001983
Banks Peninsula8/1/2073723,5003,430,817100,00033123
Wairarapa25/3/2092,07321,8003,114,718260,0001,704225
Central8/7/2078009,1103,667,904200,00051519
Wairoa29/7/20101,3693,0002,417,251100,00050431
Springs-Ellesmere8/7/2072425,4002,627,46860,00030216
Teviot22/7/2071201,800169,137Poll not yet taken.
Westland28/10/2097503,272196,268Poll not yet taken.
Reefton30/6/215241,85059,316Poll not yet taken.
Dannevirke11/8/211067611,8483,555,382Poll not yet taken.
Opunake18/8/2172403,227536,153Poll not yet taken.
               Totals..     12018,869158,15743,633,0682,950,00011,932760

WATER-POWER FOR MINING PURPOSES.

Water-power is extensively used for hydraulic mining in New Zealand, and to a smaller extent for hydro-electric transmissions and for water-motors installed to drive mining machinery.

During 1920 water was used for sluicing auriferous alluvium at 122 claims, employing 409 persons, in Otago and Southland and on the West Coast. The quantity of water utilized per claim ranges up to about 40 cubic feet per second. Most of the sources of water-supply are privately owned, but on the West Coast and in Central Otago the Government has constructed, and now maintains, very extensive water-races for the use of miners.

On the West Coast the Waimea-Kumara Government water-races, in length about thirty-nine miles, have a capacity of 182 cubic feet per second. The cost of construction has been approximately £223,262, and the value of gold obtained by use of water is about £1,410,000. In Central Otago the Mount Ida Government water-races, about twenty-two miles in length, have a capacity of 51 cubic feet per second; the cost of these races to the Government has been about £80,000. The water is generally sold from Government races at a charge per hour of 2 1/2d. per “sluice-head,” which is equivalent to a flow of 1 cubic foot per second. Of recent years the cash received for water sold has been less than the cost of the upkeep of the races.

There are three hydro-electric mining transmissions. On the Waikato River the Waihi Gold-mining Company installed a 9,000 h.p. plant at Horahora Falls, near Cambridge, a distance of fifty miles from the mines and reduction-works at Waihi and Waikino. The transmission pressure is 50,000 volts. This source of supply has been taken over by the Government, which now sells the power to the public.

At Kanieri Forks, near Hokitika, there is a hydro-electric power-station, formerly the property of-Ross Goldfields (Limited). The water-supply is carried from Lake Kanieri, and from the Pelton wheels at the power-house 675 h.p. is obtainable. This power is now used by the Rimu Gold-dredging Company, also for fighting the Borough of Hokitika.

From the Fraser River, near Alexandra, Otago, water is taken by the Earnscleugh Gold-mining Company for hydro-electric power for its two gold-dredges, 300 electrical horse-power being utilized.

UNDEVELOPED POWER.

In addition to the developed power in New Zealand there is a practically unlimited amount of undeveloped power. The following table gives the particulars of the more important available water-powers, showing also the nearest market consisting of a city or an actual or potential port. A considerable number of these are suitable for general industrial development, but the largest ones, as a rule being in the unsettled portions of the South Island and near the deep-water sounds, are particularly suitable for utilization in connection with electro-chemical or electro-metallurgical industries.

NORTH ISLAND.
Source of Power.Position of
Power-house.
Available Flow:
Cubic Feet
per Second.
Available
Head: Feet.
Average Power
on 50 per Cent.
Load Factor.
Nearest City,
Port, or
Deep Water.
Distance:
Miles.
H.P.Kw.

* Signifies storage available to utilize 50 per cent. daily load factor.

† Signifies seasonal storage made available.

North Auckland District.
Wairua FallsWairua Falls3001303,2002,400Whangarei16
OmapereUtakura Stream11248220*165          ....    
South Auckland District.
KaitunaKaituna River50078460,000*45,000Tauranga25
Auckland125
Wairoa RiverWairoa420803,100*2,300Tauranga..    
Waikato RiverAratiatia Rapids4,400170136,000*100,000Auckland154
Waikato RiverOrakeikorako Rapids4,4003514,00010,000Auckland148
Waikato RiverAniwhaniwha Falls4,4008032,00024,000Auckland142
Waikato RiverAtiamuri Rapids4,4002510,000*7,500Auckland139
Waikato RiverArapuni Gorge5,300165163,000*120,000Auckland105
Waikato RiverHorahora Rapids5,3002713,00010,000Auckland97
Pokaiwhenua RiverHorahora Rapids1651704,600*3,400Auckland97
OmanawaOmanawa1601081,5001,100Tauranga16
Marakopa FallsMarokopa904203,1002,300Te Kuiti27
Wairere FallsWairere Falls16060860600Te Kuiti18
Hawke's Bay District.
WaikaremoanaUpper Waikaretaheki5301,10097,000*75,000Gisborne50
WaikaremoanaLower Waikaretaheki53036032,000*24,000Napier60
Te Reinga FallsTe Reinga Falls1241251,3001,000Gisborne35
Waikohu RiverWaikohu458476,000*4,500Gisborne26
Wanganui District.
Lake Roto-airaPatu River26052011,000..     Wanganui105
Mangawhero RiverRaukawa Falls12590940..     Wanganui45
Mangawhero RiverWanganui River1256807,100..     Wanganui24
Rangitikei RiverMakohine1,50030075,000*..     Wanganui48
Wangaehu RiverWangaehu River260701,500..     Wanganui25
KarioiKarioi3001808,800*6,600Wanganui..  
Taranaki District.
Waitara RiverWaitara River4001404,600..     New Plymouth12
WaiwakaihoWaiwakaiho1502506,200*..     New Plymouth 
Wellington District.
Mangahao RiverShannon14489524,000*..     Wellington65
Makuiri RiverMakuri Gorge1003843,200..     Pahiatua20
WaiohineWoodside1201202,400*..     Masterton15
Hutt RiverMungaroa20033011,000*..     Wellington24
TauherenikauFeatherston15044010,800*8,000Wairarapa..  
SOUTH ISLAND.
Source of Power.Position of
Power-house.
Available Flow:
Cubic Feet
per Second.
Available
Head: Feet.
Average Power
on 50 per Cent.
Load Factor.
Nearest City,
Port, or
Deep Water.
Distance:
Miles.
H.P.Kw.

* Signifies storage available to utilize 50 per cent. daily load factor.

† Signifies seasonal storage made available.

Marlborough District.
Clarence (Ericaburn)Shades64015816,500*12,400Blenheim..  
WaihopaiWaihopai100961,600*1,200Blenheim..  
Nelson and Buller District.
Boulder LakeAorere River502,60011,0008,000Golden Bay10
Rotoiti LakeBuller River2001,20020,00015,000Westport48
Nelson48
Rotoroa LakeGowan River90040030,00022,000Westport48
Nelson48
Buller RiverLyell1,600..     25,00018,000Westport24
Inangahua RiverBlackwater River781258,0006,000Westport18
Four-mile CreekFour-mile Creek234501,700*1,275Westport..     
Wairoa RiverWairoa12045880*660Nelson12
Westland District.
Lake BrunnerStillwater1,75020029,00022,000Greymouth10
Kumara Water-raceKumara873302,4001,800Greymouth12
Otira RiverOtira407002,3001,700Greymouth52
Rolleston RiverOtira367002,0001,500Greymouth52
Kanieri LakeKanieri River1003302,8002,100Hokitika20
Toaroha RiverToaroha River1507609,5007,100Hokitika17
Whitcombe RiverHokitika River25080016,00012,000Hokitika20
Kakapotahi RiverKakapotahi River1005804,8003,600Hokitika26
Wanganui RiverHende's Ferry83058040,00030,000Hokitika36
Wataroa RiverWataroa1,36070080,00060,000Hokitika48
Canterbury District.
Clarence RiverJollie's Pass2001,16020,00015,000Christchurch82
Clarence RiverConway River1,1501,050100,00075,000Christchurch88
Kaikoura25
Waiau-ua RiverCulverden1,60020027,00020,000Christchurch75
Waimakariri RiverGorge Bridge2,0009015,00011,000Christchurch30
Lake ColeridgeRakaia River1004808,000*6,000Christchurch65
Acheron RiverRakaia River504804,000*3,000Christchurch70
Harper RiverRakaia River42048032,000*24,000Christchurch70
Wilberforce RiverRakaia River1,10048044,00033,000Christchurch70
Rakaia RiverGorge Bridge2,600306,5004,800Christchurch25
Lake HeronRakaia River3002004,0003,000Christchurch88
Rangitata RiverArundel1,10025023,00017,000Timaru35
Opihi RiverOpihi Gorge2004006,7005,000Timaru30
Opuha RiverOpihi Gorge2004006,7005,000Christchurch100
Tekapo LakeFairlie5,100900400,000300,000Timaru40
Ohau LakeWaitaki River5,000600250,000180,000Timaru52
Otago and Southland Districts.
Ahuriri RiverWaitaki River60020010,0007,500Oamaru62
Timaru100
Waipori FallsWaipori River23070026,800*20,000Dunedin29
Lee StreamOutram157501,280970Dunedin18
Deep StreamTaieri River1109008,4006,300Dunedin20
Taieri RiverDeep Stream70022012,0009,000Dunedin44
Talla BurnClutha River308902,2001,600Dunedin60
Teviot RiverRoxburgh1001,90030,000*21,000Dunedin90
Mauwherika RiverChatto Creek2003505,8004,400Dunedin127
Hawea LakeWanaka Lake2,50020580,000*60,000Dunedin170
Wakatipu LakeKawarau River11,000544500,000375,000Dunedin140
ShotoverWakatipu Lake50025014,50011,000Invercargill112
Lake HallDoubtful Sound2202,62548,00036,000On seaboard..     
Lake CecilLake Te Anau20090015,00011,200On seaboard..     
Lake HildaLake Te Anau1,5501,19055,00041,080On seaboard..     
Lake Te AnauGeorge Sound12,630694750,000560,000On seaboard..     
Lake ManapouriSmith Sound8,400600420,000315,000On seaboard..     
Lake MonowaiWaiau River70018020,000*15,000Invercargill60
Lake HaurotoTewaewae Bay2,300514100,00075,000Invercargill51

Chapter 22. SECTION XXII.—PUBLIC FINANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

THE legislation relating to the custody, administration, and audit of the public moneys and securities is contained in the Public Revenues Act, 1910, and amending Acts. All public moneys, excepting those payable to or received by the Post Office, the Government Insurance Office, the Public Trust Office, the Commissioners of the Public Debt Sinking Funds, the State Advances Office, the State Fire Insurance Office, and the deposits under the New Zealand Consols Act, are paid into one account at the bank called the “Public Account,” and are carried to one or other of the following accounts or funds in the books of the Treasury:—

  1. The Consolidated Fund.

  2. The Public Works Fund.

  3. Separate accounts or funds specially created.

The main Consolidated Fund Account records the ordinary public revenue and expenditure. There are certain subsidiary accounts to this fund which come under the third head in the above category. The Public Works Fund Account contains receipts from loans or transfers from the Consolidated Fund and the expenditure on public works, immigration, or special services legally chargeable to that account.

The financial year commences on the 1st day of April and ends on the 31st day of March. The revenue of any financial year is the money received into the Public Account at the bank at Wellington within the year; the expenditure is the money paid at the Treasury within the year, and the money paid by imprestees of which accounts are received at the Treasury within the year. Imprests not accounted for at the end of a financial year are included in the accounts of the following year.

At the end of each financial year the Appropriation Acts lapse, but the Minister of Finance is authorized for a period of three months from the commencement of the next financial year to pay money in respect of any service, provided that the amount does not exceed the unexpended balance voted for that purpose in the previous year, together with an amount equal to one-fourth of such vote.

The usual practice is for Parliament to meet at the end of June in each year, and vote supplies from month to month until the estimated expenditure for the year has been approved and the annual Appropriation Act is passed.

AUDIT OF EXPENDITURE.

In the audit of expenditure both the pre-audit and post-audit systems are in operation. Pre-audit is applied to vouchers in respect of payments on account of salaries of new appointees, temporary officers, and officers claiming more than one month's salary at any time; interest, loan transactions, and return of deposits; on account of unauthorized expenditure; or chargeable against the accounts of local bodies. Post-audit is applied to all other payments.

Vouchers must be certified as correct by the proper officer, and forwarded by him to the Head of his Department for approval. Vouchers subject to pre-audit are then forwarded to the Audit Office, and on being found correct are sent on to the Treasury to be entered on requisitions for payment. Vouchers subject to post-audit are transmitted by the Head of the Department direct to the Treasury. Payment is made by the Treasury, and the claim is afterwards submitted for audit.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.

The total revenue and expenditure of the Consolidated Fund Account for the financial years ended the 31st March, 1912 to 1921, is shown in the following table, together with the excess of revenue for each year and the amount of such excess transferred to the Public Works Fund in the succeeding year:—

Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.Excess of
Revenue over
Expenditure.
Amount of Excess
transferred
to the Public
Works Fund.
 £       £       £      £      
191211,061,16110,340,368720,793500,000
191311,734,27111,082,038652,233750,000
191412,229,66111,825,864403,797675,000
191512,451,94512,379,80372,142350,000
191614,507,53012,493,1072,014,423..     
191718,355,19414,058,7704,296,424..     
191820,206,22215,120,2885,085,934..     
191922,352,37218,673,5993,678,773..     
192026,081,34023,781,5242,299,816..     
192134,260,96128,068,7306,192,231500,000
         Totals, ten years183,240,657157,824,09125,416,5662,775,000

To the amount of excess revenue for the ten years must be added the sum of £586,483 brought forward from the financial year ended the 31st March, 1911, and an amount of £14,960, representing sinking funds set free (£2,607 in 1915-16 and £12,353 in 1916-17), making a total of £26,018,009. From this excess transfers to other funds have been made at various times, and to ascertain the balance carried forward as at the 1st April, 1921, deductions require to be made for these amounts—namely, £2,775,000 to the Public Works Fund during the ten years above, £11,800 for redemption of debentures (£11,400 in 1913-14 and £400 in 1919-20), £60,000 advances to the Southland Electric-power Board in 1920-21, £1,200,000 to the London Reserve Fund in 1920-21, and £13,380,000 transferred to the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account in the same year—a total of £17,426,800. Deducting this total from the sum of £26,018,009 referred to, there remains a balance of £8,591,209, which has been carried forward to the current year's account.

The total amount of excess revenue transferred to the Public Works Fund during the thirty financial years ended the 31st March, 1921, was £10,805,000.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—REVENUE.

An analysis of the revenue received during each of the past ten financial years is made in the next table.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—REVENUE, 1911-12 TO 1920-21.
Year ended
31st March.
Revenue derived fromTotal
Revenue.
Taxation.Services.Crown Lands.Other Sources.
 £       £       £      £      £       
19125,296,5904,987,088311,156466,32711,061,161
19135,606,8295,379,966313,923433,55311,734,271
19145,918,0345,551,913262,846496,86812,229,661
19155,880,8115,706,929318,393545,81212,451,945
19167,266,9666,423,452311,969505,14314,507,530
191710,549,6546,885,422301,758618,36018,355,194
191812,340,8536,729,524306,136829,70920,206,222
191913,801,6437,180,258311,5581,058,91322,352,372
192016,251,7698,034,644331,5971,463,33026,081,340
192122,184,4149,687,978319,6412,068,92834,260,961
Totals, ten years105,097,56366,567,1743,088,9778,486,943183,240,657

Revenue under the head of “Taxation” includes Customs and excise duties, land-tax, income-tax, death duties, a tax on bank-note issue, totalizator-tax, and amusements-tax. Revenue from “Services” consists of Railway, Post, Telegraph, and Telephone receipts, and certain fees paid in return for special services. Revenue from “Crown Lands” includes proceeds of sales for 1911-12 and 1912-13, but not for subsequent years. The other items in Crown-lands revenue are rents and national-endowment net revenue. The amounts shown under “Other Sources” include miscellaneous revenue and sundry amounts recovered in respect of expenditure of previous years.

During and since the war period the total revenue shows in each year very large increases, and this feature is particularly apparent in the period immediately following the war. These increases are due in part to increases in taxation levied, as set out in the next subsection, but 50 per cent. of the increase in 1920-21, as compared with 1919-20, is due to the great increase in the total value of imports. A further reason is found in the increased charges for certain services to the public, notably railway fares and post and telegraph charges. The increased revenue from these sources has, however, been comparatively small, and has in no way kept pace with the heavily increased expenditure due to payments on increased salaries and wages of employees and working-expenses, costs of maintenance, and other additional charges.

The total revenue per head of population, and the amounts per head derived from taxation and from other sources, during the past ten years are shown in the following table:—

REVENUE PER HEAD OF POPULATION, 1911-12 TO 1920-21.
Year ended
31st March.
Revenue per Head derived fromTotal Revenue
per Head.
Taxation.Other Sources.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
191253105131101611
191357251711143
1914510051741174
19155756001175
1916612161171338
191791111720161311
191811397271864
1919127271322004
1920140989922106
192118901001028910

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—EXPENDITURE.

Expenditure out of the Consolidated Fund is grouped under two main headings by the Treasury, “Permanent” and “Annual.” Permanent appropriations, as the name implies, are those fixed by special Acts of the Legislature. Annual appropriations are voted each year by resolution of Parliament, and include the cost of the business undertakings of the State. In the following table this grouping has not been adopted, as it is considered more desirable to show the growth of the main items of expenditure during the last ten financial years:—

Year ended
31st March.
Amount expended onTotal
Expenditure.
Working
Railways.
Post and
Telegraph.
Education.Interest, &c., on
Public Debt.
Other
Expenses.
 £       £       £       £       £       £       
19122,467,718986,5271,072,9922,656,3443,156,78710,340,368
19132,817,1411,066,9221,148,8972,717,0133,332,06511,082,038
19143,004,1811,170,8831,206,6782,887,9813,556,14111,825,864
19152,881,0871,245,2241,288,7953,071,4483,893,24912,379,803
19162,964,0061,294,7121,441,3983,190,7983,602,19312,493,107
19172,871,9771,368,4901,525,1064,032,8854,260,31214,058,770
19183,067,6581,487,1451,640,9884,430,7794,493,71815,120,288
19193,415,5951,699,7011,737,0366,086,7695,734,49818,673,599
19204,305,9651,941,4942,190,5877,249,4268,094,05223,781,524
19216,211,0112,588,3602,633,9777,831,5938,803,78928,068,730

The charges of the public debt are found to have absorbed 24.02 per cent. of the revenue in 1911-12 and 22.86 per cent. in 1920-21.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE, 1920-21.

The total receipts of the Consolidated Fund for the financial year 1920-21, including a balance of £17,538,977 brought forward from the previous year, were £51,799,938, and the total expenditure for the same period was £43,208,729 (inclusive of £15,080,000 transferred to other accounts and £60,000 advances made to the Southland Electric-power Board), leaving a balance of £8,591,209 to carry forward.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—RECEIPTS, 1920-21.
From taxation—£       £       
       Customs revenue8,408,726 
       Excise duty360,525
       Land-tax1,688,979
       Income-tax8,248,945
       Death duties1,106,925
       Bank composition236,712
       Totalizator revenue497,961
       Amusements-tax79,921
       Other taxation (duty on instruments, &c.)1,555,720
 22,184,414
From services—
       Railways6,918,492 
       Postal1,253,513
       Telegraph691,484
       Telephone533,535
       Other services290,954
 9,687,978
Land revenue—
       Crown lands rents, royalties, &c.219,193 
       Net revenue from national-endowment lands100,448
 319,641
Miscellaneous2,068,228
                              Total£34,260,261

Taxation represented 64.75 per cent. of the total revenue for the year 1920-21, and services contributed 28.28 per cent. For the last financial year preceding the war (1913-14) the proportions were 48.39 per cent. and 45.40 per cent. respectively.

The amount shown as net revenue from national-endowment lands represents the money received from that source during the previous financial year. The method adopted is to place the amount received under this head each year to a separate account, and, after deducting necessary expenses, to transfer the balance to the Consolidated Fund Account. Of this balance 70 per cent. is expended on education and 30 per cent. on old-age pensions.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—EXPENDITURE, 1920-21.
 £       £       
Charges of the public debt (excluding interest and sinking-fund charges paid out of separate accounts)..     7,831,593
Pensions and allowances—
       Old-age pensions729,924 
Widows' pensions187,101
Military pensions1,925,862
Miners' pensions24,459
Civil pensions and allowances34,849
Civil Service, Railway, and Teachers' Superannuation Funds154,000
 3,056,195
Payment to local bodies—
       Subsidies189,194 
       Endowments revenue27,487
       Under the Land ActCr. 13,100
       Other payments528
 204,109
Public instruction—
       Education Department93,553 
       Elementary education1,630,351
       Secondary and higher education255,918
       Technical instruction96,708
       Training of teachers114,138
       Native schools59,905
       School buildings169,528
       School medical, dental, and physical services25,218
       Education of blindCr.      146
       School for the deaf5,504
       Schools for the feeble-minded15,002
       Child-welfare84,982
       Material and stores13,003
       National-endowment revenue not included above70,313
 2,633,977
Judicial and legal—
       Administration of justice185,660 
       Police403,321
       Prisons88,509
 677,490
Railways working-expenses6,211,001
Postal and Telegraph services2,588,880
Defence (including naval defence)582,618
Other expenditure—
       Departmental4,270,810 
       Miscellaneous12,057
 4,282,867
                              Total£28,068,730

A comparison of the revenue of the Consolidated Fund for the year 1920-21 with that of the previous year, together with the percentage which each item bears to the totals, and the increase or decrease, as the case may be, is given in the table following:—

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—REVENUE FOR 1920-21 COMPARED WITH 1919-20.
Head of Revenue.Revenue of Consolidated Fund.Increase for 1920-21.
1919-20.Per Cent.
of Total.
1920-21.Per Cent.
of Total.
Numerical.Per Cent.
* Decrease.
Taxation—£        £        £        
    Customs and excise5,185,72819.888,769,25125.603,583,52369.10
    Land1,557,9035.981,688,9794.93131,0768.41
    Income6,369,76524.428,248,94524.081,879,18029.50
    Death duties978,0953.751,106,9253.23128,83013.17
    Other taxes2,160,2788.282,370,3146.92210,0369.72
Services—
    Railways5,766,01522.116,918,49220.191,152,47719.99
    Postal1,013,0263.891,253,5133.66240,48723.74
    Telegraph604,2212.32691,4842.0287,26314.44
    Telephone419,3181.61533,5351.56114,21727.24
    Other services232,0640.9290,9540.8558,89025.38
Land revenue331,5971.26319,6410.93−11,956*−36.06*
Miscellaneous1,463,3305.612,068,2286.03604,89841.34
              Totals26,081,340100.0034,260,261100.008,178,92131.36

The expenditure of the Consolidated Fund Account for the last two financial years is presented in the next table in similar form to the above.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—EXPENDITURE FOR 1920-21 COMPARED WITH 1919-20.
Head of Expenditure.Expenditure of Consolidated Fund.Increase for 1920-21.
1919-20.Per Cent.
of Total.
1920-21.Per Cent.
of Total.
Numerical.Per Cent.
* Decrease.
 £        £        £        
Charges of the public debt7,249,42630.487,831,59327.90582,1678.03
Pensions and allowances2,930,28712.323,056,19510.89125,9084.30
Payment to local bodies247,0451.04204,1090.73−42,936*−17.38*
Public instruction2,190,5879.212,633,9779.38443,39020.24
Judicial and legal537,7692.27677,4902.41139,72125.98
Railways working - expenses4,305,96518.116,211,00122.131,905,03644.24
Postal and Telegraph services1,941,4948.162,588,8809.22647,38633.34
Defence (including naval)528,5692.22582,6182.0854,04910.23
Other expenditure3,850,38216.194,282,86715.26432,48511.23
               Totals23,781,524100.0028,068,730100.004,287,20618.03

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.

Included in the figures dealt with under the head of “Public Works Fund” is the Public Works Fund properly so called, and the separate subsidiary accounts relating to the Railway Improvement Act, 1914, Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement, and electric supply. The receipts consist mainly of the proceeds of loans raised for the construction of public works. From time to time the fund has been aided by substantial transfers of surplus revenue from the Consolidated Fund Account. The receipts for the last ten years are shown in the next table.

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.—RECEIPTS, 1911-12 TO 1920-21.
Year ended
31st March.
Amounts received.Recoveries on
account of
Expenditure of
Previous Years.
Receipts
from Other
Sources.
Total
Receipts.
From Loans.Transfers
from
Consolidated
Fund.
Receipts from
Sales of
Electric
Energy.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      
1912737,640500,000..   10,5308,2861,256,456
19132,420,685750,000..   9,751120,2933,300,729
19142,763,884675,000..   9,05130,8163,478,751
19151,857,742350,000..   13,4553,2942,224,491
19163,166,830..   ..   6,46013,8643,187,154
19171,095,000..   ..   5,7125,1251,105,837
19181,025,100..   16,41543,4926,1881,091,195
19191,180,000..   35,06320,1765,4411,240,680
19202,082,000..   42,761112,8645,7642,243,389
19214,433,000500,00052,89619,6276,6335,012,156

The principal regular item under the heading of “Receipts from Other Sources” is receipts under sections 17 and 18 of the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 1910, which includes payments from the Consolidated Fund, payments from gold-mining companies, and an allotment from gold duty in fixed proportions but varying amounts, together with interest on securities. Another standing item covers receipts in connection with the Ellesmere and Forsyth reclamation; and, commencing with 1917-18, there have been miscellaneous receipts (other than from sales) under section 8 of the State Supply of Electrical Energy Act, 1917. Included in the figures for 1912-13 is the sum of £25,000, which was formerly held in the Deposit Account, for the purchase of permanent-way material; also £86,970, receipts under section 16 of the Reserves and other Lands Disposal and Public Bodies Empowering Act, 1912. This column for 1913-14 includes a further amount of £21,890, receipts under the Act mentioned.

In addition to the amounts shown above, the sum of £7,530,000 was transferred during the years 1891-92 to 1910-11 from the Consolidated Fund Account to the Public Works Fund. The next table shows the expenditure at intervals of five years from 1884-85 to 1909-10 and for each of the last ten financial years upon services which are charged to the fund. As will be seen further on, the whole of what may be termed public works are not included in this account.

EXPENDITURE ON SERVICES PROVIDED FOR BY THE PUBLIC WORKS FUND.
Year ended
31st March.
Immigration.Railways.Roads.Development
of Mining.
Telegraph
Extension.
Public
Buildings.
Light-houses, &c.Other
Services.
Total.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      £      £      £      
188557,148663,063317,0438,02925,799117,6134,033114,2511,336,727
1890867289,57284,12628416,34635,4739,43446,362482,464
1895101247,545164,8335,86519,22954,1903,1459,578504,486
1900385417,937285,53221,81526,771115,4279,026116,330993,223
19056,482811,994230,0126,25879,298116,6785,90097,4461,354,158
191017,0021,279,807367,23018,598123,422276,94916,683116,7062,216,397
191211,6811,178,969430,64721,245147,692349,65512,576187,9152,340,380
191314,6941,179,554376,07810,644251,375445,14216,785254,6462,548,918
191433,9141,144,756382,0974,889392,648369,6009,059423,8352,760,798
191533,2191,156,073514,7982,384288,395417,00017,131308,3642,737,364
191610,0101,205,287424,6376,602249,554335,77413,673337,6752,583,212
19176,533846,983219,7944,592203,311251,4313,768239,1011,775,513
19183,856607,931135,64227213,955229,2882,976208,1621,401,837
1919Cr. 12,018467,737226,073518198,611235,8465,392265,5021,387,661
1920Cr. 62,561842,082388,5621,173249,379469,1953,498341,4852,232,815
1921Cr.   7,8061,428,982538,5742,153336,468502,2114,838852,8203,658,240

The receipts and expenditure of the fund during the financial year ended 31st March, 1921, were as under:—

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE, 1920-21.
 £      £      
Receipt.
Balance, 31st March, 1920..   250,063
Transfer from the Consolidated Fund..   500,000
Inscribed stock issued under the Finance Act, 1919600,000 
Debentures issued under the Finance Act, 1918200,000
Debentures issued under the Finance Act, 1919150,000
Debentures issued under the Finance Act, 19201,940,000
Inscribed stock issued under the Railways Improvement Authorization Act, 191412,490
Debentures issued under the Railways Improvement Authorization Act, 191435,000
Debentures issued under the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 191020,000
Debentures issued under the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 1910, and Finance Act, 191968,000
Debentures issued under the Aid to Water-power Works Act, 191020,000
Bonds issued under the Electric-power Works Loan Act, 191956,500
Inscribed stock issued under the Electric-power Works Loan Act, 19191,331,010
 4,433,000
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years19,627 
Receipts in connection with the Ellesmere and Forsyth Reclamation and Akaroa Railway Trust Account1,557
Receipts under the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 19103,661
Sales of electric energy52,896
Miscellaneous receipts under the State Supply of Electrical Energy Act, 19171,415
 79,156
                                 Total£5,262,219
Expenditure.
Railways1,428,983 
Roads538,574
Public buildings502,211
Telegraph extension336,468
Contingent defence8,701
ImmigrationCr.   7,806
Development of mining2,153
Lighthouses, harbour-works, and harbour-defences4,838
Tourist and health resorts19,041
Land improvement2,063
Development of water-power383,650
Irrigation and water-supply55,345
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement70,173
Plant, material, and stores169,911
Departmental143,055
Services not provided for554
Charges of raising loans326
 3,658,240
Balance, 31st March. 19211,603,979
                                 Total£5,262,219

The expenditure on roads out of the Public Works Fund does not comprise all of the moneys spent under that head by the General Government. Between 1896-97 and 1910-11 the sum of £469,236 was expended on construction of roads to open up Crown lands out of the moneys raised for loans to local bodies, and further sums have been spent from time to time for this purpose and for the opening-up of national-endowment lands out of the Land for Settlements and National Endowment Accounts respectively. Since 1910-11 this further expenditure, including £6,787 out of the National Endowment Account in 1916-17, has amounted to £565,030.

The roading of lands purchased for closer settlement is made a charge upon the Land for Settlements Account, and is included in the value upon which the rentals of those lands are based. The reclamation by drainage and opening up by means of roads of an area of the Hauraki Plains is provided for out of moneys borrowed for that purpose and shown in a separate account.

SEPARATE SUBSIDIARY ACCOUNTS OR FUNDS.

The accounts included under this heading in some cases comprise revenue of different kinds mixed up with loan-money, while others are merely records of transactions which of their nature cannot be considered as properly belonging to the Public Account. Among the former may be counted the State Forests and State Coalmines Accounts, and among the latter the accounts of local bodies, which consist of revenue collected on behalf of and paid over to local authorities, and the Deposit Accounts, consisting partly of moneys held in trust and partly of moneys held in suspense for various reasons. As further indicating the function of these special accounts one or two of more recent creation may be mentioned: the War Expenses Account, which was called into existence by the war; the Waimarino Bush-fire Relief Account, which was created in 1918 for the purpose of providing funds for the relief of settlers who suffered loss through the disastrous bush-fires in the vicinity of Raetibi; the Education Loans Account, originated in 1919 for the purpose of raising money for acquisition of land and construction of buildings for educational purposes; and the Fishing Industry Promotion Account of the same year, making provision for assistance to the fishing industry by means of advances not exceeding £5,000.

While in some instances transactions in the accounts have been on a fairly large scale, yet from the nature of the subject it will readily be seen that most of the receipts and expenditure have been directly concerned with the special matters which were the objects of the creation of the separate funds. In the two tables following a summary is given of the receipts and expenditure of each separate account, together with the balances at the beginning and end of the financial year respectively. In order that the summary may the more completely indicate the main transactions of the whole of the public moneys, the main totals of the Consolidated and Public Works Funds, which have been treated earlier in this section, have also been included.

RECEIPTS OF SEPARATE ACCOUNTS.

Receipts classified according to the source of revenue are shown in the table immediately following. Included in “Other Sources” are transfers and advances from the surplus of the Consolidated Fund.

SEPARATE ACCOUNTS.—BALANCE AT 31ST MARCH, 1920, AND RECEIPTS DURING YEAR 1920-21.
Account.Balance,
31st March,
1920.
Receipts fromTotal.
Loans.Rents, Interests,
and Repayments.
Other
Sources.
 £       £       £       £       £       
Consolidated Fund (proper)17,538,976..   ..   34,260,96251,799,938
State Forests5,51770,00019,697..   95,214
State Coal-mines63,090..   1,440273,163337,693
Scenery Preservation4,944..   1,782..   6,726
Nauru and Ocean Islands..   600,00044115,619616,060
Local Bodies'8,741..   10,31831,83950,898
Deposit3,209,617270,000..   25,316,33428,795,951
Public Works Fund (proper)219,5022,890,000..   521,1843,630,686
Railways Improvement Authorization Act 191422,79447,490..   ..   70,284
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement6,26388,000..   3,66197,924
Electric Supply1,5041,407,510754,3041,463,325
Cheviot Estate146,812..   5,38218,517170,711
Land for Settlements156,66810,000424,170371,879962,717
Land for Settlements (Discharged Soldiers Settlement)318,5961,108,05084,89683,7651,595,307
Land for Settlements (Opening up Crown Lands for Settlement)22,377..   ..   32,55854,935
Native Land Settlement22,869225,00038,762209,255495,886
National Endowment100,448..   115,935..   216,383
National Endowment Trust..   ..   ..   1010
Hauraki Plains Settlement2,33354,00013,13920,59290,064
Rangitaiki Land Drainage50,75430,000..   9,57290,326
Workers' Dwellings77,100..   ..   ..   77,100
Mining Advances4,17810,000..   ..   14,178
Conversion6,905..   ..   ..   6,905
Loans Redemption10025..   ..   125
New Zealand Consols475,992..   ..   ..   475,992
Waimarino Bush-fire Relief23,592..   21,620..   45,212
War Expenses4,533,7281,449,545..   615,8396,599,112
Kauri-gum Industry16,322..   31439,23255,868
Fruit-preserving Industry Advances384..   4,398..   4,728
Discharged Soldiers Settlement975,2548,560,5541,208,4991,334,05412,078,361
Discharged Soldiers Settlement Loans Act 1920 Depreciation Fund..   ..   ..   50,00050,000
Cold-storage Advances10,550..   27,211..   37,761
Swamp Land Drainage1,72355,000..   ..   56,723
Reserve Fund800,000..   ..   1,200,0002,000,000
Bank of New Zealand (shares)875,000..   ..   ..   875,000
Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings..   3,150..   ..   3,150
Fishing Industry Promotion..   1,490..   ..   1,490
Education Loans..   270,000..   ..   270,000
Silver and Bronze Coin16,665..   ..   74017,405
                 Totals29,719,29817,149,8141,978,01164,463,079113,310,202

EXPENDITURE OF SEPARATE ACCOUNTS.

The table next presented shows the expenditure from each separate account. The balance at the end of the financial year is also given, the amount held in cash and in investments being distinguished.

SEPARATE ACCOUNTS.—EXPENDITURE DURING YEAR 1920-21, AND BALANCE AS AT 31ST MARCH, 1921.
Account.Expenditure.Balance, 31st March, 1921.Total.
Recoupment
of Interest
to the
Consolidated
Fund.
Other
Directions.
In Cash.In
Investments.
 £      £       £       £       £       
Consolidated Fund (proper)..   43,208,7295,737,7192,853,49051,799,938
State Forests6,12679,5519,537..   95,214
State Coal-mines9,102280,29818,29330,000337,693
Scenery Preservation..   3,8252,901..   6,726
Nauru and Ocean Islands11,392576,49618,17210,000616,060
Local Bodies'..   43,0197,879..   50,898
Deposit..   26,700,410834,5661,260,97528,795,951
Public Works Fund (proper)..   3,141,197489,489..   3,630,686
Railways Improvement Authorization Act 1914..   63,0787,206..   70,284
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement7,73662,43727,751..   97,924
Electric Supply27,199356,59378,7731,000,7601,463,325
Cheviot Estate8,8661,1333,582157,130170,711
Land for Settlements341,859247,102104,506269,250962,717
Land for Settlements (Discharged Soldiers Settlement)112,7051,309,45638,146135,0001,595,307
Land for Settlements (Opening up Crown Lands for Settlement)7,98128,91918,035..   54,935
Native Land Settlement95,914309,27990,693..   495,886
National Endowment..   113,90234,68167,800216,383
National Endowment Trust..   ..   10..   10
Hauraki Plains Settlement8,05472,6329,378..   90,064
Rangitaiki Land Drainage19,06566,4394,822..   90,326
Workers' Dwellings..   25,000..   52,10077,100
Mining Advances95311,5291,696..   14,178
Conversion..   6386,267..   6,905
Loans Redemption..   ..   125..   125
New Zealand Consols..   ..   7475,985475,992
Waimarino Bush-fire Relief3,0007331,77939,70045,212
War Expenses..   3,174,8291,768,7831,655,5006,599,112
Kauri-gum Industry2,12046,3307,418..   55,868
Fruit-preserving Industry Advances..   2,4002,382..   4,782
Discharged Soldiers Settlement478,6988,121,209759,4542,719,00012,078,361
Discharged Soldiers Settlement Loans Act 1920 Depreciation Fund..   ..   ..   50,00050,000
Cold-storage Advances7,4427,5002,81920,00037,761
Swamp Land Drainage..   27,66629,057..   56,723
Reserve Fund..   ..   ..   2,000,0002,000,000
Bank of New Zealand (shares)..   ..   ..   875,000875,000
Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings..   3,150..   ..   3,150
Fishing Industry Promotion..   1,39496..   1,490
Education Loans..   214,57155,429..   270,000
Silver and Bronze Coin..   ..   17,405..   17,405
                 Totals1,148,21288,301,44410,188,85613,671,690113,310,202

Summarizing the foregoing the position may be given thus:—

 £       
Receipts.
Balance, 31st March, 192029,719,298
From loans17,149,814
From rents, interest, and repayment of advances1,978,011
Other sources64,463,079
               Total£113,310,202
Expenditure.
Recoupment of interest to the Consolidated Fund1,148,212
In other directions88,301,444
Balance, 31st March, 1921—
   Cash£10,188,856
   Investments13,671,690
 23,860,546
               Total£113,310,202

It will be understood that in adding together the figures of the various accounts a certain amount of money is counted twice, as for instance money transferred from the Consolidated Fund to the Public Works Fund and expended out of the latter.

The State Advances Account, which is administered directly by the Advances Board, is not included in the above statement, and only the balances of the Loans Redemption Account have been utilized. In addition there are the funds of the Government Life Insurance Department, the State Fire Insurance Department, and the Public Trust Office, which are administered by the Departments concerned. Reference to the working of these Departments will be found elsewhere in this book.

SUBSECTION B.—TAXATION.

TOTAL TAXATION.

ALL revenue collected by means of taxation is applied to general purposes. Customs duties on imported goods, and excise duties on beer and a few minor items, constitute the indirect taxation; while land and income taxes, death duties, a tax on bank-note issues, duty on cheques and receipts for payments, a tax on totalizator investments, and an amusements-tax are the main sources of revenue by direct taxation.

Particulars of the collections during the past ten years, under the main headings, are shown in the following table:—

Year ended
31st March.
Amount of Taxation derived fromTotal.
Customs and
Excise Duties.
Land-tax.Income-tax.Death
Duties.
Other
Taxes.
 £       £       £       £       £       £       
19123,398,143647,015448,935361,186441,3115,296,590
19133,531,761728,636462,994458,265425,1735,606,829
19143,553,785767,451554,271613,751428,7765,918,034
19153,294,943799,641540,318796,232449,6775,880,811
19163,524,0631,048,3561,392,119610,350692,0787,266,966
19174,037,628713,1184,262,126570,040966,74210,549,654
19183,601,3831,385,7085,619,561805,511928,69012,340,853
19194,104,0161,512,6936,219,336869,3711,096,22713,801,643
19205,185,7281,557,9036,369,765978,0952,160,27816,251,769
19218,769,2511,688,9798,248,9451,106,9252,370,31422,184,414

The percentage under each heading to the total amount collected for each year is as under:—

Year ended
31st March.
Proportion per Cent. derived from
Customs and
Excise Duties.
Land-tax.Income-tax.Death
Duties.
Other
Direct
Taxes.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
191264.1612.218.486.828.33
191362.9913.008.268.177.58
191460.0512.979.3710.377.24
191656.0313.609.1913.547.64
191648.4914.4319.168.409.52
191738.276.7640.405.409.17
191829.1811.2345.546.537.52
191929.7410.9645.066.307.94
192031.919.5939.196.0213.29
192139.537.6137.184.9910.69

Some remarkable alterations in percentages are noticed during the last few years, these being due to war and post-war conditions and to consequential alterations in the relative incidence of taxation.

TAXATION PER HEAD.

The revenue from taxation per head of mean population during the past ten years is shown in the next table:—

Year ended
31st March.
Including
Maoris.
Excluding
Maoris.
 £s.d.£s.d.
191241905310
1913523572
19145525100
1915529575
19166646121
191793791111
1918101411139
1919111711278
1920131111429
1921171441890

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION.

During the year ended 31st March, 1921, the sum of £8,408,726 was collected, after deduction of drawbacks, for duty on imported goods, and £360,525 for excise duties, a total of £8,769,251. The amount of revenue derived from these sources for each of the past ten years is shown below.

Year ended
31st March.
Customs
Duties.
Excise
Duties.
Total.
 £       £       £       
19123,279,012119,1313,398,143
19133,407,538124,2233,531,761
19143,426,744127,0413,553,785
19153,167,283127,6603,294,943
19163,366,171157,8923,524,063
19173,849,675187,9534,037,628
19183,364,308237,0753,601,383
19193,830,682273,3344,014,016
19204,787,483397,9055,185,388
19218,408,726360,5258,769,251

The revenue from Customs and excise duties in 1910-11 was £3,145,929, and the increase for the ten years is therefore about 178 per cent. It is, however, during the last two years that the major increase has taken place, the figures for 1920-21 being approximately 113 per cent. above that for 1918-19. The big increase in Customs revenue for 1920-21 is the direct outcome of the large importations resulting from the fulfilment of delayed orders of a very considerable quantity and value. In the ten calendar years corresponding to the above period the value of imports (excluding specie) increased from £16,748,223 to £61,553,853, or approximately 267 per cent. Taking the two years 1918 and 1920, the increase is close on 155 per cent.

Generally speaking, in spite of slight increases in Customs and excise duties as part of the war taxation, the average rate of duty has not increased greatly during the ten years. The increase in the total duties collected is thus almost entirely due to the increased prosperity of the country as reflected by its trade.

For a fuller discussion of Customs taxation than can be given here the reader is referred to the section of this book dealing with External Trade.

LAND AND INCOME TAX.

Except in regard to minor details, the system of land and income taxation in force in 1915 had remained unaltered for many years. Probably the only noteworthy point was the gradual hardening-up of the graduated land-tax, designed to prevent aggregation of land and to compel the cutting-up of large estates rather than to secure additional revenue.

The war taxation of 1915, however, not only included increased, rates of 33 1/3 per cent. in the case of income-tax, 1/4d. in the pound in the case of land-tax payable on mortgages, and 50 per cent. in the case of graduated land-tax, but also involved an important change of principle. Among the incomes formerly exempt from income-tax were those derived directly from land, but income-tax is now payable on such incomes, including those derived from mortgages of land. In the case of mortgages, however, the income-tax is reduced by such amount as has been paid for land-tax, provided such amount does not exceed the total amount of income-tax.

With the exception_ of the abolition of the land-tax on mortgages and the substitution of an income-tax in its place, the principles of land-tax assessment were not altered in 1916, nor were the rates increased, but an entirely new scheme known as the excess-profits tax was brought into operation in respect of income-tax, the 1915 system remaining also; with increased rates, for ordinary income-tax. The excess-profits tax being found inequitable and otherwise unsatisfactory, a system of progressive land and income tax, with a special war tax on incomes, was adopted in 1917.

In 1920 a complete revision of the rates of taxation was made. The new rates, which are referred to in detail below, are effective on assessments for the year commencing on the 1st April, 1921, and for following years. A feature of the new legislation was the introduction of a deduction from the amount of tax payable of 10 per cent. in respect of tax assessed on “earned income.”

As a result of financial stringency prevailing at the time, and with a view to stimulate promptitude in payment and to lighten the burden of land-tax as much as possible, a rebate of 10 per cent. was allowed off land-tax charged on land held on the 31st March, 1921, if paid within twenty-one days of due date, and a reduction of 5 per cent. was similarly provided for in the case of income-tax.

LAND-TAX.

Land-tax is assessed on the unimproved value of land after deductions provided for by statute have been made by way of special exemption. These exemptions are referred to hereunder.

The basis of taxation prior to 1917 was a double system of ordinary and graduated tax. For some years the ordinary rate had been 1d. for each pound of unimproved value, while the graduated tax ranged at a varying rate from 1/32d. to 5 5/6d. in the pound, according as to whether the value of the land was from £5,000 to £200,000 or more. This system of taxation was abolished in 1917, and in its place was instituted a single progressive tax.

As the amended law operated for the four financial years 1917-18 to 1920-21, the scale of taxation ranged from 1d. to 7d. in the pound. The 1d. rate applied in cases where the unimproved value on which tax was payable did not exceed £1,000, and the rate was increased by 1/3200 of a penny for every pound in excess of £1,000 up to a maximum of 7d. These rates, however, proved to be merely nominal, as for the four years concerned a super-tax of 50 per cent. virtually increased the rates from a minimum of 1 1/2d. to a maximum of 10 1/2d. in the pound A further 50-per-ccnt. increase on the total amount assessed is imposed in the case of absentees, including shareholders in companies, but not in the case of companies themselves.

Further alteration in the rate of land-tax was made by the Legislature in 1920, and is effective as far as assessments after the 1st April, 1921, are concerned. The scale of taxation of land the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,000 remains as before at the rate of a penny in the pound, but the rate thereafter is increased by 1/20000 of a penny for every pound in excess of £1,000 up to a maximum of 7 1/2 7/0d. The super-tax is continued, but at a reduced rate of 33 1/3 per cent. After the 1st April, 1921, it is provided that in the case of unimproved land in which there are not improvements either to the value of £1 per acre or equal to one-third of the unimproved value the rate of land-tax shall be 50 per cent. more than the rate fixed by the annual taxing Act for other land.

The special exemptions deductible from the unimproved value for the purpose of arriving at the assessable amount have not recently been materially altered. As the law has operated since the 1st April, 1917, an owner of land the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,000 is allowed an exemption of £500, and where the unimproved value lies between £1,500 and £2,500 there is a similar exemption, diminished, however, by £1 for every £2 over the £1,500 mark, so that no exemption is allowed when £2,500 is reached. Where the land is subject to a registered mortgage an alternative scale is provided. Up to the 1st April, 1921, this was on the basis of £1,500 in cases where the unimproved value did not exceed £3,000, and the amount was diminished by £1 for every £2 above £3,000 where the unimproved value lies between £3,000 and £6,000. For assessments after that date, however, the law provides for an alternative exemption of £4,000 in cases where the unimproved value does not exceed £6,000, and the exemption of £4,000 is to be diminished by £2 for every £1 above the margin of £6,000. When the unimproved value lies between £6,000 and £8,000, where the capital value of the mortgage is less than the amount of deduction provided, such capital value is to be deducted instead. These increased exemptions for mortgages, it will be noted, are but equitable relief for the purchaser who has been compelled to buy at the comparatively high prices ruling during the past few years. After the 1st April, 1923, all special exemptions at present provided for are, in cases where the taxpayer has owned the land for three years or more, to be abolished.

In lieu of the special exemptions set out above, the Commissioner of Taxes has discretionary powers to grant relief in certain specified cases of hardship. Subject to deductions provided, leasees and life tenants are liable to tax, and joint owners are to be assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and also severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and any other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if half of the paid-up capital of one company is held by shareholders who also hold half of the paid-up capital in another company.

The total number of land-tax payers and the amount of revenue during each of the past ten years are as follows:—

LAND-TAX.—NUMBER OF PAYERS AND REVENUE RECEIVED.
Year ended
31st March.
Number of
Payers.
Revenue.
  £      
191235,273647,015
191338,232728,636
191440,889767,451
191544,270799,641
191645,4091,048,356
191735,859713,118
191851,2751,385,708
191953,4841,512,693
192053,8071,557,903
192154,3631,688,978

The fall in the amount of land-tax in 1916-17 was due to the alteration in system referred to above, whereby income derived from mortgages of land now bears income-tax instead of land-tax as formerly. Increases since that date are due principally to the increased value of land in districts revised under the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act, 1908.

INCOME-TAX.

Income-tax is payable on the full incomes of registered companies and of absentees, and in other cases on incomes in excess of £300 per annum. Between £600 and £900 the exemption is reduced by £1 for every £1 above £600, and no exemption at all is allowed for incomes above £900. Certain specified incomes are wholly exempt from taxation, and a further £50 is deductible from assessable income for each child under eighteen years of age. Prior to 1920 this deduction was £25, and the age-limit was sixteen years. Sundry other deductions are also provided for, of which that most generally applicable is a maximum exemption of 15 per cent. allowed for life-insurance premiums, National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions.

For the four financial years 1917-18 to 1920-21 the rates of progressive income-tax ranged from 6d. to 3s. in the case of persons and firms, and from 1s. to 3s. for companies. The 6d. rate for persons and firms applied where the taxable income was not more than £400, and the 1s. rate for companies where the taxable income did not exceed £1.600, the rates being increased by 1/200 of a penny for every additional pound until the maximum tax of 3s. in the pound was reached. Income derived by holders of company debentures from such debentures bore a uniform tax of Is., plus a special war-tax of 1s. 6d.

The special war-tax also applied to assessable income in excess of £300 of all other income-tax payers. For incomes up to £400 the rate of special war-tax was 9d. in the pound, and this was increased by 3/400 of a penny for every additional pound of income, but so as not to exceed 4s. 6d. in the pound. The maximum total rate of income-tax was thus 7s. 6d. in the pound.

New rates of income-tax were, however, enacted in 1920, which affect all assessments made after the 1st April, 1921. A flat rate of 3s. in the pound is levied on income derived from company debentures, and of 2s. 6d. in the pound on income from debentures issued by local bodies in the Dominion. This distinction has been made to enable local authorities to more easily raise loan-moneys which they may require from time to time.

On the income of persons and firms the rate is 1s. in the pound up to a £400 limit of income, and between £400 and £6,000 the tax is increased by 1/100 of a penny for each pound of income in excess of £400. On incomes exceeding £6,000 the rate is 5s. 8d. in the pound, increased by 1/200 of a penny for each pound in excess of £6,000, with a maximum tax of 7s. 4d. in the pound. In addition to the income-tax so calculated there is a super-tax of 20 per cent.

A new principle of taxation was introduced in the 1920 Act with regard to “earned income,” which is defined to mean the salary or wages (including bonuses) received by the taxpayer in relation to his employment, and further includes all income derived by a taxpayer (other than a company or local body) by reason of his personal exertions. The tax on such income is, up to a limit of £2,000, subject to a reduction of 10 per cent.

The powers of the Commissioner with regard to land-tax in the case of companies consisting of substantially the same shareholders now apply equally to income-tax.

A new feature of the land and income taxation laws of the Dominion was the provision in the Finance Act, 1917, for an additional penal tax in cases where the taxpayer had not contributed to the war loan in proportion to his income. The Act made it the duty of every taxpayer whose taxable income for the year ended the 31st March, 1916, exceeded £700 to subscribe to the war loan of 1917-18, on notice being served by the Commissioner of Taxes, an amount equal to three times the amount of land and income tax payable for the year 1916-17. Similar provisions were made in respect of later loans raised, the latest example being in the case of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Loans Act, 1920, when the amount to be subscribed was reduced to the yearly average of the land-tax and income-tax payable for the three years ended 31st March, 1920.

The following table shows the number of income-tax payers and the revenue received for each of the last ten years:—

INCOME-TAX.—NUMBER OF PAYERS AND REVENUE RECEIVED.
Year ended
31st March.
Number of
Payers.
Revenue.
  £      
191212,207448,935
191313,167462,994
191414,277554,271
191513,967540,318
191620,0721,392,119
191730,2304,262,125
191837,9495,619,561
191943,2806,219,336
192044,0846,369,765
192144,5978,248,945

The very striking increases of recent years in this source of taxation are due mainly to the large growth in both number and incomes of taxpayers brought about by the increased value of business, particularly during the year ended 31st March, 1920, on which the taxation for 1921 is based, and in part to the investigation work and closer inspection by the Land and Income Tax Department of taxpayers' returns.

A classification of income-tax payers yields some interesting results. The figures for the financial years 1917-18 and 1920-21 are presented below. It should be noted, however, that the amount of tax assessed does not agree with the actual revenue, by reason of the fact that the latter includes payments on account of arrears due from earlier years.

CLASSIFICATION OF INCOME-TAX PAYERS.
Taxpayer.1917-18.1920-21.
Number of Payers.Tax AssessedNumber of Payers.Tax Assessed
Amount.Per Cent.Amount.Per Cent.
  £         £        
Companies1,9453,107,19654.172,3174,970,64761.86
Traders and manufacturers7,637495,9768.6310,466997,81212.42
Non-resident traders24529,4430.5163749,4070.62
Professional persons2,537134,5822.342,129172,6692.14
Salaried persons8,070116,0652.017,283219,3772.73
Landowners12,5481,480,77525.7811,648779,0469.69
Deceased persons' estates and other trusts2,211209,6743.642,742246,3423.06
Miscellaneous (income from investments, &c.)2,756168,8702.927,375598,9817.48
                   Totals37,9495,742,581100.0044,5978,034,281100.00

DEATH DUTIES.

Estate, gift, and succession duties are generally referred to by the collective title of “death duties.” The incidence of each is dealt with further on in this section. Estate and succession duties are due and payable to the Commissioner of Stamp Duties within six months after the death of the deceased, and gift duties at the time the gift is made.

The revenue received from death duties during each of the past ten years was,—

Year ended
31st March.
Amount.
£
1912361,186
1913458,265
1914613,751
1915796,232
1916610,350
1917570,040
1918805,511
1919869,371
1920978,095
19211,106,925

ESTATE DUTY.

Under the Death Duties Act, 1909. and its amendments, an estate duty is levied upon the final balance of all property in excess of the value of £1,000 which is situated in New Zealand at the time of the death of the owner. In the case of any estate the final balance of which does not exceed £10,000, any interest acquired by the wife of the deceased up to the value of £5.000 is exempt from estate duty, but the rate of duty on the whole estate must be determined before the deduction is made.

Up to 1920 duty was leviable on property in excess of £500, and the scale of duties ranged from 1 per cent. in eases where the net estate was between £500 and £1,000 to a maximum of 5 per cent. for large estates. The amendment made to the scale in 1920 considerably increases the duty payable, and the rates now run from 1 per cent. on estates; not exceeding £2,000 in value to 20 per cent. on estates of more than £100,000. The scale of duties is as follows:—

SCALE OF ESTATE DUTY.
Final Balance of Estate.Rate
per Cent.
      £                    £ 
    1,000 to     2,0001
    2,000 to     3,0002
    3,000 to     4,0003
    4,000 to     6,0004
    6,000 to     8,0005
    8,000 to   10,0006
  10,000 to   15,0007
  15,000 to   20,0008
  20,000 to   25,0009
  25,000 to   30,00010
  30,000 to   35,00011
  35,000 to   40,00012
  40,000 to   45,00013
  45,000 to   50,00014
  50,000 to   60,00015
  60,000 to   70,00016
  70,000 to   80,00017
  80,000 to   90,00018
  90,000 to 100,00019
100,000 and over20

SUCCESSION DUTY.

Succession duty is payable by any person who acquires a beneficial interest in the estate of a deceased person either by will or by intestacy. An exemption from duty is made in favour of charitable trusts, and special provision is made that the wife, lineal descendant, or lineal ancestor of a soldier who has met his death on account of the late war is allowed an additional £5,000 exemption to the amounts shown below.

The rates of duty vary according to the nearness of kin of the beneficiary to the deceased person. The rates shown below were introduced in amending legislation in 1920.

SCALE OF SUCCESSION DUTY.
If Successor isValue of Estate.Rate
per
Cent.
              £ 
WifeUp to 10,000Nil.
10,000 to 20,000  2
Over 20,000  4
HusbandUp to 500Nil.
500 to 1,500  1
1,500 to 2,500  2
Over 2,500  3
Brother or SisterUp to 500Nil.
500 to 20,000  5
Over 20,00010
Child or lineal descendantUp to 1,000Nil.
1,000 to 5,000  1
5,000 to 10,000  2
10,000 to 15,000  3
15,000 to 20,000  3 1/2
Over 20,000  4
Other relative to 4th degreeUp to 500Nil.
500 to 10,000  5
Over 10,00010
Other personsUp to 500Nil.
500 to 20,00010
Over 20,00020

In respect to moneys exceeding £1,000 that may be payable to persons domiciled out of New Zealand there is an additional rate equal to 10 per cent. of the excess over £1,000.

GIFT DUTY.

A gift means any disposition of property which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without full and adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts made at the same time or within twelve months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary, otherwise than by way of a charitable trust, does not exceed the value of £1,000. Where duty is payable the rate is based on the following scale:—

Value of Gift.Rate of Duty.
£1,000 to £5,000  5 per cent.
£5,000 to £10,000  7 1/2 per cent.
Over £10,00010 per cent.

These rates, which wore introduced in 1920, superseded the flat rate then in force of 5 per cent. on all gifts exceeding £1,000 in value.

TOTALIZATOR-TAX.

The Minister of Internal Affairs may grant a certain number of racing, hunt, and trotting clubs licenses to use the totalizator or wagering-machine at meetings held under the control of the club concerned. Licenses are subject to certain restrictions, of which a detailed account is given in Section XXXII of the 1919 issue of this volume. The Government tax on totalizator investments is 2 1/2 per cent. of the gross amount passed through the machine. Prior to the 1st March, 1910, the percentage was 1 1/2.

A tax of 1 per cent. has from the 1st November, 1915, been imposed on the total value of all stakes, and 6d. in the pound or part of a pound on totalizator dividends, in addition to the tax on totalizator investments.

The following table shows for each of the last ten years the number of totalizator licenses issued, the amount of investments by the public, and the amount paid to the Treasury as a percentage of such investments. The amounts shown as “Percentage paid to Treasury” represent the amounts paid in respect of the race meetings held during the year as shown, but do not in all cases coincide with the amount of totalizator revenue received during the financial year, for the reason that the percentage in respect of race meetings held late in March may not be paid to the Treasury until after the end of the financial year.

Financial Year.Number of
Totalizator
licenses issued
for Meetings
held during
Financial Year.
Days.Percentage
paid to
Treasury.
Total Amount
invested by
the Public.
   £      £      
1911-1214226472,1842,887,371
1912-1314826586,0953,600,465
1913-1412623192,2603,690,390
1914-15141255110,7334,429,320
1915-16180285119,3794,775,120
1916-17171279127,3875,095,480
1917-18135205110,8454,433,816
1918-19134201122,1544,886,156
1919-20183302209,3458,373,787
1920-21185299262,75710,510,265

In addition to the amount shown above as percentage paid to the Treasury in 1920-21, the sum of £236,447 was received as dividend duty, £6,199 as tax on stakes, and £6,788 from gate-money, licenses, &c., giving a total revenue from all racing sources of £512,191.

The following figures, taken from successive annual reports of the Inspector of Totalizators and covering the three years during which the system of inspection has been in operation, relate not to the financial year but to the racing year, which ends on the 31st July:—

-—Year ended 31st July.
1919.1920.1921.
* Prior to 1st July, 1921, the unpaid fractions were retained by the club. They are now payable Into the Consolidated Fund.
Number of racing-days236284288
Number of races1,8482,2352,271
 £      £      £      
Amount of stakes383,070502,225610,675
Totalizator investments5,732,4808,792,57010,121,212
Amount paid in dividends5,002,7737,673,4048,834,203
Government taxes—
2 1/2 per cent. on totalizator investments143,312219,814253,030
2 1/2 per cent. on dividends129,001197,841227,688
1 per cent. on stakes3,8315,0226,107
               Totals276,144422,677486,825
7 1/2 per cent. of totalizator investments retained by clubs429,936659,443759,091
Unpaid fractions*27,45842,06847,200

AMUSEMENTS-TAX.

A new form of tax imposed in 1917 is the amusements-tax, payable on payments for admission to entertainments. “Entertainment” is defined as “any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which persons are admitted for payment.” No duty is payable where the charge for admission is not mere than 6d., and provision is made for exemption in certain specified cases, as, for example, meetings held for educational, scientific, patriotic, or philanthropic purposes. The rates of duty are as follows:—

Payment for Admission (exclusive of Amount of Tax).Tax payable.
Exceeding 6d. but not exceeding 2s. 6d.1d.
Exceeding 2s. 6d. but not exceeding 5s.2d.
Exceeding 5s. but not exceeding 7s. 6d.3d.
Exceeding 7s. 6d. but not exceeding 12s. 6d.6d.
Exceeding 12s. 6d.—
       For the first 12s. 6d.12d.
       For every additional 10s. or part of 10s.12d.

Since the operation of the tax the following amounts have been collected:—

Year ended 31st March.Amount collected. £
 £     
191816,093
191939,845
192068,064
192179,921

LOCAL TAXATION.

Local governing authorities have power under various Acts of the Legislature to impose taxes for general or special purposes as set out in another section of this book. The amount of revenue collected for local purposes during ten years is shown below:—

Year ended
31st March.
Local Revenue derived fromTotal.
General Rates.Special and
Separate Rates.
Licenses and
other Taxes.
 £      £      £      £      
19111,118,112474,489108,2341,700,835
19121,156,718521,159113,1061,790,983
19131,252,717546,582169,4681,968,767
19141,359,776645,862181,8962,187,534
19151,484.430655,495185,5692,325,494
19161,607,764747,391187,0652,542,220
19171,695,572838,967185,6112,720,150
19181,791,028883,513192,4822,867,023
19192,028,151911,455199,3663,138,972
19202,106,3971,037,816245,0783,389,291

Of recent years there has been great activity in local enterprise, the necessary funds being provided partly out of general rates, but mainly by borrowing, interest on loans and payments to sinking funds being secured in most cases by special rates. The increase in the amount of general rates collected during the ten years 1909-10 to 1919-20 was £1,047,950, or close on 100 per cent.; special and separate rates increased by £569,956, or 122 per cent.; and total rates by £ 1,617,906, or 106 per cent. Licenses and other taxes show an increase for the ten years of £136,608, or 123 per cent.

A table is given setting out in greater detail the taxation by local authorities during the year ended the 31st March, 1920.

REVENUE FROM LOCAL TAXATION, 1919-20.
Local Bodies.Rates.Licenses.Other
Taxes.
Total.
General.Special and
Separate.
 £      £      £      £      £      
Counties1,115,809183,18018,82631,5761,349,391
Boroughs706,302758,29170,630114,2111,649,434
Town districts35,19726,6995,2792,69269,867
Road districts83,09412,82172482497,463
River districts16,5964,075..   ..   20,671
Land-drainage districts20,6559,956..   ..   30,611
Harbour districts69,221..   ..   ..   69,221
City and suburban drainage districts59,14140,6958307100,151
Tramway districts..   1,177..   ..   1,177
Local railway district..   ..   ..   ..   ..   
Water-supply districts382922..   11,305
               Totals2,106,3971,037,81695,467149,6113,389,291

The figures quoted above are exclusive of wharfage dues, charges, fees, and tolls received by Harbour Boards.

SUBSECTION C.—STATE INDEBTEDNESS.

INTRODUCTORY.

EARLY in the history of the settlement of New Zealand the necessity for financial assistance to open up the forest-clad rugged country was made apparent. In the year 1856 the first Loan Act was passed by the General Assembly, and under that authority £500,000 was raised. In addition to the requirements for necessary initial public works, the opposition to settlement by the Maoris, resulting in active hostilities, compelled considerable borrowing. At the conclusion of the Maori War the work of road and railway construction was mainly carried on under the administration of Provincial Councils, who exercised control over expenditure within their respective districts, the General Government being responsible for undertakings of a national character. Under this system of divided responsibility no general and comprehensive scheme of public works could be carried out.

Up to the end of the year 1870 the General Government had borrowed £4,543,316, while the debt of the Provincial Councils amounted to £3,298,575. In that year the General Government brought forward a public-works and immigration policy, by which it was proposed to raise a loan of ten millions for the construction of main trunk railways, roads, and other public works of importance to the country as a whole, as well as for the promotion of settlement on a largo scale, the expenditure to be spread over a period of ten years. This policy was accepted by the Legislature, and embodied in the Immigration and Public Works Act. 1870. The necessity for local railways and other works soon caused the original proposals to be exceeded, and to a far greater amount than was at first contemplated. Broadly stated, the system of opening up the lands in advance of settlement was adopted the State retaining the ownership and control of facilities for transport and communication.

In 1892 the General Government began the repurchase of lands already alienated. The money required for this purpose has been borrowed, but the rentals obtained by the leasing of the lands are sufficient for the payment of interest and sinking fund on the amount raised. In 1894 the Advances to Settlers Act was passed, authorizing the raising of loans for advances on the security of real estate. This was followed by the Advances to Workers Act in 1906. Provision was also made for local bodies borrowing from the Advances Office, including power to borrow for workers' dwellings. Both interest and sinking funds are derived from special revenues produced by rentals and charges, and are thus not a charge on the Consolidated Fund. Until early in the war period money raised for the use of the State Advances Office formed a comparatively large part of the public indebtedness, amounting at the 31st March, 1914, to approximately 30 per cent. of the total debt.

By far the most rapid increase in the national indebtedness, however, has taken place as a result of activities necessitated by the war. Of the total gross debt of 206 millions of pounds at the 31st March, 1921, no less than 112 millions have been incurred since 1914, including 82 millions attributable to loan-money required for the European War; and this latter amount does not include approximately 9 millions raised by the Government for the settlement of discharged soldiers.

HOW LOANS MAY BE RAISED.

The Minister of Finance may raise loans when authorized by Parliament so to do, by the issue of debentures, or scrip, or stock, in New Zealand or elsewhere at his discretion, and may prescribe the mode and conditions of repayment of loans, the rates of interest (not exceeding the maximum rate fixed by the authorizing Act), and the times and places of payment of principal and interest respectively. Power is given to convert debentures or scrip into consolidated stock, and the Minister may specify the terms of conversion at the time when a loan is raised, or arrange that terms shall be subsequently agreed upon. For the purpose of paying off or renewing at maturity any debenture, scrip, or other security, new debentures or other securities may be issued and disposed of if necessary. Authority also exists for the conversion of loan-money which has not yet matured.

During the war period provision was made for the issue to the public of “Post Office investment certificates” of a nominal value of £1 and upwards, and in 1920 legislation was enacted which sanctioned a continuous issue of these certificates, with a currency of five years or more. Receipts from this source are utilized for the purposes of any loan which may be authorized by Parliament.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of the Dominion. No portion of the public estate is pledged for payment of either principal or interest.

INDEBTEDNESS—GROSS, NET, AND PER HEAD.

The gross and net indebtedness of the General Government, the amount of sinking fund accrued, and the rate of indebtedness per head of population (exclusive of Maoris), for each of the last twenty years, are given in the following table:—

As at 31st
March.
Estimated
or Census
Population.
Amount of
Debentures and
Stock in
Circulation.
Gross
Indebtedness
per Head
of European
Population.
Amount of
Sinking Fund
accrued.
Net
Indebtedness.
Net Indebtedness
per Head of
European
Population.
  £       £s.d.£       £       £s.d.
1902789,99452,966,447670111,128,81651,837,63165124
1903814,84255,899,019681201,357,73954,541,28066188
1904838,95457,522,215681141,500,68756,021,52866156
1905864,97159,912,00069541,650,71858,261,2826772
1906889,96862,191,040691771,661,51960,529,5216803
1907913,87364,179,04070472,042,06862,136,972671910
1908937,58766,453,897701761,268,36165,185,53669106
1909968,31370,938,53473521,479,22469,459,31071148
1910987,48174,890,6457516101,503,22573,387,4207464
19111,008,46881,078,122807111,754,48679,323,63678132
19121,031,50084,353,913811572,160,60382,193,31079138
19131,061,74890,060,763841652,603,64287,457,1218275
19141,089,82799,730,427911023,063,99291,689,8358428
19151,100,586100,059,910901843,178,05596,644,45587163
19161,100,406109,637,397991283,679,964105,957,4339659
19171,101,166129,836,1051171824,263,590125,572,51511409
19181,104,783150,840,0551361084,971,605145,868,45013208
19191,128,630176,076,260156025,951,056170,125,204150149
19201,187,139201,170,755169927,257,564193,913,191163611
19211,218,913206,324,319169558,763,072197,561,24716217

The gross indebtedness at the 31st March, 1914, includes the sum of £4,976,600 raised at the end of the year 1913-14 for redemption of debentures falling due early in 1914-15; and the sum of £237,400 raised on the 30th March, 1915, for redemptions on the 1st April, 1915, is included in the figure for 1914-15. The net indebtedness does not include these amounts.

ALLOCATION OF PUBLIC-DEBT EXPENDITURE.

In considering the indebtedness of a country it is important to know whether the money borrowed has been utilized for productive or for unproductive purposes. New Zealand's public-debt expenditure is usually divided into four classes, as follows: (1) Directly reproductive undertakings; (2) investments; (3) indirectly productive public utilities: (4) unproductive.

Much of the money borrowed is obtained for specific purposes, and can be accurately placed in one or other of the four classes shown. On the other hand, however, general public-works loans are obtained to cover the cost of a number of undertakings ranging from railways (directly productive) to public buildings (unproductive). As the Public Works Fund receives from time to time transfers from the Consolidated Fund, and as no distinction is made between expenditure out of revenue and expenditure out of loan, it is necessary to allocate the loan-money over the various items according to the total expenditure on each. The result is accurate enough for practical purposes.

In considering the increase of the public debt, the position at the end of the financial year 1890-91 has been selected as the first basis of comparison, because that date marks the beginning of a period during which the functions of the State have been widely extended, most notably as regards financial assistance to settlers, workers, and local bodies, the repurchase of alienated lands, the working of coalmines, and the establishment of State fire- and accident-insurance offices. In every department these new activities, as well as the old, have been directly successful, while the indirect benefits, though admittedly great, are incapable of measurement. A considerable portion of the annual interest on the debt, although paid out of the Consolidated Fund, does not fall upon the whole of the taxpaying community, the revenue derived from several of the more important undertakings being sufficient to meet the interest on the money borrowed in respect of them.

The advent of the European War created a second point of demarcation in the history of the loan expenditure of the General Government, necessitating as it did the postponement of all public works, &c., except those of pressing necessity.

The following table presents a summary of the public indebtedness, grouping the transactions according as to whether they occurred prior to 1891, from 1891 to 1914, and from 1914 to the present time:—

ALLOCATION OF PUBLIC INDEBTEDNESS.
Class of Undertaking.Up to 31st
March, 1891.
From 31st
March, 1891,
to 31st
March, 1914.
From 31st
March, 1914,
to 31st
March, 1921.
Total Gross
Indebtedness at
31st March, 1021.
* Decrease.
   Directly reproductive undertakings.£       £       £       £       
Railways14,580,00013,841,3046,022,57334,443,877
Telegraphs and telephones769,0001,439,8841,696,3713,905,255
Lighthouses and harbours484,000128,97145,859658,830
Tourist and health resorts..   168,99540,374209,369
State coal-mines..   225,0002,601227,601
State forests..   ..   200,000200,000
Water-power development and electric supply..   218,9201,650,8811,869,801
Swamp drainage..   ..   128,000128,000
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement..   100,000118,000218,000
                         Totals15,833,00016,123,0749,904,65941,860,733
Investments.
Advances to settlers..   8,677,325605,8719,283,196
Advances to workers..   2,536,927*117,5802,419,347
Advances to local authorities..   2,568,067207,4612,775,528
Mining advances..   15,00021,50036,500
Kauri-gum industry advances..   ..   53,00053,000
Fruit-preserving industry advances..   ..   69,61069,610
Cold-storage advances..   ..   120,750120,750
Land for settlements..   7,230,0931,755,4308,889,525
Discharged soldiers' settlement and lands for discharged soldiers' settlement..   ..   8,792,3548,792,354
Native-land settlement..   929,6001,750,4312,680,031
Opening up Crown lands..   251,911..   347,911
Hauraki Plains settlement..   100,000139,000239,000
Rangitaiki land drainage..   45,000235,000280,000
Waimarino bush-fire relief..   ..   75,00075,000
Purchase of Native lands1,546,0001,169,217..   2,715,217
Loans to local bodies325,0003,182,000..   3,507,000
Investment of New Zealand Consols..   475,992..   475,992
Bank of New Zealand shares..   500,000375,000875,000
Reserve Fund securities..   800,000..   800,000
Fishing-industry promotion..   ..   1,4901,490
Housing and workers' dwellings..   ..   273,150273,150
Nauru and Ocean Islands..   ..   600,000600,000
                         Totals1,871,00028,481,13214,957,46745,309,599
Indirectly productive.
Roads and bridges; lands improvement5,106,0002,869,3342,335,86710,427,450
Irrigation and water-supply..   ..   116,249
Development of mining571,000325,99215,680912,672
Immigration2,459,00062,878*46,6892,475,189
                         Totals8,136,0003,258,2042,421,10713,815,311
Unproductive.
Public buildings1,800,0004,643,5562,234,7278,678,283
Scenery-preservation..   74,00020,00094,000
Maori War2,357,000..   *4002,356,600
Defence (naval and contingent)1,638,0002,082,01156,4113,776,422
Great European War..   ..   81,538,57081,538,570
Education loans..   ..   270,000270,000
Deficiencies in revenue, charges and expenses of raising loans, provincial liabilities, &c.7,195,3501,261,500167,9518,624,801
                         Totals12,990,3508,061,06784,287,259105,338,676
                         Grand totals38,830,35055,923,477111,570,492206,324,319

The increase of the gross public debt since the 31st March, 1891, amounts to £167,493,969. Excluding war expenditure, referred to later, the largest item in the increase is £9,283,196 raised for advances to settlers, with which should be classed advances to workers (£2,419,347), and to local authorities (£2,775,528). In addition to this latter amount £3,507,000 was raised for loans to local bodies prior to the inauguration of the present system of making such loans through the State Advances Office. Of more recent growth is the expenditure on discharged soldiers' settlement (including lands for discharged soldiers' settlement), amounting to £8,792,354 on the 31st March, 1921. These items, as well as a number of smaller ones, represent investments by the Government bearing interest and lent on continually improving security, the principal being repaid by instalments. Other considerable items which may be considered as interest-bearing investments are those under the heads “Land for settlements,” “Native-land purchases,” “Lands improvement,” “New Zealand Consols,” “Bank of New Zealand shares,” and “Reserve Fund securities.”

The tremendous, though necessary, increase in unproductive expenditure since 1914 is more clearly illustrated in the following table, showing the percentages of the various classes to the total for each of the three periods:—

Class.Percentage of Indebtedness.
Prior to
31st March,
1891.
Between 31st
March, 1891,
and 31st
March, 1914.
As at 31st
March, 1914.
Between 31st
March, 1914,
and 31st
March 1921.
As at 31st
March, 1921.
Reproductive expenditure40.7828.6533.628.8720.29
Investments4.8250.9332.0313.4121.96
Indirectly productive expenditure20.956.0112.132.176.69
Unproductive expenditure33.4514.4122.2275.5551.06
               Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The directly interest-earning portion of the debt amounts to 42.25 per cent. of the total debt, and is represented by assets which are of much greater value than the amount of borrowed money spent upon them, a considerable amount of surplus ordinary revenue having been expended from time to time on railways and other public services, as well as other moneys of the nature of special receipts. The small proportion represented by unproductive loan-money raised during the period 1891 to 1914 (14.41 per cent.) is in strong contrast to the similar proportion for the period 1914 to 1921 (75.55 per cent.). This is clearly brought out in the following diagram, which gives graphically the percentage of indebtedness as shown above for the various classes of expenditure:—

INCREASE IN THE PUBLIC DEBT DURING 1920-21.

The loan transactions in connection with the public debt were on a rather extensive scale in 1920-21. All loans falling due were met either by conversion, renewal, or the issue of fresh debentures to provide cash to repay the amounts. No sinking funds were released to wipe off any of the debt, but a transfer of £13,330,000 of Consolidated. Fund money to the Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Account has allowed of debentures being cancelled to the extent of £11,996,250. This last amount is accordingly discharged from the public debt, thus converting what appeared as a liability into an asset, and relieving the ordinary revenue of the annual payment of sinking-fund contributions on the amount. But, notwithstanding this big deduction from the public debt, loans to the amount of £17,149,789 were raised, giving a not increase of £5,153,539 in the gross public debt. Add to this £25, issued for redemption of debentures which fell due during the year but were unpaid at the 31st March, 1921, and we get a total net increase in the gross public debt of £5,153,564. The total of new loans raised was made up as follows:—

 £       
Discharged soldiers' settlement8,560,554
Land for settlements (discharged soldiers)1,108,050
Land for settlements10,000
Public works2,890,000
Electric supply1,407,510
War expenses1,449,545
Education loans270,000
Fishing industry1,490
Hauraki Plains settlement54,000
Housing270,000
Loans for employers for workers' dwellings3,150
Mining advances10,000
Native-land settlement225,000
Nauru and Ocean Islands600,000
Railways improvement47,400
Rangitaiki land drainage30,000
State forests70,000
Swamp drainage55,000
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers88,000
Issue of inscribed stock for redemption purposes25
                             Total17,149,814
Less amount wiped off by a transfer from the Consolidated Fund to the Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Account11,996,250
                             Increase for 1920-21£5,153,564

Allocating the above new indebtedness under the various classes already referred to in discussing the total debt, the following distribution is arrived at:—

ALLOCATION OF LOANS RAISED IN 1920-21.
* Decrease.
Directly Reproductive Undertakings.£      
Railways1,395,868
Railways improvement47,490
Telegraphs and telephones343,960
Lighthouses and harbours4,946
Tourist and health resorts19,465
State forests70,000
Water-power development and electric supply1,407,510
Swamp drainage55,000
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement88,000
                             Total3,432,239
Investments.
Mining advances10,000
Land for settlements10,000
Discharged soldiers' settlement and lands for discharged soldiers' settlement−2,327,646*
Native-land settlement225,000
Hauraki Plains settlement54,000
Rangitaiki land drainage30,000
Fishing-industry promotion1,490
Housing and workers' dwellings273,150
Nauru and Ocean Islands600,000
                             Total−1,124,006*
Indirectly productive.
Roads and bridges550,566
Lands improvement2,109
Irrigation and water-supply56,577
Development of mining2,201
Immigration−7,980*
                             Total603,473
Unproductive.
Public buildings513,393
Defence8,895
Great European War1,449,545
Education loans270,000
Other charges25
                             Total2,241,858
                             Grand total£5,153,564

Summarizing the above in a slightly different way, and utilizing as headings the large classes of expenditure referred to earlier in this section, the increase of £5,153,564 in the public debt during 1920-21 may be shown as follows:—

Indebtedness.At 31st
March, 1920.
At 31st
March, 1921.
Increase.
* Decrease.
 £       £       £       
Ordinary public debt95,483,659101,515,3246,031,665
Discharged soldiers11,120,0008,792,354−2,327,646*
War debt80,089,02581,538,5701,449,545
State advances to settlers, workers, and local bodies14,478,07114,478,071..       
                             Totals201,170,755206,324,3195,153,564

CHARACTER OF STOCK.

The whole of the public debt, as stated in the foregoing tables, comprises inscribed stock and debentures with varying periods of currency. The following table shows the relative increase of the different classes of securities during the past ten financial years:—

Year ended 31st March.Inscribed Stock.Debentures.Total.
 £       £       £       
191255,626,23528,727,67884,353,913
191359,960,10530,100,65890,060,763
191466,076,25033,654,17799,730,427
191568,008,38932,051,521100,059,910
191668,689,63040,947,767109,637,397
191768,689,93561,146,170129,836,105
191877,760,48573,079,570150,840,055
191987,373,48088,702,780176,076,260
192095,095,914106,074,841201,170,755
1921101,306,498105,017,821206,324,319

FLOTATION OF LOANS.

Until comparatively recent years the large proportion of the productive power of the Dominion diverted to the construction of railways, roads, &c., and engaged in the preparation of land for farming, necessitated the borrowing of capital from abroad; but of late the accumulation of savings, chiefly of small sums deposited in the savings-banks, has enabled the Government to raise considerable amounts from time to time locally. This has been especially the ca3e in connection with war loans.

Between the 31st March, 1911, and the corresponding date in 1921 the amount raised (and remaining outstanding) in London increased from 54 to 68 millions, while that raised in New Zealand increased from 15 to 107 millions. The amount raised in Australia is negligible. The following table shows, of the total amount outstanding in each of the past ten years, the amount raised in London, Australia, and New Zealand:—

PUBLIC DEBT: WHERE RAISED.
Year ended 31st March.Inscribed Stock.Debentures.Total.
London.New Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £       £       £       £       £       £       
191255,152,124474,1118,852,7504,213,98515,660,94384,353,913
191359,484,214475,8919,445,2504,213,98516,441,42390,060,763
191465,600,259475,99113,024,0504,286,80016,343,32799,730,427
191567,532,398475,9918,877,6033,979,00019,194,918100,059,910
191668,213,639475,99113,251,1093,520,65024,176,008109,637,397
191768,213,943475,99215,663,8753,385,65042,096,645129,836,105
191868,213,9439,546,54220,493,8753,385,65049,200,045150,840,055
191968,213,94319,159,53727,494,3853,385,65057,822,745176,076,260
192068,213,94326,881,97127,494,3853,385,65075,194,806201,170,755
192168,213,94333,092,55527,494,3853,385,65074,137,786206,324,319

The percentage of the total debt raised in each of the markets and outstanding in 1910-11 and 1920-21 was,—

Market.1910-11
Per Cent.
1920-21
Per Cent.
London76.7446.39
New Zealand18.0651.97
Australia5.201.64
 100.00100.00

FLOTATION OF LOANS FOR WAR PURPOSES.

The gross indebtedness of the General Government on account of moneys raised for war purposes has already been stated as £81,538,570 as at the 31st March, 1921, and it is of considerable interest to note that of this amount £55,198,325 was raised in New Zealand and £25,840,000 was advanced by the Mother-country, mainly for the maintenance of our troops in the field. To this latter amount, however, must be added a capital liability thereon of £500,245, making a total of £26,340,245. Put another way, 67.6 per cent. of moneys raised for war purposes up to the 31st March, 1921, have been provided by the people of the Dominion itself.

The rates at which this money was raised are as follows:—

 £       
3 per cent.2,810
3 1/2 per cent.1,168,421
4 per cent.3,044,750
4 1/2 per cent.53,242,118
5 per cent.14,180,471
5 1/2 per cent.9,900,000

DATES OF MATURITY OF LOANS.

A summary of the loans outstanding on the 31st March, 1921, showing the amounts falling due in each financial year, is given:—

Due Date:
Year ending
31st March.
Amount.
* Overdue.
 £      
   19152,100*
   19181,000*
   192141,740*
   19226,364,940
   19238,862,156
   19249,548,865
   192511,696,812
   192614,348,312
   1927251,400
   19282,573,560
   193030,566,802
   19317,833,295
   19333,832,304
   193617,730
   19371,000
   19383,000
   193926,568,475
   194026,691,682
   1941781,815
   19422,744,550
   194617,074,121
   1948895,000
   19491,423,600
   19501,106,500
   196310,884,628
Unspecified22,208,932
         Total£206,324,319

The amounts that have matured or will mature during the current financial year, with their due dates, are as follows:—

Due Date.£      
* Overdue.
1914, July 152,100*
1918, January 11,000*
1920, December 156,340*
1921, January 116,000*
1921, March 1300*
1921, March 3019,100*
1921, April 1423,500
1921, May 11,111,300
1921, May 213,050
1921, June 3010,500
1921, July 228,000
1921, August 1318,000
1921, August 15200,000
1921, August 22355,000
1921, August 31205,000
1921, September 9265,000
1921, September 30100,800
1921, October 31115,000
1921, November 115,000
1921, November 3085,000
1921, December 1215,000
1921, December 3124,000
1922, January 12,035,300
1922, January 201,500
1922, January, 3160,000
1922, February 1358,084
1922, February 2840,406
1922, March 1365,500
1922, March 620,000
1922, March 915,000
1922, March 1915,000
               Total£6,409,780

INTEREST.

Of the total amount of public debt outstanding at the end of March, 1921, over 32 millions bore interest at the rate of 5 per cent. or over, nearly 75 millions at 4 1/2 per cent., and close on 67 millions at 4 per cent. Only £32,861,628, or 15.09 per cent. of the total, bore interest at a lower rate than 4 per cent., as against 48.39 per cent. of the total at 31st March, 1914. The following are the rates of interest payable on the whole public debt:—

Rate of Interest.Amount at
each Rate.
 £       
5 1/2 per cent.4,397,309
5 3/8 per cent.9,900,000
5 per cent.17,845,641
4 1/2 per cent.74,800,386
4 1/4 per cent.21,000
4 per cent.66,498,355
3 3/4 per cent.792,500
3 1/2 per cent.22,361,498
3 per cent.9,662,790
Overdue44,840
 £206,324,319

The total amount of interest payable to bondholders on the full amount of the public debt (excluding interest on £44,840 shown as overdue) is £8,789,508, which gives an average rate of £4 5s. 2d. per £100. On the total public debt outstanding on the 31st March. 1891, the average interest charge was £4 10s. 3d. per £100. The increase per £100 in 1920-21 as compared with 1913-14 was 8s. 9d.

The foregoing refers to interest payable to bondholders only, and has nothing to do with sinking-fund requirements, which are included in the whole annual charge of the public debt.

The actual payments during the past twenty years for interest and sinking fund out of the Consolidated Fund are shown in the following table, together with the rate per head of population and the percentage of ordinary and territorial revenue absorbed by the public-debt charges:—

Year ended
31st March.
Amounts actually paid for Interest and Sinking
Fund out of the Consolidated Fund.
Rate per
Head of
Mean
Population.
Percentage
of Revenue
absorbed by
Public-debt
Charges.
Public Debt.Treasury
Bills.
Total.
Interest.Sinking
Fund.
Total.Interest.
 £       £       £       £       £       £s.d. 
19021,722,81947,7241,770,53433,3961,803,93926229.80
19031,817,70150,4641,868,16532,8141,900,97927529.77
19041,875,37653,4081,928,78429,1791,957,96327427.89
19051,914,29654,9331,969,22924,5001,993,729261027.38
19062,006,53756,1672,062,70424,5002,087,20427727.52
19072,048,99097,3512,146,34125,7512,172,09228225.86
19082,085,01881,8422,166,86020,5592,187,41927324.15
19092,149,73991,4382,241,17717,1882,258,36527525.09
19102,282,18295,1242,377,30620,1562,397,46229025.95
19112,381,00054,1042,435,10423,3482,458,45229323.87
19122,446,493198,3882,644,88111,4592,656,340212124.02
19132,506,025202,7572,708,7828,2312,717,0132111123.15
19142,649,796221,7262,871,51216,4682,887,980213823.61
19152,788,513247,5703,036,08335,3653,071,448216124.67
19162,888,533257,0363,145,56945,2293,190,798218021.99
19173,701,040326,9244,027,9644,9214,032,885313421.97
19183,935,118494,6994,429,8179624,430,77940421.93
19195,409,210677,5596,086,769..   6,086,76959027.23
19206,352,344897,0827,249,426..   7,249,42665327.80
19216,805,4221,026,1717,831,593..   7,831,593610322.86

The above amounts shown as interest and sinking fund do not comprise the whole of the interest and sinking fund paid in respect of moneys raised by way of loans. For loans raised for the purposes of State advances to settlers, workers, local authorities, &c., and under the Land for Settlements Acts, the interest, although made a charge upon the Consolidated Fund, is recovered from the receipts derived from the leasing of the lands or from instalments paid by borrowers. Other loan-money coming within the same category is that raised for State coal-mines, Native-land settlement, the purchase of the Cheviot Estate, the Rangitaiki land drainage, the Hauraki Plains settlement, the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement, and a number of other purposes.

The amount of interest charged and recovered during last year in respect of the loan-money raised for such purposes was £1,814.724. The details are as follow:—

 £      
Land for settlements341,859
Land for settlements (discharged soldiers' settlement)112,705
Land for settlements (opening up Crown lands)7,981
Discharged soldiers' settlement602,190
Cold-storage Advances Act7,442
Advances to settlers345,702
Advances to workers95,917
Advances to local authorities103,
Mining advances953
State coal-mines9,102
Kauri-gum industry2,120
Native-land settlement95,914
Cheviot Estate8,866
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement5,941
Hauraki Plains settlement8,054
State forests6,126
Electric supply27,199
Waimarino bush-fire relief3,000
Rangitaiki land drainage19,065
Nauru and Ocean Islands11,392
                             Total£1,814,724

Such interest does not become a burden upon the taxpayer, and consequently is not included in the figures upon which the rate per head of mean population is calculated.

The amount actually paid for interest and sinking fund out of the Consolidated Fund during 1920-21 was £7,831,593, or £582,167 more than that for the previous year, and the rate of charge per head of population shows an increase of 5s.

SINKING FUNDS.

From time to time in the earlier financial history of the Dominion sinking funds were created in respect of various loans. These loans have now all been paid off, with the exception of an item of £2,100 which matured on the 15th July, 1914, as part of a loan of £266,300 raised under the New Zealand Loan Act, 18, but which has not yet been paid off. A sinking fund of £2,207, which covered this loan, is held to meet the debentures when presented.

More recently provision was made for sinking funds for the repayment of loans raised for local bodies and for war and defence loans. A sinking fund was also provided for in the case of the loans raised under the Naval Defence Act, 1909. All of these funds are invested with the Public Trustee.

Another class of sinking fund which has come into existence in later years may more correctly be termed an “internal reserve fund,” because the accumulations are immediately converted into capital, although kept apart in the accounts. Part of the surplus revenue of the various accounts of the State Advances Department, equal to 1 per cent. of the loan liabilities at the end of each financial year, is set apart as a sinking fund.

The whole of the public debt for which no special sinking fund exists has now been provided for by the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910, referred to in detail below.

On the 31st March, 1921, the accrued sinking funds amounted to £8,763,072, made up as follows:—

 £      
New Zealand Loan Act, 18632,207
Government loans to local bodies799,601
War and defence loans192,691
War loans (1914-18)2,507,165
Naval Defence Act, 1909822,334
State advances to settlers1,265,939
State advances to workers67,380
State advances to local authorities259,508
Land for settlements935,790
Native-land settlement11,976.
Guaranteed mining advances752
Hauraki Plains settlement2,176
Opening up Crown lands for settlement3,416
Rangitaiki land drainage904
Public Debt Extinction Act, 19101,871,205
Coal-mines Act, 190820,028
                             Total£8,763,072

PUBLIC DEBT EXTINCTION.

A scheme making precision to repay the existing public debt, with application to future borrowings, was embodied in the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910. This Act provides for the setting-apart each year, on the certificate of the Controller and Auditor-General, out of the Consolidated Fund an amount equal to the sum which, if invested for seventy-five years at a rate equivalent to the average net interest earned by the funds invested under the Act during the previous three years, would repay the whole of the public debt as at the preceding 31st March. In this manner, for every loan raised in the future an additional proportional amount will be contributed to the fund to enable such new loan to be extinguished at the expiry of seventy-five years from the date of issue.

The fund is administered by a Board constituted under the Act, and must be invested in loans to settlers, to workers, and to local authorities. The accumulated capital of various funds invested with the Public Trustee at the date of the passing of the Act, however, remains invested with him, and interest thereon is paid to the Consolidated Fund each year. It is expressly forbidden to invest any of the moneys in New Zealand Government securities. If at any time the funds cannot be invested as above stated the Board may purchase at or below par, and cancel any New Zealand Government stock or debentures charged upon the consolidated revenue. In order to preserve the continuity of the fund it is provided that in the event of any stock or debentures being redeemed before the expiry of the seventy-five years there shall be paid annually out of the Consolidated Fund into the Sinking Fund Account a sum sufficient to compensate for the loss of earnings of the money so expended. There is also a provision that if the earnings of the fund should fall below the determined rate of interest any deficiency must be made good out of the Consolidated Fund Account.

The most prominent features of the scheme are—(1) the mode of investment, which is intended to prevent any improper use being made of the accumulations; (2) the provision for preserving the continuity of the fund by the adjustment of the annual contributions; and (3) the automatic action of the fund whereby the total debt existing at any given date will be extinguished in seventy-five years from such date.

The contributions to the fund to the 31st March, 1921, amounted to £1,539,085, interest, &c., bringing the amount to the credit of the fund to £1,871,205. The payments to the fund in each of the ten years which have elapsed since the coming into operation of the Act have been,—

Year ended
31st March.
£
1912144,885
1913149,343
1914151,572
1915169,404
1916161,870
1917171,301
1918155,038
1919143,301
1920140,076
1921152,295

The amount required to be set aside during the financial year 1921-22 is £203,132; and by an actuarial calculation it has been ascertained that an additional amount of £150,227, together with interest thereon from the 31st March, 1921, to date of payment, will require to be paid for the financial years 1915-21.

The average not rate for the three years ended the 31st March, 1921, has been ascertained to be £4 5s. 6d., as against £4 16s. 6d. per cent. for the triennium ending 31st March, 1920.

The sum of £243,317 was at the 31st March, 1921, invested in mortgages to settlers, and £993,907 to local authorities. The former amount bears interest at 5 per cent., reducible to 4 1/2 per cent. if instalments are paid within fourteen days of due date. Of the amount advanced to local authorities, £88,938 bears interest at 4 1/8 per cent., and the balance at 4 1/2 per cent.

WAR LOANS SINKING FUND.

A War Loans Sinking Fund has been established for the special purpose of providing for the extinguishing of loans raised for war expenses; the provisions of the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910, do not apply to such moneys. Provision is made for the Minister of Finance to pay out of the Consolidated Fund each year a sum equal to 1 per cent. of the total capital moneys borrowed and outstanding at the 31st March in the preceding year. Such payments are invested by the Public Trustee, together with accumulations thereon. Interest on the investments of the sinking funds is received at the rate of 4 1/2 per cent., and it is calculated that each war loan will be extinguished in approximately forty years from the date of raising.

A statement is given showing for each year since the initiation of the scheme the payments to sinking fund, the interest on the amount invested, and the accumulated sinking fund.

Year ended
31st March.
Payment
to Fund.
Interest
credited.
Accumulated
Sinking Fund.
 £      £      £      
191621,053..   21,053
191781,595859103,507
1918267,2554,972375,734
1919461,85225,925863,511
1920684,60055,7701,603,881
1921800,890102,3942,507,165

The amount payable for the year ended 31st March, 1922, in respect of the debt outstanding at 31st March, 1921, is £815,386.

PRICES OF NEW ZEALAND STOCK.

The highest and lowest London prices for the New Zealand 4-, 3 1/2-, and 3-per cent. stock, taken over a range of twenty years, are quoted.

QUOTATIONS, NEW ZEALAND STOCK.
Year.4-per-cents.
(1943-63.)
4-per-cents.
(1929.)
3 1/2-per-cents.
(1940.)
3-per-cents.
(1945.)
Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.
1901..   ..   115 3/8110 3/4109 3/4104 1/899 1/293 1/8
1902..   ..   113 1/4109109 1/2102 1/89793 5/8
1903..   ..   110 1/8105104 3/499 1/29688
1904..   ..   107 1/2104 1/2101 1/296 3/49086 1/4
1905..   ..   110 1/4105 1/4100 1/897 5/889 7/889 1/2
1906..   ..   110 3/4104 5/8102 1/298 3/891 1/487 1/4
1907..   ..   108 3/4103 1/41019889 3/484
1908..   ..   109 5/8105 1/810198 1/490 1/285 3/4
1909..   ..   108 3/8104 3/499 3/497 3/888 3/885 5/8
1910..   ..   106 3/41039994 1/488 3/884 3/4
1911..   ..   106 3/4102 1/298 1/295 1/487 3/885
1912..   ..   10510097 3/490 3/887 3/479 1/2
191310196 3/8102 1/295 1/291 7/887 3/480 3/476 1/4
1914100 3/896 1/4103 1/89892 3/48783 1/277
191597 1/29599 1/89587 1/283 1/477 3/476
191695 1/8779583 3/483 3/8697662
191782 5/87686 1/281 1/474 1/46964 3/860
191885 1/278 1/490 7/8847971 3/468 3/461 3/4
19198677 1/890837968 1/869 1/860
192079 1/268 1/486 1/47970 3/464 1/262 1/256 1/4

PUBLIC DEBT OF AUSTRALASIA.

The following figures show the gross and net public debt of each State of the Australian Commonwealth, and of the Common wealth itself, on the 30th June, 1919, and of New Zealand on the 31st March, 1919:—

State.Gross Indebtedness.Accrued Sinking Funds.Net Indebtedness.Indebtedness per Head.
Gross.Net.

* Excluding £16,750,000 borrowed by the Commonwealth on behalf of the States.

† Information not available.

 £       £       £       £s.d.£s.d.
New South Wales147,174,536388,259146,786,2777419674153
Victoria82,031,9292,600,77879,431,151551835429
Queensland65,581,121385,54065,195,58192039192
South Australia42,650,2061,509,93041,140,2769310109047
Western Australia43,637,0766,139,00837,498,06813500116010
Tasmania15,281,281646,19714,635,08472936980
Total, Australian States396,356,14911,669,712384,686,437772174168
Commonwealth*309,033,5666024
Total Commonwealth and States705,389,71513745
New Zealand176,076,2605,951,054170,125,20615602150149

New Zealand has now a greater per capita debt than any of the Australian States, although, if the Commonwealth debt be added to that for each State, an exception to this statement will be found in the case of Western Australia. The gross indebtedness of the Dominion is nearly £19 per head greater than that of Australia, but if full information as to the net indebtedness of the Commonwealth were available it would probably be found that the net debt per head in New Zealand approximates a little more closely to that of Australia than is indicated by the figures of gross indebtedness.

SUBSECTION D.—FINANCES OF LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.

A STUDY of the finance of local governing bodies from their incipient stages to the present time reveals a process of evolution from a state of semi-dependence on the Central Government to a stage where, with the exception of subsidies on rates and occasional grants for special works, all expense is borne locally. While local bodies were the proper authorities to deal with such matters as the construction of roads and bridges, it was recognized that work of this nature was to a large extent of national significance, and governmental aid was freely accorded. This is evidenced by a consideration of the fact that under various Acts, including the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882, advances were made under which the recipient body, although bound to pay a half-yearly interest for a number of years, the period varying inversely with the rate of interest, was relieved from all further liability, ipso facto, on payment of the last instalment. With the increase in population and growth of prosperity, however, the opinion grew that local authorities should, in all fairness, bear the greater part of the expense of their own activities. This resulted in the withdrawal of such advantageous conditions, and at the present time, although the credit of the State is still available for the benefit of those local bodies requiring loans, and such assistance as indicated above is given, they are to all intents and purposes self-supporting.

A perusal of the tables contained in this section elicits the information that by far the greater part of the revenue of local bodies is expended on public works. Pari passu with the development of the local authority, notably the borough, has grown the tendency to extend its activities to public-utility trading concerns, such as tramways, gas- and electric-supply works, which, being of the natural monopoly type of industry, are pre-eminently suitable for municipal undertaking.

RECEIPTS.

Local governing bodies received by way of rates in the financial year 1919-20 a total amount of £3,144,213, of which £2,106,397 consisted of general rates and £1,037,816 special and separate rates. The sum of £95,467 was raised by licenses, and £149,611 by other taxes, making £3,389,291 altogether, which sum is equivalent to £2 17s. 5d. per head of the mean European population, an increase of 7d. on the previous year.

Revenue derived from rates increased from £1,592,601 in 1910-11 to £3,144,213 in 1919-20. Revenue from the Government has increased in the same period from £230,070 to £266,974. Receipts other than “revenue” were £1,776,958 in 1910-11 and £3,329,003 in 1919-20; but these figures vary from year to year according to circumstances, such as large operations by way of construction of works, for which money has to be specially raised.

The receipts of local governing bodies, divided into the various groups shown above, are given for each of the past ten years.

Financial
Year.
Revenue fromReceipts
not Revenue.
Total
Receipts.
Rates.Licenses,
Fees, Rents,
and other
Sources.
Government.Total
Revenue.
 £       £       £       £       £       £       
1910-111,592,6011,941,655230,0703,764,3261,776,9585,541,284
1911-121,677,8772,075,126223,8083,976,8112,425,2586,402,069
1912-131,799,2992,306,424225,2624,330,9852,383,1236,714,108
1913-142,005,6382,484,893234,2194,724,7502,411,5757,136,325
1914-152,140,0862,622,221239,0765,001,3832,595,7067,597,089
1915-162,355,1552,705,562262,0835,322,8002,469,2757,792,075
1916-172,534,5393,001,324242,6185,778,4811,411,4227,189,903
1917-182,674,5413,034,894248,8555,958,2901,250,0477,208,337
1918-192,939,6063,184,741267,3306,391,677942,7807,334,457
1919-203,144,2134,219,608266,9747,630,7953,329,00310,959,798.

The figures given in this and following tables are for the year ended 31st March, except in the case of certain Harbour Boards whose own financial year is taken in each case. The financial year of the Wellington Harbour Board ends on, the 30th September (six months before the usual financial year); for the Coromandel, Fortrose, Greymouth, Half-moon Bay and Horseshoe Bay, Kaikoura, Kawhia, Mangonui, New River, Port Molyneux, Riverton, Tokomaru Bay, Westport, and Whangateau-Omaha Harbour Boards the year ends on the 31st March, but in all other cases the Harbour Board year ends on the 31st December, or three months prior to the usual financial year.

A summary of receipts for the year 1919-20 is given below. The total revenue of the local bodies for the financial year was £7,630,795, and they further received a sum of £3,329,003 which could not properly be termed “revenue,” making altogether a grand total of receipts amounting to £10,959,798. The rates formed 41.20 per cent. of the revenue proper; licenses, rents, and other sources yielded 55.30 per cent.; and 3.50 per cont. was granted by the General Government.

While the revenue proper of the counties amounted to £1,638,453, of which £1,298,989, or 79.28 per cent., was raised by way of rates, the Road Boards' revenue was only £124,169, of which £95,915, or 77.24 per cent., represented the result of their rating. It is seen that these bodies rely on their taxing-powers for the greater part of their income. In the case of boroughs, on the other hand, whose revenue totalled £4,224,875, rates accounted for £1,464,593, or only 34.66 per cent. of the total. Receipts by way of licenses, rents, &c., yielded the considerable sum of £2,718,115, representing 64.34 per cent. of the aggregate income.

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—RECEIPTS, 1919-20.
—-Revenue fromReceipts
not Revenue.
Total
Receipts.
Rates.Licenses,
Rents, &c.
Government.County.
 £      £      £      £  £      £      
Counties1,298,989145,863193,601..   601,8592,240,312
Boroughs1,464,5932,718,11542,167..   1,943,5326,168,407
Town districts61,89638,0674,735..   45,785150,483
Road districts95,91513,51514,35938040,391164,560
River districts20,6719,6323,000..   2,54235,845
Land-drainage districts30,6111,5491..   29,39261,553
Water-supply districts1,3042,739..   ..   504,093
Tramway districts1,177216,225..   ..   31,323248,725
City and suburban drainage districts99,8364,748..   ..   60,620165,204
Railway district..   10,288..   ..   31,21141,499
Harbour districts69,2211,058,4879,111..   542,2981,679,117
             Totals3,144,2134,219,228266,9743803,329,00310,959,798

RATES.

As stated above, rates contributed in 1919-20 the sum of £3,144,213 to the revenue of local governing bodies. General rates levied brought in £2,106,397, and special and separate rates £1,037,816. Of the latter, £758,291 was received by boroughs, and £183,181 by counties. The whole of the rates in harbour districts were general rates, while all those collected by Tramway Boards came under the heading of “special and separate.”

General rates bring in a little more than two-thirds of the total revenue from rates.

RATES LEVIED BY LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES, 1910-11 TO 1919-20.
Financial Year.General.Special and
Separate.
Total.
 £      £      £      
1910-111,118,112474,4891,592,601
1911-121,156,718521,1591,677,877
1912-131,252,717546,5821,799,299
1913-141,359,776645,8622,005,638
1914-151,484,591655,4952,140,086
1915-161,607,764747,3912,355,155
1916-171,695,572838,9672,534,539
1917-181,791,028883,5132,674,541
1918-192,028,151911,4552,939,606
1919-202,106,3971,037,8163,144,213

Separate rates are of two classes—“general” and “particular.” General separate rates are levied for the construction, maintenance, &c., of any public work, for the acquisition of land or buildings, or for engaging in any undertaking for the benefit-of the whole or part of a local district. Particular separate rates are levied in respect of water-supply, lighting, sanitation, and libraries. Special rates are those levied as security for the repayment of loans.

It is of interest to note that for the year 1919-20 the total of all rates collected by counties was equal to £4.41 per £1,000 of rateable capital value (land and improvements). In boroughs it was £10.37; town districts, £7.93; while in road districts the rate was as low as £2.87.

Full particulars concerning the rating-powers of local bodies is given in the 1914 issue of the Year-book, together with information concerning the system of rating on unimproved value. Local districts in which a poll on the question of rating on unimproved value has been taken since the 31st March, 1914, are as shown below up to the 31st March, 1921. The result of all polls to that date are given on pages 876-79 of the Year-book for 1914.

Local District.Date of Poll.Result of Poll.Votes recorded.
For.Against.Informal.

* For rescission.

† At that time Whakatane Town District.

Avondale Road District1 June, 1918Rejected2313001
Bay of Islands County17 Nov., 1920Carried490187..   
Cambridge Borough9 Sept., 1919Carried153612
Carterton Borough26 Nov., 1919Carried277133..   
Christchurch City*4 Mar., 1915Rating on U.V. remains1,9142,086..   
Ellerslie Town District8 Mar., 1916Carried175251
Featherston County16 Feb., 1915Carried3151642
Havelock North Town District3 Nov., 1920Carried10779..   
Huntly Town District20 Oct., 1915Carried301..   
Inglewood County16 Mar., 1921Carried160252
Manawatu County29 Jan., 1919Carried6771933
Mangaorongo Road District13 Mar, 1918Carried451..   
Mangapapa Town District13 Oct., 1915Rejected10916414
Mangapapa Town District1 July, 1920Carried244804
Mataura Borough*3 Nov., 1915Rescission carried1361292
Mataura Borough12 Dec., 1919Rejected1181455
Moa Road District26 Mar., 1919Carried205321
Mosgiel Borough*28 Mar., 1916Rating on U.V. remains115240..   
New Plymouth Borough30 April, 1919Carried781595..   
Normanby Town District*24 May, 1919Rating on U.V. remains33411
Northcote Borough30 April, 1919Rejected123140..   
Onehunga Borough9 Mar., 1915Carried5633917
Otaki Town District4 Mar., 1919Carried132441
Otautau Town District*8 Mar., 1916Rescission carried40331
Otorohanga Native Township30 Oct., 1914Carried435..   
Paeroa Borough30 April, 1919Carried15571..   
Raglan Town District15 Nov., 1916Carried5419..   
Rangiora Borough*19 June, 1919Rescission carried1511451
Taihape Borough26 Mar., 1919Carried14121..   
Taradale Town District15 Sept., 1919Carried12839..   
Taranaki County20 Mar., 1920Carried5301093
Tauranga Borough6 Oct., 1920Rejected1472956
Te Awamutu Borough19 Nov., 1919Rejected89127..   
Thames Borough19 June, 1919Carried26050..   
Uawa County26 May, 1920Carried26089..   
Waiatarua Drainage Board24 Dec., 1918Carried191..   
Westport Borough25 April, 1917Carried46734530
Whakatane Borough21 Sept., 1915Rejected701051
Whakatane Borough30 April, 1919Carried1639210
Whakatane County8 Nov., 1919Carried319166..   
Whangarei County11 Nov., 1914Carried73623622

The unimproved value of land is the basis on which some 36 per cent. of the local authorities (excluding harbour districts) assessed their rates for the year 1919-20. A comparative table is:—

—-System of Rating.Total.
Unimproved
Value.
Capital
Value.
Annual
Value.
Acreage
Basis.
Nil
* Includes one district having unimproved basis as well.
Counties4180..   ..   8129
Boroughs642032..   ..   116
Town districts30356..   ..   71
Road districts1363..   ..   581
River-protective districts1321*11541
Land-drainage districts1736..   ..   ..   53
Water-supply districts..   6..   ..   ..   6
City and suburban drainage districts..   2*..   ..   13
Tramway districts11..   ..   ..   2
Local railway district..   1..   ..   ..   1
                   Totals17926539119503

LICENSES, TOLLS, RENTS, ETC.

Rates are not the only form of local taxation. Local authorities derive a certain amount of revenue from publicans' licenses, auctioneers' and hawkers' licenses, abattoir fees, dog-taxes, pound-taxes, tolls, &c. Sources of revenue not classed as taxation are—Rents; fines and penalties; market dues; sales of material; sale of light and power from gasworks and electric-supply works; tramway receipts; interest on deposits; wharf dues, &c.

RECEIPTS FROM GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

Revenue received from the Government comprise—rates on Crown and Native lands; timber and flax royalties; goldfields revenue and gold duty; fees and fines; subsidy on rates; one-third of receipts from lands sold on deferred payment and from perpetual leases; one-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs; other. In addition there are special grants from the General Government for various local works of a public or semi-public character. These are not considered revenue, and are included with “Receipts not revenue.”

A further class of receipts from the Government is provided by loans under the various Loans to Local Bodies Acts and from the New Zealand States Advances Office.

A statement of all receipts by controlling bodies of local districts from the Government during the last five financial years is given in the next table:—

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—RECEIPTS FROM GOVERNMENT, QUINQUENNIAL SUMMARY.
—-Year ended 31st March.
1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Rates on Crown and Native lands2,5011322021,9148,143
One-third receipts from land sold on deferred payment and from perpetual leases42,75440,90335,73135,09420,467
One-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs6,1326,6195,3917,7225,655
Timber and flax royalties8,1875,5914,2885,1003,691
Goldfields revenue and gold duty32,31627,89434,34025,82226,565
Subsidies on rates155,678152,217160,032168,835177,074
Fees and fines2,7823,2222,3594,5643,067
Other receipts11,73314,2436,55518,27918,128
           Total Revenue Account262,083250,821248,898267,330263,060
Loans from Government under Loans to Local Bodies Acts and from New Zealand State Advances Office446,722169,804118,373208,158515,363
Grants for special works, &c.217,990134,66287,362156,354248,110
Total receipts from Government926,795555,287454,633631,8421,026,533

Of the total of £1,026,533 for 1919-20, no less than £609,927 went to counties, boroughs received £175,935, while harbour districts accounted for £132,843.

EXPENDITURE.

The expenditure of local governing bodies during each of the past twenty years is as follows:—

Financial Year.Expenditure.
 £       
1900-12,250,572
1901-22,528,092
1902-32,867,506
1903-43,230,712
1904-53,497,321
1905-63,601,506
1906-73,897,515
1907-84,491,113
1908-94,800,711
1909-104,898,482
1910-115,360,261
1911-126,074,372
1912-136,537,769
1913-146,796,314
1914-156,806,567
1915-166,920,736
1916-176,758,593
1917-187,103,073
1918-197,320,277
1919-2010,883,586

The expenditure of the various classes of local governing bodies during 1919-20 is shown below in more detail:—

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—EXPENDITURE, 1919-20.
—-Public
Works.
Hospitals and
Charitable Aid.
Management.Interest on
Loans and
Overdraft.
Other.Total
Expenditure.
* Included in public works.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      
Counties1,549,807206,529202,065160,05163,1392,181,591
Boroughs4,986,551139,232220,317729,695194,3096,270,104
Town districts97,5084,73015,30519,8075,068142,418
Road districts107,8907,81716,2408,42611,601151,974
River districts19,9601,5235,6495,9544,42337,509
Land-drainage districts45,878..   4,80211,9891,63864,307
Water-supply districts1,244..   1,23587383,225
Tramway districts174,717..   *27,06746,054247,838
City and suburban drainage districts35,817..   8,63968,7129,754122,922
Railway district18,911..   *91137420,196
Harbour districts828,486..   141,394323,875347,7471,641,502
          Totals7,866,769359,831615,6461,356,495684,84510,883,586

It is seen that during the year the total expenditure was £10,883,586, of which £7,866,769, or 72.28 per cent., was expended on public works and £1,356,495, or 12.46 per cent., on debt charges. The item “management expenses” does not rank very high in the aggregate, though the table following shows that in some classes of local bodies the expenses of management account for a fair percentage of the revenue:—

—-Management Expenses as Percentage of
Revenue.Total
Receipts.
Expenditure.
 £   £   £   
Counties12.339.029.26
Boroughs5.213.573.51
Town districts14.6210.1710.75
Road districts13.089.8710.68
River districts16.9615.7615.06
Land-drainage districts14.937.807.47
Water-supply districts30.5530.1738.29
City and suburban drainage districts8.265.237.03
Harbour districts12.448.428.61
               All districts8.075.625.66

The table following gives, in respect of boroughs only, the expenditure out of loan-money during the past ten years, classified under various heads:

EXPENDITURE OUT OF LOANS.—BOROUGHS ONLY, 1910-11 TO 1919-20.
Year ended
31st March.
Streets,
Footways,
and Bridges.
Drainage
and
Sanitation.
Waterworks.Tramways.Abattoirs,
Slaughterhouses,
and Pounds.
Lighting
and Power
Services.
Other
Public
Works.
Management,
Interest, and
Sundries.
Total.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      £      £      £      
1911113,216132,037143,71752,1951,922139,40953,15322,841658,490
1912149,057206,393246,485114,6533,626137,59998,17614,651970,640
1913182,251205,373169,44761,22415,596134,873103,98516,433889,182
1914244,619131,547129,60147,4273,074199,75758,36820,491834,884
1915153,20968,06170,30628,8895,463201,05158,98225,098611,659
1916175,24898,36686,86445,3903,860235,07178,39817,818741,015
191798,59592,67784,01221,49714,970130,48960,90216,794519,936
191872,29086,34645,9176,880..   104,35957,08612,571385,449
191992,92362,71040,593..   67168,27634,0145,163304,350
1920109,85877,47149,3831,231,571..   84,283100,2482861,653,100

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The assets and liabilities of local governing bodies at the end of the financial year 1919-20 are as shown in the table following. The figures shown in the column “other assets” are taken from the respective balance-sheets, but are far from complete. In quite a number of cases no assets whatever are shown, while in the majority of the others nothing is included for the reserves held. These totals can only be taken as a very approximate indication of the property held in addition to the actual cash assets.

—-Assets.Liabilities.
Cash Assets.Other Assets
(as estimated
in published
Balance-sheets).
Loans (excluding
Government Loans
and those from
the State
Advances Office).
Loans from
State Advances
Office. (Net Indebtedness
on 31st March, 1920.)
Inscribed Stock, i.e., Loans from
Treasury under
Loans to Local
Bodies Acts.
(Estimated Present
Indebtedness.)
Liabilities
other than
the Loans
included in
preceding Columns
(Bank Overdrafts,
Outstanding
Accounts, &c.).
 £      £      £      £      £      £      
Counties703,761698,858713,8121,280,784783,731469,306
Boroughs1,223,94016,952,11012,369,9231,351,451543,164923,347
Town districts38,426311,259292,950105,3379,62032,010
Road districts49,39276,54349,931103,04132,79123,865
River districts14,185107,10133,0343,15538,15514,470
Land-drainage districts23,53314,53728,475146,02058,6537,856
City and suburban drainage districts36,442590,1681,208,887171..   3,820
Tramway districts277,068796,531589,960..   ..   917
Water-supply districts9461,13020,470..   61349
Railway district1,99140,38629,695..   ..   3,115
Harbour districts954,4209,027,7606,580,098118,499..   222,627
           Totals3,324,10428,616,38321,917,2353,108,4581,466,7271,701,382

LOANS OF LOCAL BODIES.

The net indebtedness of local governing bodies on account of outstanding loans has increased in the twenty years 1900-1 to 1919-20 from £6,776,251 to £21,917,235, exclusive of moneys borrowed from the Government, which represented a further indebtedness of £4,575,185 at the end of March, 1920, made up as follows: Inscribed debt—i.e., debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882, converted, and amounts borrowed from the Treasury under the Local Bodies' Loans Acts, £1,466,727; and loans from the New Zealand State Advances Office, £3,108,458.

The outstanding loans of local bodies at the end of each part of the twenty years are shown in the following table:—

As at
31st March.
Debentures and Stock
in Circulation.
Loans from State
Advances Office.
Inscribed Debt.Total Debt.
Gross Debt.Net Debt.Gross Debt.Net Debt.Gross Debt.Present
Indebtedness.
Gross Debt.Net Debt.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      £      £      
19017,563,0696,776,251..      ..      1,222,234988,8428,785,3037,765,093
19027,839,6957,016,632..      ..      1,405,6691,133,9069,245,3648,150,538
19038,217,1967,338,676..      ..      1,669,4801,354,5169,886,6768,693,192
19048,898,9107,975,320..      ..      1,857,1521,493,05510,756,0629,468,375
190510,018,2429,005,196..      ..      2,038,4941,621,49112,056,73610,626,687
190610,718,0519,722,081..      ..      2,155,1141,679,95812,873,16511,402,039
190711,616,04810,536,565..      ..      2,287,1051,748,08613,903,15312,284,651
190812,532,33411,343,352..      ..      2,399,0171,798,83414,931,35113,142,186
190913,303,62212,184,409..      ..      2,617,1351,943,72815,920,75714,128,137
191014,937,68513,765,802..      ..      2,872,2322,119,02317,809,91715,884,825
191115,727,61314,462,770405,195404,1632,972,7952,173,29319,105,60317,040,226
191216,590,87715,161,7271,195,6801,186,6112,985,9982,192,88620,772,55518,541,224
191317,483,33215,882,9261,740,9251,711,7972,988,2982,196,29922,212,55519,791,022
191418,923,48217,202,7642,063,0052,007,7972,842,1501,979,42423,828,63721,189,985
191519,454,47517,602,6692,399,4202,312,7542,780,4921,887,92824,634,38721,803,351
191620,754,16818,822,8962,689,2452,562,9702,728,1741,810,29126,162,58723,196,157
191721,432,76719,277,7062,836,0552,676,4072,690,4121,754,25526,959,23423,708,368
191822,260,53719,782,8452,962,1902,762,9002,630,2441,664,96927,852,97124,210,714
191922,673,71219,922,1533,095,7402,846,8372,554,4011,552,42328,323,85324,321,413
192024,608,29321,917,2353,406,2903,108,4582,471,1911,466,72730,485,77426,492,420

Of the total not indebtedness of £26,492,420 at the 31st March, 1920, boroughs were responsible for no less than £15,177,704, which represents 10.75 per cent. of their rateable capital value. In the case of counties, which have a much less per capita expenditure on public works, th3 percentage is only 1.26, while in road districts it is as low as 0.63. As may be expected, it is higher in town districts, the figures being 5.55.

The loans outstanding, other than Government loans', at the end of the financial year 1919-20 are shown below, classified according to various rates of interest and as to whether raised in New Zealand or abroad:—

Rate of Interest:
Per Cent.
Raised in
New Zealand.
Raised
Abroad.
Total.
 £      £      £      
Under 4 per cent.67,169..      67,169
4 per cent.2,807,4902,620,4005,427,890
4 1/4 per cent.1,458,230537,4001,995,630
4 3/8 per cent.37,000..      37,000
4 1/2 per cent.4,110,7142,025,6006,136,314
4 5/8 per cent.27,350..      27,350
4 3/4 per cent.418,740..      418,740
5 per cent.4,038,5521,423,5955,462,147
5 1/8 per cent.121,500..      121,500
5 1/4 per cent.3,224,556153,1753,377,731
5 1/2 per cent.316,415..      316,415
5 3/4 per cent.164,300..      164,300
6 per cent...      993,400993,400
6 1/4 per cent.62,709..      62,709
               Totals16,854,7257,753,57024,608,295

A further table is given showing for each of the last twenty years the amount of the debt raised in New Zealand and elsewhere, other than loans from the General Government. Columns are added showing the interest payable and the average rate of interest per cent. It will be noticed that the amount of outstanding loans shown to have been raised in New Zealand was only a small percentage of the total at the end of the first of the twenty financial years shown, but increased gradually at first and rapidly later, till at the end of the year 1912-13 it was nearly £3,000,000 in excess of the amount raised abroad. During 1913-14, however, the New Zealand amount decreased slightly, while the loans raised abroad showed a large increase. During the war period there have been decreases in the amounts raised abroad and increases in the amounts raised in New Zealand, making a difference between the two amounts of over £9,000,000 at the 31st March, 1920.

INDEBTEDNESS AND INTEREST CHARGES.
Financial Year.Raised in
New Zealand.
Raised
Abroad.
Total
Indebtedness.
Interest.Average
Rate
per Cent.
 £       £       £       £       £  
1900-12,052,2695,510,8007,563,069385,9595.10
1901-22,287,5955,552,1007,839,695396,4605.06
1902-32,880,5965,336,6008,217,196409,2384.91
1903-43,369,4105,529,5008,898,910439,8794.94
1904-53,479,6425,638,60010,018,242487,1454.86
1905-65,250,5515,467,50010,718,051515,1884.81
1906-76,145,5485,470,50011,616,048548,3874.72
1907-87,246,8345,285,50012,532,334587,5644.69
1908-97,785,9225,517,70013,303,622616,3304.63
1909-107,967,3856,970,30014,937,685684,6304.58
1910-118,254,3137,473,30015,727,613715,2894.55
1911-129,574,5277,016,35016,590,877748,8054.51
1912-1310,134,7827,348,55017,483,332787,8274.51
1913-1410,106,0828,817,40018,923,482855,0634.52
1914-1510,998,7758,455,70019,454,475870,9924.48
1915-1612,793,5437,960,62520,754,168948,5114.57
1916-1713,218,6178,214,15021,432,767983,4084.59
1917-1814,096,1878,164,35022,260,5371,034,2724.64
1918-1914,749,7637,923,94922,673,7121,048,9994.63
1919-2016,854,7257,753,57024,608,2951,137,0574.62

The average rate of interest shows a steady fall throughout the twenty years shown, with, however, a check in the last three years of the period.

The total indebtedness at the end of 1919-20, excluding loans from the State Advances Office and the inscribed debt under the Loans to Local Bodies Acts (the latter including stock exchanged for debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act), was £24,608,295, as shown above. Against this were sinking funds amounting to £2,691,060, leaving the net indebtedness, other than to the State, £21,917,235. The annual charge for interest was £1,137,057, and for sinking fund £223,726. The net indebtedness to the State Advances Office was £3,108,458, representing loans originally amounting to £3,406,290. The instalments of principal and interest on this amounted to an annual charge of £179,320.

The estimated net indebtedness under the Loans to Local Bodies Acts, including inscribed stock exchanged for debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882, was £1,466,727 at the end of the year. This debt is decreasing yearly, and will be extinguished in course of time. The amount outstanding is repayable by annual instalments of £92,238.

Full information concerning the law governing local bodies loans is given in the 1914 issue of this book. The section of this book dealing with State advances contains information regarding State advances to local authorities.

Detailed tables showing the statistics of individual local bodies will be found in Vol. IV of “Statistics of New Zealand”; also, as regards boroughs, town districts, and harbour boards, in the “Municipal Hand-book,” published biennially.

Chapter 23. SECTION XXIII.—STATE AID TO SETTLERS, WORKERS, ETC.

INTRODUCTORY.

AS has been shown in Subsection C of the preceding section, an appreciable proportion of the public debt of New Zealand is represented by money borrowed by the State not for its own requirements, but for the purpose of lending out at easy rates of interest for various defined purposes.

As early as 1892 the Government commenced the purchase of lands for cutting up for sale or lease to private individuals, and two years later the passing of the Advances to Settlers Act, 1894, marked the inauguration of a series of schemes for lending money to settlers, workers, &c., for the purchase of homes, the improvement of farms, and the development of resources and of industries. The schemes vary considerably in detail, but all lie in one of two main classes—those in which the money is advanced on security, and those on which the expenditure is incurred by the Government itself in the first place and recouped from sales or leases. Advances to settlers, workers, discharged soldiers, and local authorities are the principal examples of the former class, and the purchase of land for settlements (including the settlement of discharged soldiers) and the erection of dwellings for purchase by workers the principal of the latter. The system of land-purchase is dealt with in the section of this book dealing with land tenure and settlement, and information concerning other principal branches of State financial assistance is given below.

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS.

The Advances to Settlers Office was established by an Act passed in 1894. An administrative officer called the Superintendent was appointed early in the following year, and a Board set up to advise and co-operate with the Superintendent. Advances can be granted only with the consent of the Board.

The capital fund was limited to £3,000,000, which was to be raised within two years after the passing of the Act at an annual rate of interest not higher than 4 per cent. The first issue of £1,500,000 realized £94 8s. 9d. per £100 stock. The minimum advance was fixed at £25, and the maximum at £2,500, repayable in thirty-six years and a half by half-yearly instalments of 3 per cent. on the amount borrowed.

The legislation has been amended at different times, and is now embodied in the State Advances Act, 1913. It authorizes the borrowing of moneys for the purpose of lending to settlers, workers, and local authorities. Each year there may be borrowed for advances to settlers £1,500,000, to workers £750,000, and to local authorities £1,000,000.

From the inception of the scheme of advances to settlers in 1894, applications have been received to the number of 68,997 for loans totalling £29,186,149, The Advances Board authorized loans of £20,215,455 to 53,228 applicants, the total actual payments to 31st March, 1921, being £19,826,040, of which £12,155,812 has been repaid in respect of principal, leaving £7,670,228 still outstanding. A table is given showing the business to date and for each of the past ten years.

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS, 1911-12 TO 1920-21.
Year ended
31st March.
Applications received.Loans authorized.Amount
advanced.
Amount
repaid.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £        £       £       £       
19125,3552,593,0844,6102,191,3002,235,4951,018,286
19133,1871,164,2252,114749,590937,435698,938
19143,6041,400,2482,390878,855978,395710,590
19153,701,826,2652,100749,0401,136,475754,810
19162,507982,8002,022746,630814,555713,177
19171,619660,9751,412515,270589,975643,751
19181,223511,532984353,465367,160501,009
19191,326579,022986363,875350,140529,023
19202,8411,520,1282,2191,031,855808,1801,118,486
19212,5051,661,9742,0851,107,4301,060,2601,065,003
Totals to 31st March, 192168,99729,186,14953,22820,215,45519,826,04012,155,812

Not all the advances to settlers are made by the Advances to Settlers Branch of the State Advances Office. Part of the business shown in the above table relates-to the Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch and the Advances Office Sinking Fund Branch. The advances to settlers authorized by the three branches during 1920-21 are as follows:—

Branch.Advances authorized.
Number.Amount.
  £      
Advances to Settlers1,813907,610
Public Debt Sinking Funds218162,015
Advances Office Sinking Fund5437,805
                       Totals2,085£1,107,430

The advances authorized in each provincial district during the year, and the total to 31st March, 1921, are next shown.

Provincial District.Advances authorized,
1920-21.
Total Advances authorized
to 31st March, 1921.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £       £      
Auckland734363,22518,0096,367,598
Taranaki12171,3355,4852,560,199
Hawke's Bay195112,7302,736985,095
Wellington525304,28012,6285,120,928
Marlborough2312,2751,319555,480
Nelson4418,235966306,870
Westland2911,500969261,665
Canterbury284148,3655,2071,823,980
Otago—
     Otago portion7637,3852,6491,029,785
     Southland portion5428,1003,2601,203,855
                       Totals2,0851,107,43053,22820,215,455

Dealing now only with the operations of the Advances to Settlers Branch, it is seen that during the year 1920-21 the advances authorized numbered 1,813, representing a total amount of £907,610. The number of borrowers and the sums actually advanced during the year, classified according to amount, were,—

Category.Number of
Advances.
Amount
advanced.
  £      
Not exceeding £500862328,245
Exceeding £500, but not exceeding £1,000671496,430
Exceeding £1,000,but not exceeding £2,0003855,445
                                             Totals1,571£880,120

The nature of the security upon which these advances were made was as follows:—

Security.Number of
Advances.
Amount
advanced.
  £      
Freehold1,308721,395
Leasehold259155,430
Freehold and leasehold combined43,295
                                     Totals1,571£880,120

The advances outstanding, classified according to amount, are as follows:—

Category.Number of
Advances.
Amount
outstanding.
  £      
Not exceeding £50014,1663,121,088
Exceeding £500, but not exceeding £1,0002,4762,071,974
Exceeding £1,000, but not exceeding £2,0001,0211,491,543
Exceeding £2,000, but not exceeding £3,00093233,669
                                     Totals17,756£6,918,274

The nature of the security for the total amount of advances outstanding on the 31st March, 1921, was,—

Security.Number of
Advances.
Amount
outstanding.
  £      
Freehold10,8895,051,659
Leasehold6,6701,749,943
Freehold and leasehold combined197116,672
                                     Totals17,756£6,918,274

The average freehold advance is £464, the average leasehold advance £262, and the average of advances secured on both freehold and leasehold combined £592. Corresponding figures for the year ended the 31st March, 1920, are—freehold, £452; leasehold, £257; and combined freehold and leasehold, £580.

The number and amounts of current advances on rural and on urban and suburban land are,—

 Number.Amount.
  £       
On rural land10,9894,477,285
On urban and suburban land6,7672,440,989
                                   Totals17,756£6,918,274

The average rural advance is £407, and the average urban and suburban advance is £361.

The gross profits for the year ended the 31st March, 1921, were £110,086, and the cost of management and expenses of the branch £17,195, bring 0.185 per cent., or 3s. 8d. per £100 of the capital employed. The net profits amounted to £92,891.

The sinking fund established under the State Advances Act, 1913, amounts to £1,276,464, inclusive of £302,904 held by the Public Trustee.

The liabilities and assets at the 31st March, 1921, of the Settlers Branch of the State Advances Office were,—

 £       s.d.
Liabilities.
Sundry loans9,283,193110
Temporary advances from Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch459,96200
Temporary advances from Advances Office Sinking Fund Account445,00000
Advances Suspense Account29,13496
Fire Loss Suspense Account3,18968
Suspense Account6,13336
Reserve Fund50,00000
Interest payable on loans, accrued but not due75,114121
Profit and Loss Account791,099114
 £11,142,826411
Assets.
Investment Account—Total principal owing by mortgagors at 31st March, 19216,918,27433
Mortgage instalments overdue—Interest28,80118
Interest on mortgages, accrued but not due75,257106
Temporary advances to Local Authorities Branch225,00000
Temporary advances to Workers' Branch330,00000
Temporary investments2,139,7379
Interest on temporary investments, accrued but not due34,3021111
Insurance Premiums Account392114
Office Furniture and Equipment Account1,566168
Realization Account63928
Sinking Funds—
     Public Trustee302,904139
     Advances Office Sinking Fund Account963,034811
     Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch10,525107
Cash in bank at 31st March, 1921112,353911
 £11,142,826411

ADVANCES TO WORKERS.

The total of the advances to workers up to the 31st March, 1921 (including moneys repaid and again advanced), was £4,446,685.

The applications received for loans during the year ended the 31st March, 1921, numbered 1,920, the aggregate amount required being £1,053,512. Advances authorized during 1920-21 numbered 1,556, representing a total amount of £718,630. The advances actually paid during the year numbered 1,358, for an aggregate of £660,790, which is the greatest amount advanced in any one year since the Act came into force. The tenures upon which these loans were made were,—

Tenure.Number of Loans.Aggregate Amount.
  £      
Freehold1,325647,880
Leasehold3312,910
               Totals1,358£660,790

The total number of loans and the aggregate amount authorized in each provincial district are as follows:—

Provincial District.Advances authorized,
1920-21.
Total Advances authorized
to 31st March, 1921
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £       £      
Auckland433208,2654,5761,441,730
Taranaki3817,265481141,770
Hawke's Bay20092,0051,156382,360
Wellington380177,2954,0041,302,375
Marlborough3716,230461140,245
Nelson51,76024361,245
Westland..   ..   19442,030
Canterbury358165,4753,6221,178,910
Otago—
     Otago portion8431,8501,082313,910
     Southland portion218,485471127,140
                         Totals1,556718,63016,2905,131,715

The net amount outstanding at the end of the financial year was £2,705,357, secured upon the following tenures:—

Tenure.Number of Loans
outstanding.
Aggregate Amount
outstanding.
  £       
Freehold8,9712,603,382
Leasehold547101,975
               Totals9,518£2,705,357

The gross profits for the year ended the 31st March, 1921, were £10,299, and the cost of management and expenses of the branch £3,322. The net profits amounted to £12,972, of which the sum of £5,000 has been applied in writing down loan charges.

The following table gives particulars of the transactions for each of the past ten years, and the total transactions since the passing of the Government Advances to Workers Act on the 29th October, 1906:—

ADVANCES TO WORKERS, 1911-12 TO 1920-21.
Year ended
31st March.
Applications received.Loans authorized.Amount
advanced.
Amount
repaid.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £       £      £      £      
19122,223750,7721,900612,910543,84078,853
19131,805574,4931,254397,175449,26084,771
19141,599528,2401,200339,200272,86080,933
19151,492462,0651,129337,690313,025110,110
19161,079383,365953297,630275,680115,535
1917734266,740658210,995214,965127,450
1918555197,738411129,710125,855139,485
1919562214,415372119,55587,590147,791
19201,660746,5861,083420,465225,055368,597
19211,9201,053,5121,556718,630660,790388,469
Totals from inception to 31/3/192120,8767,214,06816,2905,131,7154,446,6851,741,328

The financial position of the Advances to Workers Branch of the State Advances Office as on the 31st March, 1921, is shown in the following table:—

ADVANCES TO WORKERS BRANCH: LIABILITIES AND ASSETS, 31ST MARCH, 1921.
 £       s.d.
Liabilities.
Sundry loans2,419,346141
Temporary loan from Settlers Branch330,00000
Interest payable on loans, accrued but not due24,963137
Advances Suspense Account.20,730156
Fire Loss Suspense Account800
Suspense Account1,89395
Reserve Fund41,520144
 £2,838,463611
Assets.
Investment Account—Total principal owing by mortgagors at 31st March, 19212,705,35747
Mortgage instalments overdue—Interest8,79740
Interest on mortgages, accrued but not due30,57213
Loan Charges Account12,00000
Insurance Premiums Account133146
Realization Account7241810
Sinking Funds—
     Public Trustee2,715179
     Advances Office Sinking Fund Account64,663155
     Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch4,3651611
Cash in bank at 31st March, 19219,132138
 £2,838,463611

ADVANCES TO LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

During the eleven years which have elapsed since the system of State advances to local authorities was initiated 2,140 applications under this head have been received for loans totalling £9,003,287. Loans authorized, 1,545 in number, have aggregated £4,661,294, of which £3,856,570 has been, actually advanced. Repayments to the 31st March, 1921, have totalled £355,989, leaving an indebtedness of £3,500,281 in respect of principal moneys. Figures for each of the ten years and to date are as follows:—

ADVANCES TO LOCAL AUTHORITIES, 1911-12 TO 1920-21.
Year ended
31st March.
Applications received.Loans authorized.Amount
advanced.
Amount
repaid.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £       £      £      £      
19122571,184,1332271,047,484790,4858,010
191393136,51387181,795494,13520,781
1914167166,1657284,970259,43029,600
191577222,07048254,430237,28529,800
1916170263,858164238,970285,41035,192
1917118154,025103127,135152,31038,874
1918110171,110109158,055128,15041,681
1919125225,988119214,300130,57546,615
19202841,041,380229717,160311,88049,034
19213101,865,460194689,225444,82553,926
   Totals from inception to 31/3/212,1409,003,2871,5454,661,2943,856,570355,989

As in the case of advances to settlers, advances to local authorities are made from three distinct sources—viz., the funds of the Advances to Local Authorities Branch of the State Advances Office, the Public Debt Sinking Funds, and the Advances Office Sinking Fund. Of the £444,825 advanced in 1920-21 as shown above, only £128,910 came from the Local Authorities Branch, the Advances Office Sinking Fund contributing £121,685, and the Public Debt Sinking Funds £194,230. Of the amount outstanding at the 31st March, the Public Debt Sinking Funds claimed £993,907, and the Advances Office Sinking Fund £256,513.

A statement of the liabilities and assets of the Local Authorities Branch as at the 31st March, 1921, is appended.

 £       s.d.
Liabilities.
Sundry loans2,775,52900
Money received from Treasury in accordance with section 72, Local Bodies' Loans Act, 19133,9871210
Temporary advances from Settlers Branch225,00000
Temporary loans from Public Debt Sinking Funds155,03800
Suspense Account73176
Interest on loan-moneys, accrued but not due36,38567
 3,196,0131611
Assets.
Investment Account, less total repayments—
     Local bodies2,206,904104
     Section 70, Local Bodies' Loans Act, 191343,25580
     Total balance of principal owing on debentures2,250,159184
Interest on debentures—
     Local bodies—Overdue at 31st March, 192112,571158
     Accrued but not due at 31st March, 192116,98891
     Section 70—Overdue at 31st March, 1921859172
     Accrued but not due at 31st March, 1921293195
Loan Charges Account32,87350
Temporary investments545,226123
Interest accrued but not due on temporary investments9,35135
Sinking funds—
     Public Trustee48,46105
     Advances Office Sinking Fund Account211,046112
     Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch9,908119
Profit and Loss Account25,3181210
Cash in hand and in bank at 31st March, 192132,953127
 £3,196,0131611

ERECTION AND PURCHASE OF DWELLINGS.

The Workers' Dwellings Acts of 1905 and 1910 made provision for the erection by the State of workers' dwellings on Crown lands purchased for that purpose. Purchase of houses already erected was also prodded for.

By the Act of 1910 the maximum salary of a worker entitled to take advantage of the provisions of the Act was £175 per annum. As amended in 1914, the Act stipulated that the maximum capital value of a workers' dwelling should be £750. Dwellings could be leased or purchased on the instalment principle by the worker.

The legislation in regard to the purchase or erection of dwellings for workers is now embodied in the Housing Act, 1919, and its amendment of 1920. The 1919 Act was passed to meet difficulties arising out of a serious shortage of houses due to war conditions. Under this Act dwellings may be provided not only by the State itself, but also by local authorities, employers, associations of public servants, and public-utility societies, the State advancing the money. A brief summary of the 1919 Act, as amended, is given:—

Part I (Workers' Dwellings).—This Part is in substitution for the Workers' Dwellings Act, 1910, and its amendments. It provides for the building of houses by the Workers' Dwellings Board on behalf of the Crown, and for the sale or lease of those dwellings to workers as denned in the Act. No person is qualified to acquire a dwelling under this Part of the Act if his annual income exceeds £300 (in the case of a person with not more than two children dependent on him), or £300 increased by £20 in respect of each child or other dependant in excess of two (in the cases of other applicants). The maximum price of a wooden building is fixed at £900, and of a stone, concrete, or brick building at £1,000. Buildings may be purchased on a system of time payment; extending over not more than thirty years in the case of a wooden building, and not more than thirty-six and a half years in the case of any other building. Interest is payable by the purchaser on unpaid purchase-money at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum, reducible on punctual payment to 4 1/2 per cent. Buildings disposed of under the Act are for all time subject to certain restrictions on alienation, and attempted dispositions in contravention of the Act are void. For the purposes of the acquisition of land and buildings, and for the erection of dwellings, the Minister of Finance is empowered to borrow annually the sum of £750,000.

Part II (Special Settlements for Public Servants and Public Utility Societies).— This Part of the Act enables the Minister of Finance to borrow annually the sum of £250,000 to be advanced by way of loan to public servants, societies of public servants, “public utility societies,” and the members of such societies, for the purpose of carrying out approved schemes for the establishment of village settlements or garden suburbs. A “public utility society” is denned as an incorporated society, whose object, or one of whose objects, is the formation of village settlements or garden suburbs, or generally the provision of homes for workers under certain limitations as to payment of dividends or interest to shareholders.

Part III (Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings).—This Part of the Act enables the Minister of Finance to borrow annually the sum of £250,000 to be advanced to employers for the purpose of the erection of dwellinghouses to be disposed of to their employees on conditions to be approved by the Minister.

Part IV (Erection of Workers' Dwellings by Harbour Boards).—This Part of the Act empowers Harbour Boards to acquire land and to erect dwellings thereon for disposal by way of sale or lease to Harbour Board employees. With respect to such dwellings, Harbour Boards have conferred on them the same powers as they have under the Harbours Act, 1908, with respect to harbour-works. Loans may be raised under the authority of this Part of the Act without a poll of the ratepayers being taken.

Part V (Erection of Workers' Dwellings by other Local Authorities).—This Part enables County Councils and Borough Councils to borrow money from the State Advances Office for the erection of workers' dwellings. Any such loans may be raised without taking a poll of the ratepayers. For the purposes of this Part of the Act the Minister of Finance is empowered to borrow annually an additional sum of £1,000,000.

Part VI (Advances to Workers under State Advances Act).—This Part amends the definition of “worker” in the State Advances Act, 1913, so as to correspond with the definition in Part I. It also increases the maximum amount that may be lent to any one borrower under Part III of the State Advances Act, 1913, from £450 to £750.

Part VII (Restriction on Increase of Rent).—This Part amends in various respects the temporary legislation relating to the restriction of rents.

Part VIII (Erection of Staff Residences by Banks).—This Part empowers banking institutions carrying on business in New Zealand to acquire land and erect dwellings thereon for disposal by sale or lease to officers employed in the service of the bank.

Up to the 31st March, 1921, a total of 854 dwellings had been erected or purchased by the State for workers since the inception of the original scheme in 1905. Of these, 159 were erected or purchased under the Housing Act during the year ended the 31st March, 1921. Payments have been completed on 29 houses out of the total of 854.

By the 31st July, 1921, the total number of houses built or purchased by the State under the Housing Act had increased to 269 (162 built, 107 purchased), and 232 dwellings were in course of erection. In addition 63 dwellings had been completed by local authorities at the 31st March, 1921, and 32 were in course of erection. Advances to employers had been made in respect of 11 dwellings for their employees.

The balance-sheet of the Housing Account as at the 31st March, 1921, is appended.

BALANCE-SHEET AS AT 31ST MARCH, 1921.
 £       s.d.
* A portion of this amount is chargeable to uncompleted dwellings, land not yet built upon, and other future operations; the balance is largely due to the initial expense incurred in setting up the Housing Branch.
Liabilities.
Capital Account624,1631510
Sundry creditors—
     On open account1,25119
     Treasury for interest18,51621
     Outstanding liabilities for rent, &c.4,192211
Sundry depositors4,58735
Special maintenance reserve139168
Depreciation reserve1,459100
Insurance reserve1,752113
Gravel Account9889
 £656,160128
Assets.
Cash at bank—
     Housing Account33,99747
     Deposit Account6,049188
     Public Account1848
 0,065711
Cash in Post Office1,02715
Cash in hand—
     Branches42131
     Imprestees5110
 471411
Loan on mortgage3,50000
Sundry debtors608811
Sundry purchasers—
     Dwellings416,83931
     Advances586610
     Vacant sections1,610166
 419,03665
Instalments in arrears1,87663
Rents in arrears75156
Stocks of materials31,65116
Works in progress25,938111
Uncompleted contracts47,85292
Office furniture and fittings187163
Net purchases during year583310
 77107
     Less depreciation138148
 632511
Office bicycles1509
Freehold land62,108142
Freehold dwellings let or leased7,300174
Freehold dwellings (purchases incomplete)2,03000
Premiums paid in advance523174
Repairs and Maintenance Account192410
Revenue Account—£    s.d.
     Balance at 31/3/201,847193
     Add net loss for year*9,830192
 11,678185
 £656,160128

STATE ASSISTANCE TO DISCHARGED SOLDIERS.

Information as to the settlement of discharged soldiers on the land, and as to the system of advances to discharged soldiers for the purchase or erection of dwellings, is contained in Section XV(B) of this book. In addition the State provides financial assistance to discharged soldiers and nurses, and to the widows and widowed mothers of discharged soldiers, for the purpose of purchasing or establishing businesses and obtaining furniture, tools, and equipment.

Loans to a maximum of £300 may be made for the purpose of purchasing or establishing businesses, the first £50 free of interest and the balance bearing interest at 5 per cent. Up to the 20th August, 1921, a total of 5,842 business loans had been made, to an aggregate amount of £1,079,253.

For the purchase of furniture amounts up to £75 may be advanced, free of interest. The maximum for the purchase of tools, equipment, &c., is £50, also free of interest.

Grants not exceeding £50 may be made to an incapacitated soldier or to a soldier's widow in respect of passage-money beyond New Zealand when such a change of location is recognized as being necessary or desirable. Very- few applications have been made for grants under this heading, but many men have been assisted with fares to billets found for them in the Dominion. The finding of employment for discharged soldiers is another function of the Repatriation Department, as is also the provision of training fees, sustenance grants, &c.

Exclusive of expenditure for the settlement of discharged soldiers on the land, and by way of advances for the purchase or erection of dwellings, loans and grants to the amount of £2,051,483 had been made to the 20th August, 1921, in respect of 29,666 men, the expenditure under the various categories being—

 Number of
Cases.
Amount.
Loans— £       
       Business5,8421,1079,253
       Furniture11,756583,722
       Tools, equipment, &c.1,03421,872
                       Total loans18,6321,684,847
Grants—
       Training-fees, sustenance, &c.7,193354,269
       Unemployment sustenance1,0905,390
       Transportation2,7516,977
                       Total grants11,034366,636
                       Grand totals29,666£2,051,483

The general policy in regard to repayment of loans is to fix terms that, while not bearing too hardly upon the individual concerned, will nevertheless ensure the liquidation of the loan within three or four years. In most cases terms are fixed for a period of twelve months, at the end of which time the position is reviewed and the conditions varied if necessary. Up to August, 1921, the sum of £706,255 (42 per cent. of advances) had been repaid, 2,158 loans having been repaid in full, and many others nearing their final instalment. In 100 cases only, involving an aggregate of £5,700, have deficits had to be written off.

OTHER SPHERES OF STATE FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE.

Among other activities of the State in regard to the provision of finance for various purposes may be mentioned—

The draining of areas of land to fit them for settlement:

The making of advances to mineral prospecting parties and mining companies:

The making of advances to fruit-preserving d cold-storage companies:

The supervision of the sale of kauri-gum and the making of advances to the diggers concerned:

The making of advances to enable persons burnt out during the Waimarino bush-fires to re-establish their homes and farms.

Chapter 24. SECTION XXIV.—PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

OLD-AGE PENSIONS.

THE law relating to old-age, military, and widows' pensions is contained in the Pensions Act, 1913, a consolidation of previous enactments, in the Pensions Amendment Act, 1914, and in the Finance Acts of 1917, 1919, and 1920. The history of legislation dealing with old-age pensions is given in the 1919 and previous issues of this book. The first payments were made in the year 1898.

The minimum age for applicants is sixty-five for men and sixty for women. In certain cases where young children are dependent upon the applicant a reduction of the age to sixty and fifty-five respectively may be made.

An applicant must also have resided continuously in New Zealand for twenty-five years, must be of good character, and must not be possessed of property of a value of £390 or over.

The old-age pension amounts now in general to a sum of £39 per annum. This sum under certain conditions may be augmented or reduced.

The number of old-age pensions in force on the 31st March, 1921, was 19,837, a decrease of 156 on the figures for the previous year. The annual liability was £737,378, being an average of £37 3s. per pension. The total payment in respect of old-age pensions during the year was £731,343. A decennial summary is—

At 31st
March.
Pensioners.Amount paid
during Year.
  £      
191216,649406,256
191316,509415,761
191418,050416,776
191519,352460,814
191619,804479,339
191719,697480,230
191819,960643,177
191919,872743,063
192019,993732,968
192119,837731,343

The total payments to the 31st March, 1921, aggregated £8,660,131.

WIDOWS' PENSIONS.

The Widows' Pensions Act, 1911, came into operation on the 1st January, 1912. The scope of this Act has been widened from time to time by various amendments.

Applicants for widows' pensions must be British subjects of good character, with at least one child under fourteen, and applications require to be lodged with the local Registrar of Pensions, and to be investigated by a Magistrate, who alone has power to grant pensions. The term “widow” includes a woman whose husband is detained in a mental hospital.

The maximum pension payable is £39 per annum to a widow with one child under fourteen years of age, with £19 10s. per annum added for each additional child under fourteen. The term “child” includes a stepchild or a child legally adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant.

The number of widows' pensions in force on the 31st March, 1921, was 3,421, covering in addition 7,802 children. The annual value of these pensions was £198,767, and the gross payments during the year were £187,430.

The figures for the last five years are as follows:—

Year ended
31st March.
Number at
End of Year.
Annual
Value.
Annual
Payments.
  £      £      
19172,02439,38638,016
19182,19273,87257,952
19193,211112,61880,773
19203,444185,968136,815
19213,421198,767187,430

The average pension as at 31st March, 1921, was £58 2s. The total widows' pension payments since the inauguration of the scheme in 1912 have been £620,116.

MAORI WAR PENSIONS.

The Military Pensions Act, 1912, was enacted to provide for payment of an annual pension of £36 (now £49) to veterans of the Maori War who have been awarded the New Zealand War Medal for active service in that war. This Act is now embodied in the Pensions Act of 1913 above referred to, which consolidates the law relating to old-age, widows', and Maori War pensions.

The number of pensions in force on the 31st March, 1921, was 811, representing an annual value of £39,739. The payments on account of military pensions during the year aggregated £40,213. The figures for five years are,—

Year ended
31st March.
Number at
End of Year.
Annual Value.Annual Payments.
  £      £      
19171,23244,35245,674
19181,15353,20850,734
19191,04047,81450,488
192093943,29445,085
192181139,73940,213

The number of pensioners of this class is rapidly decreasing, having fallen from 1,323 in 1916 to 811 in 1921.

MINERS' PENSIONS.

The Miner's Phthisis Act, 1915, as amended by the Finance Acts, 1919 and 1920, provides for a pension to any miner who is totally incapacitated for work owing to miner's phthisis (pneumoconiosis) contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand.

The rates of pension payable are—

  • To a single man or widower without children under fourteen, £1 5s. a week.

  • To a married man or widower with children under fourteen, £1 15s. a week.

The number of pensions in force at 31st March, 1921, was 474, representing an annual liability of £29,686, the average pension being £62 12s. Pension payments during the year totalled £26,972, bringing the aggregate from the commencement of the scheme to £79,750. Against this the amount of £22,287 has been credited in respect of gold duty.

WAR PENSIONS.

The War Pensions Act, 1915, as amended, provides for the payment of pensions on certain conditions—

  1. To disabled members of the New Zealand Forces:

  2. To dependants of disabled, deceased, or missing members of the New Zealand Forces.

“Member of the Forces” may include—

  1. A member of any New Zealand Expeditionary Force raised for service beyond New Zealand in the late war:

  2. A member of any New Zealand Naval Force raised for service beyond New Zealand in the late war:

  3. A member of the New Zealand Army Nursing Service who, while domiciled in New Zealand, has served beyond New Zealand in the late war and was in the pay of the New Zealand Government:

  4. A member of the New Zealand Defence or Naval Forces temporarily attached to any other portion of His Majesty's Forces who has served beyond New Zealand in the late war and was in receipt of pay from the Imperial Government:

  5. Any person, not being a member of any New Zealand Expeditionary or Naval Force, who, while domiciled in New Zealand, has served beyond New Zealand in the late war and was in receipt of pay from the New Zealand Government:

  6. Any person, not being a member of any New Zealand Expeditionary Force, who has been engaged on active military service in any capacity in New Zealand in connection with the late war.

The full scale of pensions was published in the 1920 number of this book.

The gross annual value of the pensions in force at the 31st March, 1921, was £1,748,865. A summary follows:—

SUMMARY OF ANNUAL LIABILITY AT 31ST MARCH, 1921.
Class of Pension.Number.Annual Value.Average
Pension.
* Including the pensions of children.
  £      £  
Soldiers (permanent)3,215183,03257
Soldiers (temporary)19,1331,044,82155
Dependants (temporary)1,37191,149*66
Widows of soldiers2,034226,932*112
Other dependants of deceased soldiers6,011202,93134
                       Totals31,7641,748,86555

Information as to number and rate of war pensions in force at 31st March, 1921, is given in the following table: —

WAR PENSIONS IN FORCE AT EACH RATE ON 31ST MARCH, 1921.
Rate (nearest £1).Soldiers
(Permanent).
Soldiers
(Temporary).
Wives and
Parents
(on Account of
Disablement).
On Account of Death.
Widows (including
Children's Pensions).
Parents and
other Dependants.
£ £ 
261-300..   ..   ..   9..   
234-2602217228..   
201-233361579..   
191-200113..   26..   
181-190621,22621105..   
171-180..   ..   ..   9..   
161-170..   4..   82..   
151-160103861951
141-15031950151
131-140538362..   
121-130597195411..   
111-1201547676
101-11038128126215
  91-1007811219108
  81-90357..   21406
  71-803251,231291531169
  61-7015254726863
  51-606544,07937048467
  41-5089332..   53
  31-405084,123147461,641
  21-306676,7821812393,476
    6-2016744493115
         Totals3,21519,1331,3712,0346,011

The total payments on war pensions to the 31st March, 1921, were £5,608,870, the figures for each year being:—

Year ended
31st March.
Pension
Payments.
 £      
191613,910
1917180,389
1918515,445
19191,199,755
19201,812,419
19211,886,952

SOUTH AFRICAN VETERANS' WAR PENSIONS.

Section 13 of the Finance Act, 1919, provides that every person permanently resident in New Zealand who on the passing of that Act was in receipt of a pension or allowance under Part IX of the Defence Act, 1909, in respect of military service in South Africa, shall be entitled to a pension under the War Pensions Act, 1915, in the same manner as if he had been a member of the Forces within the meaning of that Act. Any pension under this section shall not be of such amount that the total amount receivable (including any Imperial pension) would be more than the pension payable if he had been a member of the Forces within the War Pensions Act, 1915.

POLICE PENSIONS.

Section 14 of the Finance Act, 1919, makes provision that, in the event of the death of any Police officer by misadventure suffered in the exercise of his duties, an allowance is payable to or on behalf of his widow and children at rates not exceeding those payable if he were a member of an Expeditionary Force under the Expeditionary Force Act, 1915. This Act is retrospective, but in this case any compensation already paid is taken into account. The scale for disablement is also similar to the war-pensions scale.

Applications are made to the same authorities, and the procedure is the same as in the case of war pensions.

Only five pensions, of an aggregate annual liability of £390, were in force under this head at the 31st March, 1921.

EPIDEMIC PENSIONS.

To relieve distress arising out of the influenza epidemic of 1918 a system of pensions was instituted. The number of pensions in force at the 31st March, 1920, was 939, and at the 31st March, 1921, 349, the latter representing an annual liability of £71,486, the average pension being £83. The amount paid during the financial year 1920-21 in respect of epidemic pensions was £72,456.

SUPERANNUATION FUNDS.

The question of providing pensions for the public and semi-public servants of the Dominion on their retirement has received a good deal of attention in recent years. The schemes now in force embrace the State Railways, Public Service (including Police), and Teachers, while the various local bodies are empowered to establish schemes under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908.

PUBLIC SERVICE SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Public Service Superannuation Act, 1907, now embodied in the Public Service Classification and Superannuation Act, 1908, which with its amendments includes all branches of the Public Service except the Railways Department and so much of the Education Department as is included in Part IX of the Education Act, 1908 (mainly Inspectors and teachers of public schools), came into force on the 1st January, 1908. The scheme, although optional on the part of public servants permanently employed at that date, is compulsory on all persons appointed thereafter.

The principal benefits are—

  1. A pension for every year of service equal to one-sixtieth of the average annual salary for the last three years, payable (a) after forty years' service, or (b) at age sixty-five, or (c) on retirement owing to ill health. The maximum pension is not to exceed two-thirds of the salary, or, in the case of entrants after the 24th December, 1909, £300 per annum.

  2. A pension of £18 per annum, to the widow of a contributor or pensioner during widowhood, and £13 per annum for each child under the age of fourteen.

Females may retire after thirty years' service or at the age of fifty-five, while the retiring-age may be reduced in certain cases for both males and females. Special pensions may be given in the case of a member of the Police Force for injuries received on duty.

The contributions vary with the age on joining the fund: For ages under thirty they are 5 per cent. of the salary; ages thirty and under thirty-five, 6 per cent.; thirty-five and under forty, 7 per cent.; forty and under forty-five, 8 per cent.; forty-five and under fifty, 9 per cent.; fifty and over, 10 per cent.

On the 31st December, 1920, there were 15,387 contributors paying £241,639 per annum into the fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 1,826, and were entitled to £142,719 per annum, made up as follows:—

 Number.Pension.
  £      
Retired for age or length of service796118,020
Retired for ill health14110,729
Police injured on duty4395
Widows4147,452
Children4716,123
 1,826£142,719

The following table contains particulars of the public servants who were contributing to the fund at the end of the year 1920, grouped according to their respective rates of contribution:—

Rate per Cent.
of Contribution.
Number.Annual
Salary.
Annual
Contributions.
Male.Female.Total.
    £      £      
    58,5402,08810,6282,457,562122,878
    61,5311881,719561,95933,718
    71,1711331,304442,92131,004
    8841106947331,95326,556
    949838536198,79817,892
  102391425395,9099,591
Totals12,8202,56715,3874,089,102241,639

Accumulated funds at the end of 1920 amounted to £1,388,968. Interest was earned on the mean funds at a rate of £5 3s. 1d. per cent.

The report of the Superannuation Board for the year 1920 shows that up to the end of that year the total amount saved to the Consolidated Fund since the initiation of the superannuation scheme has been £401,341, the State subsidies to the fund aggregating £588,500, or £187,159 in excess of the actual saving referred to, which is reckoned only to the date the contributors joined the fund.

The Police Provident Fund, which was established on the 1st December, 1899, under the Police Provident Act, 1899, was merged in the Public Service Superannuation Fund on the 1st April, 1910.

TEACHERS' SUPERANNUATION FUND.

Since the passing of the Public Service Classification and Superannuation Amendment Act, 1908, the benefits from the Teachers' Superannuation Fund have been brought into line with those of the Public Service Superannuation Fund. Existing contributors had, however, the right of electing to remain subject to the provisions formerly in force.

There are a few slight differences between the Public Service and the Teachers' Funds, the chief being that (1) the service of the teachers need not be continuous; (2) no pensions are payable on retirement for ill health unless the service exceeds fifteen years; and (3) in the case of reduction of status owing to age or infirmity, there is no provision that the pension must be computed on the higher salary as in the Public Service Fund.

The total subsidies paid to the fund by the Government amounted on the 31st December, 1920, to £221,000. On the 31st December, 1920, there were 5,174 contributors, the annual contributions amounting to £87,400.

The retiring and other allowances were 836, representing a charge of £70,208 per annum, made up of—

 NumberAmount of
Pension.
  £      
Retired for age or length of service51356,755
Retired for ill health999,903
Widows1252,263
Children481,287
 836£70,208

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Government Railways Superannuation Fund was established on the 1st January, 1903, by the Government Railways Superannuation Fund Act, 1902, now embodied in the Government Railways Act, 1908.

The pension is here also one-sixtieth of the annual rate of pay for every year of service, but the retiring age is sixty for both males and females, instead of ages sixty - five and fifty - five respectively as in the Public Service. The only other differences of importance are that the annual allowances to widows and children are paid only on the death of contributors before retiring on a pension, and that the pension is computed on the last salary, except where the contributor has served in a lower grade within the previous five years, in which case the average for seven years is taken.

At the 31st March, 1921, there were 2,005 persons on the fund, drawing annual allowances amounting to £130,000.

The balance to the credit of the fund at the 31st March, 1921, was £464,491, representing an increase of £56,258 during the twelve months.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES SUPERANNUATION.

The Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908, which came into force on the 10th October, 1908, applies to Borough Councils, County Councils, Town Boards, Road Boards, Harbour Boards, Charitable Aid Boards, tramway companies, or any body possessing rating-powers over any district.

Statistical information as to the various funds which have been initiated under the authority of this statute is not available.

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND.

The National Provident Fund was established by Act in 1910, and came into operation on the 1st March, 1911. The fund is administered by a Board composed of the Minister of Finance as Chairman and four members appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom is the Superintendent of the fund.

The system is open to any person between the ages of sixteen and fifty years residing in New Zealand, whose average income during the three years prior to joining has not exceeded £300 per annum. There is no medical examination on entry, and the method of joining is extremely simple, the applicant having merely to fill in a form at a postal money-order office or local office of the fund, and pay a first weekly contribution.

The following benefits are payable:—

  1. After contributing for twelve months, a payment not exceeding £6 for medical attendance and nursing on the birth of a contributor's child or children.

  2. After contributing for five years, an allowance, after three months' incapacity to work, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child of a contributor under fourteen years of age. Payable independent of any allowances due from friendly societies. No contributions payable while in receipt of incapacity allowance.

  3. After contributing for five years, an allowance, on the death of a contributor, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child under fourteen years of age, and 7s. 6d. for the widow so long as any child is under fourteen years of age.

  4. On reaching age sixty, a pension of 10s., 20s., 30s., or 40s. per week, according to the scale of contributions. The receipt of a pension under the National Provident Fund Act does not affect a person's claim to the old-age pension under the Pensions Act.

The maternity allowance is payable only if the combined income of a contributor and wife or husband does not exceed £300 per annum at the time of claim, but this limitation does not debar from the other benefits. The incapacity allowance is not to exceed the pecuniary loss which, in the opinion of the Board, the contributor has probably suffered during incapacity, and the income of a contributor during incapacity, independent of the fund, is not to exceed the rate: of £4 per week.

The contributions for each 10s. of weekly pension range from 9d. per week in the case of persons joining at age sixteen to 9s. 4d. per week for persons joining at age fifty.

In the event of a contributor leaving the fund or dying, all contributions (less any benefits received) are returnable. If a contributor dies before the first five years are completed his representatives receive the contributions he has paid, less anything he received during lifetime. Should he die after age sixty, before receiving in benefits a sum equal to the contributions paid in during his lifetime, the difference is returnable to his representatives; and, further, if the allowances paid for widow and children do not exhaust the contributions his representatives are entitled to the residue. If a contributor dies before sixty, leaving a widow and no children, all the contributions are returnable, less benefits paid out.

The benefits under the Act are guaranteed by the State, which subsidizes the contributions to the extent of one-fourth of the amount paid into the fund.

An important extension of the fund was authorized by the amending Act of 1914 whereby the employees of local authorities, &c., could be enrolled in the fund for superannuation purposes.

A further amendment was incorporated in the Finance Act, 1916, whereby approved friendly societies were granted a maternity allowance and offered annuities on reduced terms and under special tables.

The result of the fund's operations for each of the ten years it has been in existence is indicated in the following table:—

At End ofNumber of
Contributors.
Annual
Rate of
Contribution
payable.
Amount
of Fund.
  £      £      
19115503,1721,826
19122,66011,72710,038
19135,79122,71929,327
19146,85826,52053,718
19158,10131,87583,000
19169,84738,664122,361
191712,12456,707176,210
191813,41069,486246,901
191916,15491,450338,729
192019,724129,003473,361

During the year 1920 maternity allowances aggregating £31,972 were paid out, including £25,318 claimed for members of approved friendly societies. In addition, £3,118 was granted by way of allowances to widows and children, £2,772 on retirement, and £364 in respect of incapacity.

The Revenue Account of the fund for the year ended the 31st December, 1920, is as follows:—

REVENUE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR 1920.
 £      
Revenue.
Amount of fund at beginning of year338,729
Contributions110,595
Interest18,822
Fines585
Benefits refunded by deduction44
Government contribution under Act28,472
Refund of maternity claims by the State31,972
Overpaid contributions1
 £529,220
Expenditure.
Maternity claims (section 18)6,654
Maternity claims (approved friendly societies)25,318
Refund of contributions on lapse reduction, and withdrawal16,945
Incapacity allowances664
Refund of contributions on death386
Allowances to widows and children3,118
Allowances on retirement2,772
Refund of overpaid contributions2
Amount of fund at end of year473,361
 £529,220

The balance-sheet of the fund as at the end of the year 1920 is also given:—

BALANCE-SHEET AS AT 31ST DECEMBER, 1920.
 £      
* Included in Revenue Account.
Liabilities.
Fund as per Revenue Account473,361
Claims due and in course of payment*3,319
Refunds in suspense13,421
Deposits on incomplete applications to join fund1
Suspense Account789
One-half contributions of soldiers overpaid by State52
Contributions prepaid3,671
 £494,614
Assets.
Invested with Public Trustee423,566
Balance with Post Office4,188
Balances in transit6,032
Contributions outstanding or in course of transmission*
     Contributions due but not overdue9,965
     Contributions overdue2,616
Government subsidy due under Act*28,472
Refund due in respect of maternity claims*3,914
Fines due327
Interest accrued but not due*6,534
 £494,614

ACTUARIAL INVESTIGATION.

The third actuarial investigation of the National Provident Fund was made as at 31st December, 1919, when the valuation balance-sheet disclosed the following position:—

MAIN FUND AND APPROVED-FRIENDLY-SOCIETIES SECTION.
 £      £      
 Liabilities.
Value of allowances already granted to widows and children14,698 
Value of deferred pensions to survivors of existing contributors648,471
Value of return of contributions (less benefits) on death or withdrawal, in respect of past and future contributions208,648
Value of allowance benefits (widows', children's, and incapacity), immediate to 4,672 members, and vesting five years after entry in the case of 10,220 members207,077
Value of return of balance of contributions where allowances or pensions fall short of the total contributions paid, and of sundry minor benefits3,850
 1,082,744
LOCAL-AUTHORITIES SECTION.
 £      £      
  Liabilities.
Value of allowances already granted14,903 
Value of prospective pensions in respect of past and future service420,176
Value of prospective pensions to widows and children55,431
Value of return of contributions on death or withdrawal22,762
Value of return of balance of contributions where allowances or pensions fall short of the total contributions paid, and of sundry minor benefits10,475
 523,747
 £1,606,491
Assets.
Accumulated funds338,729
Value of future contributions1,013,439
Value of future State subsidies (assumed to be received a year later than contributions)248,389
Balance (deficiency)5,934
 £1,606,491

The assets and liabilities are seen to be virtually equal, the debit balance, however, having increased from £234 at the first triennial investigation (as at 31st December, 1913) to £5,934. The amounts required to provide maternity allowances are voted by Parliament annually, and these allowances are accordingly regarded as being outside the actuarial aspects of the scheme.

Chapter 25. SECTION XXV.—VALUATION OF LAND.

HISTORICAL ACCOUNT.

THE system of separately assessing the value of the land itself and the value of the buildings and improvements effected thereon was first put into practice in New Zealand for the purposes of State taxation on the passing of the Land-tax Act, 1878, under which a tax was levied on land-values, the impost being 1/2d. in the pound on the capital value of real estate, less the assessed value of the improvements.

The Land-tax Act, 1878, was superseded by the Property-tax Act, 1879, which provided for the levy of a uniform tax of 1d. in the pound on the capital value of all property—real and personal—above the amount of £500 in value.

The Property-tax Act, 1879, was in its turn superseded by the Land and Income Assessment Act, 1891. Under this enactment a land-tax was imposed on land and mortgages of land, with an exemption for improvements on land up to £3,000. An exemption from income-tax was also allowed on all incomes derived from land and mortgages of land.

Two years later, under the provisions of the Land and Income Assessment Acts Amendment Act, 1893, all improvements on land were entirely exempted.

An endeavour to extend the principle of general exclusion of improvements to local taxation resulted in the passing of the Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896, which gave local authorities the option of deciding that equivalent rates on the unimproved values of lands in their jurisdiction should be substituted for the rates levied on the full capital values or on the annual values.

The valuing of land up to the year 1896 was not conducted on a uniform basis. Each State Department and each local authority worked quite independently, and employed as valuers whom it thought fit. The Land-tax Department periodically employed a small army of temporary valuers when it required a new valuation of lands for taxation purposes, and each local authority had its own particular method of making up its roll for the levying of rates. Estimates of values arrived at by various authorities varied to a dangerous degree. Some values were very high, being based on speculative prices, while many were extremely low. Frequently the same property had several values assigned to it.

In order to overcome as far as possible the obvious defects of the old system, it was decided to establish a new system of valuation, by which all valuations required by State Departments—whether for loan, taxation, or other purposes—and by local authorities that rate on the capital or unimproved value should be made by valuers employed by the State at fixed salaries and responsible to the Government alone.

The Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896, was in due course introduced and passed. This Act provided for the setting-up of a separate Department of State charged with the duty of estimating the values of real estate in the Dominion for taxation and other purposes of the General Government and for local rating purposes.

The whole of the existing law relating to the valuation of land in New Zealand is contained in the Valuation of Land Act, 1908 (which is a consolidation of the Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896, and the Acts amending the same), the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1908, and the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1912, and the regulations made under these Acts.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND IN NEW ZEALAND.

General valuations of land for the whole of New Zealand were made periodically up to the year 1897-98. Since that year no general valuations for the whole Dominion have been made, but portions are revalued from time to time. The figures in the following table, showing valuations over a number of years, therefore represent general valuations up to 1897 only, while for subsequent years the figures have been revised to include the latest valuations of small divisions.

In the twenty-four years from 1878 to 1902 the value, both of unimproved land and of improvements, increased by slightly over 50 per cent. In the eighteen years from 1902 to 1920, as the effect of a long period of prosperity, the total valuations have been trebled.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1878-1920.
Year.Capital Value
(Land and
Improvements).
Unimproved
Value of Land
(included in
previous Column).
 £       £       
187899,566,67962,573,868
1882101,000,000..   
1885113,270,649..   
1888111,137,71475,497,379
1891122,225,02975,832,465
1897138,591,34784,401,244
1902154,816,13294,847,727
1904182,796,241112,629,412
1905197,684,475122,937,126
1906218,422,552137,168,548
1907236,644,536149,682,689
1908253,440,172161,324,763
1909271,516,022172,759,948
1910277,630,083175,289,861
1911293,117,065184,062,798
1912315,503,213199,184,261
1913340,559,728212,963,468
1914365,342,237228,493,376
1915371,076,683230,705,147
1916389,164,729241,322,255
1917405,466,071251,087,708
1918421,383,373260,921,812
1919445,533,445275,988,409
1920470,093,697290,880,264

Information covering the last ten years as to the gross capital and unimproved values in the North and South Islands and in the whole Dominion is given in the following table, which also shows the separate totals for counties, boroughs, and town districts (independent of county jurisdiction):—

GROSS VALUES, 1911-20.
Year.Number.North Island.South Island.*New Zealand.
Capital Value
(Land and
Improvements).
Unimproved
Value of Land
(included in
previous Column).
Capital Value
(Land and
Improvements).
Unimproved
Value of Land
(included in
previous Column).
Capital Value
(Land and
Improvements).
Unimproved
Value of Land
(included in
previous Column).
* Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.
Counties.
  £         £         £         £         £         £         
1911118107,638,95472,319,27377,403,38357,671,320185,042,337129,990,593
1912123117,099,19478,574,76981,014,94460,239,117198,114,138138,813,886
1913124130,946,88287,361,65587,335,15664,912,274218,282,038152,273,929
1914125136,142,91290,361,87793,708,09369,484,292229,851,005159,846,169
1915125137,669,16891,079,54394,296,27569,841,015231,965,443160,920,558
1916125146,242,11897,379,01596,811,08471,199,250243,041,202168,578,265
1917125154,477,641102,981,689100,636,68874,108,106255,114,329177,089,795
1918125164,928,221109,611,569103,714,87976,670,835268,643,100186,282,404
1919131182,705,967120,687,776108,086,61580,086,519290,792,582200,774,295
1920134192,504,367126,201,659114,988,29785,947,072307,492,664212,148,731
Boroughs.
191111165,159,19635,551,07139,649,80516,766,347104,809,00152,317,418
191211473,385,46841,506,15440,295,80116,856,865113,681,26958,363,019
191311676,763,29841,734,84842,207,28017,354,970118,970,57850,089,818
191411784,945,58247,017,46345,875,02319,367,115130,820,60560,384,578
191511787,671,60948,150,30946,638,66319,396,948134,310,27267,547,257
191611692,902,16050,443,30948,313,99920,050,324141,216,15970,493,733
191711596,207,34551,510,81948,770,85220,018,500144,978,19771,529,319
191811897,648,13951,772,26949,660,41920,358,456147,308,55872,130,725
191911798,520,64451,910,88660,615,52620,737,636149,136,17072,648,522
1920116103,409,09353,707,07752,511,73021,877,277155,920,82375,584,354
Independent Town Districts.
1911252,591,8331,439,866673,894314,9213,265,7271,754,787
1912252,925,8711,639,588781,935367,7683,707,8062,007,356
1913242,487,0871,228,438820,025371,2833,307,1121,599,721
1914333,808,3681,880,433862,259382,1964,670,6272,262,629
1915343,916,1011,854,576884,867382,7564,800,9682,237,332
1916354,273,9751,989,761621,393260,4964,895,3682,250,257
1917364,732,9482,207,633640,597260,9615,373,5452,468,594
1918364,820,0632,255,646611,632253,0375,431,7152,508,683
1919374,941,5192,301,302663,174264,2905,604,6932,565,592
1920395,979,3572,851,680700,853295,4996,680,2103,147,179
Grand Totals.
1911..   175,389,983109,310,210117,727,08274,752,588293,117,065184,062,798
1912..   193,410,533121,720,511122,092,68077,463,750315,503,213199,184,261
1913..   210,197,267130,324,941130,362,46182,638,527340,559,728212,963,468
1914..   224,896,862139,259,773140,445,37589,233,603365,342,237228,493,376
1915..   229,256,878141,084,428141,819,80589,620,719371,076,683230,705,147
1916..   243,418,253149,812,085145,746,47691,510,170389,164,729241,322,255
1917..   255,417,934156,700,141150,048,13794,387,567405,466,071251,087,708
1918..   267,396,443163,639,484153,986,93097,282,328421,383,373260,921,812
1919..   286,168,130174,899,964159,365,315101,088,445445,533,445275,988,409
1920..   301,892,817182,760,416168,200,880108,119,848470,093,697290,880,264

The values shown in the preceding table are, as stated, the gross values; they include the value not only of rateable properties, but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating. A summary of rateable values for the year 1920 is next given.

RATEABLE VALUES, 1920.—SUMMARY.
—-North Island.South Island.*New Zealand.
Capital Value
(Land and
Improvements).
Unimproved
Value of Land
(included in
previous Column).
Capital Value
(Land and
Improvements).
Unimproved
Value of Land
(included in
previous Column).
Capital Value
(Land and
Improvements).
Unimproved
Value of Land
(included in
previous Column).
* Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.
 £         £         £         £         £         £         
Counties184,847,739120,561,227109,615,23082,282,841294,462,969202,844,068
Boroughs94,108,47849,114,32047,031,44619,784,077141,139,92468,898,3
Town Districts (Independent)5,535,4162,693,536647,077278,0606,182,4932,971,596
     Totals284,491,633172,369,083157,293,753102,344,978441,785,386274,714,061

As has been pointed out above, the figures shown for 1920 and other years subsequent to 1898 do not represent general revaluations of the whole Dominion in the years shown. Revaluations are made, district by district, as circumstances permit, or as progress of the district renders advisable. An analysis of the gross capital value shown for the year 1920 gives the following results:—

Last revised
as at April
in Year
Counties.Boroughs.Town
Districts.
Total.
 £      £      £      £      
1897161,627..      ..      161,627
189817,98471,735..      89,719
1904166,89632,037..      198,933
1905..      857,950..      857,950
190642,045349,845..      391,890
1907233,9465,529,367..      5,763,313
1908505,2993,370,339204,1384,079,776
19092,648,2761,331,584..      3,979,860
1910778,8961,860,584..      2,639,480
19115,485,7889,610,844263,25715,359,889
19125,071,8605,014,349351,39810,437,607
191325,011,8067,495,9491,048,14733,555,902
191432,200,59876,680,8041,441,942110,323,304
19153,899,079428,150..      4,327,229
191633,962,99011,982,689225,60546,171,284
191736,287,9385,939,355275,63842,502,931
191841,885,0393,471,143867,24146,223,423
191965,774,7723,389,058..      69,163,830
192053,357,86518,505,0412,002,84473,865,750
               Totals307,492,664155,920,8236,680,210470,093,697

Of the total gross capital value of £470,093,697, £187,839,250 represents districts which were not revalued between April, 1914, and April, 1920. A considerable reduction in this amount has occurred since April, 1920.

It should be explained that in those few cases where a borough, town district, or local division of a county has been valued partly in one year and partly in another, and information is not available as to the amounts represented by the valuations in the respective years, the whole district has been included in the latest, of the two years. Napier Borough, for instance, was revised partly in 1914 and partly in 1917, but is wholly included in the 1917 figures shown above.

Those districts which have not been revalued during, say, the last ten years may be regarded as having made little or no progress since the last valuation, which has accordingly been allowed to stand. Fiord County, with a gross capital value of £144,293 and a rateable capital value of only £15,851, has not been revalued since 1897, nor have certain islands.

The gross capital and unimproved values for each county, borough, and independent town district as in 1920 are next given. The particulars for component parts of administrative counties—viz., road districts, dependent town districts, and portions of outlying country—are given in Vol. IV of “Statistics of New Zealand.”

COUNTIES.

TABLE SHOWING GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF EACH COUNTY IN NEW ZEALAND.
County.Capital Value
(Land and
Improvements).
Unimproved
Value of Land
(included in
previous Column).
 £       £       
Mongonui945,828561,648
Whangaroa290,887184,725
Bay of Islands1,601,7721,013,861
Hokianga1,270,490772,279
Whangarei2,525,2321,428,883
Hobson2,141,7041,278,922
Otamatea1,713,504951,822
Rodney1,790,789933,208
Waitemata2,630,7131,809,198
Eden4,789,3312,982,315
Manukau2,714,8741,897,827
Franklin3,903,9352,570,580
Great Barrier Island133,758108,440
Islands—
     Little Barrier, Waiheke, &c.327,038212,080
Waikato4,676;7553,329,566
Raglan3,296,1432,140,437
Waipa4,980,2883,432,686
Kawhia1,066,905641,777
Awakino953,230551,965
Waitomo4,070,1032,615,159
Ohura1,981,9871,177,608
Coromandel430,860280,914
Hauraki plains1,889,7171,536,842
Thames667,740453,113
Ohinemuri721,390450,600
Tauranga1,790,1101,048,179
Piako3,611,8952,470,340
Matamata3,095,8841,944,111
Rotorua620,056483,401
Whakatane2,218,5871,507,466
Opotiki2,358,8971,275,522
East Taupo544,898347,152
West Taupo1,991,5441,445,369
Islands—
     Mayor and Motiti19,41512,141
Matakaoa945,100588,137
Waiapu3,819,9132,033,716
Uawa1,558,6181,042,086
Waikohu5,094,7333,105,805
Cook6,524,5344,406,70
Wairoa3,836,7992,459,541
Hawke's Bay10,822,2818,129,538
Waipawa2,957,0112,097,929
Waipukurau913,151682,749
Dannivirke3,313,0942,174,283
Wood ville1,381,374962,902
Patangata4,618,1523,597,581
Weber719,621475,510
Clifton901,065525,808
Taranaki1,426,655840,708
Inglewood965,585484,730
Egmont1,797,932949,381
Stratford3,348,2362,112,706
Whangamomona564,030325,790
Waimate West2,091,2701,535,209
Hawera4,294,3083,116,171
Eltham1,998,9911,357,106
Patea3,613,1372,394,698
Waitotara2,683,6411,827,677
Waimarino1,313,551917,120
Wanganui2,913,3591,757,086
Rangitikei8,492,5325,600,632
Kiwitea3,417,4782,233,534
Pohangina1,792,2951,150,845
Kaitieke1,477,318968,729
Manawatu3,646,7582,599,746
Oroua3,148,2932,113,933
Kairanga4,787,3463,351,865
Horowhenua3,484,1062,512,491
Islands—
     Kapiti, Mana, and Somes17,98413,378
Chatham Islands285,942195,901
Pahiatua2,544,71,4,526
Akitio1,187,684608,973
Castlepoint833,367537,992
Eketahuna1,850,2821,006,741
Mauriceville541,813303,986
Masterton2,863,1421,880,265
Wairarapa South2,278,8771,355,968
Featherston4,675,7482,987,180
Hutt2,234,3861,291,182
Makara1,047,721500,330
Collingwood472,575306,192
Takaka700,949392,461
Waimea3,197,6701,786,792
Sounds793,781478,932
Marlborough3,433,6142,608,352
Awatere2,243,6201,761,975
Kaikoura1,228,654903,267
Buller1,415,269732,522
Murchison781,286474,448
Inangahua589,19297,618
Grey1,006,578659,773
Westland1,059,10768,388
Cheviot,792,0101,469,020
Amuri2,611,8912,125,925
Waipara4,383,2933,786,771
Ashley852,332702,125
Kowai1,190,271937,277
Oxford1,149,705952,084
Rangiora1,797,8621,63,833
Eyre1,203,40681,226
Waimairi3,772,8772,282,489
Paparua2,115,3121,567,438
Malvern2,571,9712,044,710
Tawera580,129483,579
Heathcote999,945564,260
Halswell856,194684,384
Selwyn1,728,0721,396,872
Springs1,264,6001,039,935
Ellesmere2,230,8841,818,306
Mount Herbert572,009470,054
Wairewa1,282,1531,058,958
Akaroa2,287,1611,917,107
Ashburton11,078,8599,344,869
Geraldine3,525,4682,870,817
Levels3,701,9022,989,059
Mackenzie2,136,4181,676,261
Waimate6,792,2905,601,047
Waitaki5,363,5304,118,179
Maniototo927,866640,920
Waihemo806,188598,799
Waikouaiti1,256,735812,912
Peninsula523,644290,740
Taieri2,206,5101,592,360
Tuapeka2,439,2041,660,720
Bruce1,765,1741,172,416
Clutha3,097,6031,941,347
Islands—
     Quarantine and Goat3,454900
Vincent977,388646,022
Lake551,721405,179
Fiord144,293137,513
Wallace3,703,8382,559,756
Southland11,355,1157,651,212
Stewart Island166,896129,190
Islands—
     Antipodes, &c.13,88013,880

BOROUGHS.

TABLE SHOWING GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF EACH BOROUGH IN NEW ZEALAND.
Borough.Capital Value
(Land and
Improvements).
Unimproved
Value of Land
(included in
previous Column).
 £       £       
Whangarei1,079,043530,898
Dargaville428,150231,810
Birkenhead618,770322,480
Devonport2,172,1301,003,071
AUCKLAND CITY
     City Portion18,160,29111,206,530
     Parnell Portion1,285,448616,955
     Grey Lynn Portion1,335,141516,921
     Arch Hill Portion224,945104,910
     Eden Terrace Portion327,809140,324
     Epsom Portion1,282,224599,610
     Remuera Portion2,528,3891,187,414
          Total of City25,144,24714,372,664
Newmarket717,159377,949
Onehunga1,098,295512,495
Takapuna1,177,396747,839
Northcote338,353184,228
Mount Albert1,747,298813,590
Mount Eden2,532,4951,022,255
Otahuhu508,125273,395
Pukekohe398,706221,481
Hamilton4,141,0972,330,147
Cambridge456,370259,221
Te Awamutu311,170176,726
Thames637,225251,023
Tauranga310,295143,516
Paeroa390,235192,255
Waihi419,052147,077
Te Aroha349,035160,400
Rotorua (Town)774,390461,902
Whakatane251,476134,902
Opotiki280,409153,004
Taumaranui393,005197,112
Te Kuiti560,827332,200
Gisborne3,108,2851,490,540
Wairoa444,179239,958
Napier3,500,7421,671,857
Hastings2,702,6031,523,525
Dannevirke898,437382,023
Woodville165,96860.338
Waipawa262,915141,524
Waipukurau340,485161,429
New Plymouth2,180,6331,281,082
Hawera910,954414,548
Patea149,19757,406
Waitara237,03784,426
Inglewood206,32887,872
Stratford582,141238,563
Eltham417,427193,976
Wanganui3,189,6201,925,109
Marton354,670140,165
Ohakune133,83347,86
Taihape350,145173,834
Feilding887,829433,234
Palmerston North3,253,6361,668,097
Foxton273,400115,632
WELLINGTON CITY
     Onslow and Wadestown Portion983,306472,687
     Karori and Northland Portion1,077,173524,885
     City Portion18,436,1419,797,224
     Kilbirnie Portion4,017,6821,506,476
     Island Bay Portion
     Ohiro Portion
          Total of City24,514,30212,301,272
Shannon125,16054,085
Levin311,790148,006
Pahiatua245,844101,464
Masterton1,429,735576,336
Carterton298,586118,655
Greytown205,36286,017
Lower Hutt1,468,237829,613
Petone1,480,954675,610
Eketahuna154,73666,624
Featherston132,76532,542
Eastbourne328,917144,095
Miramar927,488486,117
Richmond222,992117,503
Nelson City1,835,766849,686
Picton300,562154,235
Blenheim1,044,995477,941
Motueka317,338157,081
Westport743,414373,532
Greymouth848,274268,817
Brunner71,78512,270
Kumara32,0376,142
Hokitika262,16177,190
Ross24,7627,113
Runanga57,97818,792
Rangiora347,877130,327
Kaiapoi191,24358,753
CHRISTCHURCH CITY
     St. Albans Portion2,665,325925,855
     Richmond Portion215,89072,040
     North-east Portion673,310253,221
     North-West Portion1,896,931916,113
     South-east Portion1,562,636727,337
     South-west Portion3,678,4972,113,981
     Sydenham Portion2,079,366746,938
     Opawa Portion153,91567,885
     St. Martin's Portion71,92536,800
     Linwood Portion1,311,191436,729
     Avonside Portion124,99552,365
          Total of City14,433,9816,349,264
Woolston536,407172,357
New Brighton568,630271,860
Sumner732,990360,690
Lyttelton988,107272,707
Akaroa116,64645,239
Riccarton590,877197,035
Spreydon646,445237,085
Ashburton646,036213,569
Timaru3,255,2251,562,170
Geraldine136,96343,740
Temuka251,46367,781
Waimate413,515129,510
Oamaru880,133290,486
Hampden30,0019,047
Naseby20,8632,583
Palmerston91,51924,376
Waikouaiti78,12528,112
Port Chalmers370,768120,752
West Harbour217,57773,742
DUNEDIN CITY
     Valley Portion650,706210,537
     Maori Hill Portion457,517186,495
     Roslyn Portion1,050,062346,496
     Mornington559,336191,056
     Leith Portion3,814,1461,808,381
     High Portion4,620,0302,293,315
     Caversham Portion1,632,089454,563
     Anderson's Bay Portion399,356161,783
          Total of City13,183,2425,552,626
St. Kilda991,820313,105
Green Island285,22665,775
Mosgiel267,68095,660
Roxburgh37,6805,969
Lawrence111,30929,744
Tapanui33,2259,075
Milton185,75355,946
Balclutha229,56882,803
Kaitangata113,49131,538
Cromwell46,48210,055
Alexandra57,51911,828
Arrowtown21,5193,375
Queenstown65,59514,564
Gore716,319275,634
Mataura206,70274,828
Winton114,53738,765
Invercargill3,902,8061,738,164
South Invercargill287,597136,301
Riverton142,68648,335
Bluff303,581101,100

TOWN DISTRICTS.

TABLE SHOWING GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF EACH TOWN DISTRICT (OUTSIDE THE JURISDICTION OF ANY COUNTY) IN NEW ZEALAND.
Town District.Capital Value
(Land and
Improvements).
Unimproved
Value of Land
(included in
previous Column).
 £       £       
Hikurangi66,65031,425
Warkworth96,97529,015
Helensville111,77036,460
New Lynn204,275105,495
Ellerslie301,025145,750
Waiuku141,08367,980
Papatoetoe259,713144,978
Manurewa143,79580,275
Papakura227,330135,630
Tuakau108,15761,557
Huntly151,48771,807
Ngaruawahia135,18864,238
Te Puke273,385145,510
Morrinsville239,680125,855
Matamata135,65068,610
Mangapapa275,844122,833
Taradale228,099134,941
Havelock North276,162137,336
Manaia117,44851,277
Waverley100,76642,033
Gonville787,431294,088
Castlecliff367,563197,480
Raetihi95,50942,163
Rangataua34,89010,746
Mangaweka57,99222,310
Hunterville96,06437,325
Bull's58,96224,404
Manunui71,36325,848
Otaki200,386111,050
Martinborough166,86553,734
Johnsonville193,320100,587
Upper Hutt254,530128,940
Hampstead145,17658,165
Tinwald127,40074,665
Pleasant Point82,10236,582
Nightcaps46,47811,506
Otautau127,26849,969
Lumsden49,06514,032
Wyndham123,36450,580

Chapter 26. SECTION XXVI.—BANKING.

BANKS OF ISSUE.

THE Banking Act, 1908, consolidates the law of New Zealand relating to the general business of banking in the Dominion. The Act provides that the incorporation of banks by Royal Charter shall be as effectual within New Zealand as Acts of the General Assembly. The number of directors is prescribed, and authority given to any bank to increase its capital on a resolution of the shareholders. Transfers of shares on which there is any liability must be approved by the directors or their duly appointed attorney or attorneys. Every bank trading in the Dominion is required to furnish quarterly statements of its business, for publication in the Gazette. A sworn copy of an entry in the books of a bank shall in all legal proceedings be evidence of such entry, and a bank is not required in any legal proceedings to which it is not a party to produce its books before a Court, unless ordered by a Judge for special cause. Provision is made for bank holidays, and for the destruction of cheques, drafts, bills of exchange, or promissory notes after the expiration of ten years from the date or due date of such documents.

Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act, 1908, consolidates the law relating to cheques on a bank.

The Companies Act, 1908, with the exception of Part IX (re companies incorporated outside New Zealand), and also of the provisions relating to branch registers, does not apply to banking companies formed within and operating only within the Dominion.

There are six banks of issue trading in New Zealand, two of these institutions, the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand, being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of the Dominion. The Bank of New Zealand has branches in London, Australia, Fiji, and Samoa, while its branches and agencies within the Dominion number 216. The other five banks have between them 206 establishments within the Dominion, making a total of 422, or an average of one bank to every 2,862 inhabitants, excluding Maoris.

CAPITAL AND RESERVE FUNDS.

The paid-up capital of the above banks, their reserve funds, and the rate and amount of their last dividend as on the 31st December, 1920, were as follows:—

Bank.Paid-up
Capital.
Rate per Cent.
per Annum of
Last Dividend
and Bonus.
Amount of Last
Half-yearly
Dividend and Bonus.
Reserve
Fund.
* Dividend for full year.
Bank of New Zealand—£             Per Cent.£      £      
   4-per cent. stock guaranteed by New Zealand Government529,988               .. 2,646,520
   “A” preference shares issued to the Crown (Act of 1903)500,00010268,750*
   “B” preference shares issued to the Crown (Act of 1913)625,00013 1/2 and bonus of 4 per cent.
   Ordinary shares2,249,80713 1/2 and bonus of 4 per cent.
Union Bank of Australia (Limited)2,500,00016200,0002,911,716
Bank of New South Wales4,931,10010246,5553,350,000
Bank of Australasia3,500,00010 and bonus of 3 per cent.227,5003,102,822
National Bank of New Zealand (Limited)1,000,00012 per cent. per annum for half-year, and bonus of 2 per cent.80,0001,174,573 
Commercial Bank of Australia (Limited)—
     Ordinary95,659               ....      16,258
     Preference2,117,3504 (preference only)42,347

DEVELOPMENT OF BANKING.

The development of banking in New Zealand since the year 1857 has been very great. Taking for each year the average of the four quarters' returns made up by the banks of issue, the figures for 1857, 1870, 1880, 1890, 1900, 1910, and each of the past five years are,—

Year.Deposits.Advances.Assets.Liabilities.
 £       £       £       £       
1857343,316..       419,860432,494
18703,127,7694,547,2176,315,3543,819,670
18808,538,93511,300,40414,220,2759,550,177
189012,368,61014,096,44617,735,25913,356,598
190015,570,61012,084,74417,314,53516,964,582
191024,968,76119,772,65626,398,92726,742,081
191637,757,91726,989,64437,015,48641,977,619
191742,930,71333,808,30944,979,61548,541,961
191845,562,93937,396,62348,570,12652,048,732
191950,489,44437,410,15648,615,20957,861,393
192059,405,34144,633,65856,111,43367,818,469

In 1880 deposits represented an average of £18 per head of the mean population; in 1890, £19.92; in 1900, £20.39; in 1910, £25.15; and in 1911, £26.37. In 1912, however, the average fell to £24.66, and in 1913 (the strike year) a further fall was recorded, the rate per head being £24.08. The years 1914 and 1915 showed a recovery, the rates being £25.35 and £28.59 respectively, while for 1916 the rate jumped to £34.34. In 1917 it rose to the high level of £39.06, and each successive year has shown a substantial increase on the previous year, the rate for 1920 being £50.36. The ratio of advances to deposits, which was 132.34 per cent. in 1880, reached its maximum in 1883, when it stood at 173.35 per cent. The proportion since that year fell, till in 1903 it was only 75.96 per cent. The 1916 ratio (71.48 per cent.) was the lowest ever recorded. The percentage for 1917 (78.75), though still very low, showed a substantial increase on the figure for 1916, while the 1918 figure was as high as 82.08. A fall to 74.09 was recorded in 1919, but in 1920 the percentage rose to 75.13.

In 1886 the average amount of advances made by the banks was £15,853,420, equal to £27.23 per head of the mean population. The advances gradually declined in amount and proportion to population until 1891, when they were in value £11,549,145, or £18.34 per head. In 1897 advances stood at £10,892,111, or £15.09 per head, which is the lowest average since the year 1872. There was then a continuous rise both in amounts of advances and in rates per head of population until 1908, for which year the figures were £22,195,576, or £23.80 per head. After 1908 the amounts fluctuated, but the tendency was still to rise. The total amount for 1918 (£37,396,623) was up till then by far the highest yet reached. The 1919 amount was slightly in advance of this, while 1920 jumped to the record sum of £44,633,658, representing £37.42 per head, which is also an outstanding record. This inflation of deposits and advances during recent years is, of course, a direct result of war conditions.

The largest amount of discounts in any year was £6,061,959, in 1879, a rate of £13.53 per head. In the previous year had occurred the highest rate—£14.22 per head. From 1879 there was a fall, year by year, until 1896, when the sum was £1,756,791, or £2.49 per head, since when there have been further successive falls in the amount per head, which reached the low figure of £1.14 in 1918, rising, however, to £1.20 in 1919 and £1.47 in 1920.

LIABILITIES.

The liabilities of the banks of issue for the last ten years are shown in the table following, the figures given referring to New Zealand business only. The liabilities shown represent the average of the four quarters of the year, with the exception that in the figures for 1912 only the last quarter is taken in respect of the Commercial Bank of Australia, as this institution did not commence operations in the Dominion until fairly late in that year.

Year.Notes in
Circulation.
Bills in
Circulation.
Balances
due to
other Banks.
Deposits.Total
Liabilities.
 £      £      £      £      £      
19111,677,842113,58269,25726,765,12228,625,803
19121,714,667111,87759,72125,622,08327,508,348
19131,674,333108,51875,06125,733,18727,591,099
19141,998,38696,01273,44427,640,50729,808,349
19152,846,277105,75962,58031,433,65334,448,272
19164,049,52790,46873,70737,757,91741,977,619
19175,410,957105,89594,39642,930,71348,541,961
19186,266,768123,34495,68145,562,93952,048,732
19197,087,545173,722110,68250,489,44457,861,393
19207,890,418239,877282,83359,405,34167,818,469

ASSETS.

The average assets, as shown below, include Colonial Government securities, which in 1920 amounted to £6,391,726.

Year.Coin and
Bullion.
Notes and Bills
discounted.
Debts due,
exclusive of
Bad Debts.
All other
Assets.
Total
Assets.
 £       £       £       £       £       
19115,195,3331,792,20119,467,4672,978,55329,433,614
19125,338,2951,847,01621,062,1012,948,98831,196,400
19135,204,2661,951,66520,950,6332,602,36830,708,932
19145,712,7511,843,21722,407,0292,539,31532,502,312
19156,781,0061,471,80822,167,1622,789,50633,209,483
19167,393,9171,484,35623,427,5624,709,65137,015,486
19178,072,2791,414,58527,433,1648,059,58744,979,615
19188,085,9611,261,20330,450,1478,772,81548,570,126
19198,017,1591,446,29930,271,4218,880,33048,615,209
19207,728,9421,753,07236,488,86010,140,55956,111,433

DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES.

The total amount of deposits, the amount per head of mean population, the total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits, taking the average of the four quarters for each of the past ten years, are as follows:—

Year.Deposits.Advances.
Total Amount.Per Head of
Population.
Total Amount.Ratio to
Deposits.
 £       £s.d.£       Per Cent.
191126,765,122267522,601,86384.45
191225,622,0832413224,268,63494.72
191325,733,187241724,005,03893.28
191427,640,507257025,222,12791.25
191531,433,65325111024,590,17178.23
191637,757,9173461026,989,64471.48
191742,930,713391233,808,30978.75
191845,562,939416137,396,62382.08
191950,489,444443637,410,15674.09
192059,405,3414916344,633,65875.13

Deposits per head of population in banks of issue in each of the Australian States during 1920 and the four preceding years are shown. Figures for New Zealand are given by way of comparison.

DEPOSITS PER HEAD IN BANKS OF ISSUE IN AUSTRALASIA, 1916-20.
State.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Queensland379143224913350424420
New South Wales42190441994572480450191
Victoria42064699481055313957156
South Australia31633614742611526647810
Western Australia2511827129319833583787
Tasmania309730253340311993578
Northern Territory451096412107146711917309
     Total, Commonwealth3955421514551481495028
New Zealand3461039124161443649163

ISSUE OF NOTES.

The Banking Act, 1908, deals with the issue of notes generally. The Governor-General may empower any bank to issue and circulate notes, subject to the provisions and restrictions contained in the charter or letters patent under which such bank is incorporated; all such notes to be payable in gold only at the office of the bank at the place of issue, and to be a first charge on all assets of the bank.

The private Acts of the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand (Limited) contain the following clause: “That the total amount of promissory notes payable on demand, issued and in circulation within the Dominion, shall not at any time exceed the amount of coin, bullion, and public securities which shall for the time being be held by the same corporation within the Dominion; nor shall the proportion of coin be less than one-third part of the amount of the coin, bullion, and public securities so held by the said corporation within the Dominion.”

On the 5th August, 1914, immediately after the outbreak of the late war, an amendment to the Banking Act was passed empowering the Governor-General in Council, from time to time, to make a Proclamation declaring “that the notes payable on demand by any bank therein named, and then issued or thereafter to be issued or reissued with New Zealand under any lawful authority in that behalf, shall during the period limited by the Proclamation be everywhere within New Zealand a good and legal tender of money to the amount therein expressed to be payable.” Conditions governing the issue of such Proclamation are laid down, and the bank may be required to give adequate security that it will redeem the notes in gold on the expiration of the period covered by the Proclamation. Provision is also made for payment by the State Treasury in case of default by the bank. During the period any such Proclamation is in force gold must not be exported except with the consent of the Minister of Finance, and any gold exported or attempted to be exported in breach of this provision is to be forfeited.

Immediately on the passing of the amendment referred to, a Proclamation was gazetted declaring notes of all six banks of issue doing business in New Zealand to be legal tender from the 6th August to the 6th September, 1914. Further extensions for short periods were made from time to time until the end of 1917, when the notes of the six banks were declared legal tender until the 31st December, 1922.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

In connection with the Post Office in New Zealand a savings-bank has been conducted since the 1st February, 1867. The minimum deposit receivable, except in certain specified cases, is 1s., and no interest is given on any sum less than £1 or in excess of £5,000. Interest on sums up to £500 is paid at the rate of 4 per cent. per annum, and on sums between £500 and £5,000 at the rate of 3 1/4 per cent. for the amount over £500.

The number of post-offices open for the transaction of savings-bank business at 31st March, 1921, was 819.

There were 152,930 new accounts opened during the fifteen months ended the 31st March, 1921, and 118,894 accounts were closed during the period. The total number of open accounts at the 31st March, 1921, was 664,819, or one in every 1.83 of the population, excluding Maoris.

The deposits, received during the fifteen months amounted to £44,302,852, and the withdrawals to £41,162,486. The total sum standing at credit of all accounts on the 31st March, 1921, was £43,352,031, which gave an average of £65 4s. 2d. to the credit of each open account. Information for each of the past ten years is given below.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.
Year.Number of
Depositors at
End of Year.
Total Amount
of Deposits
during Year.
Total Amount
of Withdrawals
during Year.
Excess of
Deposits over
Withdrawals.
Interest.Total Amount
to Credit of
Depositors at
End of Year.
* Fifteen months ended 31st March, 1921.
  £       £       £       £       £       
1911405,56611,627,36810,662,046965,322472,87515,543,187
1912432,19911,725,18311,449,711275,472511,59816,330,257
1913458,59411,286,70211,041,454245,248555,90817,131,414
1914483,26211,904,32310,603,0181,301,305615,31019,048,029
1915509,08513,706,05711,294,9732,411,084707,25222,166,365
1916538,07215,576,40812,957,4202,618,988817,85625,603,209
1917566,35117,106,52914,461,1692,645,360947,82129,196,390
1918590,20518,101,10514,938,8423,162,2631,059,47233,418,125
1919630,78329,758,44725,962,3773,796,0701,178,93538,393,130
1920*664,81944,302,85241,162,4863,140,3661,818,53543,352,031

The Post Office Savings-bank commenced operations on the 1st February, 1867, and the progress of the establishment since that date is shown on the next page in graphical representation, the curves representing number of open accounts, total amount to credit, and average amount to credit respectively.

This diagram shows clearly the large increase in the business of the Post Office Savings-bank during recent years.

The amount standing to credit of depositors has increased from £1,813,085 in 1887 to £43,352,031 at 31st March, 1921, and in no year since 1887 has there been a decrease as compared with the preceding year. There has been a corresponding steady increase in the average amount standing to the credit of each depositor.

The huge increase in the amount at deposit in recent years has been accompanied by an even greater proportionate increase in interest payments, owing to the rate of interest having substantially advanced. The total interest credited to depositors from 1st February, 1867, to 31st March, 1921, has aggregated £13,686,690, a sum nearly equal to one-third of the total amount remaining on deposit at 31st March, 1921.

The number of open accounts at the end of each of the last five years, classified according to amounts at credit, is as follows:—

Amount.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920-21.
Not exceeding £20369,769382,689385,812394,280429,806
Exceeding £20 and up to £5057,21659,68061,46668,33169,130
Exceeding £50 and up to £10039,71543,39248,17856,82852,114
Exceeding £100 and up to £20034,49839,81345,25850,11147,747
Exceeding £200 and up to £30015,44317,24320,98525,34024,329
Exceeding £300 and up to £4008,6909,33011,51813,79614,984
Exceeding £400 and up to £5004,7755,1526,2557,9948,753
Exceeding £500 and up to £6003,1493,6284,1805,3316,225
Exceeding £6004,8175,4246,5538,77211,731
                 Totals538,072566,351590,205630,783664,819

Accounts above the £600 mark in 1920-21 included 3,830 between £600 and £700, 2,386 between £700 and £800, 1,605 between £800 and £900, 1,255 between £900 and £1,000, and 2,655 over £1,000.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings-bank Fund on the 31st March, 1921, represented a nominal value of £42,838,174. Most of this fund is invested in Government securities. A summary of the investments is as follows:—

 £       
In New Zealand Government securities41,367,273
In local bodies' securities1,005,450
In other securities465,451
 £42,838,174

PRIVATE SAVINGS-BANKS.

There are five savings-banks not connected with the Post Office. The total amount deposited in them during the year ended the 31st March, 1921, was £3,555,871, of which the deposits by Maoris comprised £1,257. The withdrawals reached the sum of £3,410,456. The total amount to the credit of the depositors at the 31st March, 1921, was £3,841,084, of which sum £756 belonged to Maoris. Figures for ten years are as follows:—

Year ended
31st March.
Number of
Depositors at
End of Year.
Total Amount
of Deposits
during Year.
Total Amount
of Withdrawals
during Year.
Excess of
Deposits over
Withdrawals.
Total Amount
to Credit of
Depositors at
End of Year.

The minus sign (−) represents excess of withdrawals over deposits.

* Year ended 31st December.

† Fifteen months ended 31st March.

  £       £       £       £       
1911*54,0361,420,3211,337,58682,7351,651,275
191371,7281,824,6061,833,390−8,7841,713,283
191474,1201,478,3091,461,51016,7991,792,108
191575,9411,358,8761,340,76018,1161,876,725
191678,0241,449,9381,327,364122,5742,072,602
191781,9001,631,0651,374,114256,9512,412,465
191885,1911,764,7231,551,836212,8872,720,709
191989,2032,058,3601,775,531282,8293,111,529
192095,4723,308,6282,981,887326,7413,557,895
1921100,3423,555,8713,410,456145,4153,841,084

SAVINGS-BANKS DEPOSITS IN AUSTRALASIA.

The deposits in the savings-banks of the Commonwealth on the 30th June, 1921, and of New Zealand on the 31st March, 1921, are shown in the table following. The Australian figures are taken from the Quarterly Summary of Australian Statistics issued by the Commonwealth Statistician. In calculating the deposits per head of population in New Zealand Maoris were omitted from the population, although the total amount on deposit includes deposits by them. The amount deposited by Maoris is very small in proportion to the number of Maoris in the Dominion.

State.Number of
Depositors.
Amount on
Deposit at
End of Year.
Average Amount
per Depositor at
End of Year.
Deposits to
Credit per
Head of
Population.
  £       £s.d.£s.d.
New South Wales1,126,15757,394,441501942763
Victoria1,072,55448,970,9894513231178
Queensland327,06518,587,942561682435
South Australia396,97016,317,3534121321511
Western Australia217,1367,663,440355102301
Tasmania115,5024,159,522360319125
Northern Territory93553,79057107131311
               Total, Commonwealth3,256,319153,147,47747072816
New Zealand765,16147,193,1156118738151

SUMMARY OF ALL DEPOSITS.

If the total deposits in the banks of issue at the end of the year be assumed to be equal to the average deposits for the four quarters of the year, then it may be affirmed that, exclusive of Government moneys, the deposits in the said banks of issue and in the two classes of savings-banks amounted at the end of 1920 to £99,156,057, representing an average of £82 1s. 9d. per head of population, or, including Maoris, £78 16s. 9d. per head. In addition there are the deposits with the building societies, referred to further on in this book, and there are also deposits with financial companies of which no particulars are collected.

Chapter 27. SECTION XXVII.—INSURANCE.

SUBSECTION A. — LIFE INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE statutory provisions affecting life insurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act, 1908. Any association other than a friendly society which issues policies or grants annuities on human life in New Zealand comes within the scope of the enactment. The Act recognizes two classes of companies—namely, local and foreign. In both instances securities are required to be deposited with the Public Trustee before business can be carried on. In the case of local companies the amount is £5,000, while for foreign companies it varies from £5,000 to £50,000, according to the amount assured by current policies.

In the case of composite offices, provision is made for the receipts of life and annuity business to be treated as a separate fund, and the Act safeguards the interest of the policyholder by making such funds available only for liabilities arising from life business.

The law bearing on industrial assurance has received the attention of the Legislature in the Life Insurance Amendment Act, 1920. In this class of insurance the premiums must be payable at shorter intervals than three months. Provision is made for the control by regulation of the activities of this class of business. Companies are required to deposit with the Minister of Finance forms of policy tables, rates, and other documents, and policies must contain only such conditions as have been approved by the Governor-General in Council. Restrictions are placed on the forfeiture of policies in default of payments or other requirements.

Annual returns of life insurance are required to be deposited with the Minister of Finance. It is from these returns that the statistical matter following has been compiled.

The outstanding features of life-assurance business as disclosed by the tables introduced in the succeeding pages is the remarkable increase that has taken place in the amount of new assurances effected in both 1918 and 1919. The indications are that the figures for 1920 will disclose a similar state of affairs. The growth characterizes both the ordinary life department and the industrial side. No doubt this is in a large measure a reflection of the prosperous condition of the country and of the high prices that have obtained for primary products.

A further reason of the growth of new business is no doubt furnished by the diminished purchasing-power of the sovereign, and the consequent depreciation of the value of policies on a pre-war basis. It is well known, too, that with the increased probate and succession duties payable on large estates life-insurance policies are a means used to provide ready cash when other assets may not be convertible at an advantage.

It may be added in passing that the substantial growth of business evident is general not only in New Zealand, but also in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.

There were at the close of 1919 twelve life-assurance offices represented in New Zealand. Of these only two were purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office and the Provident Life Assurance Company. Six of the other societies have their head offices in Australia, two in England, and two in the United States of America. The Provident Life Assurance Company and four of the Australian offices transact both ordinary life and industrial business. Several of the companies, including the New Zealand Government Office, have branches for assurance against accident. This class of insurance is dealt with in Subsection B of this section.

The statistics here given relate exclusively to business transacted in the Dominion.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.

Details of the policies issued and discontinued during 1919 by the respective offices are contained in the following table. Dealing with the policies issued and discontinued during the year, the aggregate net increase in the sum assured is £3,729,387, and in the annual premiums payable thereon £131,185.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—POLICIES ISSUED AND DISCONTINUED, 1919.
Office.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.
NumberSum
assured.
Annual
Premiums.
NumberSum
assured.
Annual
Premiums.
  £      £       £      £      
Australian Temperance and General1,924314,13513,3021,047153,8916,581
Australian Mutual Provident5,1422,422,35195,3952,386724,55323,545
Australian Provincial1,051264,25810,65315643,9291,605
Colonial Mutual772133,4815,625875147,1655,483
Equitable Life of United States1250134514,867452
Mutual Life and Citizens'1,316394,06813,8201,292288,27811,169
National Mutual2,266838,51436,5901,418407,12321,995
New York Life51,70559225,422328
Norwich Union328265,4598,11710677,5141,645
Provident Life756159,3463,79625866,2841,417
Yorkshire..    ..      ..    61,20070
New Zealand Government Life5,0201,617,79558,5693,053751,74940,467
               Totals18,5816,411,362245,93910,6642,681,975114,757

In the case of the new business transacted, the average sum assured under each policy issued was £345, and the average premium £3 16s. 8d. per cent.

The next table presents an interesting review of the progress of ordinary life-assurance business over a period of ten years. Comparing the latest figures with those of preceding years a considerable expansion is, as indicated earlier in this chapter, recorded in the amount of new policies issued. Taking 1917 and 1919 figures, the increase amounts to no less than 194 per cent. On the other hand, the 1919 statistics disclose a falling-off in the discontinuances, with the net result that the year's business has been, in comparison with preceding years, singularly successful from an insurance viewpoint. It should be added, however, that this follows on a period when, as a result of the ravages of influenza and the toll of war, the discontinuances by death were particularly heavy, amounting in the aggregate to £966,866 for 1918, as compared with the 1919 figure of £586,776.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—PROGRESS OF BUSINESS, 1910-19.
Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum
assured.
Annual
Premiums.
Number.Sum
assured.
Annual
Premiums.
Number.Sum
assured.
Annual
Premiums.
  £      £       £      £       £      £      
191018,2614,433,775146,53910,5322,293,00178,409137,51433,816,7361,073,010
191116,0293,821,193120,6109,8912,314,18876,844143,65235,323,7421,116,772
191216,5874,203,766127,20310,1602,364,59079,278150,07937,162,9181,164,699
191314,5143,993,777119,09710,9392,590,00884,748153,65438,566,6881,199,047
191413,6383,810,384117,88811,0742,722,28887,539156,21839,654,7841,229,398
191515,5243,947,566131,53211,1742,635,20486,262160,56840,967,1471,274,667
191614,3363,717,981141,53110,6592,531,71385,342164,24542,153,4141,330,855
191712,2723,303,123131,94412,3742,571,10690,523164,14542,885,4331,372,278
191816,5175,233,669228,53311,5712,776,081153,529169,09145,343,0201,447,284
191918,5816,411,362245,93910,6642,681,975114,757177,00849,072,4081,578,464

The number of ordinary life policies in force in 1909 was 133,558, representing a sum assured of £32,629,734; so that the increases in number, and value during the decennium have been 32.53 per cent. and 50.39 per cent. respectively, as compared with an increase of total population of 18.66 per cent. in the same period.

A statement of the income and outgo of all the companies operating in the Dominion, so far as ordinary business only is concerned, further illustrates the increase in the business for the ten years. The ratio of management expenses to premiums and to the total receipts is also given.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—INCOME AND OUTGO.
Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts,
excluding
Transfers.
Total Expenditure,
excluding Transfers.
Excess of
Receipts.
Amount.Proportion
to Premium
Receipts.
Proportion
to Total
Receipts.
 £      £      £      £      Per Cent.Per Cent.
19101,717,820961,198756,622166,36715.789.68
19111,679,5761,100,297579,279177,07816.0610.54
19121,756,1831,127,743628,440184,10815.9010.48
19131,794,3531,101,013693,340182,66615.4110.18
19141,911,4461,311,661599,785179,26114.809.38
19151,922,4851,397,434525,051176,71514.059.19
19162,016,6071,558,320458,287174 68313.208.66
19172,091,5121,804,647286,865173,40712.638.29
19182,225,8972,054,409171,488215,35114.559.67
19192,348,2631,716,049632,214253,25716.1810.78

A summary of the receipts and expenditure under the various heads is now given in a five-years table. New premiums, which amounted to £114,960 in 1914, have during the period under review increased by 14.3 per cent. On the expenditure side the payments of death claims, which in 1919 accounted for an expenditure of £791,216, are less by £390,262 than the figure for the preceding year. Expenses of management show a marked increase in the last two years, amounting in 1919 to 16.18 of the premium receipts.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS), 1915-19.
—-1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.
Revenue.£      £      £      £      £      
Renewal premiums1,136,3991,186,3741,250,7531,279,7661,320,023
New premiums125,314136,565122,566200,388245,238
Consideration for annuities21,42616,64514,32618,87828,869
Interest639,279676,944703,805720,865746,745
Increase in value of investments..      ..      ..      ..      599
Other revenue6779626,0006,789
       Total revenue1,922,4852,016,6072,091,5122,225,8972,348,263
Expenditure.
Claims by death592,901776,249887,3651,181,478791,216
Claims by maturity340,344349,331342,148372,261400,666
Annuities34,70035,19333,58533,64734,437
Surrenders171,678140,462153,392140,917169,099
Cash bonuses24,62416,55516,20620,61714,527
Management176,715174,683173,407205,351253,257
Taxes50,67964,83290,03587,39042,404
Depreciation in investments5,7931,015102,5092,7489,297
Other expenditure..      ..      ..      ..      1,146
       Total expenditure1,397,4341,558,3201,804,6472,054,4091,716,049

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.

Looking now at the other phase of life assurance, the next table shows for 1919 to what extent industrial business was undertaken by each of the offices transacting this class of assurance in the Dominion:—

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS, 1919.
Office.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.
Number.Sum
assured.
Annual
Premiums.
Number.Sum
assured.
Annual
Premiums.
  £      £       £      £      
Australian Temperance and General12,577452,76440,9248,186274,10124,232
Australian Mutual Provident6,737406,29421,0062,100116,1656,453
Colonial Mutual2,42899,0855,7481,22750,8473,039
Mutual Life and Citizens'3,081145,2369,0283,392112,6167,074
Provident Life4,960180,11011,1133,494116,4487,062
               Totals29,7831,283,48987,81918,399670,17747,860

A summary of the progress of industrial business is given in the following table, covering the ten years 1910 to 1919, This class of insurance has only during the last decade attained any magnitude in New Zealand.

INDUSTRIAL LIFE ASSURANCE.—PROGRESS OF BUSINESS, 1910-19.
Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum
assured.
Annual
Premiums.
Number.Sum
assured.
Annual
Premiums.
Number.Sum
assured.
Annual
Premiums.
  £      £       £      £       £      £      
191025,519754,33145,06417,669512,52330,67064,1191,608,79396,394
191125,845811,94551,64317,770533,62634,61672,1941,887,111113,421
191227,731908,67854,50119,506637,51737,23080,4192,158,273130,691
191325,031867,07054,14617,847603,18135,91087,6032,422,161148,928
191423,715760,86351,95717,830584,11937,72193,4882,598,905163,164
191522,937752,72954,90516,685540,37936,53799,7402,811,255181,533
191625,608845,04260,29515,681476,28635,333109,6673,180,011206,495
191724,733888,91564,55115,577536,85337,425118,8233,532,075233,620
191826,9061,020,00873,32616,038553,82740,378129,6913,998,256266,568
191929,7831,283,48987,81918,399670,17747,860141,0754,611,568306,527

The increase in the sum assured in respect of policies issued during the year amounted in 1919 to £263,481, and in the annual premiums £14,493. Between 1910 and 1919 the amount held at risk has increased by £3,002,875.

The total income and outgo for industrial assurance summarized for the ten years 1910-19 are as follows:—

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—INCOME AND OUTGO.
Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total
Receipts,
excluding
Transfers.
Total
Expenditure,
excluding
Transfers.
Excess of
Receipts.
Amount.Proportion to
Premium Receipts.
Proportion to
Total Receipts.
 £      £      £      £      Per Cent.Per Cent.
191093,97160,87133,10043,55451.6246.35
1911107,23870,22437,01452,50851.3848.96
1912126,89779,50547,39259,35749.4246.78
1913145,283103,58741,69662,27745.2242.87
1914158,97494,55364,42165,51343.0541.21
1915177,31993,97383,34666,04139.2237.24
1916200,903109,45291,45171,77837.7935.72
1917232,895128,468104,42777,92135.4933.46
1918264,000156,618107,38288,07135.5133.36
1919303,568180,070123,498107,50437.8235.41

A table giving for each of the last five years the main details in connection with the income and outgo referred to above is appended, and affords interesting comparisons in the fluctuation of the various heads of receipts and expenditure, Premium receipts show a steady increase over the whole period. In 1914 this source of income produced £152,190, and the increase over the five years is accordingly 87 per cent. The expenses of management, which in this class of business are relatively high, amounted in 1919 to 37.82 per cent. of the premium receipts, as compared with. 55.57 per cent. ten years earlier.

INDUSTRIAL LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS), 1915-19.
—-1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.
Revenue.£      £      £      £      £      
Premiums168,383189,951219,579248,035284,243
Interest7,9189,78612,04114,43017,046
Other revenue1,0181,1661,2751,5352,279
               Total revenue177,319200,903232,895264,000303,568
Expenditure.
Claims by death15,99123,43631,62946,14237,261
Claims by maturity4,9724,6907,36313,65024,869
Surrenders2,1602,3632,2591,5814,165
Management66,04171,77877,92188,071107,504
Taxes1,8083,2953,1304,3132,547
Depreciation in investments96340483401507
Other payments2,9053,5505,6832,4603,217
               Total expenditure93,973109,452128,478156,618180,070

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The balance-sheets of the companies transacting industrial business do not in every case apportion their liabilities and assets over ordinary and industrial business, although this course will in future be rendered necessary to conform to the legislation of 1920. The figures presented below accordingly refer to both classes of insurance, and, as indicated earlier in this subsection, relate to New Zealand business only.

Dealing first with liabilities, the position of the various offices over a period of five years is shown.

LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND LIABILITIES, 1915-19.
Office.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.

* Includes accident.

† Includes fire, marine, and accident.

 £      £      £      £      £      
Australian Temperance and General219,566260,052293,283345,300409,064
Australian Mutual Provident5,408,7066,324,5296,103,4526,242,7596,400,658
Australian Provincial..      ..      ..      30,75249,202
Colonial Mutual*382,923388,945369,280401,782651,767
Equitable Life of U.S.A.83,52979,30181,38183,36483,936
Mutual Life and Citizens'1,382,1241,428,2621,461,0601,495,4001,485,190
National Mutual1,327,8701,431,7021,395,2831,471,8531,564,427
New York Life68,47566,76668,61068,70470,739
Norwich Union36,46840,93240,01351,18451,963
Provident Life128,868147,340170,969187,846207,576
Yorkshire36,51736,29039,95543,80247,487
New Zealand Government Life5,350,5385,481,7325,602,8715,672,9815,728,681
               Totals14,425,58415,685,85115,626,15716,095,72716,750,690

The aggregate liabilities as shown at the end of the year 1919 were distributed as follows:—

 £      
Paid-up capital48,187
Life assurance and annuity funds15,880,722
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds321,475
Claims admitted but not paid338,033
Other liabilities162,273
                                 Total£16,750,690

The assets, which in every case balance the liabilities, are as follows:—

LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND ASSETS, 1915-19.
Assets.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.
 £      £      £      £      £      
Mortgages on property8,231,2408,020,6077,483,6606,903,2386,206,261
Loans on policies2,307,1012,257,5382,167,4182,097,9402,039,293
New Zealand Government securities871,3722,159,7532,681,9633,810,3865,167,436
Indian and colonial securities..      ..      23,59169,88191,156
Railway and other stocks569,905636,045658,393670,913921,503
Landed and house property440,851453,877449,189455,216470,067
Other investments415,158404,092376,694374,593372,941
Loans on personal security3,0752,4331,8692,3502,490
Agents, balances8,6324,7416,7455,79112,486
Outstanding premiums138,501144,696148,079151,819161,837
Interest accrued, &c.175,285202,426204,911200,363199,776
Cash132,307275,383258,858277,892169,259
Other assets1,082,1571,124,2601,164,7871,075,345935,185
               Totals14,425,58415,685,85115,626,15716,095,72716,750,690

It will be seen that a continued falling-off in mortgages has obtained, the decrease for 1919 as compared with 1915 being £2,024,979. A similar decrease in loans on policies is also evident, although to a less degree. The most striking feature of the figures, however, is the phenomenal increase in the amount invested in securities of the New Zealand Government, which from 1915 to 1919 increased by no less a sum than £4,296,064. This is an illustration of the greater extent to which the New Zealand Government has borrowed locally during the last few years than previously.

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.

The Life Insurance Department of the Government, of New Zealand was founded, in 1869, at a time when New-Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities for the insurance of their lives. The institution possesses the unique advantage of being based on the solid principle of State security, payment of all policies being guaranteed by the Government of the Dominion. Industrial insurance, is not transacted by the Department.

At the end of 1920 there were 57,321 policies in force, bearing an annual premium income of £449,123. The number of policies completed in 1920 was 4,872, on which annual premiums to the amount of £51,221 are payable.

The following table gives a synopsis of the activities of the department for the last five years in so far as the amount of business transacted is concerned:—

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—PROGRESS, 1916-20.
Year.New Business.Policies in Force at End of Year.
Number of
Policies.
Premiums.Sum
assured.
Number of
Policies.
Premiums.Value at
Business.
Sum assured.BonusesTotal.
  £       £        £       £       £       £       
19163,27628,9481,080,45053,208383,94812,874,7541,384,61814,259,372
19172,92928,237784,60053,058387,31212,884,5311,304,24314,188,774
19184,23546,7781,252,53853,803404,96513,257,6821,512,86114,770,543
19194,98358,5691,617,75955,770423,06514,123,7281,423,01615,546,744
19204,87251,2211,659,66057,321449,12314,924,1471,335,16316,259,310

The figures of income and outgo of the Department in 1920 reflect a very satisfactory year's operations. As indicated in the table above, there has been a record inflow of new business, bringing the aggregate business to the highest point in the history of the institution, whilst the disturbing effect of the war upon mortality has virtually ceased.

The total income of the Department was £730,908—viz., premium income, £435,816; interest income (less land and income tax), £270,112; annuity purchase-money, £24,980. Each of these items of income, as well as the total, constitutes a record in the Department's operations. The total income for 1920 was £29,485 in excess of the figure for the preceding year.

Looking at the outgo, a return to normal conditions is apparent in the claims by death of policyholders. The outgo on this account is smaller than for any year since 1914. During the year 783 policies matured; for £186,319, and 567 policies became claims by death of the holders, the total amount payable being £190,809; Expenses of management totalled £58,088.

The total assurance, annuity, and endowment funds, apart from a special investment reserve of £288,686, amounted at the end of 1920 to £5,542,552, an increase of £187,648 during the year.

The Department's balance-sheet on the 31st December, 1920, shows that the total assets amounted to £5,927,557, and were invested as shown in the following statement, which also gives the distribution of the assets at the end of the previous year for purposes of comparison:—

Class of Investment.At 31st December, 1919.At 31st December, 1920.
Amount.Percentage of
Total Assets.
Amount.Percentage of
Total Assets.
 £        £        
Mortgages on freehold property2,784,53248.62,750,02646.4
Loans on policies733,94312.8735,73912.4
Government securities1,635,80028.61,869,80031.6
Local bodies debentures210,5973.7210,2413.5
Landed and house property134,8312.3134,7992.3
Miscellaneous assets130,1792.3124,3372.1
Gash in hand and on current account98,7991.7102,6151.7
               Totals5,728,681100.05,927,557100.0

A statement of the liabilities and assets as at the 31st December, 1920, is also given.

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—LIABILITIES AND ASSETS AT 31ST DECEMBER, 1920.
 £       
 Liabilities.
Total Assurance, Annuity, and Endowment Funds (as per Revenue Account5,542,552
Claims admitted, proofs not yet completed86,093
Annuities466
Commission2,564
Medical fees630
Premium and other deposits5,573
Sundry accounts owing693
Officers' Fidelity Fund300
Investment Fluctuation Reserve288,686
 £5,927,557
Assets.
Loans on policies735,739
Government securities1,869,800
Municipal Corporation debentures115,983
County securities6,800
Harbour Board debentures35,200
Town Board debentures28,450
Road Board debentures21,800
Drainage Board debentures2,008
Landed and house property133,121
Landed and house property (leasehold)1,678
Mortgages on property2,750,026
Properties acquired by foreclosure281
 £ 
Overdue premiums on policies in force6,119
Outstanding premiums due but not overdue40,156
 46.275
Overdue interest1,215 
Outstanding interest due but not overdue6,351
Interest accrued but not due65,423
 72,989
Agents' balances4,792
Cash in hand and on current account102,615
 £5,927,557

The triennial valuation of the Department's liabilities and assets as at the 31st December, 1920, reveals a surplus of assets over liabilities amounting to £238,704. Of this sum £217,706 has been allotted in the shape of compound reversionary bonuses upon the sum assured and the bonuses in force, thus giving increasing bonuses to those policyholders who have maintained their previous bonuses intact. The resultant bonuses in the General Section range from £1 per cent. per annum of the sum assured in the case of new policies to £1 15s. per cent. per annum in the case of policies with longer durations.

As between the Temperance and General Sections, the more favourable mortality in the Temperance Section has resulted in policies in that section becoming entitled to bonuses at a rate 5 per cent. higher than similar policies in the General Section.

The total surpluses distributed since the commencement of business amount to £2,234,382, which sum has been converted into reversionary additions to the sums assured amounting to £3,907,698.

The actuarial investigation discloses the progress of the Department during the triennium 1918-20, and the figures are given below in conjunction with those for the four preceding triennia.

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—TRIENNIAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Triennium.New Business of Triennium.In Force at End of Triennium.
Number of
Policies.
Sums
assured.
Annual
Premiums.
Number of
Policies.
Sums
assured.
Reversionary
Bonuses.
Annual
Premiums.
  £      £       £      £      £      
1906-89,7392,261,76772,80347,03310,955,7491,068,950331,830
1909-1110,4762,487,47277,47749,37611,514,6571,168,620348,285
1912-1411,7213,197,69489,71552,27312,550,4651,246,610370,882
1915-1710,1292,709,16390,01753,05812,884,5311,304,243387,377
1918-2014,1894,529,993156,56857,32114,924,1471,335,163449,123

From the above it will be seen that there has been a considerable increase in the amount of new business.

The rate of interest realized on the mean funds of the Department, after deduction of land and income tax from interest, has been as follows for each of the last six years:—

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—RATE OF INTEREST.
 £s.d.
19154111
19164151
19174162
19184138
1919524
19204192

SUBSECTION B.—ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN terms of the Accident Insurance Companies Act, 1908, accident-insurance policies may be issued by any association, whether incorporated or not, provided such association is not established under any Act relating to friendly societies. The principal contingencies for which policies may be issued are in respect of—

  1. Accident, disease, or mental or physical disability;

  2. Employers' liability;

  3. Charges under the Workers' Compensation Acts for damages incurred in the course of employment.

The Act provides for annual returns to be deposited with the Minister of Finance, and, as in the case of life insurance, these are utilized as a means of statistical information.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

The number of insurance offices transacting accident business in New Zealand in 1919 was 35. The principal registered offices of these companies were distributed as follows: England, 17; Australia, 7; Hong Kong, 2; New Zealand, 9. Returns for the financial years ended during 1919 have been received from all offices, the figures in each case being confined to accident business done in the Dominion.

The total premiums received for 1919 amounted to £449,784, and of this amount £222,068, or 49.4 per cent., represented the business of the nine companies established within the Dominion. The claims paid by the same offices amounted to £120,139, or 52.7 per cent. of the total. It will accordingly be seen that the local companies accounted for approximately half of the accident insurance of the Dominion. The following table gives a summary of the income and outgo of the various offices for 1919, distinguishing the amount received for premiums and the amount paid out on claims:—

ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—INCOME AND OUTGO, 1919.
Name of Company.Income.Outgo.Per Cent.
of Total
Expenditure
to Premiums.
Premiums.Total
Receipts.
Claims.Total
Expenditure.
Foreign Companies.£     £     £     £      
Alliance8,9628,9623,5027,52083.9
Atlas4,6634,6639302,87161.6
Australian Provincial Association2,9562,562281,66756.4
British Traders'2,5362,5366901,63864.6
Colonial Mutual3,6404,0492,0893,53697.1
Commercial Union18,35818,3589,3118,625101.5
Eagle, Star, and British Dominions4,1424,1422,4953,48084.0
Guardian7,6867,6862,7927,02391.4
Insurance Office of Australia120120..    276230.0
Liverpool and London and Globe9,8819,8814,0279,49896.1
London and Lancashire11,82512,0663,9828,84674.8
Mutual Life and Citizens'16,49616,4967,02113,59082.4
North British and Mercantile3,7603,7601,4592,78173.9
Northern7,0797,8023,5476,38090.1
Norwich and London18,36418,42410,59617,81497.0
Ocean28,57628,57615,45827,78697.2
Phœnix3,5603,5601,9523,587100.8
Queensland13,08613,5115,9309,90375.7
Royal14,39514,3957,23712,71188.3
Royal Exchange14,15214,1528,00912,20586.2
Sun2,2862,2861,4652,565112.2
Union7,3587,3584,7366,36886.5
Union of Canton88088030872782.6
United4,0624,0621,4373,46385.3
Victoria13,92713,9276,68412,98093.2
Yorkshire4,9664,9661,9383,39368.3
               Totals227,716229,574107,893201,23488.3
Local Companies.
Farmers' Co-operative3,5543,5541,6563,613101.7
National24,04924,04914,50923,62398.2
New Zealand69,73969,73936,95161,94488.8
Provident Life2,4342,4926791,36155.9
Sawmillers' Mutual4,7965,0283,6264,11785.8
South British64,04864,04833,81754,22884.7
Standard27,52127,52115,58327,748100.8
Taranaki Farmers'64164122546172.1
New Zealand Government Insurance Department25,28629,40813,14920,20779.9
               Totals222,068226,480120,139197,30288.8
               Grand totals449,784456,054228,032398,53688.6

In 1919 the ratio of the total expenses to premiums received averaged 88.61 per cent., or to total receipts, including premiums, 87.39 per cent. The expense ratio is slightly higher in the case of local offices than for foreign offices.

The table next presented gives in a summary form the aggregate receipts and expenditure for the past decade. During that period the amount, of accident business put through the books has practically doubled. The number of offices transacting business increased by eleven.

RECEIPTS AND (EXPENDITURE FOR 1910-19.
Year.Number
of
Offices.
Receipts.Expenditure.
Premiums.Other
Receipts.
Total.Claims.Commission.Salaries.Other
Expenses.
Total.
  £      £      £      £      £      £      £      £      
191024241,5073,714345,221115,98932,63128,78226,981204,383
191126265,8586,615272,473133,02934,67730,00930,495228,210
191227321,8044,898326,702146,13743,09131,63533,195254,058
191327336,0235,928341,951146,50245,71933,71534,660260,596
191427337,19014,004351,194162,70846,26434,96643,574287,512
191527337,7336,907344,640172,04945,94136,71536,929291,634
191630349,2306,059355,289168,32150,61340,67542,595302,204
191731351,1035,377356,480179,51451,87941,13448,450321,027
191834359,9623,71363,673183,29152,98440,04850,401326,724
191935449,7846,270456,054228,03264,97647,33658,192398,536

A remarkable increase in the premium income was recorded in 1919, being no less than £89,822. No similar abnormal increase has been shown since 1912; when the premiums were £55,946 in excess of the previous year's figures. This favourable, result has, however, been somewhat discounted by the increase in the amount of claims, which totalled £44,741 more in 1919 than in the preceding year.

An interesting review of the expenses incurred in transacting accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of ten years are shown in percentages of income to outgo under six different heads. In this connection the fact that the Government Insurance Department systematically tabulates the experience of the whole of the workers' compensation insurance business in New Zealand upon a scientific actuarial basis has placed that office in a position to regulate effectively the premiums charged in the Dominion in respect of this class of business, keeping them at a rate that is reduced as far as can be consistently done.

ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—EXPENSE RATIO, 1910-19.
Year.Ratio per Cent. of
Claims to
Premiums.
Commission
to Premiums.
Salaries
to Premiums.
Other Expenses
to Premiums.
Total Expenses
to Premiums.
Total Expenses
to Total Receipts.
191048.0313.5111.9211.1784.6383.35
191150.0413.0411.2911.4785.8483.76
191245.4113.399.8310.3278.9677.77
191343.6013.6110.0310.3177.5676.21
191448.2513.7210.0412.9285.2781.87
191550.9413.6010.8710.9386.3584.62
191648.2014.4911.6512.2086.5485.06
191751.1314.7711.7213.8091.4390.05
191850.9214.7211.1314.0090.7789.84
191950.7014.4410.5212.9488.6187.39

It will be noted that in no year during the past decade has there been a less expenditure in proportion to the total business than in 1913. From that date until 1917 the percentage of claims and the expenditure under other headings constantly increased, but a falling-off in 1918 and again in 1919 is once more apparent.

The appropriation for unexpired risks at the end of 1919 amounted for all offices to £155,580, as compared with £130,087 at the end of 1918 and £124,517 at the end of 1917.

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

The Accident Branch of the Government Insurance Department was opened in 1901. General accident business is undertaken, but the branch was opened more especially with a view to relieve employers of labour of the liability imposed upon them by the Workers'. Compensation for Accidents Act.

The Department's policies cover the full liability of an employer to his workmen under the Workers' Compensation Act, and the liability under common law to the extent of £750 per man.

Personal-accident policies are also issued securing amounts for accidental death and permanent total or partial disablement, and weekly allowances during temporary disablement.

The premium income and claims of the Accident Branch since the commencement of business have been as follows:—

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS.
Year.Gross
Premium
Income.
Claims.
* From 7th June to 31st December.
 £      £      
1901*11,8562,428
190214,1007,364
190324,38113,230
190423,76812,105
190523,97011,242
190620,81513,720
190721,47711,288
190820,89811,926
190926,33712,805
191021,36412,522
191120,75610,497
191223,51312,016
191323,67711,492
191422,2849,633
191523,4669,092
191622,37810,698
191722,1159,270
191821,82310,830
191925,41413,150
192030,26814,975

The funds, assets, and liabilities of the Government Insurance Department belonging to its Accident Insurance Branch are kept separate and distinct from the main life-insurance business, and powers are vested in the Governor-General to make regulations in regard to tables fixing rates of premium and other details for the conduct of the Accident Insurance Branch.

The funds at the end of 1920 stood at £23,212, representing an excess of income over outgo for the year amounting to £9,325. The Reserve Fund now stands at £91,808. The total assets at the end of the year amounted to £140,554.

The liabilities and assets on the 31st December, 1920, were as follows:—

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.
 £     
Liabilities.
Accident Funds, as per Revenue Account23,212
Claims admitted (proofs not yet completed)8,500
Commission352
Premium and other deposits90
Sundry accounts owing59
Officers' Fidelity Fund100
Reserve for unearned premiums13,433
Investment Fluctuation Reserve3,000
Reserve Fund constituted under sec. 20 of the Government Accident Insurance Act, 190891,808
 £140,554
Assets.
Debentures issued under authority of the Finance Act, 191510,000
New Zealand inscribed stock—War loans84,500
Mortgages on property42,870
 £ 
Outstanding interest due but not overdue85
Interest accrued but not due1,164
 1,249
Agents' balances525
Cash in hand and on current account1,410
 £140,554

The investments in war loans were increased by £25,000 in 1920, and these, together with debentures under the Finance Act, 1915, represent 69 per cent. of the total invested funds.

SUBSECTION C.—FIRE INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN the Dominion's legislation three separate classes of fire-insurance offices are distinguished—namely, (1) Local insurance companies established within the limits of New Zealand; (2) foreign insurance companies established beyond New Zealand; and (3) mutual fire-insurance associations. To these may be added the State Fire Insurance Office, established under a separate Act of Parliament.

The Companies Act, 1908, provides for the incorporation with limited liability of local insurance companies formed for the insurance of property other than that of shareholders. Such a company requires a paid-up capital of £50,000 intact, and if the amount of paid-up capital falls below this sum incorporation can only be effected with unlimited liability. Foreign insurance companies require to have a like paid-up capital intact. The transaction of business by such companies is, however, subject to special legislation as set out in the Foreign Insurance Deposits Act, 1908, which requires a foreign company proposing to carry on fire and marine* insurance in the Dominion to first obtain from the Public Trustee a certificate authorizing the company to transact business for a period of twelve months. Such certificates are renewable annually on evidence of the company's financial stability. Mutual associations are dealt with by the Mutual Fire Insurance Act, 1908, which allows at least 100 owners of isolated or farm property to subscribe to a declaration and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss by fire to an amount in the aggregate of not less than £40,000. Such associations effect insurance on the premium-note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability.

Statistics of fire insurance are now collected annually by the Census and Statistics Office. The principal heads of inquiry relate to—(a) Stability of the company as shown by the balance-sheet for whole-world business; (b) the extent to which the office has assets in the Dominion; (c) the amount of business transacted during the year under review; (d) fires and losses; (e) revenue and expenditure; and (f) working-expenses. Statistics were first collected for the financial year of each company ended nearest the 31st December, 1918, and two further collections have since been made. The results enable a comparative analysis to be made of fire business in New Zealand for three successive years. At the same time it should be pointed out that these three years' statistics cover a more or less exceptional period in the finances of the country. It must be remembered, too, that the losses in 1918 were inflated by the disastrous Waimarino bush-fires, which practically wiped out the Town of Raetihi and devastated miles of surrounding country.

* Insurance against loss arising from marine adventures is governed in New Zealand by the Marine Insurance Act, 1908, and to a great extent also by common-law decisions based on the wording of the form of policy. Although this class of underwriting is the oldest branch of insurance, no New Zealand statistics of it are at present available. It is hoped, however, to remedy this defect as early as circumstances permit.

OFFICES OPERATING IN NEW ZEALAND.

For 1920 statistics were collected from 38 offices carrying on business in New Zealand. The head offices of these were distributed as follows: England, 20: New Zealand, 11; Australia, 5; Hong Kong, 1; United States of America, 1. Of the 11 New Zealand companies 4 were mutual fire-insurance associations, 6 were local insurance companies, and the remaining 1 the State Fire Office.

Companies appearing for the first time in the figures are the Insurance Office of Australia (Limited), the London Assurance Corporation, and the Wairarapa Automobile Association Mutual Insurance Company. The Union Insurance Society of Canton (Limited), which was included in the 1919 tables, has transferred its New Zealand business to the British Traders' Insurance Company (Limited).

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The following table indicates generally the extent to which fire-insurance offices have funds available to meet loss and liabilities. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act, 1908 (which follows the provisions of the Imperial statute on the subject), life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders, which is not available to other phases of insurance transacted. The amount of funds (other than life) both in New Zealand and elsewhere are, it will be seen, approximately 200 millions.

FIRE INSURANCE.—LIABILITIES AND ASSETS, 1920.
—-Liabilities.Total Assets.
Foreign
Companies.
Local Offices.Mutual
Associations.
 £      £      £      £      
Paid-up capital17,250,2611,604,763115,71318,970,737
Reserves118,945,7153,091,49422,884122,060,093
Other liabilities59,528,0471,191,45160960,720,107
               Totals195,724,0235,887,708139,206201,750,937
Life funds134,112,939..      ..      134,112,939
               Grand totals329,836,9625,887,708139,206335,863,876

New Zealand assets of all offices transacting business amounted in 1920 to approximately four millions. In the three years' table given below the figures for 1920 reflect a considerable falling-off in funds lent out on mortgage, while on the other hand investments in the Government war loans show a continued increase.

FIRE INSURANCE.—ASSETS IN NEW ZEALAND, 1918-20.
Assets in New Zealand.1918.1919.1920.
 £      £      £      
Houses and landed property435,548425,064461,981
New Zealand Government securities—Ordinary212,750246,100234,750
New Zealand Government securities—War loan1,104,4051,391,8081,588,998
New Zealand local-authority securities463,653461,891435,404
Mortgages, &c.787,966715,994495,410
Cash and other assets in New Zealand501,321635,228788,632
               Total New Zealand assets3,505,6433,876,0854,005,175

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS.

Looking now at the general progress of fire-insurance business in the Dominion, a comparison of recent operations is afforded by the table below for 1918, 1919, and 1920:—

FIRE INSURANCE.—-AMOUNTS UNDERWRITTEN, PREMIUMS, AND LOSSES, 1918-20.
—-1918.1919.1920.

* Excluding reinsurances accepted from other offices.

† No information collected.

Offices in New Zealand.
Number of separate companies343638
Number of towns in which branches established138127135
Number of towns in which agencies exist5,6666,2867,087
Number of separate agencies in New Zealand8,3218,6649,202
Amounts underwritten.
Gross amount of insurance cover in force in New Zealand on 31st December*£207,731,768£255,707,380
Number of policies representing the foregoing*488,088540,651
Gross amount of new and renewal business underwritten during year*£219,302,498£247,707,304£298,399,319
Number of policies representing the foregoing*522,273558,305616,180
Premiums.
Total gross premiums charged on business (new and renewal) underwritten during year£1,335,085£1,472,734£1,777,465
Percentage of gross premiums to total amount of business underwritten0.610.590.60
Total premiums (as shown above), less premiums refunded to insured other than to other offices£1,242,906£1,351,083£1,622,048
Losses.
Total number of separate fire losses with which offices were concerned2,9503,1723,054
Gross losses£472,247£390,598£448,656
Percentage of gross loss to amount underwritten (new and renewal) during year (as shown above)0.220.160.15
Percentage of gross loss to total premiums, less refunds to insured (as shown above)38.0028.9027.66
Average loss per fire£160£123£147

A remarkable increase is apparent in the amount of new and renewal business underwritten. The figure for 1920, which approximates the huge sum of 300 millions, shows an increase of 20 per cent. over the figure for the previous year and of 36 per cent. over that for 1918.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

A statement of the total income and outgo, both gross and net, of all offices in respect of New Zealand business is now given. The gross reserve for unexpired risks, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the net. The amount of fire premiums receivable are exclusive of reinsurances from other offices. These were £239,634 in 1920.

FIRE INSURANCE.—INCOME AND OUTGO, 1918-20.
—-1918.1919.1920.
Gross.Net.Gross.Net.Gross.Net.
Income.£      £      £      £      £      £      
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at beginning of year498,266336,638555,406375,243601,902407,812
Reserve, additional to foregoing14,73014,73014,43014,43019,37319,373
Amount of fire premiums receivable during year1,335,085902,0081,472,734998,3941,777,4651,174,335
Interest and dividends on stock, mortgages, &c.44,48644,48673,91573,91573,34473,344
Rents10,09610,09613,20613,20611,94311,943
Other revenue2,8202,8201,5161,5162,9102,010
                 Totals1,905,4831,310,7782,131,2071,476,7042,486,9371,689,717
Outgo.
Amount of fire losses incurred during year, including adjustment and other, expenses of settlement, but less salvage and amounts covered by reinsurance472,247332,394390,598281,040448,656292,289
New Zealand Government taxes79,08778,75998,34297,630127,822123,526
Local-authority rates3,2083,1633,2633,2633,0673,067
Fire Board levies20,40418,81625,00822,06430,44925,168
Rents16,95615,56916,23715,15418,22716,613
Allowances and commissions on premiums to agents, sub-agents, and others138,60594,828164,374105,793213,639127,418
Salaries and wages, including commissions on profits or bonuses140,506124,993162,169144,741200,593179,450
Other expenses of management64,72158,07077,32868,068112,76698,471
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at the end of the year555,406375,243602,611408,521732,268483,793
Reserve, additional to foregoing14,43014,43019,37319,37318,33918,339
Other expenditure6,5846,58412,58212,5821,6031,603
                 Totals1,512,1541,122,8491,571,8851,178,2291,907,4271,369,737

In so far as the income was concerned, there was an increase of £175,941 in the net premiums in 1920. The total net income increased by £213,013 in 1920, as compared with £165,926 in the preceding year. With regard to outgo, losses in 1920 show an increase in place of the decrease of the previous year. It should be noted, however, that the percentage of gross loss, both to premiums and amount underwritten, shows a decrease in 1920 as well as in 1919, and may thus be classed as a favourable one.

The reserve set aside to meet unexpired risks has, except in two instances, been 40 per cent. of the net premium income.

The net premiums and net losses are set out for each office in the following table. The total receipts and expenditure are also given in each case.

FIRE INSURANCE.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, 1920.
Name of Fire-insurance Office.Net Revenue.Net Expenditure.
Premiums.Total.Fire Losses.Total.
Foreign Companies.£      £      £      £      
Alliance43,34360,12711,26353,452
Atlas37,53150,02412,25354,577
Australian Alliance5,3017,1051,8486,261
British General9331,1501825
British Traders'15,06720,5542,89014,768
Commercial Union38,91754,22411,84051,126
Eagle, Star, and British Dominions35,23544,9894,09434,501
Excess8,73312,278539,779
Guardian32,23345,8456,87636,554
Home13,23416,02829011,805
Insurance Office of Australia10,23910,2394717,778
Liverpool and London and Globe31,40842,6006,41533,490
London Assurance Corporation5,6355,635543,444
London and Lancashire19,91328,4707,80031,003
North British and Mercantile13,66519,0963,28713,971
Northern Assurance26,36236,9823,64524,349
Norwich Union34,40547,2489,82140,042
Ocean8,62512,2871,73111,547
Phœnix42,96458,34210,63148,307
Queensland27,75439,0227,57931,261
Royal Exchange28,92038,4348,78330,866
Royal50,48190,54614,53979,991
Sun36,03448,9629,32840,678
Union19,52026,62617,98132,589
United28,48838,8976,88931,929
Victoria43,89059,56010,71950,305
Yorkshire11,23515,4114,16719,620
         Total net expenditure (foreign companies)670,066930,681175,249804,818
Local Companies.
Farmers' Co-operative12,87622,1142,26516,918
National58,01287,67417,25165,569
New Zealand132,517206,11928,843149,362
South British108,393176,92524,242126,259
Standard59,05380,52822,83676,081
State Fire124,538175,97521,182125,765
Wairarapa Automobile584599..     104
         Total net expenditure (local companies)495,973749,934116,619560,058
Mutual Associations.
Hawke's Bay Farmers'132171..     146
Otago Farmers' Union1,5381,81012895
Taranaki Farmers'3,5003,995522,561
Wellington Farmers'3,1253,1263571,259
         Total net expenditure (mutual associations)8,2959,1024214,861
         Total net expenditure (all offices)1,174,3341,689,717292,2891,369,737

As pointed out earlier, a comparatively favourable result has accrued to fire offices in the Dominion as a result of business for the last two years, and this is so notwithstanding the increased costs of management under every head, as shown in the figures in the next table.

No information is available for 1918 and 1919 in respect of the premium income inclusive of reinsurances, and the ratio of working-expenses under that head cannot therefore be given. Sufficient data are available, however, to put beyond doubt the fact that a distinct increase has been in evidence in the expenses of carrying on business. The ratios are also given with taxes included as a working-expense, and although it is recognized that taxes are in no sense a working-expense, yet they are undoubtedly a heavy recurring call on the profits of an institution. The expenses are increased by about 9 per cent. on this account.

FIRE INSURANCE.—WORKING-EXPENSES, 1918-20.
Items.1918.1919.1920.
* No Information available.
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income35.5937.1238.34
Net working-expenses (including taxes) to net premium income43.7045.7448.85
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (excluding reinsurances from other offices)29.0031.2332.56
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)**28.69
Gross working-expenses (including taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)**35.03
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes) to total net income (excluding reserve for unexpired risks at beginning of year)32.3832.6035.12
Net working-expenses (including taxes) to total net income (excluding reserve for unexpired risks, at beginning of year)40.4741.4644.75

FIRE LOSSES.

The net fire losses for 1920 were £292,289, as compared with £281,040 for 1919 and £332,394 for 1918. In 1920 there were 2,476 fires and 55 conflagrations (cases where three or more buildings are affected). The corresponding figures for the previous year were 2.604 and 48. The total gross loss in 1920 was £448,656, representing. 27.66 per cent. of the premiums (less refunds to insured other than fire offices) charged; and 0.15 per cent. of the total risk covered. The corresponding figures for 1919 were £390,598, 28.90 per cent., and 0.22 per cent. The following table shows for each of the four principal urban areas and the remainder of the Dominion the fires and losses for 1920:—

FIRE INSURANCE.—FIRES AND LOSSES, 1920.
—-Separate
Fires.
Conflagrations.Buildings
affected.
Gross
Cover.
Gross
Loss.
Ratio of
Loss to
Cover.
    £      £      Per Cent.
Auckland2828342398,31070,64817.74
Wellington2625313297,69333,31911.19
Christchurch2416275329,09045,31113.77
Dunedin2403273429,97026,6926.21
Rest of Dominion1,451331,7201,275,721272,68621.38
           Totals2,476552,9232,730,784448,65616.43

The lower loss ratio in the cases of the principal urban areas as compared with the rest of the Dominion is to be expected in view of the greater fire-brigade facilities for handling fires in the larger centres. Companies usually allow this factor to influence the premium required.

STATE FIRE INSURANCE.

In the year 1903 an Act was passed “to establish a State Fire Insurance Office and to make other provisions for the insurance and protection of insurable property in New Zealand against loss or damage by fire.” This Act came into operation on the 4th January, 1905, when the State Fire Insurance Office opened for public business.

As a, consequence of the operations of the State Fire Office the rates on trade risks and the like have been reduced by 10 per cent., and those on dwellings, offices, and similar risks by 33 1/3 per cent.

The premium rates have remained unaltered during the above years. Debentures to the amount of £2,000 were raised under the authority of the Act governing the Office, but have now been redeemed.

The premium income, after deducting premiums on reinsurances during the ten years 1911-20, has been as follows:—

Year.Amount of Net
Premium Income.
 £      
191147,745
191254,380
191359,418
191464,646
191571,166
191677,609
191785,321
191890,077
1919100,764
1920124,538

The expansion of business during 1920 has been greater than in any previous year. The total amount underwritten shows an increase of £6,610,663, and the gross surplus in 1920, after paying losses and working-expenses, is £75,287, or £18,102 in excess of that for 1919. The net surplus (inclusive of income-tax charges), after appropriating an additional sum of £9,510 to Unearned Premiums Reserve, and a further sum of £3,000 to Investment Fluctuation Reserve, amounted to £62,777, as compared with £51,910 for 1919. The total accumulated profits at the close of 1920 amounted to £257,242, as against £210,032 a year earlier.

The net income from all sources amounted to £135,670, as against £110,565 for 1919, showing an increase of £25,105. The net premium income for 1920 showed an increase of £23,774.

The net losses were £21,182, as compared with £23,211 for 1919, the ratio to premium income being 17.01 per cent. and 23.04 per cent. respectively. The loss ratio for 1920 is the lowest experienced since the inception of the Office. In this connection the following remarks of the General Manager of the State Fire Office in his annual report are pertinent to fire insurance generally: “The rising values of stocks, plants, and buildings, and the difficulty in replacing such, appear to have caused greater vigilance in fire-prevention by the people generally than was the case under normal conditions, and the business of the last two or three years has- proved exceptionally profitable. Already there is ample evidence that such good results are not likely to continue. The history of fire insurance shows that very considerable fluctuations under well-known conditions are by no means uncommon. To show how great these fluctuations are, I may point out that the average loss ratio for the five years ending 1914 was 47.85 per cent., and for the five years ending 1920 25.81 per cent., a reduction of over 22 per cent.”

The ratio of working-expenses to premium income, exclusive of income-tax, was 31.47 for 1920 and 29.94 for 1919. These figures are considerably lower in each instance than the average for all offices in the Dominion.

The accumulated funds at the close of 1920 amounted to £316,057, and for 1919 £256,338, a substantial increase of £59,720.

The balance-sheet of the State Fire Insurance Office as at the 31st December, 1920, is appended.

 £      £      
Liabilities.
Capital Authorized by the State Fire Insurance Act, 1908100,000 
     Less not raised100,000
 Nil.
Reserve Fund202,032
Reserve for bonus to policyholders8,000
Investments Fluctuation Reserve Fund9,000
Reserve for unearned premiums49,815
Premiums and other deposits886
Outstanding fire losses440
Government taxes17,516
Interest accrued but not due on mortgages64
Other amounts owing by the Office—
     Reinsurance premiums due£11,046 
     Commission1,747
     Rent256
     Printing, stationery, and advertising49
     Postages and, sundry charges329
 13,427
Fire-insurance funds, as per Revenue Account47,210
 £348,390
Assets.
Government war-loan securities138,325
Other Government securities57,050
Local-authority securities2,500
Fixed deposits and at short call35,000
Mortgages on property3,114
Freehold land and buildings£67,969 
     Less mortgages taken over on office premises purchased6,225
 61,744
Office equipment1,069
Outstanding premiums8,278
Interest accrued but not due2,485
Rent accrued or due17
Cash in Bank of New Zealand at Wellington, or in transit to Wellington£38,089 
Imprest Account balances719
 38,808
 £348,390

Chapter 28. SECTION XXVIII.—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

LEGISLATION RE FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act, 1909, and its amendments of 1911 and 1915. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with a central Government officer entitled the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general oversight by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies. The powers, duties, and obligations of societies are set out, as is also a schedule of offences and of penalties therefor.

SOLDIER MEMBERS.

An important amendment to the Friendly Societies Act was passed in 1914 to meet a serious position which arose in consequence of the outbreak of the war. Section 101 of the 1909 Act provides that no member of a friendly society shall lose or forfeit any interest he may have in any such society, or suffer any fine for non-attendance at meetings occasioned by the performance of his military duties. The departure of many members to the front thus threw a heavy burden upon the societies, especially since the Act did not enable rules to be adopted dealing with the matter as widely as became necessary. A short Act was accordingly passed enabling rules to be registered providing for the postponement or waiver of payment of contributions by (a) any member who was or thereafter became a member of the Defence Forces of New Zealand on active service, or (b) any other member during any period of unemployment occasioned by the war. The Government also undertook to subsidize the reinsurance of death benefits of soldier members on active service to the extent of paying one-half of the premiums. The subsidy was granted to societies whether they reinsured this benefit with outside insurance companies or carried the risk on their own Funeral Funds. On this account the sum of £11,867 was paid to the various friendly societies as the State's share of the liability under this system up to the 30th September, 1916.

As the number of members on active service rapidly increased and the liability assumed correspondingly augmented proportions, the Government decided to establish a Departmental Reinsurance Fund. This fund began operations as from the 1st October, 1916, being administered by a Board which fixed premium rates from time to time. The societies paid into the fund one-half of the premium rate which had been so fixed, the State finding the remaining moiety. In the case of any profit at the close of the war the surplus was to be distributed pro rata amongst the participating societies and the Government; while, on the other hand, should the premium rate prove insufficient and a deficiency be shown, a levy pro rata was to be struck for the proportion due from all parties to the scheme. This reinsurance method was adopted by practically the whole of the societies of the Dominion. The Government's subsidy towards these reinsurances from the 1st October, 1916, to the 31st March, 1920, totalled £31,497. The fund terminated its reinsurance operations on the 31st March, 1919, and all liability claims should have been made by the 31st March, 1920, at which date there was a surplus of £6,082, with a few isolated claims still to come.

For the purpose of dealing with the problem of after-discharge sickness of soldier members a method was devised which provided for special “After-discharge Sickness Funds” being established by the societies, the income of this fund to consist of amounts representing the sick-contribution reserve held on account of these members in the respective Sick Funds, such amounts, at rates fixed by the Actuary, to be transferred from the Sick and Funeral Funds to the society's After-discharge Sickness Fund.

Out of the After-discharge Sickness Fund are to be paid all sickness benefits of all discharged soldier members, whether such sickness can be attributed to war causes or not. Every soldier member, therefore, from the date of his discharge is to be reinsured in the After-discharge Sickness Fund for his future sickness. This will have the effect of determining the amount, if any, of excess sickness due to war causes in the discharged soldiers' experience as a group and apart from the normal sickness of the other members. On the yearly ascertainment of this excess sickness, if any, the Government pays into the society's After-discharge Sickness Fund half the amount of such excess, the remaining half to be made good by levy on the whole of the members of the society.

STATE BENEFITS TO FRIENDLY-SOCIETY MEMBERS.

A scheme for the extension of State benefits to members of friendly societies, on special terms, was embodied in the Finance Act, 1916 (Part IX), and extended and amended by the National Provident Fund Amendment Act, 1919. Information concerning the scheme is given in Section XXIV of this book, in the article dealing with the National Provident Fund.

LODGES AND MEMBERS.

At the 31st December, 1920, there were 879 lodges, courts, &c., on the Register of Friendly Societies, a net decrease of four during the year. The figures for the various orders are as follows:—

Name of Order.Registrations at
1st January, 1920.
Established.Closed.Registrations at
31st December, 1920.
Manchester Unity Independent Order of Odd Fellows225..     1224
Independent Order of Odd Fellows1062..     108
National Independent Order of Odd Fellows3..     ..     3
British United Order of Odd Fellows1..     ..     1
Ancient Order of Foresters1551..     156
Ancient Order of Shepherds1..     ..     1
United Ancient Order of Druids1332..     135
Independent Order of Rechabites77..     176
Sons and Daughters of Temperance11..     ..     11
Hibernian Australasian Catholic Benefit Society73..     1063
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia13..     ..     13
Isolated friendly societies393..     42
Working-men's clubs16..     ..     16
Independent Order of Good Templars11..     ..     11
Specially authorized societies19..     ..     19
                 Totals883812879

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c., are required by law, but it would appear that many lodges do not comply with the requirements. For the year 1920 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 732 lodges, with an aggregate membership of 74,210 at the end of the year, as compared with 735 lodges and 70,598 members for 1919. The following table shows the membership at the beginning and end of the year, with the accretions and losses of members during the year, in respect of the 732 lodges returned in 1920:—

Number of members, 1st January70,598
Number admitted by—
     Initiation, &c.7,292 
     Clearance751
 8,043
 78,641
Number who died664 
Number left by—
     Clearance769 
     Arrears, &c.2,998
 4,431
Number of members at 31st December74,210

The above figures show an increase in membership equal to 5.12 per cent., as compared with 4.55 per cent. for 1919.

The figures of membership of lodges furnishing returns during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Number of
Lodges
tabulated.
Number of
Members.
191165871,771
191266473,243
191368173,691
191471774,074
191572873,027
191672770,360
191773068,771
191873167,527
191973570,598
192073274,210

The figures are of use for comparative purposes, in spite of the comparatively large proportion of lodges which do not furnish returns, as it is found that with few exceptions the same lodges are the delinquents each year. The fall in membership during the war has now been made up, though it will be noticed that 15 more societies were returned in 1920 than in 1914, the increase of 136 in membership being thus perhaps more apparent than real.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

The total funds of the societies and branches as on the 31st December, 1920, amounted to £2,321,176, made up as follows: Sick and Funeral Funds (inclusive of amounts transferred to special funds out of surplus), £2,149,802; Medical and Management Funds, goods, &c., £171,374. Dividing the total funds by the number of members at the end of the year it is found the average capital per member is £31 5s. 7d.

The total funds and the average capital per member at the end of each of the last ten years were as under:—

Year.Total Funds.Average Capital.
 £      £s.d.
19111,441,3532018
19121,553,3392142
19131,643,17722 0
19141,744,45623110
19151,852,3552574
19161,954,94027158
19172,052,75329170
19182,100,4433121
19192,184,653301811
19202,321,1763157

These sums are held against the societies' liabilities under their sickness and funeral insurances, and actuarial valuations made by the Friendly Societies Office from time to time indicate how far they are sufficient or otherwise.

The following statement shows the disposal of the total funds (including those of the central bodies) as on the 31st December, 1920:—

 £       
Funds.
Sick and Funeral Funds2,036,552
Surplus Appropriation Funds, &c.113,250
Management Funds, goods, &c.106,196
Widow and Orphans' Funds18,506
Distress, Benevolent Funds, &c.46,672
 £2,321,176
Assets.
Investments at interest1,989,311
Value of land and buildings198,787
Cash not bearing interest84,704
Value of goods13,328
Owing by Management Funds3,201
Other assets31,845
 £2,321,176

The net income from investments credited to the Sick and Funeral Funds for 1920 amounted to £102,847, the average rate being £5 6s. 8d. per cent., as against £5 2s. 8d. in 1919.

Name of Society.Total Worth of Sick and Funeral Funds as onAmount of
Interest.
Average Rate
per Cent.
1st January, 1920.31st December, 1920.
 £      £      £      £   
M.U.T.I.O.O.F.794,388803,05541,4875.33
I.O.O.F.130,618143,7156,7515.05
N.I.O.O.F.4,8455,2552104.25
B.U.O.O.F.3,9544,0952045.20
A.O.F.447,814483,57424,1325.32
A.O.S.1,2831,280735.86
U.A.O.D.323,151359,83117,7735.34
I.O.R.98,206101,8275,4895.64
S.D.T.24,14125,7461,2725.23
H.A.C.B.S.38,23043,1682,3425.92
P.A.F.S.A.27,06828,2381,5085.61
Other societies29,64936,7681,6064.96
                 Totals1,923,3472,036,552102,8475.33

The receipts and expenditure of the Sick and Funeral Funds for the year 1920 totalled £348;001 and £234,796 respectively, made up as follows:—

SICK AND FUNERAL FUNDS, 1920.
 £      
Receipts.
Members' contributions130,265
Interest and rent102,847
Repayments by central body42,974
Other receipts71,915
 £348,001
Expenditure.
Sick-pay96,027
Funeral donations28,729
Contributions and levies to central body70,577
Other expenditure39,463
 £234,796

Members' contributions averaged £1 16s. per member, and interest and rent receipts amounted to £1 8s. 5d. per member, reckoned on the mean number of members for the year. Sickness benefits paid averaged £6 15s. 4d. per member sick, or £1 6s. 6d. when averaged over all members, while funeral benefits represented 7s. 11d. per member.

The receipts of the Medical and Management Expenses Funds for 1920 totalled £139,023, and the expenditure was £138,591, the details being as follows:—

MEDICAL AND MANAGEMENT EXPENSES FUNDS, 1920.
 £      
Receipts.
Members' contributions127,738
Interest and rent3,001
Other receipts8,284
 £139,023
Expenditure.
Medical attendance and medicine82,318
Management expenses36,719
Levies to central body11,545
Other expenditure8.009
 £138,591

Chapter 29. SECTION XXIX.—BUILDING SOCIETIES.

THE law relating to building societies incorporated in the Dominion is contained in the Building Societies Act, 1908, and is mainly a consolidation of legislation that has been operative since 1880. The Assistant Registrar of Companies in each district acts as Registrar of Building Societies, and before a society can be incorporated the formalities prescribed by the Act and regulations must be completed. Rules, as well as subsequent alterations thereof, must before registration be certified to as conforming to legal requirements by a Revising Barrister appointed by the Governor-General for the purpose. A fee of £5 5s. is payable by the society concerned for this service, but no second fee is payable for amendments made within five years following. The fee payable to the Registrar of Building Societies on incorporation is £3 3s., but no stamp duties are payable on any instruments or documents made under the Act.

Building societies are afforded all the powers of an ordinary mortgagee, and where a mortgagor makes default in payment of moneys the society may exercise the usual power of sale through the Registrar of the Supreme Court. No reconveyance is needed to discharge a mortgage made under the Act, a receipt endorsed being a sufficient discharge for this purpose.

The two classes of building and investment societies — viz., permanent and terminating—are distinguished according as to whether the society is by its rules to terminate at a fixed date or when a specified result is attained.

Returns of each society's operations are furnished annually to the Census and Statistics Office. The dates upon which the societies close their accounts vary considerably within the year, but the figures given below may be taken as corresponding approximately to the financial years ended on the 31st March of the years shown.

NUMBER OF SOCIETIES.

The number of societies in existence in 1920-21 was 78. Of these 37 were permanent and 41 terminating, the latter being comprised of 113 groups. The following table shows the number of societies in operation over a period of five years:—

NUMBER OF BUILDING SOCIETIES, 1916-17 TO 1920-21.
Year.Number of
Permanent
Societies.
Number of Terminating Societies.
Societies.Groups.
1916-173649103
1917-183549110
1918-193545107
1919-203642110
1920-213741113

There has been a tendency for individual societies to enlarge in activities, rather than for the number of societies to increase. The number of terminating societies shows a decrease over the five years under review, but the aggregate number of groups of those which have remained in operation has increased.

A synopsis of the extent to which investments have been made in building-society shares during the past five years is contained in the table next presented:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—SHARES AND MEMBERS, 1916-17 TO 1920-21.
—-1916-17.1917-18.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.
Investing Shares.
Number of shares105,051105,898108,071108,479122,589
Members holding25,67124,90825,12524,86826,809
Aggregate value£1,641,944£1,625,795£1,644,281£1,576,070£1,632,802
Paid-up Shares.
Number of shares34,56737,42039,13057,19863,473
Members holding1,3191,3401,4992,3001,899
Aggregate value£275,672£289,020£303,460£472,977£464,743

The average value in 1920-21 of each investing share paying periodic subscription was £15 4s. 11d., as compared with £13 6s. 6 1/2d. in 1916-17, and of each paid-up share £7 19s. 6d., as compared with £7 5s. 10d. for five years ago. A comparison of the distribution of share-money and the number of holders of shares between permanent and terminating societies yields the following results:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES, PERMANENT AND TERMINATING, 1920-21.
—-Permanent.Terminating.Total.
Investing Shares.
Number of shares61,13561,454122,589
Members holding6,60320,20626,809
Aggregate value£648,509£984,293£1,632,802
Paid-up Shares.
Number of shares62,75771663,473
Members holding1,6642351,899
Aggregate value£452,616£12,127£464,743

Of the total aggregate value of both investing and paid-up shares, amounting to £2,097,545, 52 1/2 per cent. is held in permanent societies and 47 1/2 per cent. in terminating societies. On the other hand, the number of members holding shares in permanent societies is only 28 1/2 per cent. of the total, the terminating societies' shareholders representing 71 1/2 per cent. It should be pointed out, however, that one person may hold shares in several groups of a terminating society.

LOANS AND BORROWERS.

The numbers of loans and borrowers, both of permanent and of terminating societies, are as follows:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—LOANS AND BORROWERS, 1916-17 TO 1920-21.
Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.Total.
Borrowers.Amount.Borrowers.Amount.Borrowers.Amount.
  £        £        £       
1916-174,8981,646,7065,0271,281,1539,9252,927,859
1917-184,0371,365,7075,3891,605,4129,4262,971,119
1918-195,1431,747,7834,6011,260,5059,7443,008,288
1919-205,2132,037,8104,4861,248,5849,6993,286,394
1920-215,1072,228,1584,1011,241,2389,2083,469,396

The falling-off in the number of borrowers is more apparent in 1920-21 than in earlier years. At the same time the amount borrowed has steadily increased, and serves to illustrate the remarks included later under the head of “Income and Outgo.” The consequent general increase in the average amount borrowed is well seen from the next table:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—AVERAGE AMOUNT BORROWED, 1916-17 TO 1920-21.
Class.1916-17.1917-18.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.
 £  s.d.£  s.d.£  s.d.£  s.d.£  s.d.
Permanent societies33631133851133918390194436511
Terminating societies254171029718127319327867302134
All societies294191031541308147338169376157

INCOME AND OUTGO.

Building societies have experienced a continued demand for money available for household property, partly owing to the high prices ruling for buildings and partly because of the acute shortage of houses from which the Dominion has suffered as a whole during the years immediately following the war. The figures in the table below are accordingly of more than usual interest in so far as they reflect the increase in advances made to shareholders, the amount for 1920-21 reaching the sum of £938,713, or double the amount of five years ago:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—INCOME AND OUTGO, 1916-17 TO 1920-21.
—-1916-17.1917-18.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.
 £      £      £      £      £      
Income.
Investors' subscriptions and paid-up shares240,434245,084250,818274,004320,340
Advances repaid432,327422,496459,572596,414758,242
Deposits, received750,518730,367786,861727,3161,266,970
Interest received95,994100,707104,343120,293144,708
Other receipts51,64766,96451,03478,94374,606
       Total income1,570,9201,565,6181,652,6281,796,9702,564,866
Outgo.
Withdrawals211,729228,614224,739256,441289,747
Advances467,825486,228496,803766,306938,713
Expenses of management27,83727,05127,97928,63540,104
Deposits repaid711,309718,572551,062631,2171,133,250
Interest, dividends, and other expenditure104,855123,728116,370113,577193,776
       Total outgo1,523,5551,584,1931,416,9531,796,1762,595,590

The increasing demands which are evident from the above figures, and which arise out of the factors already indicated, have resulted more recently in some societies amending their rules to allow of the limit of group loans being raised.

The aggregate outgo in 1920-21 exceeded the income by £30,724. While this ma in a measure be due to increased expenses of management and to a continued upward trend in the total amount of withdrawals, yet reference to the table of assets and liabilities below will readily show the general soundness of building societies' funds in the Dominion. The position disclosed above is not of primary concern in view of the reason that the legitimate function of building societies is to assist members to secure homes of their own by means of loans at easy rates of interest and repayable on the instalment system.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The liabilities and assets of societies operative in New Zealand for each of the years 1916-17 to 1920-21 are as follows:—

LIABILITIES OF BUILDING AND INVESTMENT SOCIETIES.
Year.To Shareholders
(including Reserve
Funds and
Undivided Profits).
Deposits.To Bankers and
other Creditors.
Total
Liabilities
 £      £      £      £      
1916-172,277,072725,469138,3993,140,940
1917-182,290,924717,188181,0923,189,204
1918-192,315,378693,890244,4853,253,753
1919-202,441,510803,683309,4353,554,628
1920-212,515,1921,064,316138,2843,717,792
ASSETS OF BUILDING AND INVESTMENT SOCIETIES.
Year.Advances on
Mortgage.
Other
Investments
Cash in Hand
and on Deposit.
Total
Assets.
 £      £      £      £      
1916-172,927,85989,904123,1773,140,940
1917-182,971,119100,103117,9823,189,204
1918-193,008,28984,732160,7323,253,753
1919-203,286,393113,058155,1773,554,628
1920-213,469,396125,282123,1143,717,792

Liabilities to bankers, which in 1919-20 reached £309,435, have for the succeeding year receded to £138,284. Advances on mortgage in 1920-21 aggregate £3,469,396, an increase of £183,003 on the previous year's figure.

COMPARATIVE OPERATIONS.

The extent to which building and investment societies are supported in the Dominion is apparent from the table below of similar activities in the Commonwealth of Australia for 1919-20:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—OPERATIONS IN 1919-20.
State.Number of
Societies.
Number of
Shareholders.
Number of
Shares.
Number of
Borrowers.
Amount
advanced.
* Not available.
     £      
New South Wales126***377,410
Victoria317,400*9,402739,772
Queensland114,591862,9284,296161,408
South Australia209,29426,9092,249166,764
Western Australia123,34711,8841,47662,604
Tasmania41,79515,3131,31196,270
New Zealand7827,168165,6779,699766,306

Chapter 30. SECTION XXX.—MORTGAGES.

OUTLINE OF LAW RELATING TO MORTGAGES.

GENERALLY, all classes of property in New Zealand may be the subject of a mortgage, and a mortgage may be submortgaged. Certain property, however, cannot be mortgaged, notably property which as a matter of policy is forbidden by law to be mortgaged, such as pensions. Property which a married woman is restrained from anticipating can only be mortgaged with the consent of the Supreme Court.

The distinction between mortgages under the older deeds-registration system and under the more recent Land Transfer Act is chiefly in respect to the form of mortgage and the estate created for the security of the mortgage. Formerly the mortgagor conveyed the land to the mortgagee subject to a right of reconveyance of “equity of redemption” on repayment of the money lent. This is substantially the present law in regard to mortgages under the deeds-registration system, except, perhaps, that the position has been modified by the introduction into New Zealand statute of certain equitable principles. Under the Land Transfer Act the equitable view is taken, and no transfer of the property takes place, but a charge only is created, the mortgagee being specially empowered to sell the land in the event of default being made.

A simple memorandum of discharge vacates the mortgage. This must be on or annexed to the mortgage, otherwise a reconveyance is necessary. If a mortgagee who has no attorney is absent from the Dominion repayment may be made to the Public Trustee.

REMEDIES OF A MORTGAGEE.

The principal remedy of a mortgagee in the case of default of any of the covenants by the mortgagor is a power of sale through the Registrar of the Supreme Court. The Registrar fixes the time and conditions of sale and employs an auctioneer. The mortgagee may be a bidder at the sale and become the purchaser. The Registrar executes the transfer of the property, reciting that the sale is made under these provisions of the Act. A mortgagee may also sue under the covenants contained in the mortgage. The English remedy of foreclosure is, however, abolished in New Zealand by the Property Law Act in respect of realty.

The information given below relates to mortgages registered under one or other of the above systems. In addition to these there are numbers of privately arranged advances which are not so registered, and of the amount of which it is not possible to form any estimate. Further, stock and crop liens, bills of sale, and instruments under the Chattels Transfer Act are not included in the figures.

A note on the special legislation included in the Mortgages Extension (Moratorium) Acts is given at the end of this section.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED.

The total amount for which mortgages were registered, under both the deeds-registration system and under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district during the five years 1916-17 to 1920-21 is given in the subjoined table.

The total amount registered for the year ended 31st March, 1921, accordingly approximates the sum of £67,000,000. As mortgages of property situated in more than one registration district are registered for the full amount in each district, there is thus some small degree of duplication. On the other hand, it may be pointed out that in addition to a total of 55,175 mortgages which represent the £67,000,000 referred to there were 2,225 mortgages in which no amount was shown as secured.

The amount advanced in 1920-21 is £18,517,534 in excess of the figure for the previous year, and represents an increase of over 38 per cent. This follows on the tremendous increase recorded over the figures for 1918-19, when the total advances amounted to only £19,000,000. The figures are arresting, and reflect the extent to which firms and private individuals have found it necessary to borrow more extensively during the last year under review.

MORTGAGES.—TOTAL AMOUNT REGISTERED, 1916-17 TO 1920-21.
District.1916-17.1917-18.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.
 £      £      £      £      £      
Auckland5,430,6214,992,4415,595,21113,021,46321,659,491
Poverty Bay835,520931,7081,009,3602,162,5832,402,000
Hawke's Bay1,776,0611,663,2711,798,0614,074,5665,084,195
Taranaki1,597,1621,397,6861,414,5434,343,9855,573,591
Wellington5,051,7864,043,0994,570,23810,727,21413,980,776
Nelson364,942283,438444,9461,207,1901,265,520
Marlborough449,978283,180233,5751,059,8801,418,264
Canterbury3,432,6492,842,5752,052,7316,413,4179,581,953
Otago1,102,845868,400927,1862,912,0003,364,263
Southland980,641791,461868,5932,345,2842,434,290
Westland44,66929,66592,842175,318196,091
         Totals21,056,87418,126,92419,007,28648,442,90066,960,434

Taking the districts in which the registration has been effected and placing them in order according to the extent per cent. to which borrowing has increased in 1920-21, the following result is presented: Auckland, 66.34; Canterbury, 49.40; Marlborough, 33.81; Wellington, 30.33; Taranaki, 28.31; Hawke's Bay, 24.78; Otago, 15.53; Westland, 11.85; Poverty Bay, 11.07; Nelson, 4.83; Southland, 3.80. The mean increase in 1920-21 for the Dominion amounted to 38.23 per cent. over the amount shown as registered in 1919-20.

MORTGAGES UNDER EACH REGISTRATION SYSTEM.

A distribution of the above figures according as to whether the registration was made under the deeds system or the Land Transfer Act is now given. The period taken is the three years 1918-19 to 1920-21.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED UNDER DEEDS-REGISTRATION AND LAND-TRANSFER SYSTEMS FOR 1918-19 TO 1920-21.
District.1918-19.1910-20.1920-21.
Deeds
Registration
Land
Transfer.
Deeds
Registration
Land
Transfer.
Deeds
Registration.
Land
Transfer.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      
Auckland1,285,0164,310,1953,264,2789,757,1855,009,70516,649,786
Poverty Bay4361,008,92475,7112,086,87259,9242,342,076
Hawke's Bay356,9611,441,100844,1163,230,4501,200,8073,883,388
Taranaki118,3441,296,199415,5563,928,429600,9014,972,690
Wellington624,4433,945,7951,465,2619,261,9531,760,50812,220,268
Nelson167,921277,025353,509853,681455,524809,996
Marlborough80,233153,342290,360769,520323,3971,094,867
Canterbury111,0061,941,725331,5916,081,826492,5749,089,379
Otago228,387698,799493,7382,418,262742,4822,621,781
Southland132,992735,601229,2012,116,083199,4322,234,858
Westland10,27082,5729,530165,78833,210162,881
         Totals3,116,00915,891,2777,772,85140,670,04910,878,46456,081,970

It will be noted that of the total of £66,960,434 registered in 1920-21 £56,081,970 came under the Land Transfer Act. This represents approximately 84 per cent. of the total amount registered as advanced on mortgage. This proportion has increased very little over a number of years.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED—CLASSIFIED BY AMOUNT.

Of the total amount of £66,960,434 registered for the financial year 1920-21, mortgages up to £500 in value represented 11 per cent. of the total, from £601 to £1,000 18 per cent., from £1,001 to £5,000 40 per cent., and above the latter amount 31 per cent. of the total. The following table gives the number and amount in each registration district according to the sum advanced:—

MORTGAGES.—NUMBER AND AMOUNT ACCORDING TO SUM ADVANCED.
District.£500 and under.£501 to £1,000.£1,001 to £5,000.Over £5,000.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.NumberAmount.Number.Amount.
  £       £       £       £      
Auckland8,3622,464,6605,8344,353,4844,1679,416,6355725,424,712
Poverty Bay645179,720375280,769240619,0651021,322,446
Hawke's Bay1,261374,624922704,8096751,617,9472422,386,815
Taranaki1,376407,8911,064992,7151,2822,786,7621631,386,223
Wellington4,9761,485,5443,4182,658,7262,0194,811,2904695,025,216
Marlborough31987,213182143,058220559,91864628,075
Nelson796206,923353270,451305625,45520162,691
Canterbury4,0121,184,1202,3461,752,9971,4043,374,2503063,270,586
Otago2,447683,7381,005733,4795551,274,19379672,853
Southland1,166327,398553413,0945421,232,18161461,617
Westland18145,0585440,6093994,424216,000
   Totals25,5417,446,88916,10612,344,19111,44826,412,1202,08020,757,234

In addition to the above there were 2,225 mortgages registered for which no amount was shown. Excluding these, the average advance for each mortgage registered was £1,213, as compared with £1,186 in 1919-20.

MORTGAGES ON URBAN AND RURAL SECURITIES.

Figures are available in the case of Land Transfer registrations showing for each registration district the amount advanced on urban and rural properties. No similar data are available in regard to mortgages registered under the deeds system, but bearing in mind that the latter constitute but 16 per cent. of the total it will be evident that the figures given approximately indicate the character of the securities.

MORTGAGES UNDER THE LAND TRANSFER ACT, 1920-21.
District.Town and Suburban.Country.
Number.Area.Amount
secured.
Number.Area.Amount
secured.
  Acres.£       Acres.£      
Auckland7,7953,6995,211,9686,5851,583,81511,437,818
Poverty Bay845437449,797488468,3311,892,279
Hawke's Bay1,366860868,9821,149425,6583,014,406
Taranaki1,346462795,9482,385549,6164,176,742
Wellington6,8453,0394,449,2613,027973,4057,771,007
Nelson369184180,764660231,902629,232
Marlborough230254118,958358472,302976,909
Canterbury4,7581,1572,493,7522,9981,000,3276,595,627
Otago2,15255,8191,079,4591,046713,1881,542,322
Southland964267445,5701,190365,7741,789,288
Westland984639,18314937,490123,698
         Totals26,76866,22416,133,64220,0356,821,80839,948,328

Utilizing percentages, which may then be taken as indicative of the position in regard to all mortgages registered, including those under the deeds system, some interesting results are yielded by the figures given. Mortgages on country property constitute 71.3 per cent. of the total amount secured, and on town and suburban property 28.7 per cent. The position is, however, reversed when the number of mortgages registered is considered, the figures being in the case of country property 42.75 per cent. and for town and suburban areas 57.25 per cent. of the total. The acreage on which these advances are secured represents in the case of country mortgages 98.7 per cent. of the total, and on town and suburban property 1.3 per cent. only. On the other hand, the average amount secured per acre on rural holdings is £5 16s. 10d., as against £243 12s. 5d. in the case of town and suburban properties this, of course, being the natural corollary of the higher valuations ruling in the more populous areas. The average amount of each mortgage on country property is £1,904, as compared with £603 on town and suburban holdings.

A table showing information for each of the past six years is also given.

MORTGAGES UNDER LAND TRANSFER ACT, 1911-12 TO 1920-21.
Year ended
31st March.
Number.Area.Amount secured.
Town and
Suburban.
Country.Total.Town and
Suburban.
Country.Total.
  Acres.Acres.Acres.£      £      £      
191620,5454,8724,608,0144,612,8862,395,96316,032,80918,428,772
191718,8034,3423,714,3953,718,7374,215,26613,389,25817,604,524
191815,8994,1183,559,5173,563,6353,280,23511,599,40514,879,640
191916,06918,7422,830,2602,849,0023,351,59312,539,68415,891,277
192035,63243,3986,050,5516,093,9499,726,82130,948,32840,675,149
192146,80366,2246,821,8086,888,03216,133,64239,948,32856,081,970

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED.

The total amount of mortgages discharged for the years 1919-20 and 1920-21 is as follows:—

MORTGAGES.—NUMBER AND AMOUNT DISCHARGED, 1919-20 AND 1920-21.
District.Year ended 31st March, 1920.Year ended 31st March, 1921.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £       £      
Auckland8,8415,178,86511,9807,733,385
Poverty Bay708758,225901856,314
Hawke's Bay2,0282,206,8912,2822,295,589
Taranaki2,4491,832,9822,7822,182,470
Wellington6,8805,215,4547,6107,219,648
Nelson1,261562,1891,171728,316
Marlborough634487,599595515,007
Canterbury5,5603,679,0666,5594,72,021
Otago3,3241,772,7703,3871,974.497
Southland2,0801,290,5161,8701,162,229
Westland172102,18918668,656
               Totals33,93723,086,74639,32329,464,132

Of the total amount released in 1920-21 £24,394,717 was under the Land Transfer Act and £5,069,361 was under the deeds registration system. The corresponding figures for the previous year were £19,265,475 and £3,821,271 respectively.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED.

A comparison of the monthly totals of mortgages registered and discharged for the two years 1919-20 and 1920-21 are given. Figures are also given for the remaining nine months of the calendar year 1921.

MORTGAGES.—TRANSACTIONS EACH MONTH, APRIL, 1919, TO DECEMBER, 1921.
Month.Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
£       £       
1919.
April1,9482,104,0591,6531,142,970
May2,6352,664,6652,2781,323,762
June2,7093,113,8472,2201,475,390
July3,2713,725,1672,6491,878,407
August3,4364,453,5102,7742,143,681
September3,8944,642,9853,0772,108,402
October4,2034,811,9553,2342,390,837
November4,0624,149,7013,0701,888,965
December3,8914,161,9733,0152,082,913
1920.
January2,9603,126,7522,3891,495,373
February4,4295,158,6373,4482,450,226
March5,2246,329,6494,1302,705,820
April3,5994,650,0732,8162,129,820
May4,9696,217,9803,8272,879,968
June5,5506,251,4404,2243,626,052
July5,3786,771,2934,0403,008,251
August5,5907,223,0333,9983,092,177
September5,5727,095,1433,7222,791,418
October5,2316,279,1953,6462,683,735
November5,0185,333,1553,3072,430,301
December5,3735,557,1813,2642,287,403
1921.
January3,3663,576,0711,9841,473,863
February4,0724,325,1852,3841,606,790
March3,6823,680,6852,1111,454,300
April3,8733,755,8042,2081,354,534
May4,3364,193,6192,3461,687,459
June3,6373,199,8651,9831,312,064
July3,7973,160,3661,9111,140,503
August3,9193,908,0331,8471,192,661
September3,4372,781,2811,6701,131,727
October3,3182,493,9711,766965,395
November3,2922,848,0791,6131,051,641
December3,2462,718,0411,5681,056,953

MORTGAGES REMAINING AT 31st MARCH, 1921.

The total amount of mortgages under both registration systems outstanding on the 31st March, 1921, was £209,603,145. This represents a net increase of £37,496,356 during the year, the amount of mortgages paid off since the 1st April, 1920, being £29,464,078, as against mortgages registered to the amount of £66,960,434, as shown in the first table in this section. These transactions are distributed over registrations under the Deeds and Land Transfer Acts respectively as follows:—

MORTGAGES.—AGGREGATE AMOUNT SECURED ON 31ST MARCH, 1921.
Act.Remaining secured on
31st March, 1920.
Secured during
Year ended
31st March, 1921.
Paid off during
Year ended
31st March, 1921.
Remaining secured on
31st March, 1921.
 £       £       £       £       
Land Transfer161,151,74056,081,97024,394,717192,838,993
Deeds Registration10,955,04910,878,4645,069,36116,764,152
         Totals172,106,78966,960,43429,464,078209,603,145

A table showing the amount outstanding for each of the last ten years is given. This table is illuminating. In view of the fact that the figures cover a term of years, they perhaps afford a better indication of the amount of money borrowed than do the yearly tables of mortgages registered, in which no account is taken because of the absence of suitable data, of the period for which the capital sums are borrowed.

MORTGAGES.—AMOUNTS OUTSTANDING, 1911-12 TO 1920-21.
Year ended
31st March.
Amount outstanding
under the
Land Transfer Act.
Amount outstanding
under the
Deeds-registration System.
Total outstanding
on Mortgage.
* Not available separately.
 £       £       £       
1912**90,392,897
1913**97,816,375
1914**106,442,297
1915112,752,1811,796,040114,548,221
1916120,691,3983,517,591124,208,969
1917127,638,9844,632,856132,271,840
1918132,875,7225,906,525138,784,247
1919139,747,1667,003,470146,750,636
1920161,151,74010,955,049172,106,789
1921192,838,99316,764,152209,603,145

In regard to mortgages under the Land Transfer Act, a table is added showing by registration districts the amount remaining secured by such mortgages on the 31st March, 1921. No similar data are available in regard to mortgages under the deeds - registration system, but, as pointed out earlier, those registered under the Land Transfer Act approximate 84 per cent. of the total amount.

MORTGAGES.—AMOUNT REMAINING UNDER THE LAND TRANSFER ACT ON 31ST MARCH, 1921.
District.Amount.
 £       
Auckland43,785,574
Poverty Bay8,016,228
Hawke's Bay17,830,462
Taranaki16,921,424
Wellington45,221,501
Nelson3,272,055
Marlborough3,385,025
Canterbury32,986,111
Otago9,857,917
Southland10,888,989
Westland673,707
       Total192,838,993

RATES OF INTEREST.

Classified according to the various rates of interest, the amounts in the mortgage-deeds registered during 1919-20 and 1920-21 were,—

MORTGAGES.—RATES OF INTEREST, 1919-20 AND 1920-21.
Rate per Cent.1919-20.1920-21.
 £      £      
0..      946
1564..      
2..      845
2 1/226,1343,800
2 3/42,337..      
315,4805,888
3 1/420,000..      
3 1/2730100
3 3/4..      350
3 4/5..      600
454,93745,875
4 1/4100200
4 1/284,82694,774
4 3/4..      11,640
4 13/16..      3,627
510,124,17211,053,955
5 1/201,100..      
5 1/8..      10,000
5 1/461,3171,454,546
5 5/163,018..      
5 1/213,409,13913,206,609
5 3/4713,4361,163,601
5 4/5..      2,537
 16,164,80225,308,421
6 1/20..      225
6 1/478,99580,020
6 1/21,882,4914,781,009
6 3/45,37530,295
71,432,4123,047,726
7 1/41005,115
7 1/2201,078504,381
7 3/49,225900
81,199,1601,977,980
8 1/45,7503,125
8 1/254,775198,947
8 3/4750..      
9139,696280,401
9 1/26602,650
10148,901255,936
11..      1,650
123,850890
12 1/2..      550
14 4/5..      598
152501,086
2085370
Unspecified2,597,2553,418,266
         Totals48,442,90066,960,434

A noticeable feature of the above figures is the pronounced increase in the amount raised at the higher rates of interest — i.e., above 5 1/2 per cent. Sums borrowed in 1920-21 at 6, 6 1/2, 7, 7 1/2, and 8. per cent. are substantially in excess of the amounts raised at similar rates in the preceding year.

THE MORATORIUM.

In 1914 the Legislature passed the Mortgages Extension Act, intended to give relief to mortgagors during the currency of the war. This Act was repealed, but re-enacted with modifications in 1919, and by a further amendment made necessary in 1921 by the financial conditions obtaining its provisions are made operative until the close of the year 1924.

By the terms of the Acts at present in force it is unlawful for a mortgagee to call up the principal or any part thereof; to exercise a power of sale or enter into possession; or to commence an action for breach of any covenant in the mortgage except with the leave of the Supreme Court. That Court decides whether a mortgagee shall be entitled to enforce the terms of his mortgage, and assesses the hardship or otherwise that would be inflicted on the mortgagee by the continuance of the mortgage. This protection does not apply, however, to mortgages made after the passing of the 1919 Act, nor to mortgages under the Repatriation Act.

The procedure adopted by the mortgagee to exercise his power of sale or other remedy is to give the mortgagor notice of his intention so to do. If the mortgagor does not object within two months from the receipt of the notice the mortgagee may exercise his powers without further authority. If, however, the mortgagor objects, he is, as stated earlier, obliged to obtain the leave of the Supreme Court.

Where the term of a mortgage is extended by the legislation, and the rate of interest secured by the document or by any agreement extending the original term is more than 6 1/2 per cent., that rate shall continue to be the rate for the further extended term. If the rate is 6 1/2 per cent. or less, then interest for the further term brought under the law shall be at the rate of 6 1/2 per cent., which thus becomes a statutory minimum for the mortgages kept alive by the legislation. Trustee mortgagees may, however, come to an agreement with their mortgagors for the extension of the term of mortgages without applying for leave to the Supreme Court, provided that the extension is for not more than five years, and the rate of interest on extension not less than 6 per cent., even though higher rates of interest might be obtained for a new loan.

DEPOSITS.

The 1921 Act also contains provisions in regard to deposits, the most important feature being contained in several clauses restraining firms and companies from increasing their indebtedness while they still have large liabilities under the protection of the moratorium. It is further provided that firms and bodies holding money on deposit, if they take additional money on deposit, must use it first for the repayment of old deposits. Companies making debenture issues to secure current accounts with the banks must use the proceeds to meet debts incurred by way of borrowing on deposit. The application of money in contravention of these provisions is punishable by a fine of £100.

Chapter 31. SECTION XXXI.—WEALTH AND INCOMES.

Table of Contents

PRIVATE WEALTH.

ESTIMATES of the private wealth of the Dominion are arrived at on the assumption that the wealth per head of the living is approximately equal to that left by the average person dying. The fact that the younger and more numerous members of the population do not possess as much accumulated wealth as the older members, taken in conjunction with the fact that the death-rate varies with age, renders it necessary for this purpose to divide the population into quinquennial age-groups. The average wealth of persons dying within any one age-group being known, the average wealth of living persons belonging to that age-group is assumed to be identical, and an estimate of the total private wealth of the Dominion is arrived at by weighting the average wealth of persons in each age-group by the number of persons in that group.

The actual average wealth of deceased persons is obtained by a consideration of the estates certified for stamp duty. For each person whose estate is dealt with by the Stamp Duties Department a return is forwarded to the Census and Statistics Office showing name, date of death, amount of estate certified, and age. The few instances where the ages of deceased persons are not ascertainable are allocated to each age-group in proportion to its contribution to the total.

If the period under review be short, the infrequency of the appearance of large estates may occasion from time to time large discrepancies in the results according as many or few large estates appear in the returns. Matters are further complicated by the fact that from six to twelve months usually elapse after the date of death before the estate is finally certified, with the result that an abnormal number of deaths towards the end of any one year may swell the number of deaths for the year without affecting the number of estates certified, thus bringing about a fictitiously low average wealth of deceased persons for that year and a fictitiously high average wealth for the following year. The epidemic of influenza in the last quarter of 1918 produced just this effect. For these reasons it is desirable to extend the estimate over a series of years and strike an average. In the 1919 and previous issues of the Year-book an average extending over ten years was taken, but with the rapid increase of values during the last few years so long a period yields an artificial estimate, and in this issue an average is taken over the years 1917-20, while the population figures used are the estimated numbers in each age-group at the 31st December, 1918, the middle of this period.

It has been found that the number of estates dealt with in any period is usually equal to about one-third only of the total deaths registered during that period; and as most persons leave some estate, however small, it is necessary to make some allowance for estates which have not passed through the Stamp Duties Office. It should be noted in this connection that estates below £200 in value are exempt from stamp and succession duty, though in many cases estates of a lower value than £200 are passed for probate or letters of administration. The method formerly adopted of making a proportionate allowance of 10 per cent. for all unrecorded estates involved a slight weakness, in that it gave too low an amount for persons dying at early ages and too high an amount for persons dying at advanced ages, so that while these factors balanced each other and did not affect very appreciably the total result it has been deemed better, in order to ensure closer accuracy, to make a fixed allowance, increasing from £20 for the age-group 15 to 20 years to £100 at ages 35 to 40 and over. In such case no distinction is made between the wealth of males and that of females. It has been found that the average for males is generally much higher than that for females; and it would appear that slightly greater accuracy still would be obtained by treating the estates of the two sexes separately, making a fixed allowance for unrecorded estates ranging from £30 for males and £10 for females for the age-group 15 to 20 years to £150 for males and £50 for females at ages 35 to 40 and over. No allowance at all is made for estates of persons under 15. The following tables illustrate the results of the two methods:—

ESTIMATED PRIVATE WEALTH, 1920.
(a.) Both Sexes taken together.
Age, in Years.Number of Estates
certified, 1917-20.
Total Amount,
including Allowance
for
Unrecorded Estates.
Number of Deaths
registered, 1917-20.
Average Wealth
per
Person dying.
Estimated Population,
31st December, 1918.
Estimated Private Wealth,
31st December, 1918.
  £       £       £      
Under 525147,499.0685136,3759,341
  5 and under 1031,5641,1091.4102126,843178,874
10 and under 1581,4466992.0686112,805233,348
15 and under 204645,6601,12840.478793,5823,788,078
20 and under 251,092642,1331,567409.784975,74731,039,977
25 and under 301,6311,254,8652,334537.645686,50046,506,344
30 and under 351,7001,885,5122,683702.762590,65463,708,232
35 and under 401,4992,061,2532,815732.239087,91364,373,327
40 and under 451,1412,094,632,480844.612168,43557,801,029
45 and under 501,0662,155,6042,444881.998362,71955,318,051
50 and under 551,1402,755,5332,4761112.937446,58351,843,963
55 and under 601,1763,339,3452,4341371.957635,45948,648,245
60 and under 651,3944,424,9852,9871481.079729,62443,875,505
65 and under 701,5965,384,2603,3971594.391421,47534,239,555
70 and under 751,7456,453,7913,6771755.178415,66827,500,135
75 and under 801,9168,780,9184,2852049.222410,88922,313,983
80 and under 851,4185,162,3843,3921521.92925,0367,664,435
85 and under 906122,900,7801,8101602.64081,6832,697,244
90 and under 95155531,4474801107.1812313346,548
95 and over4379,399133596.98497041,789
         Totals19,38349,966,03149,8091003.15261,108,373 1562,128,003
(b.) Sexes taken separately.
Age, in Years.Number of Estates
certified, 1917-20.
Total Amount,
including Allowance
for
Unrecorded Estates.
Number of Deaths
registered, 1917-20.
Average Wealth
per
Person dying.
Estimated Population,
31st December, 1918.
Estimated Private Wealth,
31st December, 1918.
MALES.
  £       £       £      
Under 525144,162.012369,344853
  5 and under 1028425921.422364,24291,371
10 and under 1551,0983912.808157,227160,699
15 and under 203738,45862761.336545,5622,794,614
20 and under 251,058604,158817739.483427,34720,222,653
25 and under 301,5041,102,0061,213908.496236,23932,922,994
30 and under 351,5441,696,4941,5351,105.207841,57445,947,909
35 and under 401,2611,784,1711,6801,062.006542,04644,653,125
40 and under 459211,890,3691,4891,269.556033,38042,377,779
45 and under 507501,788,5441,5121,182.899434,00040,218,580
50 and under 557442,199,3411,4201,548.830924,76038,349,053
55 and under 607552,770,9131,4321,934.995119,27837,302,836
60 and under 659223,663,2261,7572,084.932216,60734,624,469
65 and under 701,0854,293,2862,0032,143.427811,54624,748,017
70 and under 751,1625,353,0072,1382,550.51768,57321,865,587
75 and under 801,2847,505,7192,5013,001.08716,22118,669.825
80 and under 859804,506,7252,0652,182.43342,97916,501,469
85 and under 904232,611,1791,1052,363.05799442,230,727
90 and under 9595368,2342521,461.2461148216,264
95 and over2356,34958971.53442928,174
Totals for males14,56342,234,63328,7491,469.0818542,046423,926,998
FEMALES.
  £       £       £      
Under 5  3,337 67,031 
5 and under 1017225171.396562,60187,422
10 and under 1533483081.299955,57872,246
15 and under 2098,18250116.331348,020784,229
20 and under 253433,29575044.393348,4002,148,636
25 and under 30127140,4991,121125.333650,2616,299,392
30 and under 35156150,0581,148130.712549,0806,415,370
35 and under 40238263,1821,135231.878445,86710,635,567
40 and under 45220194,119991195.881935,0556,866,640
45 and under 50310373,760932401.030028,71911,517,181
50 and under 55396556,9921,056527.454521,82311,510,040
55 and under 60421573,2321,002572.087816,1819,256,953
60 and under 65472768,1091,280600.085113,0177,811,308
65 and under 705111,093,7241,374796.01459,9297,903,628
70 and under 755831,101,7841,539715.90907,0955,079,374
75 and under 806321,278,4491,784716.61934,6683,345,179
80 and under 85438665,4591,327501.47622,0571,031,537
85 and under 90189297,901705422.5546739312,268
90 and under 9560162,663228713.4342165117,717
95 and over2022,05075294.00004112,054
Totals for females4,8207,684,52821,110364.0231566,32791,206,741
Grand totals19,38349,919,16149,8591,001.20661,108,373515,133,739

It is seen that under method (a) the estimated private wealth of the Dominion at the 31st December, 1920, was £562,128,003, and under method (b) £515,133,739, which may be taken as the more correct figure. The discrepancy of £46,994,264 between the two amounts is due to the fact that three-quarters of the estates dealt with during the period belonged to males, and, the average wealth per male being higher than that per female, it follows that under the first method the estimated wealth of the whole population will tend to he somewhat overstated. The preponderance of male estates dealt with during the years 1917-20 was due to the abnormal number of male deaths owing to the war. The estimated wealth per head of the whole population was £465, and per head of persons of twenty years and over (practically the adult population) £800.

An estimate of the private wealth in 1914, taking an average over the years 1908-14 shows £285,485,829; but in this instance the now-abandoned 10-per-cent. method referred to at the beginning of this section was used. This fact, however, does not vitiate the figures to any great extent for comparative purposes, as the system formerly in use was quite applicable in a period during which values did not greatly vary. The enormous increase of nearly £300,000,000 must not be taken as an indication that the private wealth of the Dominion has doubled during the war period. Increase of value as measured in money is possible without increase of wealth, and it would appear that the inflation of the currency is, in a measure, accountable for the wide disparity between the two estimates. At the same time it cannot be overlooked that the figures reflect, largely, the prosperity of the country for the period under review.

A table is now given showing the number of estates finally passed during 1919 and 1920, classified according to amount. Estates of Maoris are included.

Amount.Number of Estates.Aggregate Net Value of Estates.
1919.1920.1919.1920.
       £                           £  £      £      
                  Under      5002,2023,619531,089680,329
     500 and under   1,0001,1761,030828,180746,718
  1,000 and under   2,0007838091,100,2241,144,665
  2,000 and under   3,000340366836,591896,517
  3,000 and under   4,000183195629,900677,394
  4,000 and under   5,000118162529,884723,767
  5,000 and under   7,500159192966,8011,178,653
  7,500 and under 10,0006994584,697816,560
10,000 and under 15,00088801,057,209960,298
15,000 and under 20,0004142908,838736,931
20,000 and over881025,115,3616,272,231
               Totals5,2476,69112,888,77414,834,063

INCOMES.

The total number of income-tax payers in 1920-21 was 44,597, and the net assessed income of these, including exemptions, amounted to £48,606,887. Information as to the numbers and -incomes of taxpayers coming within various categories, and classified further according to income, is given in the following table:—

NUMBER AND INCOMES OF INCOME-TAX PAYERS, 1920-21.
Net Income.Salaried
Persons.
Traders, Manufactures,
and Business Men.
Professional
Persons.
Landowners.Other
(Investments,
Trusts, &c).
Total.
Persons
and
Firms.
Registered
Companies.
Nonresident
Traders.
Numbers.
         £        £ 
         0-      6505,8876,4188124761,2497,4536,78729,082
     650-      75040276256211569766192,992
     750-      85021753764101305414301,929
     850-      9009125329562331202973
     900-   1,000882875213712862741,071
  1,000-   1,5003181,087253712411,1247913,885
  1,500-   2,00012541815913993153321,461
  2,000-   3,000933432329663102901,343
  3,000-   4,00032164117622119157617
  4,000-   7,000181261821124130150641
  7,000-10,00093688222447208
10,000 and over335273..  73938395
           Totals7,28310,4662,3176372,12911,64810,11744,597
Incomes.
         £        ££       £       £       £       £       £       £       £       
         0-      6502,451,5022,800,079292,926130,484546,8043,160,8432,435,47111,818,109
     650-      750279,999528,59639,17314,492109,520683,702431,8222,087,304
     750-      850172,777427,40550,3438,062103,770433,170342,4091,537,936
     850-      90080,715223,37825,5124,35954,825292,115176,192857,096
     900-   1,00084,178269,90949,64812,31267,455261,836259,6991,008,037
  1,000-   1,500389,1861,310,263312,05282,820289,9911,363,497970,6734,718,482
  1,500-   2,000211,281709,874277,51822,856172,765547,379573,0202,514,693
  2,000-   3,000224,024814,110570,39421,169159,878737,877690,0133,217,465
  3,000-   4,000106,996561,686403,83421,03176,204406,632539,3522,115,735
  4,000-   7,00096,199636,007932,44361,931120,059668,056782,0713,296,766
  7,000-10,00072,560300,470741,77914,61617,358194,211387,4961,728,490
10,000 and over32,050660,25811,645,551..     152,554600,459615,90213,706,774
           Totals4,201,4679,242,03515,341,173394,1321,891,1839,352,7778,204,12048,606,887

It is evident from the above table that the class composed of traders, manufacturers, and business men constitutes the most important section of income-tax payers, the income amounting to a little more than one-half of the total. It is interesting to note that within the class itself registered companies earn three-fifths of the income of the class, and of that income three-fourths belongs to companies earning over £10,000 a year. Over half the assessable income of salaried persons paying income-tax pertains to the £650-and-under category, while in the case of landowners and the professional class the income is more evenly distributed throughout the various income groups.

Tables are given below in respect of each class of income-tax payers, showing the number of such payers and the amount of assessable income for the year 1917-18 as compared with 1920-21. Owing to an alteration in the method of classifying incomes, the figures for previous years are, for the greater part, not comparable with those given, and consequently have been omitted. The total assessable income, however, for 1914-15 was £13,850,261, as compared with £36,645,373 for 1917-18, and £48,606,887 in 1920-21. The number of taxpayers for the same years was 13,967, 37,949, and 44,597 respectively. The tremendous increase in the amount since 1914-15 is due in a large measure to currency inflation arising out of war conditions.

Comparative tables for 1917-18 and 1920-21 are now appended. Those interested in earlier years are referred to pages 823-8 of the 1915 issue of this publication, where a comprehensive treatment is given.

SALARIED AND PROFESSIONAL PERSONS PAYING INCOME-TAX.
Net Income.1917-18.1920-21.
Number.Net Assessable
Income.
Number.Net Assessable
Income.
Salaried Persons.
         £        £ £        £       
         0-      6507,1632,573,5105,8872,451,502
     650-      750271189,984402279,999
     750-      850172137,157217172,777
     850-      9008372,8249180,715
     900-   1,0008984,9898884,178
  1,000-   1,500175212,946318389,186
  1,500-   2,00068107,620125211,281
  2,000-   3,0003072,47093224,024
  3,000-   4,000723,44632106,996
  4,000-   7,0001048,2841896,199
  7,000-10,000215,560972,560
10,000 and over..  ..       332,050
           Totals8,0703,538,7907,2834,201,467
Professional Persons.
         £        £ £        £       
         0-      6501,581691,4301,249546,804
     650-      750205141,817156109,520
     750-      850166134,663130103,770
     850-      9006254,4516254,825
     900-   1,0009087,1967167,455
  1,000-   1,500228277,618241289,991
  1,500-   2,00098173,74799172,765
  2,000-   3,00070159,18466159,878
  3,000-   4,0002376,1632276,204
  4,000-   7,0001153,20224120,059
  7,000-10,000216,749217,358
10,000 and over117,5907152,554
           Totals2,5371,883,8102,1291,871,183
TRADERS, MANUFACTURERS, AND BUSINESS MEN PAYING INCOME-TAX.
Net Income.1917-18.1920-21.
Number.Net Assessable
Income.
Number.Net Assessable
Income.
(a.) Persons and Firms.
         £        £ £        £       
         0-      6505,2452,263,6166,4182,800,079
     650-      750510356,221762528,596
     750-      850384306,343537427,405
     850-      900166146,763253223,378
     900-   1,000200191,123287269,909
  1,000-   1,500558694,2751,0871,310,263
  1,500-   2,000230409,018418709,874
  2,000-   3,000178423,100343814,110
  3,000-   4,00073250,916164561,686
  4,000-   7,00064338,505126636,007
  7,000-10,00013112,25136300,470
10,000 and over16234,90435660,258
           Totals7,6375,727,03510,4669,242,035
(b.) Registered Companies.
         £        £ 
         0-      650864218,301812292,926
     650-      7506545,7035639,173
     750-      8505846,0976450,343
     850-      9003127,1922925,512
     900-   1,0007168,7275249,648
  1,000-   1,500176218,867253312,052
  1,500-   2,000105184,961159277,518
  2,000-   3,000137335,413232570,394
  3,000-   4,00078268,424117403,834
  4,000-   7,000128670,093182932,443
  7,000-10,00056474,00788741,779
10,000 and over1767,091,38527311,645,551
           Totals1,9459,649,1702,31715,341,173
(c.) Non-resident Traders.
         £        £ 
         0-      65019270,008476130,484
     650-      75096,1522114,492
     750-      85064,822108,062
     850-      90054,40454,359
     900-   1,00032,9111312,312
  1,000-   1,5001417,1537182,820
  1,500-   2,00046,8491322,856
  2,000-   3,000614,533921,169
  3,000-   4,00013,936621,031
  4,000-   7,000417,9131161,931
  7,000-10,000137,313214,616
10,000 and over..  ..      ..  ..      
           Totals245185,994637394,132
LANDOWNERS PAYING INCOME-TAX.
Net Income.1917-18.1920-21.
Number.Net Assessable
Income.
Number.Net Assessable
Income.
         £        £ £        £       
         0-      6507,9053,360,8827,4533,160,843
     650-      750895601,092976683,702
     750-      850596477,834541433,170
     850-      900276243,513331292,115
     900-   1,000349333,549286264,836
  1,000-   1,5001,0781,314,8281,1241,363,497
  1,500-   2,000474825,247315547,379
  2,000-   3,0004311,028,300310737,877
  3,000-   4,000199684,843119406,632
  4,000-   7,000184946,185130668,056
  7,000-10,00086722,86824194,211
10,000 and over751,347,81739600,459
           Totals12,54811,886,95811,6489,352,777
OTHER (INCOME FROM TRUSTS, INVESTMENTS, ETC.).
Net Income.1917-18.1920-21.
Number.Net Assessable
Income.
Number.Net Assessable
Income.
         £        £ £        £       
         0-      6503,3711,127,9436,7872,435,471
     650-      750343176,705619431,822
     750-      850213166,873430342,409
     850-      9008574,695202176,192
     900-   1,000128124,166274259,699
  1,000-   1,500379459,808791970,673
  1,500-   2,000127218,347332573,020
  2,000-   3,000152365,109290690,013
  3,000-   4,00054184,244157539,352
  4,000-   7,00068351,101150782,071
  7,000-10,00026210,28747387,496
10,000 and over21314,33838615,902
           Totals4,9673,773,61610,1178,204,120

During the three years the most noteworthy changes occurred in the traders, manufacturers, and business-men class, the assessable income of persons and firms having increased by over three millions, and that of registered companies by over five millions, while the amount more than doubled in the case of non-resident traders.

Chapter 32. SECTION XXXII.—INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE collection of information regarding industrial disputes was initiated by the Census and Statistics Office at the beginning of the year 1920. Information concerning disputes prior to that year has been obtained by examination of the records of the Labour Department. From this source fairly complete data have been obtained with regard to the number of disputes, their nature, causes, methods of settlement, and results; in many instances it has been impossible to ascertain the duration of disputes and the number of workers involved in them. Consequently it has been impossible to estimate the number of working-days lost or the loss in wages caused by disputes prior to 1920. Under the system originated in 1920 returns furnished by Inspectors of Factories form the main source from which information is obtained. It is considered that the results based on these reports are less liable to bias than would be the case if private persons were relied on to furnish the information. It is the duty of an Inspector, during the course of a dispute in his industrial district, to collect all available particulars relating to it. The Inspectors have power to demand information from the parties concerned in the dispute, and by exercising this power when necessary they can obtain complete information.

On the termination of a dispute the Inspector in the district in which it has taken place is required to fill in and forward to the Census and Statistics Office and the Head Office of the Labour Department a return showing (a) the location of the dispute; (b) its nature—direct strike, sympathetic strike, partial strike, or lockout; (c) the number of workers directly and indirectly concerned in the dispute; (d) the dates of commencement and termination of the dispute; (e) the cause, the method of settlement, and the result of the dispute; (f) the estimated loss in wages caused by the dispute; (g) the names of the firms affected and the industry in which the dispute has taken place. If the dispute results in a change of wages or hours, then the hours and wages before and after the dispute are to be shown.

Industrial disputes may be divided into two main classes—strikes and lockouts. Strikes may be further subdivided into three classes—direct strikes, sympathetic strikes, and partial strikes. A direct strike is a concerted refusal on the part of a body of workers to continue work with the purpose of forcing their demands on an employer or for the purpose of resisting demands made by him. A stop-work meeting does not necessarily constitute a strike; it may be held merely to discuss certain matters relating to conditions of employment, &c., or to decide whether or not a strike shall take place. A sympathetic strike occurs when the workers strike not to force their own demands on their employer, but in sympathy with the claims of other workers. A partial strike is a strike which does not involve a complete stoppage of work; a “go-slow” policy adopted by a body of workers may be classified as a partial strike provided that the fact that they are adopting a “go-slow” policy is soundly established. A lockout occurs when an employer or a body of employers refuses work to a body of workers in order to force certain demands on them or to resist demands made by them.

In these tabulations the term “industrial dispute” refers only to those disputes which result in a strike or a lockout. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes.

LEGISLATION CONCERNING INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

In this country two statutes have been passed with the special purpose of preventing industrial disputes and, where this is not possible, facilitating their speedy settlement. The first of these statutes is the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which was passed in 1894. Its object was to encourage the formation of industrial unions and associations, and to facilitate the settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration. It provided for the registration as “industrial unions” of societies of workers or employers in the various industrial districts, and, as “industrial associations,” of any council or other body representing any number of such unions; for the making of industrial agreements pursuant to the Act, and the filing of such in the Supreme Court; for the formation of industrial districts, the election of Boards of Conciliation, and the setting-up of a Court of Arbitration.

Disputes may be referred to a Board of Conciliation, which endeavours to effect a settlement of the dispute; but, if it fails to do this, it may refer the dispute to the Court of Arbitration, which is required to make an award, such award being binding on both parties. Although the decisions of the Arbitration Court are binding on unions registered under the Act, such registration is purely voluntary.

There have been many amendments to the principal Act. It was consolidated in 1900; a compiling Act was passed in 1905; and it was again consolidated in 1908. Following is a brief summary of the more important amendments: In 1898 an amendment was passed empowering the Court in its award to prescribe minimum rates of wages, with special provision for a lower rate being paid in the case of workers unable to earn the prescribed. minimum. An important amendment was passed in 1903 prohibiting any employer, worker, union of workers, or union of employers from taking proceedings to defeat any of the provisions of an award during its currency. It forbade an employer to dismiss any employee merely because he happened to be entitled to the benefit of an award or merely because he was a member of a union.

In 1905 an amendment was passed rendering any employer or worker bound by an award or industrial agreement affecting an industry who takes part in a strike or lockout in that industry liable to a fine. In 1908 an additional penalty was added in the case of certain “public utility” industries, such as gas-manufacture, the supply of milk or meat, tramway services, &c. By this amendment the constitution of Conciliation Boards was altered to provide for the appointment of four Conciliation Commissioners, whose duty it is to call together representatives of employers and employees in the case of a dispute arising, and to sit with these representatives as a Conciliation Council to endeavour to effect a settlement. The decision of the Council is not binding, but disputes must be referred to a Council before they may be referred to the Arbitration Court.

A further amendment in 1911 empowers the Court to make an industrial agreement into an award provided such agreement does not conflict with an existing award or is not contrary to the public interest. It also provides that recommendations of Conciliation Councils shall become in effect industrial agreements if none of the parties to a dispute disagree with, such recommendations.

There have been no major amendments to the Act since 1911. Its administration is in the hands of the Labour Department, and Inspectors of Factories are charged with the duty of seeing that the provisions of awards and agreements are carried out.

The Labour Disputes Investigation Act was passed in 1913. It applies only to workers or societies of workers not bound by an award or agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. When a dispute arises, any of the parties may give notice to the Minister of Labour specifying the points at issue. The Minister may refer the matter either to a Conciliation Commissioner appointed under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, or to a Labour Disputes Committee formed under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act, consisting of from three to seven persons on each side appointed by the workers and employers who are parties to the dispute. This committee, after investigating the dispute, is required to report on it to the Minister of Labour; and, in the case of a settlement not being arrived at, the report must include a proposal for the settlement of the dispute. If the dispute is not settled within fourteen days after the delivery of the notice to the Minister the Registrar of Industrial Unions under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act is required to have a secret ballot conducted as to (a) whether the recommendation of the committee (if any) shall be adopted, or. (b) whether, in the case of no recommendation being made, a strike or lockout shall take place. The result of this ballot is to be published in the newspapers. If an agreement has been made between the parties with regard to terms of employment it may be filed as an agreement, the penalties for breach of such agreement being the same as those for a breach of an agreement made under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

If the members or any of the members of a society of workers to which the Act applies strike (a) without notice to the Minister or before seven days after the publication of the notice of the result of the secret ballot, or (b) during the currency of an agreement filed with the Clerk of Awards, such a strike is deemed an unlawful one, and every party to it is liable to a fine. In the case of a lockout the same provisions apply to employers.

It will be seen that the object of this legislation is to alleviate the severity of industrial disputes when they do occur, and, if possible, to prevent their occurrence at all. In the classification of industrial disputes according to their methods of settlement the numbers of disputes settled by negotiations under these Acts are shown. So far only a few disputes have arisen under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act, the unions apparently preferring to have their disputes settled by negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

PARTICULARS OF PRINCIPAL DISPUTES DURING 1920.

The great majority of disputes occurring during the year 1920 were of short duration. Out of a total number of 75 disputes recorded 30 took place in the mining industry, but, with the exception of 2 disputes, they were not at all serious. On the 18th March a strike broke out in the gold-mining industry at Waihi. Two firms were affected by the strike, the Waihi Grand Junction Gold-mining Company and the Waihi Gold-mining Company. A total of 803 workers was directly on strike; 63 workers were involuntarily thrown out of work on account of the strike. The strikers demanded shorter hours of work, increased wages, and increased rates for overtime. The dispute was settled by negotiations between the employers and workers, the demands of the men being partly conceded. The loss in wages caused by the strike was estimated at £8,266 to workers directly on strike, and £834 to those involuntarily thrown out of employment.

The employees of the Huntly Coal-mines struck on the 6th September in order to compel the Railway Department to issue tickets on the Huntly-Pukemiro Section at suburban rates instead of issuing twelve-trip tickets. One company was affected by the strike, in which 418 men took part. It lasted till the 26th September, when the men returned to their work, their demands not being conceded. The estimated loss in wages caused by this strike was £9,093.

The only other serious dispute during this year occurred in the Colonial Sugar-refining Company's refinery at Auckland, on the 14th August, when the employees of this factory, 199 in number, went on strike demanding increased wages and shorter working-hours. Eight men were involuntarily thrown out of work though not themselves on strike. The Conciliation Commissioner tried to arrange a settlement between the parties, but the workers refused to return to work until the Arbitration Court had made an award. Work was resumed on the 18th September. The loss to the strikers is estimated at £2,961, and the loss to those thrown out of employment at £119.

NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906-20.

From the passing of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1894 till the end of 1905 there were no industrial disputes dealt with under the Act; indeed, New Zealand may be said to have been entirely free from industrial disputes during that period.

The following table shows the nature and magnitude of disputes occurring during the years 1906-20. Unfortunately particulars are not available as to the number of working-days lost for the years before 1920; and, indeed, the figures showing the number of workers involved are incomplete in many cases. Consequently only a rough idea of the magnitude of disputes occurring in a given year can be gleaned from the table, although the number of disputes and their classification is complete.

NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF DISPUTES, 1906-20.
Year.Nature of Dispute.Number
of Firms
affected.
Number of Workers involved.
Direct
Strike.
Sympathetic
Strike.
Partial
Strike.
Lockout.Total.Direct
Strike.
Sympathetic
Strike.
Partial
Strike.
Lockout.Total.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In four cases figures not available.

e In five cases figures not available.

f In six cases figures not available.

g In seven cases figures not available.

h In twelve cases figures not available.

1906..     ..     ..     111..     ..     ..     8888
190733..     ..     67471b87..     ..     558
19082..     ..     ..     2263..     ..     ..     63
19091..     ..     ..     11a..     ..     ..     a
191011..     221515237e..     12b6255
1911193..     ..     22221,361d14b..     ..     1,375
19122121..     24294,964c75923..     5,746
191333391731623,455c9,925b..     2013,400 
19144151..     20205293,560a..     4,089
19157..     1..     88295b..     a..     295
19161212..     1521696e16043b..     899
191732310..     45532,509ha225e..     2,734
191833..     6140443,984f..     39e334,056
191932112..     45592,938ea1,092g..     4,030
19207032..     751068,524b750b338..     9,612
Totals2807037539255130,02615,2551,77214747,200

From this table it will be seen that the number of disputes occurring in any one year was very small until the year 1913, when the number suddenly rose to 73 disputes. In that year there was an epidemic of strikes throughout the country, the number of sympathetic strikes being especially large. Although it may appear from the table that a greater number of disputes occurred during 1920 than during 1913, this is not the case. On account of the fact that forms showing particulars of disputes are not furnished until the termination of a strike, disputes which begin in one year but end in the next year are tabulated in the second year. In order to secure uniformity the plan has been adopted, in compiling the statistics for back years, of tabulating disputes according to the years of termination, not of commencement. Fourteen sympathetic strikes which began in 1913 continued until the next year, and consequently are tabulated in the year 1914. Only two strikes continued from the year 1920 to the year 1921. Again, as will be seen from the table, the number of workers involved in disputes during 1913 was much greater than the number involved in disputes in 1920.

The following table shows the nature and magnitude of disputes occurring in each industrial district for the year 1920. The number of working-days lost is shown in this table, and is calculated by multiplying the number of workers involved by the number of days lost (exclusive of Sundays and public holidays). It is assumed that work would have been continuous if no dispute had taken place, and so no allowance is made for unemployment which might have taken place even if there were no dispute. In some cases, such as shearing, there is a definite amount of work to be done, and a stoppage of work does not decrease the total amount of work done but only postpones its completion. In those cases the figures are perhaps more or less fictitious, but in the great majority of cases they represent a real loss.

NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, 1920.
—-Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and
Southland.
Totals.

a In one case figures not available.

b Not ascertainable.

c In one case 800 men went on strike; the duration of this dispute was indefinite.

Number of Disputes.
Direct strike21..   10..   1239670
Sympathetic strike1..   1..   ..   1..   ..   3
Partial strike..   ..   1..   ..   1..   ..   2
Lockout..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   
         Totals22..   12..   1259675
Number of Firms affected.
         Totals29..   23..   126918106
Number of Workers involved.
Direct strike2,631..   1,051a..   104,4082601648,524
Sympathetic strike360..   b4..   390..   ..   750
Partial strike..   ..   30..   ..   308..   ..   338
Lockout..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   
         Totals2,991..   1,081..   105,7062601649,612
Number of Working-days Lost.
Direct strike33,909..   632c..   1014,9864531,37751,317
Sympathetic strike2,160..   b..   ..   780..   ..   2,940
Partial strike..   ..   120..   ..   308..   ..   428
Lockout..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   
         Totals36,069..   752..   1016,0744531,37754,735

The greatest number of disputes was recorded in the Westland District. These were practically all trivial disputes in the mining industry. In most cases only one shift was lost; some minor question concerning working-conditions, &c., causing the stoppage and being settled immediately. On the 28th September the Wellington Watersiders' Union went on strike over a question of payment for one hour during which, the owners alleged, the men had not worked. Eight hundred men were concerned in the strike, the exact duration of which is not ascertainable, although it is certain it did not last for more than a few days. The other case in which the figures are incomplete is a strike on one of the intercolonial boats, when the seamen refused to sail from Wellington as long as a certain racehorse was on board. The strike took place on the 16th July, and was settled later in the same day by the removal of the racehorse from the ship.

It will be noticed that in the Otago and Southland District six strikes took place. A total number of 164 men were concerned in the dispute and 18 firms were affected. The apparently large number of firms concerned for the small number of workers involved is explained by the fact that in two cases 7 shipping firms were affected by a strike of the Bluff Watersiders' Union, although there were only 20 men involved in one of the strikes and 30 in the other.

The following table shows the duration of the disputes which occurred during the years 1906-20. Several disputes have been classified as of indefinite duration owing to the lack of information as to their duration. In other cases it has been found possible to assign disputes to a class although their exact duration cannot be ascertained.

DURATION AND MAGNITUDE OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906-20.
Limits of Duration.1906.1907.1908.1909.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.Totals.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In three cases figures not available.

e In four cases figures not available.

1 day and less..  11..  5982132612113394
2 days and more than 1 day..  ..  1..  331..  ..  113271032
3 days and more than 2 days..  ..  ..  ..  ..  112..  ..  2725323
Over 3 days to 1 week..  ..  ..  ..  ..  2121..  3125825
1 week to 2 weeks..  ..  ..  ..  1226..  13474636
2 weeks to 4 weeks..  3..  ..  2..  3241..  ..  1175763
4 weeks to 6 weeks1..  ..  ..  ..  1..  9..  ..  ..  ..  21216
6 weeks to 8 weeks..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  1121..  ..  11..  ..  16
8 weeks and over..  ..  ..  ..  ..  13915..  ..  2..  3..  33
Indefinite..  2..  ..  43471341054654
               Totals1621152224732081545404575392
Number of Workers involved.
1 day and less..  a30..  68c109e419b10b525762b73d1,089d766e3,373b6,261
2 days and more than 1 day..  ..  33..  6c6930..  ..  27a16c31b934b1,1042,250
3 days and more than 2 days..  ..  ..  ..  ..  285111..  ..  276340d395114c3871,656
Over 3 days to 1 week..  ..  ..  ..  91707713214..  164ba8662c7142,535
1 week to 2 weeks..  ..  ..  ..  126400168881..  a372b322b1,712b7921,051b5,824
2 weeks to 4 weeks..  391..  ..  7b..  5516,025a..  ..  1,713d343d4001,91011,340
4 weeks to 6 weeks88..  ..  ..  ..  575..  876..  ..  ..  ..  400ba2132,152
6 weeks to 8 weeks..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  833,539..  ..  ..  a50..  ..  3,778
8 weeks and over..  ..  ..  ..  ..  163,7021,143c3,954..  ..  a..  322d..  9,137
Indefinite..  167..  a48b8b17b7831011b25c270e28c408602,267
               Totals8855863a2551,3755,74613,4004,0892958992,7344,0564,0309,61247,200
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO DURATION, 1920.
Duration.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and
Southland.
Totals.
a In one case figures not available.
Number of Disputes.
1 day and less10..  3..  1127..  33
2 days and more than 1 day4..  3..  ..  21..  10
3 days and more than 2 days1..  ..  ..  ..  1..  13
Over 3 days and less than 1 week2..  2..  ..  1128
1 week and less than 2 weeks1..  2..  ..  3..  ..  6
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks3..  ..  ..  ..  2..  27
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks1..  ..  ..  ..  1..  ..  2
Indefinite..  ..  2..  ..  3..  16
          Totals22..  12..  1259675
Number of Workers involved.
1 day and less306..  79..  102,786a192..  3,373
2 days and more than 1 day388..  113..  ..  59013..  1,104
3 days and more than 2 days5..  ..  ..  ..  370..  12387
Over 3 days and less than 1 week260..  49..  ..  3005550714
1 week and less than 2 weeks360..  40a..  ..  651..  ..  1,051
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks1,465..  ..  ..  ..  360..  851,910
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks207..  ..  ..  ..  6..  ..  213
Indefinite..  ..  800..  ..  43..  17860
          Totals2,991..  1,081..  105,1062601649,612
Number of Working-days lost.
1 day and less266..  71..  102,770a152..  3,269
2days and more than 1 day796..  226..  ..  1,18026..  2,228
3 days and more than 2 days15..  ..  ..  ..  1,110..  1161,241
Over 3 days and less than 1 week1,118..  215..  ..  1,2002751202,928
1 week and less than 2 weeks2,160..  240a..  ..  5,120..  ..  7,520
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks25,504..  ..  ..  ..  4,550..  1,14131,195
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks6,210..  ..  ..  ..  144..  ..  6,354
Indefinite..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  
          Totals36,069..  752..  1016,0744531,37754,735
Estimated Loss in Wages.
 £   ££   £££   £££   
1 day and less284..  22..  101,894a81..  2,291
2 days and more than 1 day504..  111..  ..  92014..  1,549
3 days and more than 2 days10..  ..  ..  ..  872..  1501,032
Over 3 days and less than 1 week580..  127..  ..  960240841,991
1 week and less than 2 weeks1,585..  143a..  ..  3,962..  ..  5,690
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks18,757..  ..  ..  ..  3,092..  88622,735
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks4,080..  ..  ..  ..  105..  ..  4,185
Indefinite..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  950950
          Totals25,800..  403..  1011,8053352,07040,423

From the foregoing tables it will be seen that 94 disputes out of a total of 392 lasted for only one day or less than one day. In 1920 33 disputes out of a total of 75—that is, 44 per cent. of the total number of disputes for that year —lasted for only one day or less. Of the other classes the greatest frequency is found in the class two weeks to four weeks, 63 disputes being included in that class. In 1913 24 disputes lasted from two weeks to four weeks, and 9 were of over eight weeks' duration. Fifteen disputes are shown in 1914 as “eight weeks and over.” All these disputes commenced in 1913, but did not terminate until the next year.

The following table shows the number of disputes in each industrial district for the years 1906-20, and also the number of workers involved:—

NUMBER AND MAGNITUDE OF DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, 1906-20.
Year.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and
Southland.
Totals.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In three cases figures not available.

e In four cases figures not available.

f In five cases figures not available.

g In six cases figures not available.

h In seven cases figures not available.

i In nine cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
1906..   ..   ..   ..   1..   ..   1 
19072..   1..   ..   12..   6
1908..   ..   2..   ..   ..   ..   ..   2
1909..   ..   ..   ..   ..   1..   ..   1
19104..   3..   ..   ..   6215
19117..   8..   ..   ..   5222
1912915..   ..   15324
1913213223267973
19142..   2..   312..   120
19151..   5..   ..   ..   2..   8
19161..   4115..   315
19178..   1412152345
19189..   6..   1191440
19191018..   3153545
192022..   12..   1259675
Totals965925131014238392
Number of Workers involved.
1906..   ..   ..   ..   ..   88..   ..   88
190746b..   121..   ..   35041..   558
1908..   ..   63..   ..   ..   ..   ..   63
1909..   ..   ..   ..   ..   a..   ..   a
1910179b..   60..   ..   ..   9e7b255
1911404c..   663b..   ..   ..   218c901,375
19123,262b61,574..   ..   543128b2335,746
19137,5761011,281b1941461,526610b1,966b13,400
1914510..   455..   1442,874b..   1064,089
1915200..   68b..   ..   ..   27b..   295
191610..   412aa434c..   43c899
1917504c..   269i35581,704h150b14b2,734
1918422b..   75b..   a3,499ga60b4,056
1919394ea118d..   1112,306f8802214,030
19202,991..   1,081c..   105,1062601649,612
Totals16,4981076,24022946918,4302,3232,90447,200

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO INDUSTRIAL GROUPS.

In the following table industrial disputes are classified according to the industries in which disputes took place. In the tables for the period 1906-20 the totals for the Dominion only are given; but a more detailed table is also added giving fuller particulars for the disputes occurring during the year' 1920. The classification into industrial groups is the same as that used in the compilation of wage statistics by this Office. “Wood manufacture” includes both sawmilling and the secondary stages of manufacture (cabinetmaking, &c). “Domestic service” includes employees in hotels, restaurants, &c. “Metal-working” includes all the engineering trades, brass-moulding, fitting, &c. The names given to the other groups are self-explanatory.

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO INDUSTRIAL GROUPS, 1906-20.
Industrial Group.1906.1907.1908.1909.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.Totals.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In three cases figures not available.

e In four cases figures not available.

f In five cases figures not available.

g In seven cases figures not available.

h In ten cases figures not available.

      I. Food, drink, &c...  42..  6..  7231..  16141165
    II. Clothing..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  1..  ..  3116
  III. Textile-weaving..  ..  ..  ..  ..  211..  ..  1113..  10
    IV. Building and contracting..  ..  ..  ..  1..  2711..  ..  ..  2115
      V. Wood-manufacture..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  3..  ..  ..  11139
    VI. Paper-manufacture and printing..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  1..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  1
  VII. Metal-working..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  1..  ..  ..  1..  2..  4
VIII. Other manufactures..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  2..  ..  122119
    IX. Mining11..  1..  18915..  719222130135
      X. Agriculture and pastoral..  ..  ..  ..  51..  ..  ..  ..  2..  ..  ..  ..  8
    XI. Land transport..  1..  ..  1124..  ..  ..  134118
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working..  ..  ..  ..  21012126311452186
XIII. Domestic service..  ..  ..  ..  ..  111..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  25
  XIV. Miscellaneous..  ..  ..  ..  ..  6121..  1331321
         Totals1621152224732081545404575392
Number of Workers involved.
      I. Food, drink, &c...  208630138d..  602b2,2715..  ..  360b3195b4844,257
    II. Clothing..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  40..  17012b2930281  
  III. Textile-weaving..  ..  ..  ..  ..  8330030..  ..  393..  3345b..  884
    IV. Building and contracting..  ..  ..  ..  40..  121,870105..  ..  ..  70b52,012
      V. Wood-manufacture..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  607..  ..  ..  491751688
    VI. Paper-manufacture and printing..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  23..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  23
  VII. Metal-working..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  7..  880b12899
VIII. Other Manufactures..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  284..  ..  ..  5719619385
    IX. Mining88350..  a..  a3,902b1,5593,951b..  434e1886h3,864e2,771f7,22126,026
      X. Agriculture and pastoral..  ..  ..  ..  15c8..  ..  ..  ..  4b..  ..  ..  ..  387
    XI. Land transport..  a..  ..  124785647..  ..  ..  aaa3602,775
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working..  ..  ..  ..  50b727a623,804d109250c58b250g55c701,32,7c5,435
XIII. Domestic service..  ..  ..  ..  ..  108850..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  15883
  XIV. Miscellaneous..  ..  ..  ..  543b521,47814..  10a33b47882,265 
Totals8855863a2551,3755,74613,4004,0892958992,7344,0564,0309,61247,200
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO INDUSTRIAL GROUPS, 1920.
Industrial District and Group.Number of
Disputes.
Number
of Firms
affected.
Number of workers
involved.
Number of
Working-days
lost.
Estimated
Loss in
Wages.
Directly.Indirectly.Total.
 £     

a Disputes settled in one day; working-days lost and loss in wages negligible.

b In two cases figures not available.

Northern District.
      I. Food, drink, &c.88400214216,5344,382
    IV. Building, &c.115..  51510
    IX. Mining6112,000692,06926,88419,693
    XI. Land transport11320403602,1601,585
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working351892110440119
XIII. Domestic service2213215253
  XIV. Miscellaneous1111..  11118
                 Totals22292,7672242,99136,06925,800
Wellington District.
      I. Food, drink, &c.228..  8aa
    II. Clothing1230..  3012045
  VIII. Other manufactures1119..  199582
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working717951b16967423b225b
  XIV. Miscellaneous1157..  5711451
                 Totals12231,065161,081752403
Nelson District.
      V. Wood-manufacture1110..  101010
Westland District.
      V. Wood-manufacture2241..  4114080
    IX. Mining22234,4496075,05615,93411,725
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working119..  9aa
                 Totals25264,4996075,10616,07411,805
Canterbury District.
      I. Food, drink, &c.11302555275240
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working771572818517895
  XIV. Miscellaneous1120..  20..  ..  
                 Totals9920753260453335
Otago and Southland District.
  VII. Metal-workers1112..  1236150
    IX. Mining2282961,0271,771 
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working31656..  56314149
                 Totals619150141641,3772,070
All Districts.
      I. Food, drink, &c.1111438464846,8094,622
    II. Clothing1130..  3012045
    IV. Building, &c.115..  51510
      V. Wood-manufacture3351..  5115090
  VII. Metal-workers1112..  1236150
VIII. Other manufactures1119..  199582
    IX. Mining30366,5316907,22143,84533,189
    XI. Land transport11320403602,1601,585
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working21461,191b1361,3271,355b588b
XIII. Domestic service2213215253
  XIV. Miscellaneous3388..  8812559
                 Totals751068,6989149,61254,73540,423

From the foregoing tables it will be seen that the greatest number of disputes in any one industry during the period under review occurred in the mining industry. In the year 1920 this is especially noticeable, 30 disputes out of a total of 75 for the year occurring in that industry. Of these 30 disputes, 22 took place in the coal-mines of Westland; but all of these were trivial disputes. The only two disputes at all serious occurring during 1920 in the mining industry broke out in the gold-mining industry in the Auckland District.

The large number of disputes which took place in the group “shipping and cargo-working” in 1913 is accounted for by the fact that several severe strikes of waterside workers occurred in that year.

CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

In the following tables the causes of disputes occurring during the years 1906-20 are shown. Under the heading “Wages” are included disputes concerning a reduction or increase in the rates of wages in industries where time rates are paid, or concerning an increase or decrease in the rates for piecework in -industries where piece rates are paid. Disputes concerning an increase or decrease in the rates for overtime are also included in this class.

Disputes concerning the number of hours of work are classified under the heading “Hours.”

Disputes concerning the employment or non-employment of certain classes of persons are included under the heading “Employment.” This question usually arises in connection with trade-union affairs—the employment of non-unionists, or the dismissal of men when, in the opinion of the other workers, their dismissal is due merely to the fact that they are prominent in union activities.

The heading “Other working - conditions” includes all causes of disputes relating to conditions of work, &c.

Under the heading “Sympathy” are included all disputes caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance with their own particular employer, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

“Other causes” refers to all causes of disputes not included in the above classes. The only cases coming under this head during the period under review occurred in 1916 and 1917, when several strikes took place in order to endeavour to obtain the repeal of the Military Service Act, and as a protest against conscription.

CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906-20.
Number of Disputes.
Cause.1906.1907.1908.1909.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.Totals.
Wages..  12..  910102514316192229151
Hours1..  ..  ..  2..  ..  1111522319
Employment..  1..  ..  1610422351291570
Other working-conditions..  1..  1332311286112466
Sympathy..  3..  ..  ..  223915..  13..  1470
Other causes..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  48..  ..  ..  12
Not stated..  ..  ..  ..  ..  1..  1..  ..  1..  1..  ..  4
               Totals1621152224732081545404575392
Number of Workers involved.
Cause.1906.1907.1908.1909.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.Totals.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two casts figures not available.

d In three cases figures not available.

e In four cases figures not available.

f In five cases figures not available.

g In six cases figures not available.

h In eight cases figures not available.

Wages..  12163..  179f858b6552,49314223b247411f2,433c1,970h3,618b13,285
Hours88..  ..  ..  12b..  ..  35010a43173daa49725
Employment..  a..  ..  31733,789b181b500b3277b577b1,441e605b1,1798,557
Other working-conditions..  350..  a61330d543b451540a101g182c1,455b3,9927,510
Sympathy..  87..  ..  ..  147599,925b3,560..  160a..  a774b15,279
Other causes..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  372c1,472c..  ..  ..  1,844
Not stated..  ..  ..  ..  ..  a..  a..  ..  a..  a..  ..  a
               Totals8855863a2551,3755,74613,4004,0892958992,7344,0564,0309,61247,200

It will be noticed that more disputes arose out of questions concerning wages than from any other cause. Of the total number of disputes arising on account of sympathy with the grievances of other workers over 50 per cent. took- place in 1913. The large proportion of sympathy strikes recorded in 1914 is due to the aftermath of the 1913 strikes, several sympathy strikes being carried on into that year.

The following table shows in more detail the causes of disputes occurring during the year 1920:—

CAUSES OF DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT DURING THE YEAR 1920.
—-Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and
Southland.
Total.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
Wages9..     5..     ..     82529
Hours2..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     3
Employment5..     1..     143115
Other working - conditions5..     5..     ..     122..     24
Sympathy1..     1..     ..     11..     4
Other causes..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
               Totals22..     12..     1259675
Number of Workers involved.
Wages1,172..     927b..     ..     1,521461523,618
Hours21..     ..     ..     ..     ..     28..     49
Employment235..     4..     1086454121,179
Other working - conditions1,203..     150..     ..     2,531108..     3,992
Sympathy360..     a..     ..     39024..     774
               Totals2,991..     1,081..     105,1062601649,612
Number of Working-days lost.
Wages21,031..     474b..     ..     2,984261,34125,856
Hours11..     ..     ..     ..     ..     28..     39
Employment695..     ..     ..     103,40234364,177
Other working - conditions12,172..     278..     ..     8,908341..     21,699
Sympathy2,160..     a..     ..     78024..     2,964
               Totals36,069..     752..     1016,0744531,37754,735
Estimated Loss in Wages.
 £      ££   £££   ££   £      
Wages20,347..     239b..     ..     1,951171,92024,474
Hours5..     ..     ..     ..     ..     28..     33
Employment256..     ..     ..     102,468..     1502,854
Other working - conditions3,607..     164..     ..     6,806290..     10,877
Sympathy1,585..     a..     ..     600..     ..     2,185
               Totals25,800..     403..     1011,8053352,07040,423

In the above table one dispute is recorded as having taken place in the Wellington District regarding a question of employment. Four men were involved in this dispute. but they were replaced almost immediately, only part of a day being lost; consequently no figures are recorded as to the number of working-days lost or the loss in wages, such loss being negligible. In the same district a sympathy strike took place in the shipping trade. The number of workers involved is unascertainable: but as the men resumed duty later in the same day no working-days were lost or no loss in wages was caused, the departure of the vessel being merely delayed.

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

The methods of settlement of industrial disputes may be classified as follows:—

  1. By negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act:

  2. By negotiations under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act:

  3. By private negotiations between the employers and workers resulting in the framing of a compromise:

  4. By the substitution for strikers of other workers:

  5. By other methods. Under this head are included cases in which the men return to work without definitely settling the points at issue; or where the employers and workers give way without placing the matter before a Labour Disputes Committee or a Conciliation Council; or any other method by which a strike may be settled which does not come under the four preceding heads.

Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes for the years 1906-20:—

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906-20.
Method of Settlement.1906.1907.1908.1909.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.Totals.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In three cases figures not available.

e In four cases figures not available.

f In five cases figures not available.

g In twelve cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act12..     ..     2..     ..     4622134128
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     214
Compromise between parties to dispute..     ..     ..     ..     2566..     1146143075
Substitution..     ..     ..     ..     861017..     11223959
Otherwise..     41..     310839142630201528180
Not stated..     ..     11..     1..     7..     25797646
               Totals1621152224732081545404575392
Number of Workers involved.
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act88471..     ..     55..     ..     3002,42411248a15b250b2074,069
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     296..     93b26415
Compromise between parties to dispute..     ..     ..     ..     40b142b1,5781,023..     aa181c91d1,344e2,6177,016
Substitution..     ..     ..     ..     154d39b2,767b1,824b..     274a6b69944,984
Otherwise..     87b30..     6c1,194c1,401b9,964b1,665b217b265c1,893g2,392f1,436d4,515c25,065
Not stated..     ..     33a..     a..     289b..     40382d364d1,552b838e2,1535,651
               Totals8855863a2551,3755,74613,4004,0892958992,7344,0564,0309,61247,200

The following table shows the methods of settlement of disputes in each industrial district for the year 1920:—

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES, 1920.
Method of Settlement.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and
Southland.
Totals.

a Not stated.

b In two cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Compromise8..     6..     ..     84430
Substitution4..     2..     ..     1..     29
Otherwise6..     3..     1135..     28
Not stated2..     1..     ..     3..     ..     6
               Totals22..     12..     1259675
Number of Workers involved.
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act207..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     207
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act26..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     26
Compromise1,132..     257..     ..     9661211412,617
Substitution40..     20..     ..     11..     2394
Otherwise987..     4b..     103,375139..     4,515
Not stated599..     800..     ..     754..     ..     2,153
               Totals2,991..     1,081..     105,1062601649,612
Number of Working-days lost.
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act6,210..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     6,210
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act26..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     26
Compromise15,428..     720..     ..     5,2043541,26322,969
Substitution50..     32..     ..     10,150..     11410,346
Otherwise3,573..     a..     10..     99..     3,658
Not stated10,782..     ..     ..     ..     720..     ..     11,502
               Totals36,069..     752..     1016,0744531,37754,735
Estimated Loss in Wages.
 £   £££££   ££   £   
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act4,080..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     4,080
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Acta..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     a
Compromise7,471..     403..     ..     3,2393071,05512,475
Substitution65..     ..     ..     ..     80..     1,0151,160
Otherwise2,527..     a..     107,93428..     10,499
Not stated11,657..     ..     ..     ..     552..     ..     12,209
               Totals28,800..     403..     1011,8053352,07040,423

RESULTS Of INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906-20.

The results of industrial disputes may be classified under the following heads:—

  1. In favour of workers. All disputes where the demands of the workers are totally conceded come under this category.

  2. In favour of employers. Disputes are classified under this head when the workers give way on the points at issue.

  3. Compromise. Disputes where the demands of the workers are partially but not wholly conceded come under this head.

  4. Disputes are classified as “indeterminate” when work is resumed without any definite settlement of the questions out of which the trouble arose.

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO RESULTS, 1906-20.
Result.1906.1907.1908.1909.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.Totals.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In three cases figures not available.

e In four cases figures not available.

f In five cases figures not available.

g In six cases figures not available.

h In seven cases figures not available.

i In ten cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
In favour of workers..     11..     162..     1221010123179
In favour of employers..     ..     ..     ..     52949171475514108
Compromise..     ..     ..     ..     2686..     11449243
Indeterminate15117851824824211928152
               Totals1621152224732081545404575392
Number of workers involved.
In favour of workers..     ..     30..     a605833..     5217243b366b686e810d3,868b7,663
In favour of employers..     350..     ..     68c585b2,902b10,040c4,000b2722216h1,132b629b1,62721,598
Compromise..     ..     ..     ..     27b142b1,597b1,023..     aa477c58b397d333,754
Indeterminate88208b33a160c43d4142,337b8451b434e1,875i2,180f2,194g4,084b14,185
               Totals8855863a2551,3755,74613,4004,0892958992,7344,0564,0309,61247,200

In the following table the results of disputes in each industrial district for the year 1920 are shown:—

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, 1920, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO RESULTS.
District.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost. 
In Favour
of Workers.
In Favour
of Employers.
Compromise.Indeterminate.Total.In Favour
of Workers.
In Favour
of Employers.
CompromiseIndeterminate.Total.In Favour
of Workers.
In Favour
of Employers.
Compromise.Indeterminate.Total.
a In one case figures not available.
Northern98..     5221,8371,015..     1392,99122,61013,008..     45136,069
Taranaki..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Wellington52..     512174a44..     863a1,081337a240..     175a752
Marlborough..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Nelson..     1..     ..     1..     10..     ..     10..     10..     ..     10
Westland83..     14251,606558..     2,9425,10611,2441,442..     3,38816,074
Canterbury5..     139124..     1312326084..     26343453
Otago and Southland4..     116127..     20171641,297..     80..     1,377
               Totals3114228753,8681,627334,0849,61235,57214,7001064,35754,735

It will be noticed that the number of disputes in 1920 which resulted in favour of the workers is greater than in previous years. In 1913 the great majority of disputes resulted in favour of the employers; but over the whole period more disputes had an indeterminate result than a result either in favour of the employers or in favour of the workers.

In the following table the causes and results of disputes occurring during 1920 are correlated:—

Cause.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.
In Favour
of Workers.
In Favour
of Employers.
Compromise.Indeterminate.In Favour
of Workers.
In Favour
of Employers.
Compromise.Indeterminate.In Favour
of Workers.
In Favour
of Employers.
Compromise.Indeterminate.
a In one case figures not available.
Wages1341111,599261201,738a24,119471801,186a
Hours..     1..     2..     16..     33..     6..     33
Employment74..     346487..     4323,35681..     740
Other working-condition941111,781903131,4918,07311,982201,618
Sympathy21..     124a360..     39024a2,160..     780
               Totals31142283,8681,627334,08435,57214,7001064,357

Chapter 33. SECTION XXXIII.—PRICES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE investigation of price-changes was undertaken by the Statistical Office of New Zealand early in 1914. Retail prices were collected and tabulated for each year since 1891, and the results of the inquiry, together with a full discussion of the method adopted, were published in the “Report on the Cost of Living in New Zealand, 1891-1914.” Since that date price quotations and index numbers have been continued—first in the Journal of the Department of Labour, and latterly in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

In 1920 the Census and Statistics Office issued its second report, “Prices: An Inquiry into Prices in New Zealand, 1891-1919.” The scope of this inquiry was wider than that of the previous one, and covered retail, wholesale, producers', and export prices. Retail prices especially are given prominence in this volume, and by means of graphs and extensive tables of index numbers as well as actual prices price-movements during the period under review can easily be followed.

Retail price quotations, upon which index numbers are regularly calculated, are collected each month in twenty-five towns of the Dominion, which were selected as being representative of New Zealand as a whole. These twenty-five towns are distributed over both Islands, from Whangarei in the North to Invercargill in the South, and represent coastal and inland districts and large and small centres. Returns of prices are collected by the local Inspector of Factories from representative retailers, and index numbers are computed in the Census and Statistics Office, Wellington. The average prices for each town are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics at the end of each quarter, while index numbers appear in each month's issue.

The commodities considered are almost exclusively articles of food, divided into three groups—groceries, dairy-produce, and meat. Figures regarding house-rents and fuel and lighting are also given. The full list of commodities is as follows:—

  • Group I: Groceries.—Bread, flour, oatmeal, rice, sago, tapioca, tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, salt, pepper, jam, honey, golden syrup, treacle, raisins, currants, tinned apricots, tinned peaches, tinned pears, prunes, dried apricots, potatoes, onions, tinned salmon, tinned herrings, starch, blue, soap, tobacco.

  • Group II: Dairy-produce.—Milk, butter, cheese, eggs, bacon (shoulder and middle cut), ham.

  • Group III: Meat.— Beef: Sirloin, brisket, prime ribs, rump steak, top side, stewing-steak, corned round, corned roll, corned brisket. Mutton: Leg, shoulder, loin, neck, chops. Pork: Leg, loin, belly, chops. Sausages: Beef, pork. Tripe.

  • Group IV: Housing.—House-rent.

  • Group V: Fuel and Light.—Coal, coke, firewood, kerosene, gas (for lighting), electricity (for lighting), candles.

RETAIL FOOD-PRICES, 1920.

So far as the following tables are concerned, it is necessary to explain that in order that the index numbers for the smaller centres may be comparable with the index numbers given for the four chief centres for past years the same “base” has been retained throughout—viz., the “annual aggregate expenditure” in the four chief centres for the five years 1909-13.

The quarterly index numbers given below are based on the average prices of the three months in the quarter, so that they may differ materially from the prices current at the end of the quarter. In comparing different quarters consideration must be given to the influence of seasonal fluctuations in price and consumption of some commodities, including such important articles as milk, butter, potatoes, and eggs.

The tables are comparable both horizontally and vertically, since each column has the same base. Horizontally they show variations in time, vertically variations according to locality.

INDEX NUMBERS FOR EACH QUARTER OF 1920, AND AVERAGE OF THE FOUR QUARTERS OF 1920 AND 1919, FOR TWENTY-FIVE REPRESENTATIVE TOWNS.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13=1000.)
Town.First
Quarter,
1920.
Second
Quarter,
1920.
Third
Quarter,
1920.
Fourth
Quarter,
1920.
Average of
Four
Quarters, 1920.
Average of
Four
Quarters, 1919.
Group I.—(Groceries.
Auckland176118012009198818901535
Wellington182818952112212819911644
Christchurch183517851979205119131530
Dunedin182117911969203519041560
Whangarei183619672211220720551666
Hamilton181219192093212119861593
Rotorua189919992231224620941693
Waihi176418252086208819411545
Gisborne192719732143224020711693
Napier180118782006205219341589
Dannevirke176818662055214419581612
New Plymouth174717561920195818451520
Wanganui169317421909201418401506
Taihape185719022129216020121680
Palmerston North173318041963205318881533
Masterton183218962097213519901648
Blenheim190619202075222620321710
Nelson173818232010209919181576
Greymouth176118291917201218801550
Ashburton192018391927201519251547
Timaru182318201916207719091512
Oamaru187618792006206519571567
Alexandra203019622130223120881674
Gore187118911946208619491655
Invercargill184318101850203618851608
Dominion weighted average180518262011205619251570
Group II.—Dairy-produce.
Auckland160517671763196817761518
Wellington161718111786198418001553
Christchurch157216841701193517231434
Dunedin162217471735194917631529
Whangarei158516701693199417361492
Hamilton165817201653190017331531
Rotorua167317881745196417931508
Waihi161116871639173116671509
Gisborne164219781751190418191550
Napier162218061741183217501544
Dannevirke151217831717186817201473
New Plymouth159117321635190817171468
Wanganui158717131683179716951483
Taihape165018011751195017881564
Palmerston North154017031635173116521387
Masterton159216961643188717051489
Blenheim157916741610184116761498
Nelson160715991609195916941521
Greymouth165618221755192817901488
Ashburton153016581622188716741449
Timaru157016581605189416821459
Oamaru157317011714195017351483
Alexandra156517251690192417261468
Gore161317621722196517661525
Invercargill155617591741203917741524
Dominion weighted average160017501729193917551504
Group III.—Meat.
Auckland162516071594161816111596
Wellington152715271528153515291504
Christchurch171416531759177917261607
Dunedin174416701716177717271588
Whangarei167616581625164816521662
Hamilton176516321646164616721681
Rotorua177017721780179917801736
Waihi170417101710172317121649
Gisborne156815841591159115841551
Napier161716871693170516761524
Dannevirke147114781480148914801468
New Plymouth177417851791181317911651
Wanganui176617561730168617351634
Taihape161416801690173216791514
Palmerston North166016481661165216551591
Masterton156315671577166115921532
Blenheim173517391711170817231596
Nelson171017201752182917531672
Greymouth172516931744178817381729
Ashburton170616611838192617831667
Timaru166817001740178817241613
Oamaru175416841690171217101655
Alexandra164017251836189317741587
Gore183718141814182918241730
Invercargill185716621683174417371743
Dominion weighted average166116311656168016571591
Groups I-III.—Food Groups.
Auckland167917271811185917691552
Wellington167717501837189217891575
Christchurch173317171840193218061531
Dunedin174917401829192718111563
Whangarei172417931891196718441624
Hamilton176117751839190818211609
Rotorua180318731965202819171664
Waihi170817541854188117991572
Gisborne173918421864194118471611
Napier169717971838188318041557
Dannevirke160817151781185717401531
New Plymouth172017601810189717971553
Wanganui169317401796185217701544
Taihape172618031892196618471596
Palmerston North166317271784184217541518
Masterton168517381815191617891572
Blenheim177218011843196018441622
Nelson169817361829197518101596
Greymouth172417811821191618111597
Ashburton175717371826195518191565
Timaru171217411784193617931534
Oamaru176417711831191818211677
Alexandra178918261928204518971596
Gore180018351849197018641650
Invercargill178117481768193718091634
Dominion weighted average170917421825190117941561

The weighted average index number for groceries for the Dominion shows an increase of 355 points in 1920 over the average for the previous year. The increase, to a varying extent, has been common to each of the twenty-five towns covered by the inquiry. Rotorua shows the highest index number, while Wellington maintains its position with considerably higher grocery-prices than prevail in the other three chief centres. It should be pointed out that movements as between succeeding quarters are by no means uniform. The effect of seasonal fluctuations in prices of such commodities as potatoes and onions renders it necessary that comparisons should be made either between corresponding quarters of the two years or between the average of the four quarters as given in the above table. The difference of 185 points between the second and third quarters is largely attributable, however, to the substantial increase which occurred in the price of sugar during the latter quarter.

The index numbers for the dairy-produce group also show substantial increases over the previous year. The Dominion weighted index number advanced during 1920 by 251 points, the increase being shared by all centres. This group is subject to much greater seasonal influences than are the groceries or meat groups. The fluctuation in prices of milk and butter, in accordance with the supply at different periods of the year, invariably brings about a higher index number in the June quarter, to be followed, in most cases, by a fall in the September quarter's figures. Gisborne and Wellington show the highest prices for dairy-produce, while the least expensive are Palmerston North and Waihi.

The increase in the meat index number for 1920 over that for 1919 is shown to be 66 points. Of the four chief centres Dunedin has the highest index number, being closely followed by Christchurch. The highest prices among the twenty-five towns are shown by Gore and New Plymouth, while Dannevirke and Wellington show the lowest.

The three food groups in combination show an increase in the Dominion weighted average of 233 points when compared with 1919. Over the year 1920 Dannevirke was the cheapest town for foodstuffs, while Rotorua was the dearest.

HOUSE-RENT, 1920.

The cost of housing is an important item in the expenditure of the majority of families, and to obtain a record of fluctuations in this cost may be regarded as essential to a reasonably complete treatment of the subject of “cost of living.” An attempt has accordingly been made to trace the movement of house-rents over a period of years, on the grounds that house-rentals provide a reasonably accurate indication of housing-costs in general, not only for those classes of persons who may be paying rent, but also for those who own or partially own the dwellings they occupy.

By reason of the fact that leases, infrequent changes of residence, and the difficulty of departing from customary rents all tend to make the movement of the general level of rents comparatively slow, it is not necessary to attempt to measure the changes over short periods. The data from which the rent figures given hereafter have been compiled are collected each half-year, in the months of February and August. Figures quoted in reference to rent for the first two quarters of the year are therefore based upon the data obtained in February, and those for the last two quarters on the data obtained in August.

It is advisable to specially mention that the index numbers in respect of rent indicate the movement in the average rentals of a large number of houses, and that they do not purport to convey any statement as to the price at which housing-accommodation may be obtained from time to time. During the last two or three years the exceptional demand for housing-accommodation accompanied by restrictive legislation against advancement of house-rents has caused a wide disparity between the rentals of houses which have been let for some time and the rents charged to the new occupants of houses being relet. In so far as the number of “relettings” is relatively small, there has not been the substantial advance in house-rents which might be gathered from an inspection of the prices charged for the occupancy of houses falling vacant.

Latterly an insecurity of tenancy, which is due largely to a severe housing-shortage and the statutory rent-restriction, has led to the purchase of an abnormal number of houses by persons formerly content to remain tenants. In the normal course of events it is the newer and better-class dwelling that has boon purchased, thus leaving an unduly large proportion of older and lower-rented dwellings to be covered by the statistical inquiry. The effect of this is to artificially retard the rise of the house-rent index.

AVERAGE RENTS IN THE FOUR CENTRES, 1920.
House ofAuckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.
February.August.February.August.February.August.February.August.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
4 rooms128138153146120118117118
5 rooms1741811971871581511147146
6 rooms194217245228208212184187
7 rooms23112533163002442482122210

The index numbers for each of the twenty-five towns, according to returns collected in February and August, 1920, are given in the table following, together with similar information for the previous year. A noteworthy feature is the position occupied by Hamilton, where in 1920 rents were actually higher than in Wellington.

HOUSE-RENT.—TWENTY-FIVE REPRESENTATIVE TOWNS.
Index Numbers for 1919 and 1920 for House-rent in Twenty-five Towns.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13=1000.)
Town.February,
1919.
August,
1919.
Average
for 1919.
February,
1920.
August,
1920.
Average
for 1920.
Auckland103310551044111712001159
Wellington130913211315135512801318
Christchurch105110571054109611081102
Dunedin9771006992100010151008
Whangarei900979940909969939
Hamilton112712551191118614581322
Rotorua992962977105310441049
Waihi571629600651646649
Gisborne110311021103113211371135
Napier107510721074108410981091
Dannevirke764781773775815795
New Plymouth9981024101196311851074
Wanganui105310621058109711521125
Taihape124711511199119212441218
Palmerston North99110121002107811721125
Masterton92599195899911111055
Blenheim795855825881872877
Nelson94593794198710121000
Greymouth748675712647706677
Ashburton864870867903883893
Timaru912916914858936897
Oamaru825847836816825821
Alexandra681681681681707694
Gore809839824921962942
Invercargill852858855916924920
Dominion weighted average105310701062110011291115

DOMINION INDEX NUMBERS, 1920.

To obtain a general estimate of the course of prices for the whole Dominion it has been necessary to obtain a weighted average of the index numbers' for each town. It is obvious that it would not be strictly correct to obtain a simple average of the prices in Alexandra, with a population of a few hundreds, and in Auckland, with a population of over 150,000. Prices in each town have therefore been weighted in accordance with the number of people concerned, and a composite index number has been obtained, which, though artificial, represents the average level of retail prices in the Dominion.

The twenty-five towns considered have a total population of approximately half that of New Zealand, and they are therefore fully representative of the Dominion. The four chief centres, which include a third of the Dominion's population, account for about 70 per cent. of the population of the twenty-five towns, so that their influence in the Dominion index number is naturally predominating. This, however, is justifiable, since the chief centres not only comprise a great part of the people of the Dominion, but also set the standard which is generally followed throughout the country. The Dominion weighted index numbers obtained are shown in the table below:—

Group.First
Quarter,
1920.
Second
Quarter,
1920.
Third
Quarter,
1920.
Fourth
Quarter,
1920.
Average of
Four Quarters,
1920.
Average of
Four Quarters,
1919.
* Average of four chief centres.
Groceries180518262011205619251570
Dairy-produce160017501729193917551504
Meat166116311656168016571591
Three food groups170917421825190117941561
House-rent110011001129112911151062
Food and rent149315151578162715531384
Fuel and light*171418431899200318651555
Food, rent, fuel, and light153015581622167515961411

A comparison between the yearly figures for 1920 and 1919, as shown in the last two columns, affords a clear indication of the extent to which prices have moved. As previously mentioned, the greatest advance during 1920 is shown by the groceries group, while both dairy-produce and meat prices have also risen considerably.

The following table gives a comparison between price-levels during 1920 in the four chief centres and in the twenty-one smaller towns from which information is collected:—

Group.Weighted Average
of Four Chief
Centres. (a.)
Weighted Average
of Twenty-one
Smaller Centres. (b.)
Excess of
(a) over (b).
* Excess of (b) over (a).
Groceries19221929−7*
Dairy-produce1767172542,
Meat16391701−62*
Three food groups17901804−14*
House-rent11571013144
Food and rent1566152442

These figures indicate that there is no very considerable difference between the general level of food-prices in the four chief towns and in the average of the twenty-one smaller centres, higher grocery and meat prices in the small towns being to some extent offset by lower prices for dairy-produce. House accommodation, however, as may be expected, is considerably cheaper in the country towns than in the more closely populated cities.

PURCHASING-POWER OF MONEY, 1920.

An alternative statement of the difference in price-levels as between each of the twenty-five towns considered is given in the next table. Similar figures may easily be compiled for the various quarters by working from the index numbers and equating 1000 to 20s. The purchasing-power of money in the average of the five years 1909-13 in the four centres is taken as the base and equated to 20s., the indices being worked out proportionately. The amounts displayed in the table may be compared vertically but not horizontally, since the various groups have different bases.

AMOUNT REQUIRED TO PURCHASE IN TWENTY-FIVE REPRESENTATIVE TOWNS IN 1920 WHAT WOULD HAVE COST 20S. IN THE AVERAGE OF THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRES, 1909-13.
Town.Group I.
Groceries.
Group II.
Dairy-produce.
Group III.
Meat.
Groups I-III.
Food Groups.
Group IV.
House-rent.*
* Based on average of figures for February and August, 1920.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Auckland379 1/2356 1/4322 3/4354 1/2232 1/4
Wellington399 3/4360307359 1/4264 1/4
Christchurch383345 1/2346 1/4361/2220 1/2
Dunedin381353346 1/2362 3/4202
Whangarei411 1/4348 3/4330 1/23610 1/2189 1/4
Hamilton398 3/4348335 1/4365265 1/4
Rotorua4110 1/23510 1/4357 1/43842011 3/4
Waihi389 3/43343433511 3/41211 3/4
Gisborne415364 1/2318 1/43611 1/4228 1/2
Napier388 1/4350336 1/4361219 3/4
Dannevirke392344 3/4297 1/4349 1/21510 3/4
Now Plymouth3610 3/4344359 3/43511 1/4215 3/4
Wanganui369 1/23310 3/4348 1/2354 3/4226
Taihape4033593373611 1/4244 1/4
Palmerston North379330 1/2331 1/4351226
Masterton399 1/2341 1/43110359 1/4211 1/4
Blenheim407 3/4336 1/4345 1/23610 1/2176 1/2
Nelson384 1/43310 1/2350 3/4362 1/2200
Greymouth377 1/4359 1/2349362 3/4136 1/2
Ashburton386335 3/4358364 1/21711 1/4
Timaru382 1/4337 3/4345 3/43510 1/41711 1/4
Oamaru391 3/4348 1/2342 1/2365165
Alexandra419346 1/4355 3/43711 1/41310 1/2
Gore3811 3/4353 3/4365 3/4373 1/41810
Invercargill378 1/2355 3/4349362 1/4184 3/4
Dominion weighted average386351 1/4331 3/43510 1/2223 1/2

WAR INCREASES IN FOOD-PRICES.

The Monthly Abstract of Statistics published by the Census and Statistics Office gives each month the latest available information on the subject of war increases in food-prices. It is advisable to shortly indicate here the advance in prices in 1920 over those ruling at the outbreak of war.

TABLE SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE IN FOOD-PRICES RULING DURING 1920 OVER PRICES RULING IN JULY, 1914.
Group.First Quarter, 1920.Second Quarter, 1920.Third Quarter, 1920.Fourth Quarter, 1920.Average of Year 1920.
Index
Number.
Percentage
Increase.*
Index
Number.
Percentage
Increase.*
Index
Number.
Percentage
Increase.*
Index
Number.
Percentage
Increase.*
Index
Number.
Percentage
Increase.*
* Over July, 1914.
Groceries (index number, July, 1914: 1033)180574.73182676.77201194.68205699.03192586.35
Dairy-produce (index number, July, 1914: 1057)160051.37175065.56172963.58193983.44175566.04
Meat (index number, July, 1914: 1127)166147.38163144.72165646.94168049.07165747.03
Three food groups (index number, July, 1914: 1070)170959.72174262.80182570.56190177.66179467.66

It will be seen that, over the average for the year, food-prices show an increase since the outbreak of war of 67.66 per cent.

RETAIL-PRICE MOVEMENTS, 1911-20.

The following general survey of the course of retail prices over a number of years has been brought up to date by the inclusion of the figures for 1920:—

GROUP I.—GROCERIES.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1911-20.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13=1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of
Four Centres.
Dominion
Weighted
Average.
* Not available.
1911981989934968968*
19121050101398610391022*
19131064102996410361023*
1914103510821046105610551064
1915117212271210121912071206
1916119612691197119212141219
1917126813951279124812981305
1918146115791417150314901488
1919153516441530156015671570
1920189019911913190419251925

The outstanding feature illustrated by this table is, of course, the substantial advance in prices since the outbreak of war—the indices for 1920 especially showing a large increase on previous numbers. The year 1916, however, saw a slight decline in prices in Christchurch and Dunedin as compared with the previous year. Wellington still remains considerably in advance of the other centres.

The influence which the index numbers of the four chief centres have on the Dominion weighted average index numbers is clearly seen in the preceding table, which shows the comparatively small difference between the average index number for the four chief centres and that for the Dominion. This note is applicable in a varying degree to all the groups with the exception of Group V (Fuel and Light), for which no complete data are obtainable for the twenty-one minor centres.

The items grouped under the heading “Groceries” are varied in nature, and may be treated in three subgroups as under:—

  • Group IA.—Groceries, excluding bread, flour, oatmeal, potatoes, onions, and sugar.

  • Group IB.—Bread, flour, oatmeal, potatoes, and onions.

  • Group IC.—Sugar.

The fundamental distinction is that the items comprising Group IA are almost wholly imported from overseas, while those in the second are almost wholly produced in the country. Sugar is not strictly a product of New Zealand, the raw material being imported and refined in the Dominion, but it is such an important commodity that it has been deemed advisable to treat it separately.

GROUP IA.—GENERAL GROCERIES.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres, 1911-20.
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of
Four Centres.
19119919809521045992
1912101395796410731002
19131014104696710891029
19149941097104711141063
19159891066111511321078
191610351121111511321101
191711711227120312191205
191813671493138814591427
191914881624154115901561
192018972037204120322002
GROUP IB.—BREAD, FLOUR, OATMEAL, POTATOES, AND ONIONS.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres, 1911-20.
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of
Four Centres.
19119841006876882937
1912109210679649871027
1913110010269239571001
191411141173103310741098
191513641408129313561355
191613671416125212201314
191714301588135612491406
191816341733146315671599
191916651727154915511623
192017901834163616401725
GROUP IC.—SUGAR.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres, 1911-20.
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of
Four Centres.
19119419651045972981
191210451029111510781092
19131117980107110941065
19149831055114510251052
191511911211129012281230
191612081310130412941279
191712191399134413541329
191812661428135914231369
191913141470144414971431
192021532338238322852290

GROUP II.—DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The prices of commodities included in the dairy-produce group have shown an almost continuous increase since 1891—an increase which during the war period has been considerably accelerated. The year 1920 disclosed a greater and more rapid movement than took place in any previous year for which prices are recorded. The increases in 1915, 1916, and 1919 were also substantial.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1911-20.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13=1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of
Four Centres.
Dominion
Weighted
Average.
* Not available.
191198610189481021993*
1912998107699210521029*
191310281124100310441050*
1914101911141016106510541045
1915114011961133114611541153
1916128813501251126312881274
1917136214251318135113641353
1918144314761328143214201415
1919151815531434152915081504
1920177618001723176317661755

GROUP III.—MEAT.

The index numbers for the meat group disclose no exceptional movement beyond the increase brought about by war conditions. For the last five years Wellington index numbers have been considerably below those of the other three centres, while during the war years Auckland gradually lost its substantial lead as the dearest of the four centres, and now compares very favourably with Christchurch, and Dunedin.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1911-20.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres. 1909-13=1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of
Four Centres.
Dominion
Weighted
Average.
* Not available.
191110521034995900995*
19121033102410349151001*
19131104113910279171047*
1914126611121061110311361142
1915129312051191119012201235
1916141312741313128313211348
1917150013801449141714371463
1918157514761540150715251545
1919159615041607158815741591
1920161115291726172716481657

THREE FOOD GROUPS COMBINED.

The index numbers given in the following table have been compiled from records of prices of the three separate food groups in such manner as to show the movement of the general level of food-prices, care being taken to give each group its due importance:—

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1911-20.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13=1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of
Four Centres.
Dominion
Weighted
Average.
* Not available.
191110061011958957983*
191210321031100410001017*
1913106910899959971037*
1914111011001044107410821087
1915120612161176119111971203
1916129112901249124412681276
1917136913971346132813601370
1918149615211438148814861491
1919155215751531156315551561
1920176917891806181117941794

It will be noted that food-prices in the four centres, as recorded by the above index numbers, move with considerable uniformity, although the extent of the movement varies as between the different cities.

In pre-war years food-prices were slightly higher in Auckland and Wellington than in the two southern centres, this being mainly due to the difference in prices of agricultural products (flour, oatmeal, &c.) and meat. The position has now been reversed, Dunedin being the dearest of the four centres, followed closely by Christ-church.

GROUP IV.—HOUSE-RENT.

The following table brings into prominence the high level of weekly rentals in Wellington as compared with the other three centres. During the war period and for some years prior to 1914 the increase in house-rents in Wellington was such as to increase the disparity between the level of rents in that city and in the other three chief centres of the Dominion. The increase in 1920 over 1919, however, was much less in the case of Wellington than in any of the other chief centres.

In 1919 and 1920, however, Auckland and Christchurch showed a far greater increase than did Wellington, but in spite of this the latter city still maintains its position—considerably above the other centres.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1911-20.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres. 1909-13=1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of
Four Centres.
Dominion
Weighted
Average.
* Not available.
19119981088923938987*
1912106510939209501007*
1913104411649379581026*
1914104411739619651036984
1915100511869679701032995
191698712169499651029987
1917977124096794510321005
191810051295100798410731033
191910441315105499211011062
1920115913181102100811471115

GROUP V.—FUEL AND LIGHT.

Considerable difficulties are met with in any attempt to follow accurately the course of prices in this group. It has, in fact, been impossible to settle on any list of commodities which were used during the period under review in anything approaching comparable proportions in the four chief centres. The comparative usages of electric light, gas, kerosene, and candles vary greatly even between the four centres. Coal, too, presents a difficulty for comparative purposes in the several different classes of coal commonly used in the different towns.

However, a small group of seven items—coal, coke, firewood, kerosene, gas for lighting, electricity for lighting, and candles—has been considered, and prices in the four chief centres have been collected for as many past years as possible. Complete index numbers for this group have been compiled for 1907 and subsequent years. Figures for the last ten years are given in the table below:—

Index Numbers of Costs of Fuel and Lighting (Group V) for Four Chief Centres, 1911-20.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13=1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of
Four Centres.
191189910531074893980
1912919109111179201012
1913928110111509601035
1914991115111629251057
1915991114611459651062
191611031203123010731152
191712861306146812141319
191813781408156913311422
191914971514170515041555
192018341873192818251865

Over the average of the four centres a considerable advance in the index numbers of this group has been noticeable since 1911. This movement is common to all four cities, and was particularly rapid as between 1916 and 1917, when the general index number increased by 173 points. There were further considerable increases during each of the next three years, and a record rise in 1920 as compared with 1919.

FOOD GROUPS AND RENT, 1911-20.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1911-20.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13=1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of
Four Centres.
Dominion
Weighted
Average.
* Not available.
191110041038946950985*
1912104410539749821013*
1913106111159749831033*
1914108711251015103510661050
1915113512011101111411381125
1916118612621144114011831173
1917123113391210119412441240
1918132014391281130613371326
1919137214831364136013951384
1920155316221556152615641553

The index numbers given in the preceding table show the movement of prices of food and of house-rents combined. These figures accordingly present concise information as to the movement in the cost of a substantial proportion of the ordinary domestic necessities—food and housing.

SUMMARY OF INDEX NUMBERS.
Index Numbers of Retail Prices of All Groups of Commodities for the Average of the Four Chief Centres, 1911-20.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13=1000.)
Year.Group I:
Groceries.
Group II:
Diary-produce.
Group III:
Meat.
Groups I-III:
Food Groups.
Group IV:
House-rent.
Groups I-IV:
Food and Rent.
Group V: Fuel
and Light.
Groups I-V: Food,
Rent, Fuel,
and Light.
1911968993995983987985980984
191210221029100110171007101310121013
191310231050104710371026103310351034
191410551054113610821036106610571065
191512011154122211971032113810621130
191612141288132112681029118311521180
191712981364143713601032124413191251
191814901420152514861073133714221346
191915671508157415551101139515551411
192019251766164817941147156418651596

The following table, which is based on the average of the index numbers of the four chief centres as set out in the preceding table, gives an indication (in money figures) of the extent to which prices have risen during the period 1911-20. The table shows the amount necessary, on the average, to purchase the same quantity of foodstuffs, house accommodation; and fuel and lighting as would have cost 20s. on the average in the four chief centres during the base period 1909-13.

Year.Group I:
Groceries.
Group II:
Dairy-produce.
Group III:
Meat.
Groups I-III:
Food Groups.
Group IV:
House-rent.
Groups I-IV:
Food and Rent.
Group V:
Fuel and Light.
Groups I-V: Food,
Rent, Fuel,
and Light.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
1911194 1/41910 1/41910 3/4198199198 1/2197 1/4198 1/4
1912205 1/4207200 1/4204201 3/4203203203
1913205 1/22102011 1/4209206 1/4208208 1/2208 1/4
1914215 1/2211228 3/4217 3/4208 3/4213 3/4211 3/4213 1/2
1915240 1/4231245 1/42311 1/4207 3/4229213227 1/4
1916243 1/4259265254 1/4207238230 1/2237 1/4
19172511 1/2273 1/4289272 1/2207 3/42410 1/2264 1/2250 1/4
1918299 1/2284 3/4306298 3/4215 1/2269285 1/42611
1919314302315 3/4311 1/4220 1/42710 3/4311 1/4282 3/4
1920386353 3/43211 1/23510 1/22211 1/4313 1/4373 1/23111
NOTE.—These figures are comparable vertically but not horizontally.

The general increase in prices has materially reduced the purchasing-power of the sovereign, as is shown by the following table, which sets out the relative “worth” in terms of commodities (but stated for convenience in terms of money) represented by twenty shillings during the years 1911-20. The average “worth” in the years 1909-13 has been taken as a base and equated to 20s. The figures throughout are based on the average prices of the four chief centres.

Year.Group I:
Groceries.
Group II:
Dairy-produce.
Group III:
Meat.
Groups I-III:
Food Groups.
Group IV:
House-rent.
Groups I-IV:
Food and Rent.
Group V:
Fuel and Light.
Groups I-V: Food,
Rent, Fuel,
and Light.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
1911208201 3/4201 1/4204 1/4203 1/4203 3/4205204
1912196 3/4195 1/41911 3/41981910 1/4199199 1/4199
1913196 1/2190 1/2191 1/4193 1/2196194 1/4194194
19141811 1/21811 3/4177 1/4185 3/4193 3/4189 1/41811189 1/4
1915167 3/4174164 1/2168 1/2194 1/21771810178 1/2
1916165 3/4156 1/2151 1/2159 1/4195 1/41610 3/4174 1/21611 1/2
19171551481311148 1/2194 1/21611521511 3/4
1918135141131 1/2135 1/2187 3/41411 1/2140 3/41410 1/4
1919129 1/4133 1/4128 1/21210 1/41821441210 1/4142
1920104 3/4114121 3/4111 3/4175 1/4129 1/2108 3/4126 1/2
NOTE.—These figures are comparable vertically but not horizontally.

In the consideration of this table care must be taken that the figures are given their correct significance. In short, they represent—in money figures—the worth (or purchasing-power) of a sovereign expended in purchasing the commodities shown at the heads of the columns, as compared with twenty shillings of full purchasing-power in the average of the years 1909-13.

Another fact which must be noted is that the figures shown in this table will not rise or fall to equal extent with any movements shown in the index number, and the percentage rise or fall will not be the same both in this table and in the table of index numbers.

This may be explained by pointing out that an index number of 1333 would represent in the above table approximately 15s., 1000 being equal to 20s. In that case prices are 33 1/3 Per cent. higher than previously; or, in other words, the sovereign will purchase only 75 per cent. of the amount of goods for which it could have been exchanged in the “base” period. It will accordingly be seen that the index number will reach 2000 before the purchasing-power of money has fallen another 5s.—i.e., from 15s. to 10s.—and would move as high as 4000 before the purchasing-power of the sovereign fell to 5s. On the other hand, a falling index number will move relatively less rapidly than would the corresponding figure indicating the increasing purchasing-power of the sovereign.

WHOLESALE PRICES.

Since 1917 a system for the regular collection of information regarding wholesale prices has been in operation. A considerable volume of data has also been obtained from merchants and traders by means of retrospective investigations covering the years 1891 to 1917, and sufficient information is available to permit of the computation of index numbers recording the movement of wholesale prices over the period from 1891 to date.

The general index number is based upon the prices of 106 commodities or grades of commodities. From 1909 more detailed information is available, and index numbers for eight groups of commodities can be given. These groups cover the following numbers of articles: Group I, agricultural produce, 15; Group II, flour, bran, pollard, and oatmeal, 4; Group III, wool, hides, tallow, butter, and cheese, 14; Group IV, general merchandise and crockery, 44; Group V, building-materials (ironmongery and timber), 31; Group VI, leather, 7; Group VII, chemicals and manures, 21; Group VIII, coal, 4. The group index numbers accordingly represent, in toto, the price - fluctuations of 140 articles or grades of commodities. Each article has been given a weight relative to its average annual pre-war consumption in the Dominion, and, further, relative to its price. This system of weighting, known as the “aggregate-expenditure method,” is the one adopted in the retail-prices inquiry.

The following tables of index numbers have been compiled as indicated above:—

QUARTERLY GROUP INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES FOR THE AVERAGE OF THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRES, 1914-20.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13=1000.)
Quarter endedGroup I:
Agricultural
Produce.
Group II: Flour,
Bran, Pollard,
and Oatmeal.
Group III:
Wool, Hides,
Tallow, Butter,
and Cheese.
Group IV.: General
Merchandise
and Crockery.
Group V:
Building-material.
Group VI:
Leather.
Group VII:
Chemicals
and Manures.
Group VIII:
Coal.
1914.
March907990112310781103117210641003
June9691031115910771109118010771003
September10331131111510771123118710801003
December11761326106711251144119810821008
1915.
March15421589119611751148128611601016
June16211727130511861192134911951014
September16411605137112161256136812441014
December15171298131512291273138812721031
1916.
March14801361133712711334144013751082
June13051273140213121448145814171118
September14611306143613401485147214941175
December17021300143013451508151014951204
1917.
March14991419143113671564167615741267
June15031447145214071676179516501330
September15351459146814631838185317191432
December15291436151215512009190117531445
1918.
March15821475147015922007189918171461
June17161557146216652077190719651462
September19021573146317272209189120701463
December21811587146717562300190320711525
1919.
March18731573146617352181188719771535
June17271525148017092050191519191557
September18981516154418082000211719161688
December19741521157119332035234420211809
1920.
March21321609163621602190275321641867
June20571727160222252379342723762051
September19511755155824872585297925082119
December18081754180924872607273524292169
GROUP INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES FOR THE AVERAGE OF THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRES, 1911-20.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13=1000.)
Year.Group I:
Agricultural
Produce.
Group II: Flour,
Bran, Pollard,
and Oatmeal.
Group III:
Wool, Hides,
Tallow, Butter,
and Cheese.
Group IV:
General Merchandise
and Crockery.
Group V:
Building-material.
Group VI:
Leather.
Group VII:
Chemicals
and Manures.
Group VIII:
Coal.
19119919721008993995982986985
1912108997010291053103799310241011
1913967981104710551063112610351038
191410211120111610891120118410761004
191515801555129712021217134812181019
191614871310140113171444147014451145
191715171440146614471772180616741369
191818451548146616852148190019811478
191918681534151517962067206619581647
192019871711165123402440297423692052
GENERAL INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES: AVERAGE FOR THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRES, 1891-1920.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13=1000.)
Year.Index
Number.
1891994
1892972
1893973
1894927
1895920
1896943
1897942
1898972
1899893
1900917
1901931
1902975
1903954
1904922
1905994
19061016
19071016
19081006
1909949
1910983
1911994
19121041
19131032
19141077
19151269
19161380
19171555
19181809
19191834
19202185

EXPORT PRICES OF MUTTON.

Figures relating to meat are not included above, but the following table showing the average export prices of mutton (per pound) in the Canterbury District during three quarters of 1920, and also the average for 1919, gives an indication of the movement of meat-prices:—

Item.Average
of Three
Quarters,
1919.
First
Quarter,
1920.
Second
Quarter,
1920.
Third
Quarter,
1920.
Average
of Three
Quarters,
1920.
NOTE.—Figures for the fourth quarter of each year are not available.
 d.d.d.d.d.
Prime lambs up to 42 lb.8 1/29 1/41010 1/49 3/4
Prime wethers up to 72 lb.6 1/273/487 1/2
Prime ewes up to 72 lb.66 1/27 1/47 1/27

Chapter 34. SECTION XXXIV.—MISCELLANEOUS.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE.

THE Public Trust Office is designed mainly to afford, at low rates of commission, a secure and convenient recourse in every case where a person residing either in New Zealand or abroad, and desiring to draw a will, form a trust, or appoint an agent or attorney in the Dominion, may be in doubt or difficulty as to the choice of a trustee, executor, agent, or attorney. The Office aims also to relieve those who for various reasons may be unable or unwilling to commence or continue the administration of trust property to which they may have been appointed.

Operations were commenced in 1873, at the end of which year 257 estates, of a total value of £17,500, were administered by the Office. By the 31st March, 1920, the number of estates had risen to 14,679, and the value of estates and funds to £20,860,686. The transfer of Native accounts to the Native Trust Office and the completion of the administration of deceased soldiers' estates led to a fall (to 10,175) in the number of estates at the 31st March, 1921, but in spite of this the value of estates and funds increased to £22,364,319.

A classification of the estates and funds under administration on the 31st March, 1921, is as follows:—

 Number.Value.
£         
Wills1,8764,611,614
Trusts1,8704,735,764
Intestates estates2,3121,322,627
Mental patients' estates1,097953,221
Soldiers' estates542111,057
Miscellaneous2,47810,630,036
                                             Totals10,175£22,364,319

The miscellaneous class is made up of investment agencies, sinking funds, pension funds, funds under the Land Settlement Finance Act, 1909, and other miscellaneous items.

The capital funds of the Public Trust Office invested on the 31st March, 1921,. amounted to £13,638,715, made up as follows:—

 £       
Government securities1,049,130
Local bodies' debentures2,809,358
Mortgages9,136,602
Advances against the vested share of beneficiaries in estates374,072
Land Settlement Finance Act debentures52,071
Fixed deposits at banks600
Freehold property, office furniture, &c.216,882
                                             Total£ 13,638,715

The net profits of the Office during each of the past ten years are shown below:—

Year ended
31st March.
Net Profits.
£      
191225,919
191327,551
191429,222
191532,508
191646,108
191758,862
191868,602
191970,156
192078,246
192110,691

It is evident that the revenue of the Office has grown considerably during the decennium. A variety of causes contributed to the phenomenal fall for 1920-21, the main factors being the granting of increased benefits to beneficiaries and the necessary provision for the cost-of-living bonus to members of the staff.

The Office reserves, which have been built up out of the profits made by the Office in successive years, amounted on the 31st March, 1921, to the considerable sum of £437,414. They consist of—

 £      
Amounts held in the Assurance and Reserves Fund142,148
Amount held in the Investment Fluctuation Fund to provide against any possible depreciation in the Office securities43,395
Office premises, plant, equipment, &c.251,871
                                             Total£437,414

An outstanding feature of the work of the Office at the present time is the rapid increase in the number of wills deposited, which affords convincing evidence of the growing confidence on the part of testators of the appointment of the Public Trustee as executor and trustee of their estates. The number of wills on deposit at the 31st March, 1914, was 6,427; by 1920 a remarkable increase to 25,792 had occurred, while 1921 showed an additional increase to 28,356.

NATIVE TRUST OFFICE.

In order to better provide for the administration of Native funds and Native reserves, hitherto conducted by the Public Trustee, legislation was passed transferring the administration from the Public Trustee to the Native Trustee as from the 1st April, 1921. The Native Trustee Act, 1920, which together with the 1921 amendment thereof embodies the legislation relating to the creation of the Native Trust Office, provides for the appointment of a Native Trustee and of the Native Trust Office Board, to consist of the Native Minister, one other member of the Executive Council being either a Native or a half-caste, the Native Trustee, the Under-Secretaries of Native Affairs and of Lands, and one other person to be appointed by the Governor-General. The Office is subject to the control of the Minister of Native Affairs.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.

During the year ended the 31st December, 1920, 501 joint-stock companies were registered, with a total nominal capital of £9,53,933, including 356 private companies, with a nominal capital of £3,573,733.

The following table gives the total number of companies and the aggregate nominal capital registered during each of the five years 1916-20:—

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES REGISTERED, 1916-20.
Year.Number of
Companies
registered.
Aggregate
Nominal
Capital.
£         
19162584,072,803
19172615,367,201
19182003,055,351
19193285,942,605
19205019,563,933

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE-MARKS.

The present Act dealing with these subjects was passed in 1911 and came into force on the 1st July, 1912. An amending Act passed in 1914 enables the Governor-General in Council to order the avoidance or suspension of patents or trade-marks of subjects of a State at war with His Majesty.

There were 2,194 applications for letters patent during 1920; 984 were left with provisional specifications, and 1,210 with complete specifications; while 283 complete specifications were lodged in respect of applications with which provisional specifications had been previously filed.

The total number of applications received up to the 31st December, 1920, was 45,118, and the patents in force in New Zealand at that date numbered 209. The number of patent agents on the register was 22.

In the next table are shown the principal countries, residents of which applied for patents in New Zealand during the year 1920. Owing to applications being received from joint applicants resident in different countries, also from applicants giving two addresses, the figures total more than the actual number of applications received.

APPLICATIONS FOR PATENTS IN NEW ZEALAND, 1920.
Country.Number.
New Zealand1,115
Australia293
Great Britain318
United States of America329
Canada18
Belgium11
France15
Germany14

The total number of applications during 1920 in respect of trade-marks was 1,391, and the fees received totalled £2,492. The number of trade-marks on the register at the end of the year was 11,835.

Of the 1,391 applications, 323 were made by residents of New Zealand, 412 came from Great Britain, 430 from the United States, and 143 from New South Wales and Victoria.

One hundred and nine applications for registration of designs were received, and registration was effected in 99 cases.

INSPECTION OF MACHINERY.

The Inspection of Machinery Act makes provision for the inspection of all steam boilers and digesters, hydraulic, electric, and other lifts, and of any prime mover such as gas, oil, and air engines used to drive machinery on land, also of machinery used on vessels afloat that are not self-propelled.

It also provides for the issue of certificates to those who pass the prescribed examinations for land engineers and engine-drivers in charge of boilers and machinery, for winding-engine drivers for mining purposes, for drivers employed on locomotives working on railway-lines not under the control of the Government Working Railways Department, and for the drivers of traction-engines on roads. Certificates are also issued to electric-tram drivers as provided by the Tramways Amendment Act, 1910. The issue of these certificates is controlled by a Board of Examiners set up by the Act, the Chairman being the Chief Inspector of Machinery.

During the year ended 31st March, 1921, the following certificates were issued:—

Boiler certificates7,746 
Machinery certificates20,807
 28,553
Steam stationery—
       Service—First class10 
       Competency—
              Extra first-class engineer14 
              First class52
              Second class234
Steam winding, competency6
Electric winding, competency2
Locomotive and traction, competency141
Locomotive, competency3
Traction, competency100
Electric tram, competency141
 703
                                     Total29,256

CO-OPERATIVE PUBLIC WORKS.

The co-operative contract system adopted in connection with the construction of public works in New Zealand is somewhat as follows: When a length of railway or road is to be constructed on the co-operative principle the formation-work is divided into sections the size of which depends upon the difficulty of the work. Plans and a simple specification of the work are prepared, also an estimate of the cost based on the rate of wages ruling in the district for similar work. The work, at a price reckoned at so-much per unit of quantity or measurement, is offered to a party of men, who, if they accept, become the contractors. The work done by the men is measured periodically, and full payment made to the party, who divide the money amongst themselves according to the time worked by each workman. The engineer in charge of the work has a certain amount of discretion and control in respect of the character of the men employed; the progress of the work, hours of labour, &c.

The constitution of the party is left very much to the men themselves, and they have power, subject to the approval of the engineer, to ballot out any member who proves himself undesirable or inefficient. The Department supplies the men with materials, explosives, &c., at cost price.

When the work is let by direct contract tenders are publicly invited, but the sections of work included in each contract are more extensive than under the co-operative system, yet not too large to enable parties of working contractors to tender.

The number of labourers and artisans employed under the co-operative system during each month of the year ended the 31st March, 1921, was as follows:—

Month.Roads.Railways.Other
Works.
Total.
1920—April1,8901,8118744,575
              May1,7401,9479064,593
              June1,6812,0568354,572
              July1,6592,2218904,770
              August1,4032,2351,2374,875
              September1,5422,1861,2624,990
              October1,5962,1121,2604,968
              November1,5342,0571,2904,881
              December1,5102,0691,1514,730
1921—January1,5642,0161,3194,899
              February1,9232,1801,4135,516
              March1,7612,1271,3615,249

The (monthly) average number of men employed in 1395, 1900, 1905, 1910, 1915, and each of the last five years was as follows:

Year ended
31st March.
Roads.Railways,
Buildings, &c.
Total.
18951,1039622,065
19001,8251,2433,068
19051,4072,1193,526
19101,7623,9295,691
19152,4942,2344,728
19179651,8752,840
19187881,4442,232
19191,0421,8412,883
19201,4952,4983,993
19211,6503,2354,885

LABOUR DEPARTMENT.—EMPLOYMENT BRANCHES.

MEN'S BRANCHES.

The total number of men for whom employment has been found by the Department of Labour up to the end of March, 1921, is as given in the following statement, which also shows the number of persons dependent upon the men assisted:—

Year ended
31st March.
Men.Dependants.
18953,0308,883
19002,1474,471
19053,1303,425
19108,50610,164
19157,5158,342
19172,9663,518
19182,9523,675
19193,1993,005
19204,2052,709
19213,3641,806
Totals to 31st March, 1921132,188164,156

Of the 132,188 men assisted to the 31st March, 1921, private employment was found for 61,187, while the remaining 71,001 went to works of various kinds for the General Government.

WOMEN'S BRANCHES.

At the end of last year, as it was considered that the number of engagements made by these branches had not for several years justified the expenditure involved, it was decided to close them as separate offices. All business is now carried on at the men's branches.

LICENSING.

During the year ended the 31st March, 1921, 1,752 licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors were granted. Of these, 1,141 were publicans' and accommodation licenses, 40 New Zealand wine, 49 packet, 144 wholesale, 347 conditional licenses, and 31 club charters. The fees paid amounted to £40,538, and formed part of the revenue of the local governing bodies of the districts in which the licenses were issued. Particulars are given in the following table:—

NUMBER OF LICENSES GRANTED DURING THE YEAR 1920-21, AND THE AMOUNT OF FEES PAID TO LOCAL BODIES THEREFOR.
Licenses.In
Counties.
In
Boroughs.
In Town
Districts.
Total.
Publicans' licenses32159244957
Accommodation licenses160213184
             Total licensed houses481613471,141
New Zealand wine licenses2911..    40
Packet licenses1138..    49
Wholesale licenses31392144
Conditional licenses189158..    347
Club charters130..    31
             Total licenses granted714989491,752
Amount of license fees paid to local bodies£10,737£27,935£1,866£40,538

The number of publicans' and accommodation licenses granted in counties, boroughs, and independent town districts during each of the last ten years is here given, together with the total amount of fees paid for all licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquor:—

Year ended
31st March.
Counties.Boroughs.Town
Districts.
Total.Total Fees,
All Licenses.
£      
1912617590281,23542,572
1913594592321,21842,456
1914578598421,21842,283
1915564596471,20741,769
1916557598441,19942,978
1917536598491,18346,164
1918540598461,18441,208
1919507606431,15639,817
1920496611491,15640,337
1921481613471,14140,538

The average number of persons to each licensed house in counties, boroughs, and independent town districts respectively for 1920-21 is next shown:—

-—Number of
Licensed
Houses.*
Population
Census, 1921.
Number
of Persons
to each Licensed
House.
* I.e., houses holding publicans' or accommodation licenses.
Counties481496,7531,033
Boroughs613679,5861,109
Town districts4735,299751
                     Totals1,1411,211,6381,062

That the proportion of licensed houses to population has declined steadily in the last decade is evidenced by the following figures:—

Year ended
31st March.
Average
Persons to
a Licensed
House.
1912824
1913852
1914895
1915911
1916920
1917918
1918946
1919964
19201,004
19211,062

The annual fees payable for licenses are,—

(1.) For a publican's license—£
             (a.) Within the limits of a borough or town district40
             (b.) Outside the aforesaid limits25
(2.) For a New Zealand wine license1
(3.) For an accommodation license, a sum to be determined by the Licensing Committee, not exceeding20
(4.) For a packet license—
             (a.) For a vessel exceeding 50 tons register10
             (b.) For a vessel not exceeding 50 tons register5
(5.) For a wholesale license20
(6.) For a conditional license, according to duration of license, a sum not exceeding30

The approximate capital value of the licensed houses in the counties for the year ended 31st March, 1921, was stated at £738,641, in certain of the boroughs at £1,957,700, and in the town districts at £140,797. There was, besides, an annual value of £122,681 for licensed houses in other boroughs, which, capitalized at 6 per cent., would represent £2,044,683. The capital value of all licensed houses may therefore be put down at approximately £4,880,000. Caution should be exercised in this connection, as some of the valuations on which the above total is based are by no means recent, revaluations having been delayed by the war. It is probable that the capital value was at the 31st March, 1921, somewhat above the figure quoted.

LATEST LICENSING POLLS.

The results of the special licensing poll of the 10th April, 1919, held under the authority of the Licensing Amendment Act, 1918, were are follows:—

 Votes.
For national continuance264,189
For national prohibition with compensation253,827

Under the provisions of the Licensing Amendment Act, 1918, three issues were submitted on the 17th December, 1919. The final figures were—

 Votes.
For national continuance241,251
For State purchase and control32,261
For national prohibition270,250

None of the three issues secured the minimum of more than half of the total valid votes cast.

In the thirteen no-license districts an additional issue was submitted—viz., local restoration. Local prohibition was maintained in all districts.

LENGTH OF ROADS IN THE DOMINION.

In the annual returns furnished by local bodies for the year ended the 31st March, 1921, information has been obtained concerning the mileage of roads in the Dominion. This is the first occasion on which particulars of this nature have been asked for, and the figures must be regarded as approximate only. About 85 per cent. of the local authorities have been able to give actual lengths, and the remainder have furnished particulars estimated as closely as possible.

ROADS UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE VARIOUS LOCAL BODIES AS AT 31ST MARCH, 1921.
Under the Control ofRoads formed to not
less than Dray-width.
Total
Formed
Roads.
Bridle-tracks.Unformed
Legal
Roads.
Grand Total,
all Roads.
Metalled.Not
Metalled.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.
Counties21,808 1/214,833 1/236,6424,90112,68054,223
Boroughs2,632 3/43062,938 3/416 1/24213,376 1/4
Town districts (independent)295 1/483378 1/4137 3/4417
Town districts (dependent)13943 1/4182 1/43 1/249 3/4235 1/2
Road districts2,632 1/41,688 1/24,320 3/43381,4186,076 3/4
                     Totals27,507 3/416,954 1/444,4625,26014,606 1/264,328 1/2

CUSTOMS TARIFF OF 1921.

During the earlier months of 1921 a Tariff Revision Committee was set up by the Government for the purpose of taking evidence and revising the existing tariff, which had been in force with little amendment since 1907. On the Committee's report the Government based a new tariff, including excise duties on beer and tobacco, and this was brought into immediate operation by resolutions of the Legislature on the 3rd November, 1921. The tariff was subsequently included in a Customs Amendment Act passed later in the year.

Briefly, the main object of the revision was to secure a larger revenue to the Dominion and to give a measure of protection to local industries. In attaining the first-named object the endeavour has been to avoid increases in the rates of duty on items that would directly affect the cost of living, and articles in the nature of luxuries have accordingly been subject to the heavier duties. Substantial increases have been made in the excise duties on tobacco and beer.

The new tariff is extended in detail to a greater extent than the repealed scale of duties, the number of items being increased from 483 to 566. The outstanding feature, however, is the introduction of an intermediate tariff. Under the old conditions there were two scales—the British tariff and the preferential surtaxes which were added to importations from foreign countries. Now there are three rates of duty—viz., British preferential, intermediate, and general. The intermediate tariff is intended to apply to countries entering into reciprocal relations with New Zealand, and will allow of Dominion goods being accorded preferential treatment in other countries disposed to reciprocate.

Space does not permit of the new scale of duties being published in the present issue of the Year-book. It is, however, contained in the schedule to the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, and, following the usual custom, will be included in the annual volume of Trade Statistics for 1921.

A further exceptional feature of the new legislation is the provision for the imposition of an extra rate of duty on goods from countries with a depreciated rate of exchange. This increase ranges from 2 1/2 to 25 per cent. ad valorem, according as to whether the depreciation at the date of exportation from the country of origin or intermediate country, as the case may be, is from 10 to 20 per cent. or from 90 to 100 per cent. or more.

ANTI-DUMPING LEGISLATION.

A clause in the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, makes provision for a special dumping duty which may be imposed by the Minister of Customs on goods imported into New Zealand of a class or kind produced in New Zealand if the selling-price to an importer is less than the current domestic value of the goods, and will have a prejudicial effect on an industry established in the Dominion. In such a case the special duty shall not exceed the difference between the actual selling-price and the current domestic value. No such dumping duty will, however, be levied where the imposition is not required in the public interest.

SUMMARY OF LEGISLATION PASSED IN NEW ZEALAND IN THE YEARS 1919 AND 1920.

The following are brief summaries of the most important enactments of the parliamentary sessions of 1919 and 1920:—

SESSION OF 1919.

The Expiring Laws Continuance Act (1919, No. 1) temporarily extended the duration of the Mortgages Extension Act, 1914, which would otherwise have expired on the 31st August, 1919. By a later Act (1919, No. 8) the Act of 1914 and its amendments have been repealed, and new provisions have been made for the protection of mortgagees under mortgages existing on the passing of that Act. Mortgages executed after the 30th August, 1919, are subject to the ordinary law.

The Discharged Soldiers Settlement Loans Act (1919, No. 2) authorizes the Minister of Finance to borrow £12,500,000 for the purpose of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Acts. In addition, authority is given for the borrowing of £2,000,000 in each of the two successive years, 1920 and 1921, and £1,000,000 in each year thereafter, to be expended in the acquisition of land under the Land for Settlements Act to be disposed of under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Acts.

The Land and Income Tax (Annual) Act (1919, No. 3) fixes the rates of land-tax and income-tax (including special war-tax) for the financial year commencing on the 1st April, 1919. The rates so fixed are the same as for the last preceding financial year.

The Payment of Jurors Act (1919, No. 4) empowers the Governor-General in Council to prescribe the rates to be paid for jurors for attendance at sittings of the Supreme Court and at Coroners' inquests.

The Kauri-gum Industry Amendment Act (1919, No. 5) relates to the leasing of lands in kauri-gum districts. It also provides for the issue of gum-brokers' licenses, and prescribes fees payable in respect of such licenses and of other licenses issued under the Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1908.

The Public Trust Office Amendment Act (1919, No. 6) extends the provisions of the Public Trust Office Amendment Act, 1912, with respect to the appointment of Local Deputies of the Public Trustee. By the Act of 1912 provision was made for the appointment of four such deputies. The present amendment permits of the appointment of such number of deputies as may be necessary for the proper administration of the Public Trust Office.

The Auckland University College Site Act (1919, No. 7) transfers to the Auckland University College Council, in trust as a site for a University college, portion of the lands set apart in the City of Auckland for the purposes of a Government House. Provision is made for the resumption of the land by the Crown in the event of the Council failing to erect suitable buildings thereon within ten years.

The Mortgages Extension Act (1919, No. 8) repeals the Mortgages Extension Act, 1914, and its amendments, and re-enacts their provisions, with modifications, with respect to mortgages existing at the passing of the Act. No protection is provided for mortgagors under future mortgages. The procedure to be adopted by mortgagees in the exercise of their powers of sale and other remedies is somewhat modified. By section 5 provision is made requiring the mortgagee to give to the mortgagor notice of intention to exercise such powers. If the mortgagor does not object within two months from receipt of the notice to the exercise of such powers the mortgagee may exercise those powers without further authority; if, however, the mortgagor objects the mortgagee is obliged, before proceeding further, to obtain the leave of the Supreme Court. By section 7 the Supreme Court is empowered to extend the term of any existing mortgage to a date not later than the 31st December, 1921. The amendments effected by sections 5 and 7, and the fact that the present Act has no application to future mortgages, are the only material differences between the present law and the Mortgages Extension Act, 1914.

The Education Purposes Loans Act (1919, No. 9) empowers the Minister of Finance to borrow moneys for the acquisition of land and the erection of buildings for purposes of University colleges, public schools, students' hostels, teachers' residences, and other similar purposes. The amount so authorized to be borrowed is £500,000 for the then current financial year, and £750,000 for each of the four following financial years.

The Manawatu Gorge Road and Bridge Act (1919, No. 10) makes provision for the constitution of a special Board of Control with respect to the Manawatu Gorge Road and the Manawatu Gorge Bridge as defined in the First and Second Schedules. The cost of maintenance is to be defrayed by the local authorities specified in the Fourth Schedule in the proportions therein specified. The Board of Control has, with respect to the road and bridge, the same powers and authority as if the Board were a County Council, and as if the road and bridge respectively were a county road and a bridge thereon.

The Fishing Industry Promotion Act (1919, No. 11) empowers the Minister of Finance to borrow the sum of £25,000 in every financial year and to utilize the sum for the purpose of making advances (not exceeding £5,000 in any case) for the promotion of the fishing industry. Advances under the authority of this Act may be made for the establishment of cool-storage plants, the preserving of fish, the purchase and equipment of fishing-boats, and for any other purpose ancillary to the fishing industry.

The New Zealand University Amendment Act (1919, No. 12) increases the amount of the annual grants payable out of the Consolidated Fund to the New Zealand University and its affiliated institutions.

The Post and Telegraph Amendment Act (1919, No. 13) makes various amendments of the Post and Telegraph Amendment Act, 1908, and provides, inter alia, for the following matters:—

  1. The registration of magazines:

  2. The exemption from postage charges of packets containing matter in raised characters for the use of the blind:

  3. The payment in certain cases, to persons beneficially entitled, of amounts standing to the credit of deceased depositors in the Post Office Savings-bank, without requiring probate or letters of administration:

  4. Authorizing the establishment by the Postmaster-General of a safe-deposit system:

  5. Requiring officers of the Department to make declarations of fidelity before entering on the duties of their office:

  6. Prohibiting the use of private telephone-lines, save pursuant to a license issued by the Governor-General:

  7. Extending the right of officers of the Post and Telegraph Department to appeal from determinations of their superior officers.

The Howard Estate Act (1919, No. 14) was passed with the object of giving effect to the will of Josiah Howard (deceased), whereby he devised and bequeathed all his real and personal property to His Majesty the King without restriction or limitation, but in confidence that the New Zealand Government would use the property as a foundation and endowment for the purposes of agricultural education.

The Board of Trade Act (1919, No. 15) repeals sections 2 to 11 of the Cost of Living Act, 1915 (creating the Board of Trade), and establishes, in place of that Board, a Board to be called the New Zealand Board of Trade. The New Zealand Board of Trade consists of the Minister of Industries and Commerce and four other persons to be appointed by the Governor-General, to hold office for a period of five years. The functions of the Board are as follows:—

  1. To obtain by means of investigations and judicial inquiries information as to the industries of New Zealand;

  2. To publish with respect to those industries such information as the Board deems of advantage to the public;

  3. To procure by means of regulations the due control, maintenance, and development of such industries; and

  4. Such other functions relative to those industries as may be lawfully conferred upon the Board.

For the purpose of carrying out its functions the Board is authorized to hold judicial inquiries with a view to obtaining such information as may be required for the control, regulation, and maintenance of the industries of New Zealand; the due observance, enforcement, or amendment of the laws relative thereto; the discovery of breaches of those laws; the prevention or suppression of monopolies, unfair competition, and other practices detrimental to the public welfare; the proper regulation in the public interest of the prices of goods and the rates of services; or for any other purpose relative to the industries of New Zealand. In the conduct of any such inquiry the Board is empowered to hear evidence on oath and to summon and compel the attendance of witnesses. The Board may in any case, with the approval of the Minister of Industries and Commerce, associate with itself one or more persons who, in the opinion of the Board, are possessed of expert knowledge of advantage to the Board in the conduct of the inquiry. In lieu of holding a judicial inquiry in any case the Board is empowered to make “investigations” under section 23 of the Act with respect to any industry, and for that purpose may require any person, firm, or body corporate to answer any questions relating to that industry, or to produce any books or documents relating thereto and being in his or its possession or control.

By section 24 the Board is empowered to publish any information obtained by it in the course of any judicial inquiry or investigation, and also to publish any report, findings, recommendations, or comments made by the Board with respect thereto.

By section 26 the Governor-General in Council is empowered to make regulations—

  1. For the prevention or suppression of methods of competition, trading, or business which are considered unfair or prejudicial to the industries of New Zealand or to the public welfare;

  2. For the prevention or suppression of monopolies and unfair combinations;

  3. For the establishment of fixed or maximum or minimum prices or rates for any classes of goods or services;

  4. For the prohibition, regulation, or control of differential prices or rates for goods or services, or for the differential treatment of different persons or classes of persons; and

  5. For the regulation and control of industries in any other manner deemed necessary for the maintenance and prosperity of those industries and the economic welfare of New Zealand.

Every person who commits an offence against a Board of Trade regulation is liable on summary conviction to a fine of £200 or to imprisonment for a term of three months. Every such person is also liable (as an alternative penalty) to a penalty of £1,000, to be recoverable as a civil debt due to His Majesty.

By section 32 special provisions are made with a view to prevent profiteering. By that section it is declared an offence for any person, either as principal or agent, to sell or supply, or to offer for sale or supply, any goods at a price which is unreasonably high. Every person who commits such an offence is liable to a fine not exceeding £200, or to three months' imprisonment (in the case of an individual), or to a fine not exceeding £1,000 in the case of a body corporate.

By section 33 an employer or principal is declared, in relation to the commission of offences against the Act or against any Board of Trade regulation, to be responsible for the acts and omissions of his servant or agent in the same manner and to the same extent as in cases of civil injury.

The Women's Parliamentary Rights Act (1919, No. 16) confers on women the right to be elected and to sit and vote as members of the House of Representatives. With this Act should be read section 18 (2) of the Legislative Council Act, 1914, providing that “When and so soon as women are eligible for election as members of the House they shall also be eligible for nomination and election as members of the Council.”

The Public Authorities (Party Wall) Empowering Act (1919, No. 17) was to enable public authorities which have no power to part with the freehold (or, as in the case of the Crown, only a limited power by statute) to enter into party-wall agreements, or to confirm such agreements made by their tenants, so as to bind the freehold, with respect to the party wall, in the hands of future tenants, and also to bind the public authority by the terms of the party-wall agreement.

The Official Appointments and Documents Act (1919, No. 18) makes provision with respect to the exercise of certain powers by or on behalf of the Governor-General or the Governor-General in Council. The object of the Act is to relieve the Governor-General from the necessity of personally signing instruments of appointment and other documents of minor importance, including documents relating to land.

The Police Offences Amendment Act (1919, No. 19) creates several offences punishable on summary conviction. Section 2 makes it an offence punishable by imprisonment for a term not exceeding three months, or to a fine not exceeding £100, to incite, encourage, or procure disorder, violence, or lawlessness. Section 3 relates to the unlawful taking and use of motor-cars and other vehicles, where such taking does not amount to theft Section 4 makes it an offence for any person to issue a document falsely purporting to be an official document. Section 7 relates to the wearing of military decorations and badges by persons not lawfully entitled to wear the same. This latter provision should be read with the Military Decorations and Distinctive Badges Act, 1918, relating, inter alia, to the improper disposal of military decorations.

The Treaties of Peace Act (1919, No. 20) empowers the Governor-General by Order in Council to make all such provisions as may be necessary for giving full effect to any of the provisions of the Treaty of Peace with Germany, or any other treaty of peace made by His Majesty with any enemy Power which is or has been in alliance with Germany. It also approves and confirms the acceptance by His Majesty in right of his Dominion of New Zealand of the mandate for the Government of the islands of Western Samoa, and authorizes the Governor-General in Council to make such provisions as may be necessary for the due and effective exercise of any jurisdiction or authority conferred upon the Executive Government of New Zealand for the government of the islands of Western Samoa. The Act was to remain in force only until the 29th October, 1920, but its term of operation was extended in 1920 and again in 1921.

The External Affairs Act (1919, No. 21) enables the Governor-General to appoint a member of the Executive Council to hold office as the Minister of External Affairs. It also provides for the appointment of a Secretary for External Affairs, and of such other officers as may be necessary. The administration of the Cook Islands* is transferred to the Minister of External Affairs, who is also charged with the administration of any territory out of New Zealand which may at any time be a dependency of New Zealand or otherwise be under the jurisdiction of the Government or Parliament of New Zealand.

The Native Townships Act (1919, No. 22) makes provision for the disposal, by way of sale, lease, or otherwise in accordance with regulations, of any lands that may be acquired by the Crown in any Native township.

The State Forests Amendment Act (1919, No. 23) empowers the Governor-General in Council to set apart any area of national-endowment land as a provisional State forest, and provides that the revenues from any such land shall be apportioned between the State Forest Account and the National Endowment Account.

* An amendment in 1920 removed the Cook Islands from the control of the Minister of External Affairs, and replaced them under the Minister of the Cook Islands.

The Chattels Transfer Amendment Act (1919, No. 24) makes various amendments of an unimportant character in the Chattels Transfer Act, 1908.

The Hutt Railway and Road Improvement Amendment Act (1919, No. 25) removes certain restrictions upon the construction of tramways on the Hutt Road in the vicinity of the City of Wellington.

The National Provident Fund Amendment Act (1919, No. 26) extends the benefits conferred by the National Provident Fund Act, 1910, and its amendments. In particular it permits of persons between the ages of forty-five and fifty years becoming contributors to the fund. The other amendments are principally of an administrative character.

The Marriage Amendment Act (1919, No. 27) provides for the giving in New Zealand of notices of marriages proposed to be solemnized in the United Kingdom in cases where one of the parties is resident in New Zealand when the notice is given.

The Public Health Amendment Act (1919, No. 28) makes various amendments of the Public Health Act, 1908.

Section 2 extends the power of the Governor-General to make regulations for the conservation and promotion of the public health.

Sections 3, 4, and 5 extend the powers of District Health Officers for the purpose of preventing and checking infectious diseases, and for coping with an outbreak of any such disease.

Section 6 enables local authorities to make by-laws for the proper cleaning, ventilation, and disinfection of theatres and other public places of amusement or resort. It repeals section 23 of the Public Health Amendment Act, 1918, which limited the hours during which picture-shows were allowed to be open to the public.

Section 7 amends the provisions of the Public Health Amendment Act, 1918, relating to ruinous or insanitary dwellinghouses and other buildings.

Section 10 enables local authorities to make by-laws with respect to hotels, lodginghouses, and boardinghouses. Such by-laws may prescribe the minimum floor-space, the minimum height of the walls and ceilings, and the minimum air-space to be provided for every occupant. They may also require an adequate supply of water to be provided, together with proper sanitary conveniences, and appliances for adequate lighting and heating.

The Education Amendment Act (1919, No. 29) amends in various particulars the provisions of the Education Act, 1914. In particular it makes provision with respect to—

  1. The election of School Committees:

  2. Grants to Education Boards from the Consolidated Fund for general purposes and in assistance of School Committees:

  3. Accounts to be kept and returns to be furnished by Education Boards:

  4. Grants in aid of technical high schools:

  5. Appointment of Inspectors of Schools:

  6. Regulations for the grading and staffing of schools; and prescribing rates of salaries, allowances, and increments for teachers, pupil-teachers, probationers, and training-college students; and prescribing conditions with respect to grants of financial assistance to secondary schools on account of free pupils.

The Counties Amendment Act (1919, No. 30) empowers the Governor-General by Order in Council to authorize County Councils to make by-laws with respect to the licensing of vehicles, and authorizes County Councils to provide residences for medical practitioners engaged in the practice of their profession within the county.

The Companies Amendment Act (1919, No. 31) amends the Companies Act, 1908, with respect to reserve capital. It renders effective securities upon the uncalled capital of a company, and provides that in the event of the winding-up of the company such securities will have priority. Subsection (2) of section 2 excludes private companies from the operation of section 37 of the principal Act (relating to reserve capital).

The Housing Act (1919, No. 32) is divided into Parts as follows:—

  • Part I.—Workers' Dwellings:

  • Part II.—Special Settlements for Public Servants:

  • Part III.—Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings.

  • Part IV.—Erection of Workers' Dwellings by Harbour Boards:

  • Part V—Erection of Workers' Dwellings by other Local Authorities:

  • Part VI.—Advances to Workers under State Advances Act:

  • Part VII.—Restriction on Increase of Rent:

  • Part VIII.—Erection of Staff Residences by Banks.

Part I (Workers' Dwellings).—This Part is in substitution for the Workers' Dwellings Act, 1910, and its amendments. It provides for the building of houses by the Workers' Dwellings Board on behalf of the Crown, and for the sale or lease of those dwellings to workers as defined in the Act. No person is qualified to acquire a dwelling under this Part of the Act if his annual income exceeds £300 (in the case of a person with not more than two children dependent on him) or £300 increased by £20 in respect of each child or other dependant in excess of two (in the cases of other applicants). The maximum price of a wooden building is fixed at £750, and of a concrete or brick building at £850. Buildings may be purchased on a system of time payment, extending over not more than thirty years in the case of a wooden building, and not more than thirty-six and a half years in the case of any other building. Interest is payable by the purchaser on unpaid purchase-money at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum, reducible on punctual payment to 4 1/2 per cent. Buildings disposed of under the Act are for all time subject to certain restrictions on alienation, and attempted dispositions in contravention of the Act are void. For the purposes of the acquisition of land and buildings, and for the erection of dwellings, the Minister of Finance is empowered to borrow annually the sum of £750,000.

Part II (Special Settlements for Public Servants).—This Part of the Act enables the Minister of Finance to borrow annually the sum of £250,000 to be advanced by way of loan to public servants or to societies of public servants for the purpose of carrying out approved schemes for the establishment of village settlements or garden suburbs.

Part III (Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings).—This Part of the Act enables the Minister of Finance to borrow annually the sum of £250,000 to be advanced to employers for the purpose of the erection of dwellinghouses to be disposed of to their employees on conditions to be approved by the Minister.

Part IV (Erection of Workers' Dwellings by Harbour Boards). This Part of the Act empowers Harbour Boards to acquire land and to erect dwellings thereon for disposal by way of sale or lease to Harbour Board employees. With respect to such dwellings, Harbour Boards have conferred on them the same powers as they have under the Harbours Act, 1908, with respect to harbour-works.

Part V (Erection of Workers' Dwellings by other Local Authorities).—This Part enables County Councils and Borough Councils to borrow money from the State Advances Office for the erection of workers' dwellings. Any such loans may be raised without taking a poll of the ratepayers. For the purposes of this Part of the Act the Minister of Finance is empowered to borrow annually an additional sum of £1,000,000.

Part VI (Advances to Workers under State Advances Act).—This Part amends the definition of “worker” in the State Advances Act, 1913, so as to correspond with the definition in Part I. It also increases the maximum amount that may be lent to any one borrower under Part III of the State Advances Act, 1913, from £450 to £750.

Part VII (Restriction on Increase of Rent).—This Part amends the temporary legislation relating to the restriction of rents, and provides that a Magistrate shall not make an order for the possession of any dwellinghouse if he is satisfied that the making of such an order would inflict undue hardship on the tenant.

Part VIII (Erection of Staff Residences by Banks).—This Part empowers banking institutions carrying on business in New Zealand to acquire land and erect dwellings thereon for disposal by sale or lease to officers employed in the service of the bank.

The Electric-power Works Loan Act (1919, No. 33) empowers the Minister of Finance to borrow the sum of £6,830,000 in respect of the several electric-power schemes enumerated in the schedule.

The Railways Authorization Act (1919, No. 34) authorizes the construction of the several railways enumerated in the schedule to the extent indicated in that schedule.

The Mining Amendment Act (1919, No. 35) amends in various particulars the provisions of the Mining Act, 1908. Inter alia, it provides for the following matters:—

  1. The use of axial water-fed rock-drills in all mines after the 1st October, 1920:

  2. The protection of the surface of land suitable for agricultural or pastoral purposes, in respect of dredging operations:

  3. Prohibiting mining operations for mineral-oils or natural gases except pursuant to a license issued in that behalf by a Warden:

  4. Extending the purposes for which loans may be granted under Part X of the Mining Act, 1908. Such extended purposes include—

    1. The carrying-on of quarrying or coal-mining operations;

    2. The extraction, rectification, storage, and transport of oil; and

    3. The erection, reconstruction, or repair of dwellings by the owners of coal-mines for the use of their employees.

The Maori Representation Act (1919, No. 36) enables the next general election of representatives of the Maori race to be conducted without the necessity of compiling a roll of electors.

The Statutes Repeal and Expiring Laws Continuance Act (1919, No. 37) revives certain enactments which had been inadvertently permitted to expire, and continues them in operation until the 31st August, 1920.

The Government Railways Amendment Act (1919, No. 38) provides a new schedule of salaries and increments to be paid to the officers and servants employed in the Government Railways Department.

The Land Laws Amendment Act (1919, No. 39) makes various amendments of the law relating to the disposition of land belonging to the Crown. For the purpose of facilitating the purchase by the Crown of privately owned land for disposal under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Acts and the Land for Settlements Acts, provision is made for the establishment of a Dominion Land Purchase Board and for such number of local Land Purchase Boards as may be required.

Section 11 provides for the disposal of areas of pumice land and for other land of little value on a special tenure the terms of which are set out in the section. The special features of the tenancy are—

  1. The licensee receives a license to occupy the land free of rent or other charges:

  2. Such license is for a term of ten years, renewable from time to time for a like term:

  3. A limit is placed upon the area of land that may be acquired by any one licensee:

  4. Within twelve months from the issue of a license, and thereafter during its continuance, the licensee is required to reside on the land:

  5. After the expiration of seven years a licensee who has complied with all the terms of his license may be granted the fee-simple.

The Minister of Finance is empowered to borrow annually the sum of £1,000,000 for the purpose of enabling the Minister of Lands to assist licensees under the said section in the development of the lands comprised in their licenses.

Section 20 makes further provision for the purpose of checking the aggregation of interests in land contrary to the public welfare. It provides that where land has been so acquired and has been resumed by the Crown the maximum compensation payable is not to exceed the Government valuation by more than 10 per cent. thereof.

Section 27 increases the maximum value of allotments of land that may be acquired under the Land Settlement Finance Act, 1909, from £2,500 to £6,000.

The Coal-mines Amendment Act (1919, No. 40) amends in various particulars the provisions of the Coal-mines Act, 1908. Inter alia, it enacts various rules of a technical nature designed to further protect the safety of workmen engaged in coal-mines.

Section 13 enables the Crown to acquire areas of coal-bearing land for the purpose of State coal-mines.

Section 15 empowers the Minister of Mines, by notice served on the occupier of any coal-bearing lands, to require that occupier to commence coal-mining operations on those lands within a reasonable time to be specified in the notice. If such notice is not complied with the land may be acquired by the Crown, and the compensation payable in any such case is not to exceed twice the Government valuation of the land.

Section 17 enables the Minister of Mines, on behalf of His Majesty, to acquire such vessels as may be required for the carriage of coal derived from State coal-mines.

Section 18 empowers the Minister of Mines to require coal-mine owners to provide suitable and adequate accommodation for the workmen employed in their mines.

The Industrial and Provident Societies Amendment Act (1919, No. 41) adopts the provisions of section 55 of the Industrial and Provident Societies Act, 1893 (Imperial), It permits a company registered under the Companies Act, 1908, to transform itself into a society registered under the Industrial and Provident Societies Act, 1908.

The Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Amendment Act (1919, No. 42) empowers the Governor-General to abolish the Bay of Islands Hospital District, and to constitute in lieu thereof four new districts comprising respectively the Counties of Bay of Islands, Mongonui, Whangaroa, and Hokianga. On the constitution of such hospital districts the Councils of the several counties are respectively to be the Hospital and Charitable Aid Boards of the several hospital districts.

The Native Land Amendment and Native Claims Adjustment Act (1919, No. 43) amends in various particulars the law relating to Native land, and confers upon the Native Land Court and the Native Appellate Court respectively jurisdiction to hear and determine certain claims and disputes in relation to Native lands.

The Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act (1919, No. 44) provides control over the entry into New Zealand of Germans, Austrians, and other immigrants.

Section 3 requires every person landing in New Zealand to furnish to an officer of Customs the particulars referred to in the schedule.

Section 4 prohibits the landing of any German or Austrian in New Zealand except subject to a license issued by the Attorney-General.

Section 5 empowers the Attorney-General to prohibit any person (not being a person permanently resident in New Zealand) from landing in New Zealand if he is satisfied that such person is disaffected or disloyal, or of such a character that his presence in New Zealand would be injurious to peace, order, and good government.

Section 6 enables the Attorney-General, acting by direction of the Governor-General in Council, to deport certain persons from New Zealand.

Section 8 makes it an offence for any person who has been so deported from New Zealand to return to New Zealand except with the consent of the Attorney-General.

Section 11 provides for the temporary detention in certain cases of persons proposing to land in New Zealand.

The Act applies to the Cook Islands as well as to New Zealand proper.

The New Zealand Institute of Architects Amendment Act (1919, No. 45) extends the time within which persons may be registered as architects under the New Zealand Institute of Architects Act, 1913, in the case of persons who have served beyond the seas as members of an Expeditionary Force.

The Electric-power Boards Amendment Act (1919, No. 46) provides for the triennial election of members of Electric-power Boards, and also confers on such Boards power to make, levy, and collect rates without having recourse to the local authorities whose districts are comprised in the electric-power district.

The Prisons Amendment Act (1919, No. 47) makes better provision with respect to the administration of the Prisons Act, 1908. It provides for the appointment of a Controller-General of Prisons, and also for the appointment of such Inspectors of Prisons as may be found necessary. The powers and duties of the Controller-General and the Inspectors are expressed in general terms, and by section 9 it is provided that prison officers in the exercise of their duties shall have the protection and privileges of members of the Police Force.

The Police Force Amendment Act (1919, No. 48) provides for the appointment of temporary members of the Police Force, and enables the Governor-General by Order in Council to make regulations with respect to the pay, allowances, appointment, promotion, qualifications, classification, duties, discipline, control, and conditions of employment of such temporary members. Section 6 preserves the superannuation rights of members of the Force who may have resigned for the purpose of joining an Expeditionary Force and who, on their return to New Zealand, are reappointed members of the Police Force.

The Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act (1919, No. 49) empowers the Governor-General by Proclamation to resume land held under lease or license from the Crown and required for the settlement of discharged soldiers. The Act also extends in various particulars the benefits provided for by the principal Act and the classes of persons entitled to such benefits.

The Shearers' Accommodation Act (1919, No. 50) repeals that portion of the Shearers' and Agricultural Labourers' Accommodation Act, 1908, which relates to shearers, and makes more extensive provision requiring employers of shearers to provide suitable and adequate accommodation for their employees. Powers of inspection and requisition are conferred on Inspectors of Factories appointed under the Factories Act, 1908, and upon Inspectors who may be specially appointed for the purposes of the present Act. The Act requires employers to provide separate accommodation for sleeping and for meals, and to make provision for a water-supply and for lighting, heating, ventilation, and sanitation. Wilful damage to the accommodation provided is punishable on summary conviction by a fine of £5, and the person convicted may be ordered by the convicting Court to pay compensation for the damage done by him.

The Expeditionary Forces Voting Act (1919, No. 51) is divided into Parts as follows:—

  • Part I.—Voting in New Zealand by Expeditionary Forces:

  • Part II.—Voting out of New Zealand on Licensing Proposals:

  • Part III.—General Provisions as to Electoral Rights:

  • Part IV.—General.

Part I conferred on all persons who have been members of an Expeditionary Force, and who have returned to New Zealand after service beyond the seas, the right to vote at the then next general election of members of Parliament and at the licensing poll, whether they have been registered as electors under the Legislature Act, 1908, or not.

Part II made provision for taking the votes of soldiers who had not returned to New Zealand on the issues submitted at the then licensing poll aforesaid.

Part III makes certain amendments of the Legislature Act, 1908, of general application.

Part IV enables the Governor-General to make regulations for the purpose of carrying the Act into effect, and provides that no election or poll shall be invalidated by failure to take or record the votes of any member of an Expeditionary Force in New Zealand or elsewhere.

The Finance Act (1919, No. 52) is divided into Parts as follows:—

  • Part I.—Public Revenues Amendment:

  • Part II.—Loans for Public Works and other Purposes:

  • Part III.—Pensions:

  • Part IV.—General.

Part I makes various amendments of the Public Revenues Act, 1910. It provides, inter alia, for the increase from £800,000 to £2,000,000 of the amount that may be invested in Reserve Fund securities.

Part II authorizes the borrowing of a sum not exceeding £750,000 for the erection of school buildings and other public works, and also provides for borrowing an additional £150,000 for purposes of the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act.

Part III increases the amount of pensions payable to miners in respect of pneumoconiosis, and of widows' pensions payable under Part II of the Pensions Act, 1913. Section 12 extends the classes of cases where pensions are payable to the wives of members of the Expeditionary Forces in respect of the disablement of their husbands. Section 13 extends the benefits of the War Pensions Act to men who served in the South African War and to their dependants. Section 14 makes provision for the payment of pensions to members of the Police Force and to their dependants, in respect of disablement arising as the result of their duties.

Part IV.—Section 15 enables local authorities to erect war memorials, and to borrow money for the purpose. Section 19 empowers the Governor-General to impose a surtax on goods imported into New Zealand from countries with which His Majesty has lately been at war. Section 20 prohibits any local authority from borrowing money (otherwise than by way of bank overdraft) without the precedent consent of the Governor-General in Council. Section 24 extends the classes of dependants to whom the bonus payable in respect of deceased members of the Expeditionary Force, pursuant to section 7 of the Expeditionary Forces Amendment Act, 1918, may be paid.

The Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act. (1919, No. 53) reduces from five to three years the period of desertion that constitutes a ground of divorce (section 9). Section 10 applies the Matrimonial Causes (Dominion Troops) Act, 1919 (Imperial), to New Zealand. Sections 2 to 8 (the commencement of which is postponed until a date to be named in that behalf in a Proclamation to be issued by the Governor-General) make special provisions with respect to matrimonial causes affecting persons of enemy origin. Section 2 defines the term “person of enemy origin.” Section 3 provides a special ground of divorce for British women who are the wives of persons of enemy origin. Sections 4 to 6 relate to the procedure following upon a petition for divorce in any such case. Section 8 constitutes the mother the guardian of the children born of the marriage of a natural-born British woman to a man of enemy origin.

The Appropriation Act (1919, No. 55) appropriates for the use of His Majesty the moneys required for the purposes of the current financial year. In addition it contains certain miscellaneous provisions, of which the most important are the following:—

  1. Sections 18 and 19 extend the authorities for the borrowing of money for the purposes of the Hauraki Plains Act, 1908, and the Rangitaiki Land Drainage Act, 1910.

  2. Section 25 validates certain payments that have been made out of war funds for purposes other than those for which the funds in question were established.

  3. Section 26 authorizes the payment of a sum of £50,000 to the Government Railways Superannuation Fund for the purposes of that fund.

  4. Section 29 validates payments made by local authorities in respect of the visit to New Zealand of H.M.S. “New Zealand.”

  5. Section 30 repeals certain restrictive provisions relating to the payment out of the Consolidated Fund of subsidies to County Councils.

  6. Section 39 provides for an advance by way of loan of the sum of £15,000 to the Greymouth Harbour Board, and makes provision for the removal of certain restrictions as to the making and levying of tolls, dues, and other charges by the Greymouth Harbour Board.

  7. Section 40 increases the salary of the Controller and Auditor-General.

  8. Sections 41, 42, and 43 make certain concessions with respect to the classification of the Public Service and the Post and Telegraph Department.

SESSION OF 1920.

The Customs Amendment Act (1920, No. 2) is intended to afford to importers of goods from foreign countries a measure of relief from hardship due to the varying commercial or banking rates of exchange, as distinguished from the “mintage” rates. Section 121 of the Customs Act, 1913, provides that where an invoice shows the value of goods in any currency other than that in force in New Zealand, the equivalent value in such last-mentioned currency shall be ascertained according to a “fair rate of exchange.” This reference to a fair rate of exchange has been held to be a reference to the “mintage rate” and not to the commercial or banking rate. This construction has resulted in advantage to certain classes of importers (e.g., importers from America) and in grave disadvantage to other classes of importers (e.g., importers from France and certain other European countries). The amending Act permits the adoption by the Customs Department, for the purpose of assessing Customs duties, either of the mintage rate or of the commercial rate, as in any case the Department thinks fit.

The Judicature Amendment Act (1920, No. 4) increases the rates of salaries payable to Judges of the Supreme Court of New Zealand. Under the new scale the Chief Justice receives an annual salary of £2,250, and each of the other Judges an annual salary of £2,000.

The Magistrates' Courts Amendment Act (1920, No. 5) increases the rates of salaries payable to Stipendiary Magistrates. The principal Magistrates in the four chief centres receive £900 a year; two other Magistrates receive £850, and the remainder £800 a year.

The Registration of Aliens Amendment Act (1920, No. 7) extends the provisions of the Registration of Aliens Act, 1917, by providing for the registration of—

  1. Women who become aliens by reason of marriage:

  2. Persons whose letters of naturalization have been revoked under the Revocation of Naturalization Act, 1917:

  3. Alien minors who attain the age of fifteen years.

The Revocation of Naturalization Amendment Act (1920, No. 8) requires persons whose naturalization has been revoked under the Revocation of Naturalization Act, 1917, to surrender their letters of naturalization to an officer of police or other authorized person. Failure to do so is punishable by imprisonment for three months or by a fine of £100.

The Gaming Amendment Act (1920, No. 10) renders unlawful the business of bookmakers. Every person convicted of carrying on the business of a “bookmaker” is liable on summary conviction to a fine of £500 or to imprisonment for two years. A “bookmaker” is defined as “any person who acts or carries on business as a bookmaker or turf commission agent, or who gains or endeavours to gain his livelihood wholly or partly by betting or making wagers, or who in any manner holds himself out, or permits himself to be held out, as a person with whom wagers or bets may be made, or who offers to wager on any particular event or class of events with more than one person, and includes a bookmaker's clerk or agent.” The Act specially protects persons who may make a bet with any other person upon a particular event unless it is part of the business or occupation of either of such persons to make bets.

The Arms Act (1920, No. 14) is designed to make better provision for the public safety by regulating the possession of arms, ammunition, and explosives. It repeals the obsolete provisions of the Arms Act, 1908 (which was a re-enactment of the Arms Act, 1880, and has not been in effective operation for many years). In the absence of effective legislation during the war it was found necessary to make elaborate provisions under the War Regulations Acts, governing the possession and use of firearms and explosives. The new Act adopts the provisions of such of the War Regulations as it was deemed advisable to continue permanently in operation. The main provisions are as follows:—

  1. Except in the case of returned soldiers or their relatives the possession of automatic pistols, or of ammunition specially intended or adapted for use with automatic pistols, is absolutely prohibited. In the case of returned soldiers or their relatives the Minister of Defence is empowered to issue a license authorizing the retention of automatic pistols that may have been brought by returned soldiers from beyond the seas.

  2. It is made an offence for any person to carry a pistol beyond the limits of his dwellinghouse, save pursuant to the terms of a license issued by an officer of police.

  3. It is made an offence for any person to be in possession of any firearms, ammunition, explosives, or dangerous weapon except for some lawful, proper, and sufficient purpose. The burden of proving the existence of such purpose in any case is upon the accused.

  4. No person other than a licensed dealer is permitted to import into New Zealand any firearms, ammunition, or explosives, save pursuant to a permit issued by an officer of police.

  5. No person other than a licensed dealer is entitled to obtain possession of any firearms, ammunition, or explosives, save pursuant to a permit issued by an officer of police.

  6. The Governor-General is empowered to proclaim areas within which the possession of firearms, ammunition, and explosives is prohibited. On the proclamation of any such area it becomes the duty of all persons therein who may be in possession of firearms or other prohibited articles to deliver the same to an officer of police.

  7. All persons in possession of firearms are required to be registered.

  8. Special provisions are made for licensing dealers in firearms, ammunition, and explosives. On being authorized by the Commissioner of Police, any officer of police may seize and take possession of all firearms, ammunition, and explosives in the possession or under the control of a licensed dealer.

  9. It is made an offence punishable on summary conviction by imprisonment for two months or a fine of £20 for any person to present a firearm, whether loaded or unloaded, except for some lawful and sufficient purpose.

The Crimes Amendment Act (1920, No. 15) gives to persons convicted of indictable offences a right of appeal to the New Zealand Court of Appeal on the ground that the sentence is excessive, except in cases where the sentence is one fixed by law. On the hearing of any such appeal the Court of Appeal may quash the sentence, and pass any other sentence warranted by law, whether more or less severe, or may dismiss the appeal.

The Masseurs Registration Act (1920, No. 16) makes provision for the registration of masseurs. Registration may be effected on application to a specially appointed Board consisting of the Director-General of Health, a person engaged in the practice of massage, and a registered medical practitioner. Provision is made for the registration without further examination of persons engaged in the business of massage before the passing of the Act. Other persons applying for registration are required to pass an examination in both theoretical and practical massage, and to have undergone a course of instruction in anatomy, physiology, and theoretical massage, and also practical massage. It is made an offence for any person, not being a registered masseur, to describe himself as a masseur or massage expert, or to use in connection with his business any words, initials, or abbreviations intended or likely to cause any person to believe that he is a registered masseur.

The Land and Income Tax (Annual) Act (1920, No. 17) fixes rates of land-tax and income-tax, including special war-tax for the year commencing 1st April, 1920. The rates are the same as the fixed for the preceding year by the Act of 1919. The rates of taxation for the year commencing 1st April, 1921, were provisionally fixed by a later Act—the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act (1920, No. 35)—which has since been confirmed by the Finance Act, 1921.

The Native Trustee Act (1920, No. 21) makes provision for the appointment of a Native Trustee, and of an Advisory Board to be known as the Native Trust Office Board. All lands and other property held by the Public Trustee on behalf of persons of the Native race are transferred to the Native Trustee. In addition to ordinary powers of investment, the Native Trustee is specially empowered to invest moneys in the Native Trustee's Account in advances secured by the mortgage of freehold or leasehold interests in Native land. It is specially provided (following on similar provision in the Public Trust Office Act) that any deficiency in the Native Trustee's Account may be met by payments out of the Consolidated Fund without further appropriation.

The War Regulations Continuance Act (1920, No. 22) continues in operation, until they may be specifically revoked, certain regulations made under the authority of the War Regulations Act, 1914. Certain of these regulations are declared to continue in force as if they were Board of Trade Regulations made under the Board of Trade Act, 1919. The last-mentioned regulations all relate to matters affecting industry or commerce, and are within the scope of the powers of the Governor-General to make Board of Trade Regulations. Certain other War Regulations (relating largely to matters affecting enemy property, and to graver offences of violence and sedition) are continued in force as War Regulations, and are set out in full in the Second Schedule to the Act. All other War Regulations are specifically declared to be revoked, and the War Regulations Act of 1914 and its amendments are repealed.

The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act (1920, No. 23) marks an important advance in the policy of the Legislature towards the attainment of a “white” New Zealand. Subject to certain exemptions it provides that no person (other than a person of British birth and parentage) shall enter New Zealand unless he is in possession of a permit so to do. The reference to persons of British birth and parentage does not include persons belonging to aboriginal races of any dominion other than New Zealand, or of any colony or other possession or protectorate. The Governor-General is empowered to exempt from the operation of the Act any specified “nations or peoples.” Special provision is made for the issue of temporary permits for persons desirous of coming to New Zealand for purposes of business, pleasure, or health. Application for permits to enter New Zealand for the purpose of taking up permanent residence must be made in the prescribed form, addressed to the Minister of Customs, and sent by post from the country of origin of the applicant or other country where he has resided for at least one year prior to the making of the application. Persons who enter New Zealand or who attempt to enter New Zealand without a permit are deemed to be “prohibited immigrants” within the meaning of the Immigration Restriction Act, 1908.

Every person entering New Zealand is required, if a British subject, to take the oath of allegiance, and, if not a British subject, to take an oath that he will, while in New Zealand, faithfully observe and obey the laws of New Zealand, and that he will not be concerned in any manner in any act of disloyalty to His Majesty.

The Military Service Amendment Act (1920, No. 25) abolishes procedure by way of court-martial for offences committed against the Military Service Act, 1916, and substitutes proceedings by way of summary prosecution.

The Treaties of Peace Amendment Act (1920, No. 28) extends by one year the operation of the Treaties of Peace Act, 1919, enabling the Governor-General in Council to make regulations for the purpose of giving effect to the provisions of the Treaties of Peace with Germany and other belligerent States. By an Act subsequently passed—the Statutes Repeal and Expiring Laws Continuance Act, 1921—the operation of the Treaties of Peace Act, 1919, has been further extended to the 31st December, 1921.

The Discharged Soldiers Settlement Loans Act (1920, No. 30) authorizes the Minister of Finance to borrow £6,000,000 for the purposes of the Discharged Soldiers Settlements Act. Securities to the value of £2,500,000 (portion of the sum so authorized to be borrowed) may be issued subject to the special condition that they are available for the payment of death duties. If any taxpayer fails to subscribe to the loan to an extent proportionate with his means he may be compelled to subscribe, subject to a penalty equal to double the total amount of land-tax and income-tax payable by him for the year commencing on the 1st April, 1919. The maximum amount that any taxpayer may be called upon to subscribe is an amount equal to the yearly average of land-tax and income-tax payable by him for the three years ended the 31st March. 1920. Persons aggrieved by a demand so to subscribe to the loan have a right of appeal, on the ground of undue hardship, to a specially constituted Board of public officials.

The Civil List Act (1920, No. 31) repeals the Civil List Act, 1908, and its several amendments, and re-enacts them with substantial amendment. Provision is made, inter alia, for the payment of salaries of—(a) The Governor-General, (b) Ministers of the Crown, (c) Members of Parliament, and (d) officers of Parliament.

The Legislative Council Amendment Act (1920, No. 32) further postpones the date for the commencement of the Legislative Council Act, 1914, which provided for election in lieu of appointment of Legislative Councillors. The Proclamation issued on the 23rd December, 1919, pursuant to the amending Act of 1918 has been revoked by the present amending Act.

The Companies Amendment Act (1920, No. 34) enables companies whose objects are the manufacture of butter and cheese to carry on associated industries (e.g., the manufacture of casein and other by-products) without first having effected an alteration of their memoranda or articles of association. Similar legislation was passed (as a temporary measure during the war) in 1916. The temporary provisions are now repealed and the present provisions substituted as a permanent amendment of the Companies Act.

The Master and Apprentice Amendment Act (1920, No. 36) relates specially to farm apprentices. Part I applies to indentures of apprenticeship to New Zealand farmer employers of boys resident in the United Kingdom. Special provisions are made for the execution of such indentures by the High Commissioner in England on behalf of the proposed employers in New Zealand. With respect to such apprentices from the United Kingdom it is provided that an employer may complain of any breach of duty, disobedience, or ill behaviour, and in any such case the Justices hearing the complaint may determine that it is in the best interests of the apprentice that the indenture should be cancelled and the apprentice sent back to the United Kingdom, and may make an order to that effect accordingly.

The Act specifically recognizes the duty undertaken by the Government of New Zealand to protect and promote the welfare of the boys who may come to New Zealand as farm apprentices under the Act. Part II makes special provisions with respect to the apprenticeship of New Zealand boys as farmers. In the case both of boys from the United Kingdom and of New Zealand boys indentures of farm apprenticeship continue until the apprentice attains the age of twenty years. Indentures under the principal Act expire at the age of nineteen years.

The Offenders Probation Act (1920, No. 39) repeals the First Offenders' Probation Act, 1908, which was a re-enactment of the First Offenders' Probation Act, 1886, and its amendments. The present Act is substantially a re-enactment of the repealed Act, but extends the benefits of the Act to all offenders who, in the opinion of the convicting Court, are fit subjects for probationary treatment (whether first offenders or not). Persons admitted to probation are required to report regularly to specially appointed probation officers. A breach of the conditions of a probationary license is itself a punishable offence.

The Gaming Amendment Act, No. 2 (1920, No. 40) provides for the setting-up of a Commission to inquire and report as to whether or not the number of permits annually issued for the use of the totalizator at race-meetings should be increased or reduced.

The Death Duties Amendment Act (1920, No. 42) considerably increases the scales of estate duty, succession duty, and gift duty under the Death Duties Act, 1909. In the case of estate duty the rate is graded 1 per cent. (in the case of estates not exceeding £2,000) to 20 per cent. in the case of estates exceeding £100,000. In the case of succession duties an additional rate (equal to 10 per centum of the excess over £1,000 of the value of the succession) is charged in respect of moneys exceeding £1,000 that may be payable to persons domiciled out of New Zealand (not being in any case the wife or husband of the deceased or a relative within the third degree of consanguinity). In the case of gift duty the rates are as follows: (1) 5 per cent. (up to £5,000); (2) 7 1/2 per cent. (from £5,000 to £10,000); and (3) 10 per cent. (exceeding £10,000).

The Land Laws Amendment Act (1920, No. 43) amends in various particulars the law relating to ordinary Crown land and settlement land (i.e., land acquired by the Crown for purposes of closer settlement). The principal modification of the former land legislation is to be found in section 11, which enables a limited area of national-endowment land to be excluded from the national endowment and acquired in fee-simple by the present holders. The proceeds of sale are to be paid into a special account to be known as the “National Endowment Trust Account,” which is to be administered by a special Board and the revenues disposed of in the same way as if they had been derived from national-endowment land.

The Explosive and Dangerous Goods Amendment Act (1920, No. 44) makes provision for the safety of life and property with respect to the storage and carriage of petroleum spirit, petroleum oil, and other goods of a like nature. The general administration of the Act is in the hands of a Department of State, whose chief executive officer is the Chief Inspector of Explosives, but special provision is made enabling local authorities to make provision by by-laws for the storage and carriage of dangerous goods within their respective districts.

The Health Act (1920, No. 45) repeals the Public Health Act, 1908, and its amendments, and makes comprehensive provision with respect to the maintenance and promotion of public health. The Act establishes an Advisory Board to be known as the Board of Health. It also establishes a Department of Health, with the following Divisions—viz., The Divisions of Public Hygiene, Hospitals, Nursing, School Hygiene, Dental Hygiene, Child-welfare, and Maori Hygiene.

The functions of the Department of Health are—

  1. To administer the Health Act and other Acts designed to promote public health:

  2. To advise local authorities in relation to their duty of protecting and promoting public health:

  3. The prevention, limitation, and suppression of infectious diseases:

  4. The carrying-out of researches and investigations in matters affecting public health:

  5. The organization and control of medical, dental, and nursing services, so far as such services are paid for out of public moneys.

Local authorities (Borough Councils, County Councils, and Town Boards) are specifically charged with the promotion and conservation of public health within their respective districts, and for this purpose are required—

  1. To appoint all necessary sanitary inspectors:

  2. So far as possible to prevent any nuisance arising and to take all necessary steps to abate nuisances:

  3. Subject to the direction of the Board of Health or the Director-General of Health, to enforce within its district the provisions of the Act and of any regulations thereunder:

  4. (d.) To make by-laws for the protection of public health:

  5. From time to time to furnish reports as required to the officers of the Department of Health.

If in any case a local authority (other than a Borough Council) is unable by reason of poverty or other sufficient cause to carry out efficiently the duties imposed by the Act, these duties may be undertaken by officers of the Department of Health, and a portion of the cost may be recovered from the local authority as a debt due to the Crown.

The Board of Health is empowered to require any local authority to provide such sanitary works as, in the opinion of the Board, are necessary for the protection of the public health within the district of the local authority. The term “sanitary works” includes drainage-works, sewerage-works, waterworks, sanitary conveniences, mortuaries, and disinfecting and cleansing stations. Special provisions are made for the sanitary equipment of dwellinghouses, factories, workrooms, and business places, and local authorities are empowered to require the alteration, closing, or demolition of buildings that do not conform to the requirements. Extensive powers of making by-laws are conferred on local authorities. Such powers relate, inter alia, to the following matters:—

  1. Overcrowding of land with buildings.

  2. Sanitation of buildings.

  3. The carrying-on of offensive trades.

  4. The keeping of animals.

  5. The cleansing of public conveniences.

  6. The cleansing, ventilation, sanitation, and disinfection of public buildings.

  7. The protection of foodstuffs from pollution.

  8. The collection and disposal of waste matter.

The Department of Health is specially charged with duties relating to the prevention of the outbreak or spread of infectious diseases. Extensive powers are conferred upon the Medical Officers of Health for the purpose of enabling them to carry out effectively their duties with respect to such diseases. In particular a Medical Officer of Health may take steps to have insanitary buildings pulled down and the timber or other materials thereof destroyed; to cause insanitary things to be destroyed or otherwise disposed of; to cause infected animals to be destroyed; to cause persons, places, buildings, ships, animals, and things to be isolated, quarantined, or disinfected. In special cases (e.g., epidemics) he may cause theatres, schools, hospitals, and places of public amusement or resort to be closed and to remain closed until further notice.

Provision is made for the quarantine of ships, persons, and goods arriving in New Zealand.

Extensive powers are conferred on the Governor-General to make regulations for the purpose of carrying the Act into effect. In particular regulations may be made with respect to—

  1. The inspection and disinfection of ships, buildings, and places:

  2. The vaccination of persons for the prevention of smallpox and other diseases:

  3. The isolation of persons suffering from infectious diseases:

  4. The prevention of the spread of infectious diseases by means of “contacts” or “carriers.”

  5. Regulating or restricting the movement of people within or from areas in which any infectious disease may be prevalent:

  6. The destruction of rats and other vermin that may be “carriers” of disease:

  7. The organization of local bodies to assist the Department of Health in the event of the outbreak of an epidemic of infectious disease:

  8. Generally for the purpose of carrying the Act into effect.

The Statutes Drafting and Compilation Act (1920, No. 46) establishes an office of Parliament to be called the Law Drafting Office, with two Departments, viz.:—

  1. The Bill Drafting Department, and

  2. The Compilation Department.

The duties of the officers of the Bill Drafting Department are—

  1. To draft Government Bills and such amendments thereof as may be required by Ministers of the Crown:

  2. To supervise the printing of Government Bills and their amendments:

  3. To examine and report on all local Bills:

  4. If and when so directed, to examine and report on Bills introduced by private members:

  5. Such other duties relating to the drafting of statutes and regulations as the Prime Minister or the Attorney-General may direct.

The duties of the Compilation Department are—

  1. As and when directed by the Prime Minister or the Attorney-General, to compile statutes and their amendments:

  2. To report to the Prime Minister or Attorney-General upon verbal or technical alterations of language which may be adopted for the purposes of compilation:

  3. To submit for the consideration of the Prime Minister or the Attorney-General proposals for the alteration of the law, or for the extension, limitation, or amendment of statutes proposed to be compiled:

  4. Such other duties relating to the compilation of statutes as the Prime Minister or the Attorney-General may direct.

The principal officer of the Bill Drafting Department is called “The Law Draftsman.” The principal officer of the Compilation Department is called “The Compiler of Statutes.”

The Counties Act (1920, No. 47) and the Municipal Corporations Act (1920, No. 48) are compilations with extensive amendment in matters of detail of the enactments relating to local government in counties and boroughs respectively. As introduced, the Bills were compiling-measures, with such alterations only as were deemed to be necessary for the removal of inconsistencies and for settling matters of doubtful construction. When introduced the Bills were referred to Select Committees of the House of Representatives, which, having heard the evidence of persons interested, made recommendations to the Government for the amendment of the Bills in respect of their subjectmatter. These amendments were incorporated in the Bills, which were then passed by the Lower House and transmitted to the Legislative Council. A somewhat similar procedure was adopted in the Legislative Council, and the Bills as finally passed were compilations of the law with extensive material alterations.

The Housing Amendment Act (1920, No. 49) amends the Act of 1919, and also amends the War Legislation Acts relating to the restriction of rents of dwellinghouses. The maximum price of a stone, brick, or concrete house is increased from £850 to £1,000, and of other dwellings from £775 to £900. Provision is made for affording assistance by way of advances out of the Housing Account to “Public Utility Societies,” whose object may be the establishment or formation of village settlements or garden suburbs or generally the provision of homes for workers.

The operation of Part I of the War Legislation Amendment Act, 1916, imposing restrictions on the increase of the rent of dwellinghouses, is limited to dwellings let before the 9th November, 1920 (the date of the passing of the present amending Act), and is expressly excluded from all dwellings first let after that date. Special provision is made enabling a landlord to apply to a Stipendiary Magistrate for authority to increase the rent of a dwelling on the ground that the net rental is not at least 7 per cent. of the capital value of the dwelling. For the purposes of this provision the net rental is to be ascertained by deducting from the gross rental all outgoings by way of rates, insurances, repairs, and depreciation. A departure from the previous policy of the Legislature has been made in section 18 of the amending Act, which provides that rent paid in excess of the standard rent shall be recoverable by the tenant as a debt due by the landlord. It is also made an offence, punishable by a fine of £100, for any person to require or accept a fine, premium, bonus, or other like sum in consideration of the letting of any dwellinghouse.

By section 21 of the Act the provisions of Part I of the War Legislation Amendment Act, 1916, are extended so as to apply to rooms let separately to tenants as if those rooms were dwellinghouses.

The Incorporated Societies Amendment Act (1920, No. 50) extends the provisions of the Incorporated Societies Act, 1908 (providing for the incorporation of societies not constituted for purposes of pecuniary gain), by making provision for the incorporation of branch societies and of groups of branch societies. The object of the present extension is to facilitate the holding of property by societies in their own interests while they maintain membership of a central organization for the furtherance of general local interests.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act (1920, No. 52) increases the several amounts payable under the principal Act in respect of accidents to workers. The general principles of the law as to compensation are not affected.

The Rotorua Town Lands Act (1920, No. 57) makes provision for enabling Crown tenants in the Town of Rotorua to purchase the freehold.

The Bank of New Zealand Act (1920, No. 58) transfers £1,250,000 (half the accumulated profits of the Bank of New Zealand) from the Reserve Fund to the Capital Account, and increases the State's share of the Bank's capital from one-seventh to one-third.

The Education Amendment Act (1920, No. 64) amends in various particulars the provisions of the Act of 1914. By this Act provision is made for extending from fourteen years to fifteen years of age the limit for compulsory attendance at a public school or other approved educational institution. The commencement of the section is postponed until a date to be fixed by the Governor-General in Council, being not earlier than the 1st January, 1922.

The Marriage Amendment Act (1920, No. 65) amends in various particulars the law relating to the celebration of marriages. By section 2 provision is made for the appointment of women as Registrars or Deputy Registrars of Marriages. Section 3 provides that where any marriage celebrated in New Zealand had been dissolved by divorce it shall be the duty of the Registrar of the Court from which the decree of divorce issued to furnish particulars of the divorce to the Registrar-General, who shall cause the same to be endorsed on the relevant entry in the Register of Marriages. Section 5 extends from 4 o'clock in the afternoon until 8 o'clock in the evening the time within which marriages may be celebrated.

Provisions of more general interest are contained in section 7, which declares it to be an offence punishable on summary conviction by a find of £100 for any person to allege expressly or by implication that any persons lawfully married are not truly and sufficiently married, or that the issue of any lawful marriage is illegitimate or born out of true wedlock. The term “allege” is defined to include the making of any verbal statement or the publishing or issuing of any printed or written statement. The section is designed to prevent the teaching that marriages celebrated in accordance with law but not in accordance with the rules of any particular branch of the Christian Church are invalid. The section contains an express saving of existing forms of marriage service.

The Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act (1920, No. 70) extends the grounds on which marriages may be dissolved. Section 3 constitutes as a ground of divorce the failure to comply with a decree for the restitution of conjugal rights, thus restoring an earlier provision which was repealed in 1907. Section 4 enables the Court to grant a decree of divorce on petition by either party to a decree of judicial separation, or to a separation order, or to a deed of agreement of separation, or separation by mutual consent, if such decree, order, deed, or agreement has been in full force, and has so continued for not less than three years.

A change in the law relating to divorce on the ground of insanity is made by section 5. According to the principal Act, detention in an institution for insane persons was available as a ground of divorce only if such detention was in an institution in New Zealand. The amending Act authorizes the issue of a decree in cases where the detention has been in such an institution in any part of the British dominions.

The Anzac Day Act (1920, No. 78) declares Anzac Day (the anniversary of the landing of Australian and New Zealand troops on Gallipoli on the 25th April, 1915) a public holiday “in commemoration of the part taken by New Zealand troops in the Great War, and in memory of those who gave their lives for the Empire.” The Act further declares Anzac Day to be a bank holiday, and provides that on that day no premises shall be open for the sale of intoxicating liquor, and no permits shall be granted for the holding of horse-race meetings.

The Law Practitioners Amendment Act (1920, No. 80) makes further concession to solicitors whose studies were interrupted by reason of their military service in the war. The present section repeals former legislation with respect to the same matter (section 21 of the War Legislation Amendment Act, 1916), and provides that for the purposes of section 5 of the Law Practitioners Act, 1908 (providing for the admission of solicitors as barristers after five years' practice, but without further examination), the period of continuous practice shall be deemed, in the case of a solicitor who after having qualified for admission as a solicitor and whether admitted or not has served abroad with any portion of His Majesty's Forces in the late war, to include the period elapsing after his acceptance for service and the expiration of twelve months after his discharge.

The Finance Act (1920, No. 83) is divided into the following Parts:—

  • Part I.—Pensions (including War Pensions and Civil Pensions).

  • Part II.—Public Loans.

  • Part III.—Public Revenues.

  • Part IV.—Local Authorities and Public Bodies.

  • Part V.—General.

The main provisions of the present Act with respect to war pensions is that relating to the constitution of the War Pensions Medical Appeal Board to consider appeals based on medical grounds from decisions of the War Pensions Board. With respect to civil pensions (old-age pensions, pensions for miner's phthisis, &c.), temporary increases of the rates made during the war to meet an increased cost of living are now made permanent.

The Minister of Finance is empowered to borrow £6,500,000 for electric-power works and other public purposes. The provisions as to war-loan certificates, first enacted in connection with “War-purposes Loans,” have been adopted and made permanent provisions of the New Zealand Loans Act. Authority is given to the Post Office to issue what are called Post Office Investment Certificates, on the same terms as the former war-loan certificates.

Section 20 provides that moneys in the War Expenses Account shall hereafter be expended only in accordance with the appropriation of Parliament. Section 23 empowers the Minister of Finance to guarantee advances made by banks carrying on business in New Zealand to producers of wool, meat, dairy-produce, or other primary products. Section 27 enables the Governor-General to impose special rates of duty on the importation into New Zealand of wheat or flour, not exceeding 1s. 3d. per bushel of wheat or £2 10s. per ton of flour. The purpose of the section is to maintain in New Zealand the prices of wheat and flour at a standard sufficient to provide an adequate remuneration to persons engaged in their production.

Section 33, which has since been repealed and re-enacted in an extended form by section 11 of the Finance Act, 1921, provided that where a local authority satisfied the Minister of Finance that it was unable to borrow money at the rate of interest authorized by a poll of the ratepayers, that Minister could authorize the borrowing of the moneys at a higher rate, not exceeding a rate to be prescribed by the Governor-General in Council. The corresponding section in the Finance Act, 1921, enables the Minister of Finance not only to increase the rate of interest, but to reduce the terms for which debentures may be issued as security, being not less in any case than ten years.

Section 46 empowers the Governor-General to approve any savings-bank, Borough Council, County Council, or public company as an institution with which trust funds may be invested on deposit. The section is a re-enactment in permanent form of temporary legislation which was first passed in 1914 and repealed on the termination of the war.

The Life Insurance Amendment Act (1920, No. 84) prohibits the carrying-on of the business of industrial insurance except on terms and conditions to be approved by the Governor-General in Council. For the purposes of the Act “industrial insurance” means any insurance by the terms of which the premiums are paid or payable at shorter intervals than three months.

The Appropriation Act (1920, No. 85) includes several miscellaneous provisions of general interest, of which the most important are the following:—

Sections 11 and 12 make provision for the payment of subsidies (amounting in all to £823,000) to manufacturers of butter and cheese for the seasons 1918-21. Similar provision (to an amount of £340,000) was made by the Appropriation Act of 1919. The sections in question have relation to the policy of the Government of fixing prices for certain goods (chiefly primary products) and of paying subsidies to the producers so as to avoid for them a direct personal loss.

Section 13 establishes in the Consolidated Fund an Emergency Expenditure Account, out of which the Minister of Finance is empowered without further appropriation to pay any moneys required in cases of emergency for purposes affecting the public health, public interests, or public safety, or for providing essential supplies such as foodstuffs, coal, and raw materials. The total amount that may be expended in any year under this section is limited to £750,000. No operation on the Emergency Account can be made at any time while Parliament is sitting.

Chapter 35. SECTION XXXV.—ISLANDS ATTACHED TO NEW ZEALAND.

INTRODUCTORY.

ON page 1 of this book the islands comprising the Dominion of New Zealand are divided into three groups, viz.:—

Islands forming the Dominion proper, for statistical and general practical purposes.

Outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847.

Annexed islands.

Only the first of these groups has been covered by the preceding thirty-four sections of this book. The present section deals briefly with the second and third groups, and also with the mandated territories of Western Samoa and Nauru.

OUTLYING ISLANDS.

The outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries as proclaimed in 1847 are,—

Three Kings Islands.Antipodes Islands.
Auckland Islands.Bounty Islands.
Campbell Island.Snares Islands.

The THREE KINGS ISLANDS (so named by Tasman on account of his having discovered them on the anniversary of the Feast of the Epiphany) are a group of uninhabited islets extending about seven miles in an east-north-east direction, and situated about thirty-eight miles west-north-west of Cape Maria van Diemen, at the northern extremity of the North Island. It was here that the s.s. “Elingamite” was wrecked on the 9th November, 1902, with heavy loss of life.

The AUCKLAND ISLANDS were discovered on the 18th August, 1806, by Captain Abraham Bristow, in the ship “Ocean.” The discoverer, who named the group after Lord Auckland, again visited the islands in 1807 and took formal possession of them. They lie about 290 miles south of Bluff Harbour, their accepted position being given as latitude 50° 32′ south and longitude 166° 13′ east. They have several good harbours. Port Ross, at the northern end of the principal island, was described by the eminent French commander D'Urville as one of the best harbours of refuge in the known world. At the southern end of the island there is a through passage extending from the east to the west coast. It has been variously named Adams Strait and Carnley Harbour, and forms a splendid sheet of water. The largest of the islands is about twenty-seven miles long by about fifteen miles broad, and is very mountainous, the highest part being about 2,000 ft. above the sea.

CAMPBELL ISLAND was discovered in 1810 by Frederick Hazelburgh, master of the brig “Perseverance,” owned by Mr. Robert Campbell, of Sydney. It is mountainous, and of a circumference of about thirty miles. There are several good harbours.

The ANTIPODES ISLANDS are an isolated group, consisting of several detached rocky islands lying nearly north and south over a space of four to five miles; accepted position, 49° 41′ 15″ south, and longitude 178° 43′ east.

The BOUNTY ISLANDS, a little cluster of islets, thirteen in number, and without verdure, were discovered in 1788 by Captain Bligh, R.N., of H.M.S. “Bounty”; position verified by observation, 47° 43′ south, longitude 179° 0 1/2′ east.

The SNARES ISLANDS are situated about fifty-six miles to the south-west of Stewart Island, and comprise six islets of a total area of about 600 acres.

On each group of outlying islands the New Zealand Government maintains a depot of provisions and clothing for the use of castaways.

KERMADEC ISLANDS.

The KERMADEC ISLANDS, four in number, with some outlying islets, rank as “annexed islands,” having been annexed to New Zealand by Proclamation dated the 21st July, 1887. The islands are situated between the parallels of 29° 10′ and 31° 30′ south latitude, and between the meridians of 177° 45′ and 179° west longitude. The principal island, Sunday, is 600 miles distant from Auckland, and lies a little more than half-way to Tonga, but 100 miles to the eastward of the direct steam route to that place. It is 300 miles eastward of the steam route to Fiji, and 150 miles westward of the steam route from Auckland to Rarotonga. Macaulay Island (named after the father of Lord Macaulay) and Curtis Islands were discovered in May, 1788, by Lieutenant Watts, in the “Penrhyn,” a transport ship. The remainder of the group was discovered in 1793 by Admiral Bruni d'Entrecasteaux. The Admiral gave the name of “Kermadec” to the whole group of islands, after the captain of his consort ship “L'Espérance,” and the name of the Admiral's ship, “La Recherché,” was given to the largest island. The name so given was not continued, but that of “Raoul” has taken its place, which would appear to have been given after the sailing-master of the “La Recherché,” whose name was Joseph Raoul. The name of “Sunday” may have become attached to the island from the fact that it was discovered on a Sunday.

The islands are volcanic, and in two of them signs of activity are still to be seen. The rainfall is plentiful but not excessive. The climate is mild and equable, and slightly warmer than that of the north of New Zealand. The following are the areas of the islands and islets of the group: Sunday Island, 7,200 acres; Herald group of islets, 85 acres; Macaulay Island, 764 acres; Curtis Islands, 128 acres and 19 acres; L'Espérance, 12 acres: total, 8,208 acres. Sunday Island is twenty miles in circumference, roughly triangular in shape, and at the highest point 1,723 ft. above the sea-level. It is rugged and broken over a very large extent of its surface, and, except in a few places, covered with forest. The soil everywhere on the island is very rich, being formed by the decomposition of a dark-coloured pumiceous tuff and a black andesitic lava, with which is closely mixed a fine vegetable mould. The great luxuriance and richness of the vegetation bear witness to the excellence of the soil, which is everywhere—except where destroyed by eruptions and on the steep cliffs—the same rich loam. Want of water is one of the drawbacks. Three of the four lakes on the island are fresh, but so difficult of approach as to be practically useless. Various attempts at settlement have been made from time to time, but the islands are now uninhabited.

COOK AND OTHER PACIFIC ISLANDS ANNEXED IN 1901.

The COOK ISLANDS, with others included within the extended boundaries of the Dominion as from the 10th June, 1901, are as under:—

RAROTONGA: A magnificent island, rising to a height of 3,000ft., clothed to the tops of the mountains with splendid vegetation. It has abundant streams, considerable tracts of sloping land, and rich alluvial valleys. The two harbours are poor.

MANGAIA, the south-easternmost of the Cook Group, is of volcanic origin and about thirty miles in circumference. The productions, which are numerous and cheap, are obtained by assiduous labour.

ATIU resembles Mangaia in appearance and extent. It is a mere bank of coral 10ft. or 12ft. high, steep and rugged, except where there are small sandy beaches and some clefts, where the ascent is gradual.

AITUTAKI presents a most fruitful appearance, its shores being bordered by flat land on which are innumerable coconut and other trees, the higher ground being beautifully interspersed with lawns. It is eighteen miles in circuit.

MAUKE (or Parry Island) is a low-lying island. It is about two miles in diameter, well wooded, and inhabited.

MITIARO is a low-lying island, from three to four miles long and one mile wide.

HERVEY ISLANDS: This group consists of two islands, surrounded by a reef which is about 10 1/2 miles in circumference.

NIUE (or Savage Island), lying east of the Friendly Islands, is a coral island, thirty-six miles in circumference, rising to a height of 200 ft. It has the usual tropical productions.

PALMERSTON ISLAND, lying about 500 miles east of Niue and about 220 from the nearest island of the Cook Group (Aitutaki), is remarkable as the “San Pablo” of Magellan, the first island discovered in the South Sea. It has no harbour. The soil is fairly fertile, and there is some good hardwood timber.

MANIHIKI, lying about. 400 miles eastward of Danger Island, is an atoll, about thirty miles in circumference, valuable from the extent of the coconut groves. The interior lagoon contains a vast deposit of pearl-shell.

PENRHYN ISLAND (Tongareva) lies about 300 miles north-east of Manihiki. It is one of the most famous pearl-islands in the Pacific, and there is a lagoon with two entrances, capable of being made into a harbour fit for a large number of vessels.

RAKAANGA is an atoll, three miles in length and of equal breadth.

DANGER ISLAND (Pukapuka): Next to the 10th parallel, but rather north of the latitude of the Navigators and east of them, are a number of small atolls. Of these, the nearest to the Samoan Group—about 500 miles—is Danger Island, bearing north-west of Suwarrow about 250 miles.

SUWARROW ISLAND lies about 500 miles east of Apia, the capital of Western Samoa. It is a coral atoll, of a triangular form, fifty miles in circumference, the reef having an average width of half a mile across, enclosing a land-locked lagoon eight miles by six, which is capable of being made into an excellent harbour. The entrance is half a mile wide, and the accommodation permits of ships riding in safety in all weathers, with depths of from 3 to 30 fathoms. It is out of the track of hurricanes, but is at present uninhabited, although visited periodically. As a depot for the collection of trade from the various islands it might in time be very valuable.

CONSTITUTION AND LAWS.

The Constitution and laws of the Cook Islands and Niue have been remodelled by the Cook Islands Act of 1915.

Island Councils were continued or established, consisting either wholly or partly of ex officio, elected, or nominated members. Generally, European officials and Arikis or Native chiefs are Councillors ex officio, and nominated members hold office during the pleasure of the Governor-General or for a fixed period not exceeding five years. Women are eligible both as members and as electors of Island Councils.

Each Council is empowered to make laws for the good government of the island, with the proviso that such laws must not be repugnant to Acts of the New Zealand Parliament or regulations made thereunder. The maximum penalties imposed by the Ordinance of an Island Council must not exceed three months' imprisonment or a fine of £50. The Council has no power to deal with Customs duties, to borrow money, to establish Courts of Justice, or to appropriate expenditure of revenue other than that raised under authority of their Ordinance. No Ordinance has effect until it has received the assent of the Resident Commissioner or the Governor-General. The Governor-General may, by notice in the Gazette, disallow any Ordinance within one year after the Commissioner has given his assent.

Laws are enforced through the High Court, which has all jurisdiction, civil or criminal, necessary for the administration of justice. Judges and Commissioners of the High Court are appointed by the Governor-General; the Chief Judge to reside at Rarotonga, a second at Niue. A Commissioner may, with some, exceptions, exercise the full powers and functions of a Judge, but rules of Court may allow appeal from his decision to that of a Judge.

A judgment obtained in a civil proceeding in the High Court may be enforced in the Supreme Court of New Zealand. From any decision in the former Court an appeal lies to the Supreme Court in the Dominion.

The manufacture or importation of intoxicating liquor is prohibited absolutely, except that the Resident Commissioner may import liquor for sale or for public purposes. Liquor imported through the Commissioner must not find its way into the hands of a Native. Attempts are made by the Natives to evade the law by illicitly manufacturing “bush-beer,” an offence which the Administration is endeavouring to check.

POPULATION.

At the census of the 17th April, 1921, the islands had a population of 13,209, made up as shown in the following statement. Uninhabited islands are not included.

Island.Native Population.Population other than Native.Totals.
Males.Females.Both
Sexes.
Males.Females.*Both
Sexes.*
Males.Females.Both
Sexes.
* Includes 22 Native women married to and living as Europeans.
Aitutaki6826611,3431416306966771,373
Atiu432398830437436401837
Mangaia6255841,2091011216355951,230
Manihiki2242054293..  3227205432
Mauke29626556112517308270578
Mitiaro106101207..  ..  ..  106101207
Palmerston414283..  ..  ..  414283
Penrhyn170200370426174202376
Pukapuka288242530..  ..  ..  288242530
Rakaanga1711383091..  1172138310
Rarotonga1,7681,5193,2871051112161,8731,6303,503
Totals, Cook and northern islands4,8034,3559,1581531483014,9564,5039,459
Niue1,7031,9883,6913326591,7362,0143,750
     Grand totals6,5066,34312,8491861743606,6926,51713,209

The population totals for each of the last five censuses are,—

Island.1902.1906.1911.1916.1921.
* Includes 112 soldiers in camp in New Zealand.
Aitutaki1,1701,1621,2371,3021,373
Atiu918918812759837
Mangaia1,5411,5311,4711,2451,230
Manihiki484521444493432
Manuae (or Hervey)10..   2923..   
Mauke370446457490578
Mitiaro165210199237207
Niue4,0793,8223,9433,8803,750
Palmerston115821079083
Penrhyn445420335326376
Pukapuka505435490474530
Rakaanga400352315295310
Rarotonga2,0602,4412,7593,0643,503
Suwarrow30..   ..   7..   
Totals12,29212,34012,59812,797*13,209

A system of compulsory registration of births, deaths, and marriages is now in force in the islands. The latest available figures are given in the “Vital Statistics” section of this book.

EDUCATION.

The educational requirements of the islands up to recent years have been largely met by missionary effort. The London Missionary Society has a number of village schools in the various islands, while the Roman Catholic Mission and the Seventh-day Adventists also maintain schools, though to a less extent.

The education provided in this manner is necessarily inadequate, and provision was made by the Cook Islands Act, 1915, for the establishment of public schools.

Regulations which came into force on the 1st January, 1917, make it compulsory for all children between seven and fourteen years of age to attend school if living within three miles of a public school.

In 1916, when education in the Cook Islands was placed under the control of the Minister, there were three schools in the Group, two being in Rarotonga and one at Aitutaki. Since 1916 two new primary schools have been opened in Rarotonga—viz., Avarua and Titikaveka—one at Palmerston Island, one at Mauke, one at Mangaia, and one at Aitutaki.

A technical school, also created since 1916, has been established at Avarua, with classes in agriculture, drawing, and woodwork, and an advanced class in carpentry. In most of the schools classes for simple cookery and for mat and basket weaving are held.

In Niue two schools have been established. Special interest is shown in the technical branch, and additional technical classes are given after school hours. The leading pupils are being trained with a view to taking charge of village schools which it is hoped may soon be established in other districts of Niue.

Scholarships for annual competition, tenable for two years at St. Stephen's College, Auckland, for boys, and Hukarere School for Girls, Napier, have been created by the Administration.

Four advanced pupils are chosen each year from the Technical School and sent to Wellington to be apprenticed to trades. They are under a bond to return to Rarotonga on the completion of their apprenticeship. By this method the Administration intends to secure the necessary supply of skilled Native artisans required for the Group.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Cook and Northern Islands.—For the financial year ended the 31st March, 1921, the revenue of the Cook Islands, not including the balance from the previous year, was £27,099, and the expenditure £27,744. The following is a comparative statement of revenue and expenditure for the past ten years:—

Year.Revenue.Expenditure.
£     £     
1911-128,9249,430
1912-139,42011,508
1913-1411,72310,194
1914-1510,11810,617
1915-167,6739,081
1916-179,7108,586
1917-1811,06812,615
1918-1913,84612,343
1919-2022,88117,061
1920-2127,09927,744

The principal items in the revenue for 1920-21 were: Customs duties (Rarotonga and New Zealand), £11,074; export duties, £1,137; postage-stamps, £3,797; and fruit-inspection, £1,475.

Niue.—The revenue of Niue for the year ended the 31st March, 1921 (excluding balance from previous year), was £6,938. The expenditure amounted to £5,221. The total funds to the credit of the Niue Government on the 31st March, 1921, amounted to £5,958.

TRADE.

Cook and Northern Islands.—The value of exports for the year 1920 was £94,697, while the imports amounted to £177,911. The principal items exported were as follows:—

 £     
Bananas, 25,944 cases12,859
Coconuts, 5,287 sacks2,599
Coffee, 3 1/2 tons448
Copra, 1,002 tons27,308
Oranges, 109,480 cases36,490
Pearl-shell, 30 tons2,400
Pineapples, 928 cases360
Tomatoes11,127

The fruit trade is greatly retarded by lack of a good steamer service to New Zealand.

Trade with the United States is gaining rapidly in importance. The following shows the countries to which the exports were sent during the last five years:—

 1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
£     £     £     £     £     
New Zealand38,64740,40142,91968,01465,244
United States17,62117,14634,34450,66525,283
Tahiti1,9202,6435,445..     1,770
United Kingdom9,958..     ..     9,0502,400
 £68,146£60,190£82,708£127,729£94,697

Imports during the five years came from the following countries:—

 1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
£     £     £     £     £     
New Zealand43,55761,93170,77391,973119,420
Australia9141,7141,6823,005..     
United Kingdom3,7873,7488,47415,5009,350
United States8,24111,09215,32427,60543,727
Tahiti1,5691,1102,5043,8083,881
Other countries4104668751,0341,533
       Totals£58,478£80,061£99,632£142,925£177,911

Niue.—The exports for 1920 amounted to £13,140, and the imports to £20,524. The principal items of export were,—

 £     
Copra, 246 1/2 tons8,962
Hats, 4,189 dozen3,719

Of the total imports, New Zealand contributed goods to the value of £17,676. Three-fourths of the exports went to New Zealand, and the bulk of the remainder to American Samoa.

WESTERN SAMOA.

Four large and many smaller islands, the whole of volcanic origin, form the Group known by its Native name of Samoa. The Native race inhabiting the islands is of typical Polynesian character, with straight hair, brown colouring, good physique, and mild and hospitable disposition.

The first known visit of Europeans to the islands was that of a Dutch expedition, under Jacob Roggeveen, in its voyage around the world in 1721-22. In 1768 De Bougainville called at the islands, and in 1787 La Perouse, who named them “Navigators Islands,” a name by which they are still frequently called. The first British vessel to pay a visit was H.M.S. “Pandora,” in 1790. Missionaries, who were to play an important part in the development of the country, made their advent in the person of two members of the London Missionary Society, arriving at Savaii in 1830.

The first formal recognition of “whites” took place some eight years later, when Captain Bethune, of the British Navy, concluded a commercial treaty with the Native chiefs, by which harbour dues were to be paid and security to European interests guaranteed in return. Next year (1839) Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, in command of a United States exploring expedition, completed a similar treaty.

Three great nations were to have control of the destinies of the Samoans. Great Britain appointed a Consular Agent in 1847, the United States a Commercial Agent in 1853, and Germany her first representative in 1861.

In 1869 one of the frequent internecine wars of the Natives broke out, a war that was to have far-reaching consequences, for the foreign authorities took for the first time direct measures to ensure peace. The trouble arose over rival claimants to the Native chieftainship, and continued, despite several patched-up truces, for several years.

Petitions were presented to Great Britain in 1877, and the United States in 1878, that the islands should be annexed, but the statesmen of those days did not consider it advisable. That year (1878), however, the United States were given the privilege of forming a naval and coaling station at Pago Pago, in the island of Tutuila, much the best harbour of the Group. Next year similar privileges were granted the other two Powers—Germany at Saluafata, and Great Britain at a place to be settled later.

Finally, at a conference in Berlin in 1889, an Act was signed by the representatives of the three States, guaranteeing neutrality and independence of the islands. This arrangement lasted until 1898, when, on the death of King Malietoa Laupepa, disturbances again arose over the succession. In accordance with the recommendation of a joint Commission the kingship was abolished. The Anglo-German agreement of the 14th November, 1899, accepted by the United States in January, 1900, gave to Germany all rights over Western Samoa, and to the United States, Tutuila and the other islands of Eastern Samoa.

On the outbreak of war in 1914 between the United Kingdom and Germany a New Zealand Expeditionary Force took possession of Western Samoa, landing at Apia on the 29th August, and remained in occupation until the establishment of Civil government under the ægis of the Dominion.

The islands are now administered by the New Zealand Government under mandate of the League of Nations, quoted below in full. The Chief Executive Officer is an Administrator, who is stationed at Apia. Ministerial responsibility for the government is centred in the Minister of External Affairs. Laws are based on those of New Zealand, with the necessary modifications.

LEAGUE OF NATIONS.—MANDATE FOR GERMAN SAMOA.

THE Council of the League of Nations:

Whereas by Article 119 of the Treaty of Peace with Germany, signed at Versailles on June 28th, 1919, Germany renounced in favour of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers all her rights over her overseas possessions, including therein German Samoa:

And whereas the principal Allied and Associated Powers agreed that, in accordance with Article 22, Part I (Covenant of the League of Nations), of the said treaty, a mandate should be conferred upon His Britannic Majesty, to be exercised on his behalf by the Government of the Dominion of New Zealand, to administer German Samoa, and have proposed that the mandate should be formulated in the following terms:

And whereas His Britannic Majesty, for and on behalf of the Government of the Dominion of New Zealand, has agreed to accept the mandate in respect of the said Territory, and has undertaken to exercise it on behalf of the League of Nations in accordance with the following provisions:

And whereas by the aforementioned Article 22, paragraph (8), it is provided that the degree of authority, control, or administration to be exercised by the Mandatory, not having been previously agreed upon by the members of the League, shall be explicitly defined by the Council of the League of Nations:

Confirming the said mandate, defines its terms as follows:—

Article 1.

The Territory over which a mandate is conferred upon His Britannic Majesty for and on behalf of the Government of the Dominion of New Zealand (hereinafter called the Mandatory) is the former Germany Colony of Samoa.

Article 2.

The Mandatory shall have full power of administration and legislation over the Territory, subject to the present mandate, as an integral portion of the Dominion of New Zealand, and may apply the laws of the Dominion of New Zealand to the Territory, subject to such local modifications as circumstances may require.

The Mandatory shall promote to the utmost the material and moral well-being and the social progress of the inhabitants of the Territory subject to the present mandate.

Article 3.

The Mandatory shall see that the slave trade is prohibited, and that no forced labour is permitted, except for essential public works and services, and then only for adequate remuneration.

The Mandatory shall also see that the traffic in arms and ammunition is controlled in accordance with principles analogous to those laid down in the Convention relating to the control of the arms traffic, signed on September 10th, 1919, or in any convention amending the same.

The supply of intoxicating spirits and beverages to the Natives shall be prohibited.

Article 4.

The military training of the Natives, otherwise than for purposes of internal police and the local defence of the Territory, shall be prohibited.

Furthermore, no military or naval bases shall be established or fortifications erected in the Territory.

Article 5.

Subject to the provisions of any local law for the maintenance of public order and public morals, the Mandatory shall ensure in the Territory freedom of conscience and the free exercise of all forms of worship, and shall allow all missionaries, nationals of any State member of the League of Nations, to enter into, travel, and reside in the Territory for the purpose of prosecuting their calling.

Article 6.

The Mandatory shall make to the Council of the League of Nations an annual report to the satisfaction of the Council, containing full information with regard to the Territory, and indicating the measures taken to carry out the obligations assumed under Articles 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Article 7.

The consent of the Council of the League of Nations is required for any modification of the terms of the present mandate.

The Mandatory agrees that if any dispute whatever should arise between the Mandatory and another member of the League of Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions of the mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled by negotiation, shall be submitted to the Permanent Court of International Justice provided for by Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.

The present declaration shall be deposited in the archives of the League of Nations. Certified copies shall be forwarded by the Secretary-General of the League of Nations to all Powers signatories of the Treaty of Peace with Germany.

Made at Geneva the 17th day of December, 1920.          JEAN MONNET,
                                                                                               Deputy Secretary-General.

GEOGRAPHICAL.

Western Samoa includes all islands lying between the 13th and 15th degrees of south latitude and the 171st and 173rd degrees of longitude west of Greenwich.

The principal islands are Savaii and Upolu. Savaii is the largest of the two, with a length of 48 miles, a breadth of 25 miles, and a total area of 660 square miles. The island is mountainous, rising to a height of over 4,000 ft. Upolu, which extends some 45 miles in length and 13 in breadth, measures nearly 600 square miles in area. Of the two, Upolu is the more fertile and populous, and contains the port and capital of Apia. Rainfall is plentiful throughout the Group.

POPULATION.

At the census of the 17th April, 1921, the total population of Western Samoa was returned as 37,157, made up as follows:—

 Males.Females.Total.
European population1,1289382,066
Native Samoan population16,79516,54133,336
Chinese indentured contract labour1,290..     1,290
Melanesian and Polynesian indentured contract labour4569465
                                 Totals19,66917,48837,157

At a census taken in July, 1917, and covering only Europeans and Samoans, the population was 37,331 (Europeans 1,927, Samoans 35,404). Samoans thus decreased by over two thousand during the period, the result of a terrible influenza epidemic which swept the islands in 1918-19 at a cost of nearly eight thousand lives.

MISCELLANEOUS.

The chief product of the islands is copra, and cocoa and rubber are also cultivated to some extent. Exports of copra for the year 1919 aggregated 16,356 tons, valued at £449,917, while total exports were valued at £532,500, and imports £291,368, excluding supplies for the garrison then in occupation.

Seventy-seven vessels of an aggregate net tonnage of 34,273 were entered at Apia in 1919. There is regular steamship communication with New Zealand, and a high-powered wireless station is situated near Apia. On the islands there are about sixty miles of good roads.

Education is principally in the hands of the missionaries, most of the Natives professing the Christian religion. Mission schools had at latest advices over eight thousand pupils, while the two Government schools in existence had under eight hundred pupils.

For the financial year ended the 31st March, 1920, the revenue of Western Samoa was £95,022, and the expenditure £96,314.

NAURU.

Barely one-third of a degree south of the Equator, and lying 166° 55 east of Greenwich, is the little phosphate island known as Nauru, or Pleasant Island. Prior to the world-wide conflagration of 1914-19 this rich though little-known island was a German possession. A mandate for the administration of the island was conferred by the Allied and Associated Powers upon the British Empire, to come into operation at the same date as the Treaty of Peace with Germany. The mandate is held jointly by the Imperial Government, the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government.

An agreement between the three parties to the mandate was drawn up and completed on the 2nd July, 1919. The administrative control of the island is vested in an Administrator, whose term of appointment is five years. The first Administrator was appointed by Australia. A Board of Commissioners comprising three members, one appointed by each Government, is established, and has full control of the working and sale of the deposits and their products.

The yearly production of phosphates is to be allocated between the three Governments in the following proportions: United Kingdom, 42 per cent.; Australia, 42 per cent.; New Zealand, 16 per cent. This scale is subject to revision every five years. Any portion of its share not required by any Government may be disposed of either to the other Governments pro rata, or, if they do not require it, to others.

The value of Nauru lies almost wholly in the enormous quantity of phosphate it contains. Possession of from 80,000,000 tons to 100,000,000 tons of highest-grade (85 to 86 per cent.) phosphate makes Nauru the richest and best of the known phosphate islands of the world. The yearly output is approximately 150,000 tons.

The richness of the deposits may be seen from the following analysis of samples:—

“The composition of the phosphate of the Pinnacles is 84.1 per cent. of tricalcic phosphate. A sample taken 22 ft. deep, under high-grade phosphate, gave 85.05 per cent. A phosphate boulder obtained from a big deposit, 16 ft. deep, gave 87.9 per cent. Another boulder from a depth of 8 ft. gave 88.7 per cent. A phosphate boulder from 10 ft. in the interior of the island gave 86.9 per cent. A hard phosphate from a selected pure boulder field, 12 ft. deep, covered with white chalk-like matter, gave 90.1 per cent.

“Nauru phosphate is better than any other phosphate for making superphosphate. Christmas Island comes near, and Ocean, Anguar, and Makatea phosphates are satisfactory. Nauru phosphate works very satisfactorily as regards the consumption of sulphuric acid in making super. At first the superphosphate is very susceptible to pressure, running together into hard lumps. The amount of acid consumed is comparatively small. The chemical change in the mixer and chamber takes place quickly and completely, so that a 19 to 19 1/2 per cent. superphosphate from an 84 to 86 per cent. phosphate, and a 20 to 20.8 per cent. superphosphate from an 86 to 86.5 per cent. phosphate are obtained. It has to be borne in mind that these phosphates contain more calcium than is represented by Ca3(PO4)2, and for this plus lime account must be taken in apportioning the amount of acid required.”

DESCRIPTIVE.

Nauru, which is encircled by a road ten miles long, has an area of only 5,000 to 6,000 acres. The island is surrounded by a wide reef. Near the coast is a belt of flat land covered with coconut-trees, of an area of about 1,400 acres. Behind this rises higher land covering some 4,250 acres, and enclosing a lagoon of almost fresh water. This higher country consists of a mass of phosphate of great richness.

There are some 1,200 Native inhabitants, who speak a language akin to that of the Gilbert-Islanders. Most of the workmen employed are Caroline-Islanders and Chinese. Nauru possesses a wireless station.

Chapter 36. SECTION XXXVI.—STATISTICAL SUMMARY.

I.—POPULATION.
Year.Population (exclusive of Maoris and for Annexed
Pacific Islands) on 31st December.
Births.Deaths.Marriages.
Males.Females.Totals.
185520,78116,41137,1921,460470406
186045,39434,31779,7113,1461,092690
1865117,37673,231190,6077,4902,7571,908
1870145,732102,668248,40010,2772,7031,851
1875213,294162,562375,85614,4385,7123,209
1880268,364216,500484,86419,3415,4373,181
1885312,125263,101575,22619,6936,0813,813
1890332,557292,951625,50818,2785,9943,797
1895369,725328,981698,70618,5466,8634,110
1900403,628364,650768,27819,5467,2005,860
1905467,366415,096882,46223,6828,0617,200
1910529,928472,7511,002,67925,9849.6398,236
1911539,729485,6771,025,40626,3549,5348,825
1912553,212499,4151,052,62727,5089,2149,149
1913569,109515,5531,084,66227,93510,1198,813
1914568,161527,8331,095,99428,33810,1489,280
1915563,963538,8311,102,79427,8509,96510,028
1916549,895550,6681,100,56328,50910,5968,213
1917537,360560,3121,097,67228,23910,5286,417
1918542,046566,3271,108,37325,86016,3646,227
1919601,888575,5171,177,40524,48310,8089,519
1920617,756590,0791,207,83529,92112,10912,175
II.—PRODUCTION.
Year.Occupied and
Cultivated
Holdings over
One Acre
in Extent.
Land (including
Sown Grasses)
under Cultivation.
Live-stock.Coal-mines,
Output
from.
Horses.Horned
Cattle.
Sheep.Pigs.
* Prior to 1878, 709,931 tons.
 Number.Acres.       Tons.   
187110,2111,140,27981,028436,5929,700,629151,460*
187415,8831,651,71299,859494,91711,704,853123,921*
187820,5193,523,277137,768578,43013,069,338207,337162,218
188124,1474,768,192161,736698,63712,190,215200,083337,262
188631,7636,668,920187,382853,35815,174,263277,901534,353
189138,0838,462,495211,040788,91916,753,752222,553668,794
1896..     10,698,869237,4181,047,90119,138,493239,778792,851
190162,78612,636,035266,2451,256,68020,233,099250,9751,227,638
190669,94214,114,925326,5371,810,93620,108,471249,7271,729,536
191173,87616,154,218404,2842,020,17123,996,126348,7542,066,073
1912..     ..     ..     ..     23,750,153..     2,177,615
1913..     ..     ..     ..     24,191,810..     1,888,005
1914..     ..     ..     ..     24,798,763..     2,275,593
1915..     ..     ..     ..     24,901,421..     2,208,624
191677,22916,984,174371,3312,417,49124,788,150297,5012,257,135
191779,53617,064,797373,6002,575,23025,270,386283,7702,068,419
191880,14617,386,160378,0502,869,46526,538,302258,6942,034,250
191980,46817,613,337363,1883,035,47825,828,554235,3471,847,848
192081,59218,004,776346,4073,101,94523,914,506266,8291,843,705
III.—TRADE.
Year.Exports (the Produce of New Zealand).
Wool.Grain.Frozen Meat.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 lb.       £       Centals.£       Cwt.     £       
18551,772,34493,10479,20682,302..       ..       
18606,665,880444,39225,28513,112..       ..       
186519,180,5001,141,76111,1126,076..       ..       
187037,039,7631,703,944431,050141,135..       ..       
187554,401,5403,398,155629,634231,458..       ..       
188066,860,1503,169,3002,907,934906,228..       ..       
188586,507,4313,205,2752,158,604513,937296,473373,857
1890102,817,0774,150,5994,327,7531,030,415898,8941,087,617
1895116,015,1703,662,1311,011,052215,9711,134,0971,262,711
1900140,706,4864,749,1964,485,1551,034,0141,844,8312,123,881
1905139,912,7375,381,3331,149,368294,5741,690,6842,694,432
1910204,368,9578,308,4101,097,952319,0732,654,1963,850,777
1911169,424,8116,491,7071,033,170330,1862,250,5653,503,406
1912188,361,7907,105,4832,348,673741,6002,573,2383,909,569
1913186,533,0368,057,620341,981131,9382,578,6934,449,933
1914220,472,8989,318,114750,904270,0113,229,9695,863,062
1915196,570,11410,387,875405,865215,4633,591,2607,794,395
1916185,506,85912,386,074180,58686,9853,326,0457,271,318
1917178,274,48612,175,36671,04874,6062,446,9455,982,404
1918108,724,5757,527,26656,81973,0882,036,9044,957,576
1919274,246,61319,559,537313,823355,0073,822,6839,628,292
1920162,327,17611,863,827209,595205,7184,628,28211,673,696
Year.Exports (the Produce of New Zealand).
Butter.Cheese.Phormium Fibre.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
* Not available.
 Cwt.£     Cwt.£     Tons.£     
18557855,7864062,1631504,674
18601,0266,6238103,535611,240
1865****375
18703,43512,9952,7359,3275,471132,578
18751046604421,86263911,742
18802,7178,3507171,98389415,617
188524,923102,38715,24535,7421,06316,316
189034,816122,70140,45184,98621,158381,789
189557,964227,60176,743150,9091,80621,040
1900172,583740,620102,849229,11115,906332,182
1905305,7221,408,55788,562205,17127,877696,467
1910356,5351,811,975451,9151,195,37320,645448,414
1911302,3871,576,917439,1741,192,05717,366300,209
1912378,1172,088,809577,0701,680,39318,641376,264
1913372,2582,061,651611,6631,770,29728,092721,924
1914434,0672,338,576863,7762,564,12519,702455,214
1915420,1442,700,625817,2582,730,21123,220571,621
1916358,6322,632,293949,4163,514,31027,6741,001,725
1917254,3972,031,551885,7433,949,25123,5161,197,396
1918431,0233,402,223883,4304,087,27825,1671,387,763
1919345,8183,080,1281,572,3117,790,99022,347866,930
1920312,0093,022,3351,222,0506,160,84018,949647,545
Year.Exports (the Produce of New Zealand).
Gold.Gum (Kauri).Provisions, Tallow,
Timber, &c.
Total
New Zealand
Produce
exported.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Value.
 Oz.   £      Tons.£      £      £      
1855..      ..      3554,514173,324365,867
18604,53817,5851,0469,85152,795549,133
1865574,5742,226,4741,86746,06082,7293,503,421
1870544,8802,157,5854,391175,074212,0444,544,682
1875355,3221,407,7703,230138,523285,6745,475,844
1880303,2151,220,2634,725242,817537,7426,102,300
1885222,732890,0565,876299,7621,154,5796,591,911
1890187,641751,3607,438378,5631,440,7319,428,761
1895293,4931,162,1817,425418,7661,268,8438,390,153
1900373,6141,439,60210,159622,2931,784,35013,055,249
1905520,4852,093,93610,883561,4442,167,61615,503,530
1910478,2861,896,3188,693465,0443,648,77921,944,163
1911454,8371,815,2517,587395,7073,176,45818,781,898
1912343,1631,345,1317,908401,3053,623,85121,272,405
1913376,1611,459,4998,780549,1063,375,92222,577,890
1914227,954895,3678,473497,4443,782,80425,984,717
1915422,8251,694,5534,575279,1334,668,98631,042,862
1916292,6201,199,2125,456339,8824,544,10832,975,907
1917218,624903,8884,594291,9174,481,57831,087,957
191811,98742,3912,419157,3136,302,11227,937,010
1919320,2101,334,4054,128255,81210,433,28353,304,384
1920212,973883,7486,481556,75610,577,82945,592,294
Year.Total Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
Total.From United
Kingdom.
From
Australia.
From United
States.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      
1855365,868813,400328,909..      ..      1,179,328
1860588,9531,548,333870,569649,47318,4742,137,286
18653,401,6675,594,9772,606,9942,565,28545,0848,996,644
18704,822,7564,639,0152,685,7361,655,08660,4979,461,771
18755,828,6278,029,1725,103,6102,355,988213,49213,857,799
18806,352,6926,162,0113,479,2171,930,408238,01112,514,703
18856,819,9397,479,9215,227,5511,254,908401,53214,299,860
18909,811,7206,260,5254,221,2701,087,593355,39516,072,245
18958,550,2246,400,1293,992,3591,261,125394,23314,950,353
190013,246,16110,646,0966,504,4841,776,9731,061,87323,892,257
190515,655,94712,828,8577,795,2841,815,7171,438,50128,484,804
191022,180,20917,051,58310,498,7712,359,3931,399,73739,231,792
191119,028,49019,545,87911,787,3002,944,9911,682,12938,574,369
191221,770,58120,976,57412,499,7872,583,8872,049,61842,747,155
191322,986,72222,288,30213,312,1932,914,8482,107,99045,275,024
191426,261,44721,856,09511,985,9463,376,3712,282,96648,117,542
191531,748,91221,728,83411,141,0673,554,5352,600,24853,477,746
191633,286,93726,339,28313,869,4554,002,1713,969,92559,626,220
191731,587,54720,919,2658,817,5193,660,9313,900,65851,602,418
191828,516,18824,234,0078,977,7255,133,3494,980,74852,707,441
191953,970,07530,671,69811,839,4305,081,9687,576,31484,641,773
192046,441,94661,595,82829,806,41610,555,66711,100,259108,037,774
IV.—TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION.
Year.Oversea Shipping.
Inwards.Outwards.Registered
Vessels
belonging to
New Zealand.
Vessels.Tonnage.Vessels.Tonnage.Gross
Tonnage.
185537888,61434179,825..      
1860398140,276398140,2938,527
1865862295,625783283,02024,484
1870756273,151766265,40726,743
1875926416,727940417,82042,025
1880730395,675786424,04166,316
1885786519,700780513,00095,887
1890744662,769745649,70598,907
1895611672,951597648,946100,988
1900616854,632613825,275137,767
19056271,139,4106271,141,552170,957
19106091,389,0315881,367,207233,531
19116211,482,3786241,467,402234,084
19126771,672,0926661,668,630245,445
19136451,738,9856351,699,807254,117
19146461,724,8496571,781,981168,552
19156381,641,4256491,635,933150,095
19165741,448,5175901,491,593148,497
19175431,405,7765471,381,882140,039
19185431,279,5485441,310,627141,751
19195641,480,8835741,505,256140,615
19207442,062,3707071,976,255139,945
Year.Government Railways.
(Figures to 31st March following).
Electric Telegraph.
(From 1895, figures for 31st March following).
Miles open
for Traffic.
Miles under
Construction.
Railway
Receipts.
Miles
of Line.
Number of
Messages.
Cash and
Cash Values,
including
Telephones.
   £        £      
1870..   ..   ..      1,887238,19527,422
187554246472,0733,156993,32374,420
18801,288192836,0773,7581,304,712100,023
18851,6131791,047,4184,4631,774,273112,778
18901,8421321,121,7015,0601,961,161110,697
18952,0141141,183,0416,2452,124,211148,955
19002,2122081,727,2367,2493,898,128222,305
19052,4072222,349,7048,3555,640,219298,079
19102,7531923,494,18211,3168,360,647438,989
19112,7982053,676,50911,8059,063,133479,289
19122,8511923,971,00212,5089,944,272528,119
19132,8542234,043,32813,04410,694,032579,816
19142,9452114,105,45713,43410,827,968665,938
19152,9702434,548,35613,68410,836,751846,259
19162,9702434,800,81013,89610,875,120855,298
19172,9832314,687,70013,68711,624,720868,182
19182,9832504,988,63213,81312,091,017993,991
19192,9962615,752,48713,72215,074,0671,044,336
19203,0092926,908,53113,72414,000,8511,244,799
V.—FINANCE.
Year.Revenue of
General
Government.*
Expenditure of
General Government*
Public Debt:
Debentures and
Stock in Circulation.
Debt of
Local Bodies,
Year ended
31st March
following.
Out of
Revenue
Account.
Out of Loan
Accounts.
 £       £       £       £       £       
1870..       ..       ..       7,841,891..       
1875..       ..       ..       17,400,031..       
1880..       ..       ..       28,185,7113,039,807
1885..       ..       ..       33,880,7224,943,270
1890..       ..       ..       38,830,3506,042,693
18954,556,0154,370,481..       43,050,7806,737,578
19005,854,1165,479,7041,746,14149,591,2457,563,069
19057,585,0987,122,3402,972,58962,191,04010,718,051
191010,297,2739,343,1063,359,31181,078,12215,727,613
191111,061,16110,340,3684,114,53984,353,91316,590,877
191211,734,27111,082,0384,097,16090,060,76317,483,332
191312,229,66111,825,8644,240,89699,730,42718,923,482
191412,451,94512,379,8036,059,983100,059,91019,454,475
191514,507,53012,493,1079,459,071109,637,39720,754,168
191618,355,19414,058,77017,509,017129,836,10521,432,767
191720,206,22215,120,28819,726,163150,840,05522,260,537
191822,352,37218,673,59925,075,656176,076,26022,673,712
191926,081,34023,781,92430,332,224201,170,75524,608,293
192034,260,96228,128,73019,027,319206,324,319..       
Year.Banks of Issue.
(Average of Four Quarters).
Savings-banks
(Post Office and Private).
Post Office
Money-orders issued.
Deposits.Assets.Liabilities.Number of
Depositors.
Balance to
Credit at
End of Year.
Number.Amount.

* Financial year ended 31st March of year following.

† Calendar years prior to 1880; after 1880, for year ended 31st March of year following.

‡ Post Office figures relate to the fifteen months ended March, 1921.

 £       £       £        £        £       
1860644,521992,082801,5881,10412,450..       ..       
18652,638,4145,455,2893,522,1464,30487,40017,23678,576
18703,127,7696,315,3543,819,67012,137388,80431,864140,454
18755,967,20510,987,1786,987,31830,310897,32673,027293,481
18808,538,93514,220,2759,550,17747,4621,148,992135,648465,405
188510,083,29618,811,56711,130,24485,7692,142,560188,622581,395
189012,368,61017,735,25913,356,598118,3443,137,023176,427602,077
189513,544,41518,159,78114,491,627163,5134,620,696243,497812,604
190015,570,61017,314,53516,964,582228,8836,665,344369,8341,214,853
190520,545,60121,770,52522,144,166316,3769,773,954417,4411,541,712
191024,968,76126,398,92726,742,081432,11916,620,515569,6572,457,523
191126,765,12229,433,61428,625,803459,60217,194,461607,7642,759,393
191225,622,08331,196,40027,508,348503,92718,043,540666,4253,231,350
191325,733,18730,708,93227,591,099532,68218,923,522690,7453,357,774
191427,640,50732,502,31229,808,349559,20320,924,754691,5183,427,505
191531,433,65333,209,48334,448,270587,10924,238,966664,8603,471,818
191637,757,91737,015,48641,977,619619,97228,015,674669,3553,607,087
191742,930,71344,979,61648,541,961651,53231,917,099642,6833,476,646
191845,562,93948,570,12652,048,732679,39836,529,654638,5003,649,371
191950,489,44448,615,20957,861,393726,25541,951,026690,2914,604,059
192059,405,34156,111,43367,818,469765,16247,193,113699,6745,276,776
Year.Insurances in Force
in the Government
Life Insurance Department
at End of Year.
Old-age Pensions,
31st March of
following Year.
Friendly Societies
from which
Returns received.
Public Trust Office.
Number of
Policies.
Sums Assured
and Bonuses.
Number of
Pensions
in Force.
Amount
represented.
Number of
Lodges, &c.
Number of
Members.
Number of
Estates
administered.*
Value of
Estates
administered.*

* From 1895 on, the figures are for year ended 31st March following.

† Information not available.

  £        £          £       
18705930,250..       ..       ..       ..       ..        
18754,9891,836,859..       ..       ..       ..       34742,163
188011,6564,171,504..       ..       17914,484770117,980
188523,2186,552,242..       ..       30222,7941,190457,620
189028,1027,807,792..       ..       35726,3791,6781,240,097
189533,9689,345,229..       ..       37630,9052,2361,806,953
190040,36810,639,97812,405211,96544340,2572,8982,326,954
190545,13711,725,97712,582313,01850151,1033,9774,009,992
191048,93212,586,79816,020403,02060968,0065,9665,477,675
191149,37612,683,27716,649416,53065871,7716,4565,951,233
191250,45813,271,69916,509412,40866473,2437,2256,782,532
191351,34313,539,46718,050447,76568173,6917,5387,288,447
191452,27313,797,07519,352475,97071774,0748,0267,942,158
191552,95014,220,94519,804484,23272873,0278,7348,217,500
191653,20814,259,37219,697480,55972770,360
191753,05814,188,77419,960740,84973068,77113,74610,358,685
191853,80314,770,54319,872731,91073167,52715,22312,807,214
191955,77015,546,74419,993731,73573570,59814,67914,330,980
192057,32116,259,31019,837737,37873274,21010,17512,752,889
VI.—EDUCATION.
Year.Scholars at
Primary Schools.*
Scholars at
Secondary or
High Schools.
Scholars at
Private Schools.
New Zealand
University Graduates
(Direct Degrees).

* Excluding children attending Native schools and industrial schools.

† Including in later years secondary pupils attending technical high schools (2,766 in 1920), but excluding secondary departments of district high schools.

‡ Registered schools only.

187545,562..     7,316..     
188082,4011,63111,238..     
1885102,4072,65911,989103
1890117,9122,11713,626230
1895129,8562,52514,659464
1900130,7242,79215,555699
1905137,6234,06016,639992
1910156,3247,97018,9811,424
1911161,6486,80619,8681,515
1912166,2647,35720,2381,631
1913172,1687,81521,1151,758
1914178,5098,25722,0801,880
1915183,2148,86022,3392,002
1916185,8849,43823,4122,108
1917190,3549,99525,4912,226
1918194,93410,66726,2372,317
1919196,05911,99420,9772,473
1920199,80211,96222,1932,697

Chapter 37. APPENDICES.

(a.) LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION.

 Males.Females.Total.   
POPULATION:—
       Census of April, 1921623,243595,6701,218,913
       Estimated (exclusive of Maoris and residents of Cook and other Pacific islands) at 31st December, 1921633,054606,9261,239,980
       Maoris, census 192127,90824,84352,751
       Cook and other Pacific islands, census 19216,6926,51713,209
MIGRATION:—
       Arrivals, year 192173,602
       Departures, year 192163,581
VITAL STATISTICS:—
       Births, year 192114,57713,99228,569
       Deaths, year 19216,1014,58310,684
       Marriages, year 192110,635
       Rates: Births, 23.34; deaths, 8.73; marriages, 8.69.
LAW AND CRIME:—
       Cases tried in Magistrates' Courts, year 1921: Number, 39,006; amount recovered, £654,820.
       Summary convictions in Magistrates' Courts, year 1921: 37,123.
EXPORTS:—
       Total for year 1921£44,828,416
 Quantity.Value.
£       
* Estimated—actuarially computed.
       Principal items (N.Z. produce)—
               Buttercwt.898,47811,169,530
               Cheesecwt.1,368,7868,199,183
               Beef, frozencwt.898,8011,748,393
               Mutton, whole carcases, frozencwt.2,084,0524,581,059
               Lamb, whole carcases, frozencwt.1,253,8704,631,057
               Mutton and lamb joints, frozencwt.18,74345,848
               Woollb.158,714,8285,221,479
               HidesNumber329,113429,848
               Sheep-skins, without woollb.23,357,709955,592
               Tallowton27,712867,298
               Goldoz.149,595612,168
               Phormium fibreton9,643293,775
               Timber, sawnsup. ft.45,715,146503,895
               Kauri-gumton3,901367,197
IMPORTS:—
       Total for year 1921  42,942,443
       Principal imports—
               Apparel  1,425,416
               Carpeting, matting, and oilcloth  629,509
               Coal  1,321,040
               Glass and glassware  507,224
               Hardware n.o.e.  837,102
               Iron pipes and fittings  664,796
               Machinery, electric  1,470,898
               Oils in bulk—
                       Benzine  460,365
                       Benzolene, gasolene, &c.  1,580,867
               Printing-paper  593,038
               Railway and tramway plant n.o.e.  965,954
               Whisky  686,160
               Sugar  2,066,683
               Textile piece-goods  3,863,084
               Timber, sawn and hewn  636,897
               Tires, rubber (for motor vehicles)  715,306
               Tobacco  1,048,633
               Vehicles, motor  1,210,506
SHIPPING (OVERSEAS):—
       Tonnage entered, year 1921  1,940,236
       Tonnage cleared, year 1921  1,944,341
PENSIONS:—
 NumberAnnual Value £
       Old-age, January, 1922 20,272755,127
       Widows', January, 1922 3,364195,112
       Military, January, 1922 75036,750
       War, January, 1922 29,7001,633,500
       Miners', January, 1922 49931,437
       Epidemic, January, 1922 74361,669
RAILWAYS:—
       Receipts, forty weeks ended 7th January, 1922  5,021,009
       Expenditure, forty weeks ended 7th January, 1922  4,872,226
POSTAL:—Number.
       Telegrams transmitted, year 1921  12,897,729
AGRICULTURE:—
       Areas sown or intended to be sown, season 1921-22—  
               Wheat (acres)  363,000
               Oats (acres)  470,000
               Estimated yield of wheat, harvest of 1922 (bushels)  10,500,000
  Number.Amount.£       
MORTGAGES:—
       Registered, ten months ended January, 1922 34,97730,574,999
       Discharged, ten months ended January, 192217,90411,511,946 
STATE ADVANCES (LOANS AUTHORIZED):—
       To settlers, nine months ended December, 1921 1,236617,680
       To workers, nine months ended December, 1921 773344,420
       To local authorities, nine months ended December, 1921 214628,105
BANKS:—
       Liabilities (average of four quarters, 1921)  58,808,439
       Assets (average of four quarters, 1921)  68,701,282
POST OFFICE SAVINGS -BANK:—
       Deposits during nine months ended December, 1921  6,897,019
       Withdrawals during nine months ended December, 1921  7,436,040
CONSOLIDATED FUND:—
       Revenue, nine months ended December, 1921  16,305,526
       Expenditure, nine months ended December, 1921  11,917,732
LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES:—
 Gross.   £       Net.   £       
   Indebtedness, 31st March, 1921—
       Debentures and stock 26,186,96023,230,084
       Loans from State Advances Office 3,852,4653,492,374
       Loans from Treasury (inscribed debt) 2,425,6231,415,567*
                         Total 32,465,04828,138,025
RETAIL PRICES, THREE FOOD GROUPS:—
       Dominion index number (taking average of four chief centres, 1909-13, as base = 1000), January, 1922  1573
       Increase per cent. as compared with July, 1914  47.01

CENSUS 1921.—POPULATION FIGURES.

(NOTE.—Figures are exclusive of Maoris).

URBAN AREAS.
Urban Area.Population
Auckland.
     Auckland City81,712
     Birkenhead Borough2,507
     Northcote Borough2,040
     Takapuna Borough3,910
     Devonport Borough8,761
     Newmarket Borough3,083
     Mount Eden Borough14,635
     Mount Albert Borough11,345
     Onehunga Borough7,073
     Otahuhu Borough2,813
     New Lynn Town District1,386
     Elleslie Town District1,615
     Remainder of urban area16,877
               Total157,757
Wellington.
Wellington City88,920
     Petone Borough7,978
     Lower Hutt Borough5,730
     Eastbourne Borough1,416
     Johnsonville Town District1,013
     Remainder of urban area2,431
               Total107,488
Christchurch.
Christchurch City67,291
     Riccarton Borough3,250
     Woolston Borough4,208
     New Brighton Borough3,864
     Sumner Borough2,971
     Lyttelton Borough3,779
     Remainder of urban area20,307
               Total105,670
Dunedin.
Dunedin City58,074
     St. Kilda Borough6,084
     Green Island Borough1,962
     West Harbour Borough1,696
     Port Chalmers Borough2,594
     Remainder of urban area1,845
               Total72,255
Gisborne.
Gisborne Borough10,931
     Mangapapa Town District1,401
     Remainder of urban area2,118
               Total14,450
Hamilton.
Hamilton Borough11,441
     Remainder of urban area2,357
               Total13,798
Napier.
Napier Borough14,346
     Taradale Town District1,007
     Remainder of urban area1,834
               Total17,187
Hastings.
Hastings Borough9,115
     Havelock North Town District1,174
     Remainder of urban area2,701
               Total12,990
New Plymouth.
New Plymouth Borough11,395
     Remainder of urban area1,250
               Total12,645
Wanganui.
Wanganui Borough16,490
     Gonville Town District3,312
     Castlecliff Town District1,629
     Remainder of urban area2,092
               Total23,523
Palmerston North.
Palmerston North Borough15,649
     Remainder of urban area1,236
               Total16,885
Nelson.
Nelson City9,285
     Tahunanui Town District472
     Remainder of urban area875
               Total10,632
Grey Valley Boroughs.
Greymouth Borough4,986
     Runanga Borough1,233
     Brunner Borough527
     Cobden Town District1,078
     Remainder of urban area542
               Total8,366
Timaru.
Timaru Borough14,058
     Remainder of urban area1,449
               Total15,507
Invercargill.
Invercargill Borough15,203
     South Invercargill Borough1,833
     Remainder of urban area2,174
               Total19,210

COUNTIES.

NOTE.—The column headed “Administrative” does not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but includes dependent town districts. The heading “Geographic” includes all cities, boroughs, or town districts geographically situated in a county.

County.Administrative.Geographic.
Mongonui3,8923,892
Whangaroa895895
Hokianga2,8142,814
Bay of Islands4,2884,288
Whangarei8,93813,791
Hobson4,8066,860
Otamatea3,7603,760
Rodney3,3743,797
Waitemata9,02528,530
Eden14,258133,721
Great Barrier233233
Manukau5,98111,825
Franklin9,50512,619
Raglan4,7374,737
Waikato7,90423,144
Waipa7,80610,449
Kawhia1,0341,034
Awakino779779
Waitomo6,3558,602
Ohura2,7822,782
West Taupo3,0725,216
Matamata4,9825,797
Piako6,0959,531
Ohinemuri2,6438,245
Thames1,7806,545
Hauraki Plains3,3603,360
Coromandel2,1282,128
Tauranga4,6327,725
Rotorua1,9175,789
East Taupo770770
Whakatane.3,0574,764
Opotiki2,0793,219
Matakaoa677677
Waiapu1,7361,736
Waikohu3,2953,295
Cook6,13318,465
Uawa949949
Wairoa2,4464,367
Hawke's Bay11,24536,887
Waipawa3,2624,381
Waipukurau9942,375
Patangata2,1022,102
Dannivirke4,6378,532
Woodville1,8693,019
Weber432432
Clifton2,1362,136
Taranaki4,94317,904
Inglewood3,1364,320
Egmont3,2273,227
Stratford5,1868,271
Whangamomona1,3221,322
Eltham3,5295,551
Waimate West2,3532,998
Hawera5,3439,492
Patea3,2435,051
Waitotara2,77724,208
Kaitieke3,0023,845
Waimarino3,2716,101
Wanganui2,6362,636
Rangitikei8,14414,339
Kiwitea2,4382,438
Pohangina1,3411,341
Oroua3,6028,112
Manawatu4,4376,123
Horowhenua5,3979,464
Kairanga4,69320,342
Pahiatua3,0864,426
Akitio1,2221,222
Eketahuna2,1753,050
Mauriceville832832
Masterton2,91610,736
Castlepoint562562
Wairarapa South3,0134,683
Featherston3,5096,725
Hutt6,65323,429
Makara3,14093,073
Sounds1,0001,000
Marlborough7,31813,025
Awatere1,6711,671
Kaikoura2,1602,160
Waimea9,27321,540
Takaka1,9471,947
Collingwood1,1111,111
Buller5,4009,202
Murchison1,3681,368
Inangahua3,4473,447
Grey5,21011,956
Westland4,1527,338
Amuri2,1042,104
Cheviot1,2291,229
Waipara2,3242,324
Kowai1,9941,994
Ashley773773
Rangiora3,0215,024
Eyre1,9183,611
Oxford1,7641,764
Tawera901901
Malvern2,9332,933
Paparua5,0875,087
Waimairi13,52416,774
Heathcote4,25086,363
Halswell1,7451,745
Mount Herbert437437
Akaroa1,7682,387
Chatham Islands210210
Wairewa1,0111,011
Springs1,8251,825
Ellesmere3,8173,817
Selwyn1,5411,541
Ashburton11,73217,226
Geraldine5,6548,363
Levels5,12719,739
Mackenzie3,1143,114
Waimate7,3389,438
Waitaki10,37216,435
Waihemo1,4172,225
Waikouaiti4,1799,05
Peninsula1,7831,783
Taieri5,71573,597
Bruce4,7707,854
Clutha7,2408,725
Tuapeka4,9386,346
Maniototo2,5922,821
Vincent3,8165,114
Lake1,6322,700
Southland25,04550,433
Wallace8,92511,031
Fiord1212
Stewart Island397397
BOROUGHS.
Borough.Population.
Whangarei4,015
Dargaville2,054
Birkenhead2,507
Northcote2,040
Takapuna3,910
Devonport8,761
Auckland81,712
Newmarket3,083
Mount Eden14,635
Mount Albert11,345
Onehunga7,073
Otahuhu2,813
Pukekohe1,891
Ngaruawahia1,120
Cambridge2,065
Hamilton11,441
Te Awamutu1,523
Morrinsville1,327
Te Kuiti2,247
Taumarunui2,144
Te Aroha2,109
Paeroa1,645
Waihi3,957
Thames4,765
Tauranga2,241
Rotorua3,872
Whakatane1,707
Opotiki1,140
Gisborne10,931
Wairoa1,921
Napier14,346
Hastings9,115
Waipawa1,119
Waipukurau1,381
Dannevirke3,895
Woodville1,150
Waitara1,566
New Plymouth11,395
Inglewood1,184
Stratford3,085
Eltham2,022
Hawera4,149
Patea1,168
Wanganui16,490
Ohakune1,535
Taihape2,099
Marton2,602
Feilding4,510
Foxton1,686
Palmerston North15,649
Shannon1,013
Levin1,979
Otaki1,075
Pahiatua1,340
Eketahuna875
Masterton7,820
Carterton1,670
Greytown1,217
Featherston1,067
Lower Hutt5,730
Petone7,978
Eastbourne1,416
Wellington88,920
Picton1,362
Blenheim4,345
Nelson9,285
Richmond1,026
Motueka1,484
Westport3,802
Brunner527
Runanga1,233
Greymouth4,986
Kumara507
Hokitika2,215
Ross464
Rangiora2,003
Kaiapoi1,693
Christchurch67,291
Riccarton3,250
Woolston4,208
New Brighton3,864
Sumner2,971
Lyttelton3,779
Akaroa619
Ashburton4,825
Geraldine956
Temuka1,753
Timaru14,058
Waimate2,100
Oamaru5,729
Hampden334
Palmerston808
Waikouaiti582
Port Chalmers2,594
West Harbour1,696
Dunedin58,074
St. Kilda6,085
Green Island1,962
Mosgiel1,762
Milton1,363
Kaitangata1,721
Balclutha1,485
Tapanui308
Lawrence703
Roxburgh397
Naseby229
Alexandra687
Cromwell611
Arrowtown317
Queenstown751
Gore3,679
Mataura1,170
Winton612
Invercargill15,203
Invercargill South1,833
Bluff1,601
Riverton847
TOWN DISTRICTS.
Town District.Population.
(a.) Town Districts not forming Parts of Counties.
Hikurangi838
Warkworth423
Helensville901
New Lynn1,386
Ellerslie1,615
Papatoetoe1,171
Manurewa751
Papakura1,109
Waiuku730
Tuakau493
Huntly1,734
Matamata815
Te Puke852
Mangapapa1,401
Taradale1,007
Havelock North1,174
Manaia645
Waverley640
Castlecliff1,629
Gonviile3,312
Manunui843
Raetihi848
Rangataua447
Mangaweka361
Hunterville628
Bull's505
Martinborough932
Upper Hutt1,652
Johnsonville1,013
Tahunanui472
Tinwald669
Pleasant Point554
Lumsden597
Wyndham693
Otautau736
Nightcaps523
(b.) Town Districts forming Parts of Counties.
Kohukohu331
Kaikohe346
Kawakawa374
Kamo440
Onerahi342
Mercer327
Raglan291
Leamington465
Ohaupo267
Kihikihi273
Kawhia196
Otorohanga516
Ohura203
Patutahi301
Te Karaka329
Otane356
Norsewood162
Ormondville337
Opunake503
Kaponga400
Normanby368
Lethbridge264
Rongotea295
Havelock265
Takaka421
Cobden1,078
Amberley344
Southbridge418
Outram344
Clinton437
Edendale390

(b.) STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.

The statistical information contained in the Year-book is necessarily of a condensed character, owing to the wide range of subjects covered. The annual volumes of Statistics of New Zealand (at present four in number) contain much more detailed statistical information on the following subjects:—

Population.Trade.
Migration.Shipping.
Births.Manufacturing production.
Marriages.Agricultural and pastoral production.
Deaths.Public finance.
Morbidity.Banking.
Meteorology.Insurance (fire, life, and accident).
Criminal cases in Courts.Bankruptcy.
Civil business in Courts.Valuation.
Prisons and prisoners.Local governing bodies.
Divorce.Building societies.
Inquests. 

In addition, detailed information as to the distribution and characteristics of the population is contained in the volumes of Census Statistics published after each quinquennial census: the biennially published Municipal Handbook of New Zealand contains further information (statistical and general) concerning each borough, town district, and harbour district in the Dominion; and full information on the subject of retail and wholesale prices is given in the Report on Prices, 1891-1919, published by the Census and Statistics Office in 1920. The Monthly Abstract of Statistics contains the latest statistical information available on a variety of subjects, giving monthly or quarterly figures in most cases.

In addition to the publications of the Census and Statistics Office, many parliamentary reports contain statistical information, often of a detailed nature. The full list cannot be given here, but the principal of these annual reports are mentioned below, arranged in the order of subjects followed in the Year-book:—

Subject.Report.
Number.Title.
Public health, hospitals, &c.H.-31Report on Public Health, Hospitals, and Charitable Aid.
H.-7Report of Inspector-General of Mental Hospitals.
EducationE.—1Report of Minister of Education.
E.-2Report on Primary Education.
E.-3Report on Education of Native Children.
E.-4Report on State Care of Children, Special Schools, and Infant-life Protection.
E.-5Report on Technical Education.
E.-6Report on Secondary Education.
E.-7Report on Higher Education.
JusticeH.-16Report of Commissioner of Police.
H.-20Prisons Report.
H.-20AReport of Prisons Board.
DefenceH.-19Report of General Officer Commanding Defence Forces.
ShippingH.-15Report of Marine and Inspection of Machinery Department.
RailwaysD.-2Railways Statement.
D.-1Public Works Statement.
Postal and telegraphicF.-1Report of Post and Telegraph Department.
LandsH.-3Report of Land Transfer and Deeds Registration Department.
Crown landsC.-1Report on Settlement of Crown Lands.
C.-5Report on Land for Settlements Act.
C-9Report on Discharged Soldiers' Settlement.
Native landsG.-9Report on Native Land Courts, Maori Land Boards, and Native Land Purchase Board.
Agricultural and pastoral productionH.-29Report of Department of Agriculture.
H.-23Sheep Returns.
ForestryC.-3Report of State Forest Service.
FisheriesH.-15Report of Marine and Inspection of Machinery Department.
H.-22Report of Internal Affairs Department.
MiningC.-2Mines Statement.
C.-2AReport on State Coal-mines.
Water-powerD.-1Public Works Statement.
Public financeB.-1Public Accounts.
B.-6Financial Statement.
D.-1Public Works Statement.
State aid to settlers, workers, &c.B.-13Report of State Advances Office.
H.-11AReport of Housing Superintendent.
H.-30Report of Repatriation Department.
PensionsH.-18Report of Pensions Department.
SuperannuationH.-26Report of Public Service Superannuation Board.
E.-9Report on Teachers' Superannuation Fund.
D.-5Report on Government Railways Superannuation Fund.
National Provident FundH.-17Report of National Provident Fund Board.
BankingF.-4Report on Post Office Savings-bank.
Life insuranceH.-8Report of Government Insurance Commissioner.
Accident insuranceH.-8AReport on Accident Insurance Branch of Government Insurance Department.
Fire insuranceH.-6Report of General Manager of State Fire Insurance Office.
Friendly societiesH.-1Report of Registrar of Friendly Societies.
Industrial disputesH.-11Report of Labour Department.
Islands attached to New ZealandA.-3Report on Cook and other Islands.
Public Trust OfficeB.-9Report of the Public Trust Office.
B.-9AAccounts of the Public Trust Office.
Patents, designs, and trademarksH.-10Report of Registrar of Patents.
Inspection of machineryH.-15Report of Marine and Inspection of Machinery Department.

(c.) BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS ON NEW ZEALAND.

The following list contains the names of some of the principal works dealing with New Zealand, but it does not purport to be a complete list of all the important works on the Dominion. The year of publication is given in each case, and the list is arranged as far as possible in chronological order of issue.

1807. New Zealand. By Dr. Savage. London—J. Murray.

1817. Voyage to New Zealand. By John L. Nicholas. London—Black.

1823. Journal of Ten Months' Residence in New Zealand. By Captain Cruise. London—Longmans.

1830. The New-Zealanders (Library of Entertaining Knowledge). London—Chas. Knight.

1832. Nino Months' Residence in New Zealand. By Augustus Earle. London—Longmans.

1836. Two Visits to New Zealand. By Dr. Marshall. London—Nisbet and Co.

1840. Manners and Customs of the New-Zealanders. By J. S. Polack. London—Madden and Co.

1843. Travels in New Zealand. By E. Dieffenbach. London—Murray.

1855. Te-Ika-a-Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants. By Rev. Richard Taylor. London—Wertheim and Macintosh. (Second edition, enlarged, 1870.)

1856. Traditions and Superstitions of the New-Zealanders. By Edward Shorthand. London—Longmans.

1859. New Zealand and its Colonization. By William Swainson, formerly Attorney-General for New Zealand. London—Smith, Elder, and Co.

1859. Story of New Zealand. By Dr. Thompson. London—John Murray.

1863. Old New Zealand. By Judge Maning. Auckland—Creighton and Scales.

1864. The Maori King, or the Story of our Quarrel with the Natives of New Zealand. By J. E. Gorst, M.A. London—Macmillan and Co.

1874. Life of Henry Williams. By Hugh Carleton. Auckland—Upton.

1879. Reminiscences of the War in New Zealand. By T. W. Gudgeon. London—Sampson Low.

1879. George Augustus Selwyn. By Rev. H. W. Tucker. London—W. W. Gardner.

1885. Polynesian Mythology and Maori Legends. By Sir G. Grey.

1887. Mission Commerciale en Nouvelle-Zélande. Par Emile de Harven. Bruxelles—P. Weissenbruch.

1889. Ancient History of the Maori. By John White. London.

1890. Early History of New Zealand. By R. A. Sherrin and J. H. Wallace. Edited by Thomas W. Leys. (Brett's Historical Series.) Auckland—Brett.

1891. Storia della Nuova Zelanda (2 vols.). Per D. Felice Vaggioli. Parma—Vesc. Fiaccadori.

1893. Captain Cook's Journal during his First Voyage round the World. Edited by Captain W. J. L. Wharton, R. N. London—Elliot Stock.

1895. History of New Zealand. By G. W. Rusden. Melbourne—Melville, Mullen, and Slade.

1896. The Art Workmanship of the Maori Race in New Zealand. By Augustus Hamilton. Dunedin—Fergusson and Mitchell.

1896. Journal of Sir Joseph Banks. Edited by Sir Joseph D. Hooker. London—Macmillan and Co.

1897. New Zealand Rulers and Statesmen (1844-97). By W. Gisborne. London.

1898. Abel Janszoon Tasman's Journal of His Discovery of Van Diemen's Land and New Zealand in 1642, &c. By J. E. Heeres. Amsterdam—F. Mueller and Co.

1898. Contributions to the Early History of New Zealand. By T. M. Hocken, London.

1898. New Zealand (Story of the Empire Series). By W. P. Reeves. London—Marshall and Sons.

1900. Old Marlborough. By T. L. Buick. Palmerston North—Hart and Keeling.

1901. Newest England. By H. D. Lloyd. London.

1901. New Zealand. By R. A. Loughnan. Wellington.

1902. The Progress of New Zealand in the Century. By R. F. Irvine and O. T. J. Alpers. London.

1902. State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand. By W. P. Reeves. London—Grant Richards.

1902. The last Maori War in New Zealand. By Major-General Sir George S. Whitmore, K.C.M.G., M.L.C. London—Sampson, Low, Marston, and Co.

1903. Old Manawatu. By T. L. Buick. Palmerston North—Buick and Young.

1904. La Démocratie en Nouvelle Zélande. Paris, 1904. Translated by E. V. Burns, 1914. London.

1904. Wars of the Northern against the Southern Tribes of New Zealand in the Nineteenth Century. By S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited). (Second and enlarged edition in 1910.)

1904. La Nouvelle Zélande. Par Comte de Courte. Paris—Hachette et Cie.

1905. The Maori Race. By E. Tregear. Wanganui—A. D. Willis.

1905. The Animals of New Zealand. An Account of the Colony's Air-breathing Vertebrates. By Captain F. W. Hutton and James Drummond. Third Edition, 1907. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1906. Adrift in New Zealand. By E. W. Elkington. London.

1907. The Plants of New Zealand. By R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell. Second and Revised Edition. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1907. Maori and Polynesian. By J. M. Brown. London.

1907. Our Feathered Immigrants. Evidence for and against Introduced Birds in New Zealand, together with Notes on Native Avifauna. Illustrated. By J. Drummond. Wellington—Government Printer.

1908. State Regulation of Labour and Labour Disputes in New Zealand. By Henry Broadhead. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1908. New Zealand. By F. W. Wright and W. P. Reeves. London—Black.

1908. New Zealand. (Romance of Empire Series.) By Reginald Horsley. London—T. C. and E. C. Jack.

1908. Adventures in New Zealand. By E. J. Wakefield. New Edition. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1908. Bibliography of the Literature relating to New Zealand. By T. M. Hocken, Wellington.

1908. Historical Records of New Zealand. By the Hon. Dr. Robert McNab, Litt. D Wellington—Government Printer.

1908. New Zealand Revisited. By the Right Hon. Sir John Eldon Gorst. London—Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons (Limited).

1909. New Zealand in Evolution, Industrial, Economic, and Political. By G. H. Scholefield, with an introduction by W. P. Reeves. London—T. F. Unwin.

1909. Murihiku. A History of the South Island of New Zealand and the Islands Adjacent and Lying to the South, from 1642 to 1835. By the Hon. Dr. Robert McNab, Litt.D. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1909. The Dominion of New Zealand. By A. P. Douglas. London.

1910. The Maoris of New Zealand. By J. Cowan. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1910. The Geology of New Zealand. By James Park. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1910. New Zealand Plants and their Story. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. Second Edition, 1919. Wellington—Government Printer.

1910. History and Traditions of the Maoris of the West Coast, North Island of New Zealand. By S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S. New Plymouth—Polynesian Society.

1911. Hawaiki: The Original Home of the Maori. By S. Percy Smith. Third Edition. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1911. The Course of Prices in New Zealand. By James W. McIlwraith, LL.B., Litt.D. Wellington—Government Printer.

1911. State Socialism in New Zealand. By J. E. Le Rossignol and W. Downie Stewart. London—G. G. Harrop and Co.

1911. New Zealand. By the Right Hon. Sir Robert Stout, P.C., K.C.M.G., LL.D., and J. Logan Stout, LL.B. Cambridge—University Press.

1911. With the Lost Legion in New Zealand. By Colonel G. Hamilton-Browne. London—T. Werner Laurie.

1913 La Nuova Zelanda. Giuseppe Capra. Scuola Tipografica D. Bosco—S. Benigno Canavese.

1913. New Zealand, its History, Commerce, and Industrial Resources. By S. Playne. London.

1913. Social Welfare in New Zealand. By H. H. Lusk. London.

1913. The Lore of the Whare Wananga. Third Volume of Memoirs of Polynesian Society. On Maori Religion, Myths, Cosmogony, &c.

1914. The Constitutional History and Law of New Zealand. By J. Hight, Litt.D., and H. D. Bamford, LL.D. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1914. The Treaty of Waitangi. By T. Lindsay Buick. Wellington—S. and W. Mackay.

1914. The Wilds of Maoriland. By M. J. Bell. London.

1914. Oxford Survey of the British Empire. Vol. v. Australasian Territories. London.

1915. The Long White Cloud, Aotearoa. By W. P. Reeves. London—Horace Marshall and Sons. Revised Edition.

1916. Jubilee History of South Canterbury. By Johannes C. Andersen. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1917. A Natural History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Adjacent Islands. By R. P. Thomson. London.

1920. Prices: An Inquiry into Prices in New Zealand. By the Census and Statistics Office, Wellington. Wellington—Government Printer.

1921. Maori and Pakeha. A History of New Zealand. By A. W. Shrimpton, M. A., and A. E. Mulgan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1921. The Vegetation of New Zealand. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Leipzig—Wilhelm Engelmann. (Vol. xiv of a work Die Vegetation der Erde.)

(d.) LIST OF ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS APPEARING IN PREVIOUS ISSUES OF THE YEAR-BOOK.

Article onAppeared for the Last or Only Time in the Year-book of
Year.Page.
Acclimatization1894430
Agriculture in New Zealand (by M. Murphy, F.L.S.)1912809
Building-stones1892194
Cancer mortality in New Zealand1917776
Chatham Islands, the1900531
Cheviot Estate, the1895264
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1899548
Coal-deposits of New Zealand, the1900479
Cook Islands, the laws of1902573
Co-operative system of constructing public works1894234
Exotic trees in Canterbury1904569
External trade of New Zealand, the1915858
Fauna of New Zealand1914957
Forest trees and the timber industry1899470
Frozen-meat trade, the1894311
Geology of New Zealand1914943
Gold-dredging industry, the1899509
Government training-ship “Amokura”1913942
Hanmer Thermal Springs1905631
Hemp industry, the1900477
H.M.S. “New Zealand”1913932
Kauri-gum1900489
Labour in New Zealand1894362
Lakes of New Zealand, the1915963
Land- and income-tax assessment1913884
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between1896281
Maori, ancient, his amusements, games, &c.1907707
Maori, ancient, his clothing1908734
Maori, chant (tangi)1907711
Maori, colour-sense of the1905637
Maori, marriage customs1906638
Maori, mythology1900536
Maori, neolithic, the1902578
Maori, place-names1919936
Maori, religion1901530
Maori, sociology1903641
Maori, songs1908739
Marlborough Sounds, the1901517
Midland Railway, the1894386
Mineral waters of New Zealand1913896
Moa, heir of the1899517
Mount Cook, a night on1900525
Mount Cook, district, the1899554
Mount Cook, its glaciers, and the Hermitage1898552
Mount Sefton, ascent of1900519
New Zealand Contingents for South Africa1900449
New Zealand International Exhibition1907701
Otago lakes, the1901523
Patents, designs, and trade-marks1893350
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1900486
Railways in New Zealand, their history and progress1894377
Rivers of New Zealand1914948
Scenic wonderland, a1898565
Sheep, crossbreeding of1894308
Sheep-farming1894302
Shipping companies—
     New Zealand Shipping Company1895392
     Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company1895393
     Union Company of New Zealand1895389
Southern Alps, the1894474
State farms1894243
Sydney Pageant, the1901527
Thermal-springs district1905614
Timber-trees of the world1903605
Tokaanu to Raetihi1899539
Topographical nomenclature of the Maori1919936
Tree-planting1906611
Tuhoeland1899546
Varieties of soil1892193
Wages and working-hours in New Zealand1919860
Waihi Gold-mining Company1897432
Waikato district and through to Wanganui1899520
Waiouru to Mangaonoho1899543
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1900509
Wattle-growing in the Auckland Provincial District1897430
Wellington-Manawatu Railway, the1895381
West Coast Sounds, the1894472
White Island, a day on1906637

DETAILED GENERAL INDEX.

A.

Absolute Decrees in Divorce, 158.
Accident Insurance, 487.
Government Office, 489.
Accidents, 105, 124, 160.
Mining, 374.
Railway, 282.
Acclimatization of Fishes, 361.
Accommodation in Mental Hospitals, 141.
Accommodation Licenses, 558.
Acreage and Yield of Crops, 313.
Acts passed 1919 and 1920, 561-577.
Actuarial Investigation—
National Provident Fund, 463.
State Life Insurance, 485.
Ad valorem Duties, 256.
Adenoids, Hospital Cases, 119.
Administration, 26-31.
Adopted Children, Registration of, 60.
Adult Suffrage, 29.
Advances by Banks, 472.
Advances to Local Authorities, 451.
Advances to Settlers, 447.
Advances to Workers, 450.
Aerial Mail-services, 287.
Afforestation, 347.
After-lifetime, Average, 86.
Age, Mean, at Death, 86.
Age, Mean, at Marriage, 81.
Ages—
At Death, 85.
Of Hospital Patients, 112.
Of Industries, 389.
Of Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 139.
Of Issue left, 90.
Of Maoris convicted, 177.
Of Parents, 68.
Of Persons arrested and convicted, 165.
Of Persons married, 79.
Of Prisoners, 171.
Of Public-school Pupils, 144.
Aggregation of Land, 300.
Agricultural and Pastoral Production, 307-343.
Agricultural Bursaries, 153.
Agricultural College, Lincoln, 153.
Agricultural Produce exported, 193.
Agriculture, 313-324.
Board of, 310.
Department of, 309.
Aid, State—
To Dairy Industry, 338.
To Discharged Soldiers. 303, 454.
To Friendly Societies, 498.
To Immigrants, 48.
To Kauri-gum Industry, 373.
To Local Authorities, 451.
To Mining, 375.
To Settlers, 447.
To Tree-planting, 349.
To Water-power Development, 395.
To Workers, 450.
Aitutaki Island, 579.
Alcoholic Liquors, Consumption of, 180.
Alien Immigrants, 51.
Alienation of Land, 297.
Alienation of Native Lands, 305.
Aliens—
Immigration of, 51.
Naturalization of, 53.
Registration of, 54.
Allegiance, Oath of, 51, 53.
Allocation of Public Debt, 425.
Alluvial-gold Mining, 364.
Amusements-tax, 422.
Angora Goats, 341.
Animals, Domestic, 325-343.
Annexation, 25.
Annexed Islands, 1, 579-583.
Population of, 59.
Anti-dumping Legislation, 561.
Antipodes Islands, 1, 578.
Apia, 585.
Apiculture, 342.
Appeal Court, 168.
Appendicitis Cases in Hospitals, 120.
Applicants for Crown Land, 296.
Arbitration Court, 522.
Area of Indigenous Forests, 344.
Area of New Zealand, 2.
Area under Cultivation, 293.
Arms Act, 570.
Arrested Persons convicted, 164.
Arrivals, 47.
Race Aliens, 52.
Articles on Special Subjects in Previous Issues, 603.
Assembly, General, 26.
Asses and Mules, 340.
Assessment of Land and Income Tax, 415.
Assets—
Of Banks, 472.
Of Building Societies, 505.
Of Fire Insurance Companies, 492.
Of Friendly Societies, 500.
Of Life Insurance Companies, 483.
Of Local Bodies, 444.
Assisted Immigration, 48.
Asylums, 138-141.
Atiu Island, 579.
Auckland Fish-market, 362.
Auckland Islands, 1, 578.
Audit of Expenditure, 403.
Australasia—
Birth-rates of, 63.
Standardized, 88.
Building Societies in, 505.
Standardized, 88.
Death-rates of, 87.
Standardized, 88.
Debt of, 437.
Deposits in Banks of Issue in, 473.
Illegitimacy Rates of, 72.
Index of Mortality of, 88.
Live-stock in, 325.
Marriage-rates of, 77.
Oat Crop of, 319.
Potato Crop of, 322.
Public Debt of, 437.
Railway Revenue of, 280.
Railway Rolling-stock in. 277.
Savings-banks Deposits in, 477.
Sheep in, 330.
Wheat Crop of, 318.
Automatic Pistols prohibited, 570.
Automatic Telephones, 285.

B.

Balance of Trade, 186.
Balances of Accounts, 412.
Banking, 470-477.
Bank-notes, Issue of, 473.
Bankruptcy, 157.
Banks of Issue, 470.
Banks, Savings—
Post Office, 474.
Private, 476.
Barley, 320.
Beans and Peas, 320.
Export of, 211.
Beef consumed and exported, 336.
Beer, Consumption of, 180.
Beer Duty, 258.
Bees, 342.
Beeswax produced, 342.
Bertillon Classification of Causes of Death, 97.
Bibliography, 600.
Birthplaces—
Of Persons arrested and convicted, 165.
Of Persons convicted for Drunkenness, 179.
Of Prisoners, 171.
Births, 60-74.
Board of Trade Act, 563.
Boarding of School-children, 144.
Boats, Fishing, licensed, 360.
Bones, Diseases of, treated in Hospital, 123.
Boroughs, 30.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 468.
Finances of, 438-446.
Population of, 597.
Borrowers from Building Societies, 503.
Boundaries of New Zealand, 1.
Bounty Islands, 1, 578.
Boys' Training-schools, 152.
Bread, Law re Sale of, 132.
Breeding-ewes, 327.
Breeds of Cattle, 336.
Brides and Grooms—
Ages of, 79.
Condition of, 79.
British Sovereignty, 25.
British Trade Representatives, 36.
Bronchitis Cases in Hospital, 120.
Building Societies, 502-505.
Building-stones, 373.
Bullion, Movement of, 188.
Bursaries, 149, 153.
Bush, Virgin, Area of, 293.
Butter—
Export of 193-221.
Factories, 338.
Production of, 338.

C.

Cables, Ocean, 287.
Cadets, Senior, 181.
Calf-skins exported, 211.
Campbell Islands, 1, 578.
Cancer, 101, 115.
Canterbury Agricultural College, 153.
Capital of Banks of Issue, 470.
Capital of Joint-stock Companies, 555.
Capital Value of Land, 464-469.
Carry-over of Wheat, 316.
Cassiterite, 368.
Casualties in the War, 182.
Cattle, 334-336.
Causes of Death, 97.
Causes of Insanity, 139.
Census and Statistics Office, 40.
Census Legislation, 38.
Census of 1921, 595-598.
Cereals, 313.
Certificates, Marine Officers', 274.
Certificates of Title issued, 294.
Chaff, 320.
Character of Organization of Industries, 388.
Character of Stock, 430.
Characteristics of Population, 55.
Charges before Magistrates, 161.
Charitable Aid, 134.
Charitable Institutions, 136.
“Chatham,” H.M.S., 182.
Chatham Islands, 1.
Cheese—
Exported, 193-221.
Factories, 338.
Produced, 338.
Child Welfare, 151.
Childbirth, Deaths in, 104.
Childbirth: Hospital Cases, 122.
Children born, Sexes of, 64.
Children, Dependent, Care of, 151.
Children under one Year, Deaths of, 92.
Children's Homes, 151.
Chinese in New Zealand, 53.
Cinnabar, 368.
Circulatory Diseases treated in Hospitals, 119.
Civil Law Cases, 156.
Civil Marriages, 82.
Class-books, School, 145.
Climate, 8-23.
Clover-seeds, 322.
Coal exported, 193, 212.
Coal-miners' Relief Fund, 378.
Coal-mining, 369.
Coastwise Shipping, 272.
Cocksfoot, 321.
Coin-in-slot Telephones, 286.
Coleridge, Lake, Water-power, 395.
Colleges, University, 152.
Colonization, 25.
Commerce, 184-267.
Companies, Joint-stock, 555.
Compulsory Training, 181.
Conciliation Councils, 522.
Confinement—
Deaths in, 104.
Hospital Cases, 122.
Maternity Hospital Cases, 137.
Conjugal Condition of Parties marrying, 79.
Conjugal Rights, Restitution of, 158.
Consolidated Fund, 403-408.
Constitution, 26.
Of Cook Islands, 580.
Construction of Railways, Cost of, 278.
Consuls, Foreign, 37.
Consumption—
Of Alcoholic Liquors, 180.
Of Beef, 336.
Of Mutton and Lamb, 329.
Of Pork, &c., 341.
Of Wheat, 315.
Conveyance of Children to School, 144.
Conveyancing, 293.
Convictions, Summary, 162.
For Drunkenness, 178.
Of Juveniles, 175.
Of Maoris, 177.
Of New-Zealand-born, 176.
Of Persons arrested, 165.
Of Women, 176.
Convictions in Supreme Court, 167.
Cook and other Pacific Islands, 1, 579-583.
Births, 74.
Deaths, 107.
Exports to, 222.
Imports from, 255.
Marriages, 83.
Population, 59, 581,
Cook's Visits to New Zealand, 24.
Co-operative Public Works, 557.
Copper, 367.
Corn Crops, Acreage and Yield of, 313.
Cost of Railway-construction, 278.
Council, Executive, 26.
Members of, 32.
Council, Legislative, 27.
Members of, 33.
Councils of Conciliation, 522.
Counties, 30.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 467.
Finances of, 438-446.
Population of, 596.
Courts—
Appeal, 168.
Arbitration, 522.
Bankruptcy, 157.
Divorce, 158.
Magistrates', 156, 161.
Native Land, 305.
Supreme, 156, 166.
Cow-testing, 309, 335.
Creameries, 338.
Cream-separators on Farms, 311.
Crime, Law and, 156-180.
Criminal Cases, 161-168.
Criminals, Habitual, 172.
Crops, Principal, 313.
Crown Lands, 296-304.
Cultivation, Area in, 293.
Customs Tariff and Revenue, 256-267.
Tariff of 1921, 560.
Customs Taxation, 259, 415.

D.

Dairy Industry, 338.
Dairying Machinery in Use, 311.
Dairy-produce, 338.
Export of, 193.
Grading of, 309, 338.
Retail Prices, 538-551.
Danger Island, 1, 580.
Dates of Maturity of Loans, 432.
Deaf, School for the, 152.
Death Duties, 419.
Deaths, 84-107.
In Hospitals, 110.
In Mental Hospitals, 140.
Debentures, 430, 445.
Debt of Local Bodies, 445.
Debt, Public, 424-437.
Decrees in Divorce, 158.
Deeds Registration, 293.
Defence, 181-183.
Deferred-payment Lands, 297, 302.
Demography, 43-59.
Denominational Schools, 146.
Dental Treatment for School-children, 133.
Dentists, Registration of, 131.
Departmental Reports, 599.
Departments, Government, 35.
Departures, 47.
Deposits, 472, 474, 513.
Designs, 555.
Destination of Exports, 200-212.
Detention, Reformative, 172.
Diamond Drills, 376.
Diarrhœa Cases treated in Hospitals, 120.
Differential Tariff, 265.
Diplomas in Public Health, 130.
Direction of Export Trade, 200-212.
Direction of Import Trade, 229.
Direction of Oversea Shipping, 270.
Discharged Mortgages, 509.
Discharged Soldiers—
Financial Assistance, 303, 454.
Land for, 302.
Discharges from Hospitals, 110.
Discharges from Mental Hospitals, 140.
Discovery of New Zealand, 24.
Diseases, Notification of, 108.
Diseases, Principal, Deaths from, 98.
Dislocations treated in Hospitals, 124.
Disputes, Industrial, 521-537.
Dissolution of Marriages, 158.
Distinct Criminal Cases, 133.
Distinct Persons imprisoned after Conviction, 170.
Distribution of—
Marriages over Year, 78.
Population, 55.
Wealth, 514.
District High Schools, 148.
Dividend Duty, 421.
Divorce, 158.
Domestic Science Bursaries, 153.
Domestic Servants, Assisted Passages for, 49.
Drainage Boards, Finances of, 438-446.
Dredging, Gold, 364.
Drills, Prospecting, 376.
Drugs, Sale of, 132.
Drunkenness, 178.
Ducks, 341.
Dumping, 561.
Dunedin Medical School, 137.
Duration of Marriage and Number of Previous Issue, 68.
Dutiable Imports, 263.
Duties, Customs and Excise, 256-267.
Duties, Death, 419.
Dwellings—
Soldiers', 303.
Workers', 453, 566.

E.

Early History, 24.
Early Trade, 184.
Ears, Diseases of the, treated in Hospital, 119.
Earthquakes, 6.
Edible Fishes, List of, 356.
Education, 142-155.
In Cook Islands, 581.
Education Boards, Receipts and Expenditure of, 155.
“Education Gazette,” 145.
Educational Association, Workers', 153.
Educational Endowments, 298.
Effect of Prices on Exports, 214.
Electoral Qualifications, 29
Electric—
Current, 394.
Power Boards, 399.
Telegraph, 285.
Emigration, 47.
Employees—
Factory, 382.
Farm, 310.
Postal, 287.
Railway, 281.
Employment Branches of Labour Department, 557.
Enactments of 1919 and 1920, 561-577.
Endowments, Educational, 298.
Endowments, National, 298.
Engines on Farms, 312.
Ensilage, 320.
Enteritis Cases in Hospital, 120.
Entrepôt Trade, 189, 213.
Epidemic General Diseases, 113.
Epidemic Pensions, 459.
Erection of Dwellings, 453, 566.
Estate Duty, 419.
Estates acquired for Settlement, 300.
Estates administered by Public Trust Office, 554.
Estates passed for Probate, 516.
Estimated Population, 43.
Ewes, Breeding, 327.
Examinations, Annual Education, 154.
Exchanges, Telephone, 285.
Excise Duties, 258.
Taxation by means of, 259, 415.
Executive Council, 26.
Members of, 32.
Ex-nuptial Births, 71.
Expectation of Life, 86.
Expeditionary Forces, 181.
Medical Examination, 125.
Expenditure—
Local Body, 442.
Postal, 288.
Public, 403-413.
Railway, 280.
Experimental Farms, 309.
Export Duties, 258.
Export Prices, 214.
Of Mutton, 553.
Exports, 192-223.
External Injuries treated in Hospital, 124.
External Migration, 47.
Extinction of Public Debt, 435.
Eyes, Diseases of the, treated in Hospital, 119.

F.

Factories, 380-393.
Farmers—
Assisted Passages for, 49.
Tree-planting by, 348.
Farming, 307-343.
Feeble-minded, Schools for, 152.
Female Suffrage, 29.
Fibre, Phormium, 323.
Exported, 212.
Grading of, 309.
Finance, Public, 403-446.
Finances of Local Bodies, 438-446.
Financial Assistance to Soldiers, 303, 454.
Fire Inquests, 160.
Fire Insurance, 491-497.
State, 496.
Fire Losses, 496.
Firearms, Registration of, 570.
First Offenders' Probation, 173.
First-born, Sexes of, 65.
Fish exported, 359.
Fisheries, 356-362.
Fishes, Edible, 356.
Fish-hatcheries, 361.
Fishing-boats, 360.
Fish-markets, Municipal, 362.
Fixed Assets of Industries, 388.
Flax (Phormium Tenax), 323.
Exports, 212.
Fleeces, Average Weight of, 331.
Flocks—
Fowls, 342.
Sheep, 328.
Flotation of Loans, 431.
Fodder Grasses, 320.
Food and Drugs, Sale of, 132.
Food Groups: Index Numbers, 538-551.
Foreign Consuls, 37.
Foreign Insurance Companies, 478.
Foreign Vessels entered and cleared, 270.
Foreigners naturalized, 53.
Forest Produce exported, 195.
Forestry, 344-355.
Foster-homes for Children, 151.
Foundation Scholarships, 149.
Foveaux Strait Oysters, 360.
Fowls, 341.
Fowl-wheat, 315.
Fractions, Totalizator, 42.
Fractures, Hospital Cases, 124.
Franchise, 29.
Free and Dutiable Imports, 263.
Freehold, Crown Land made, 299.
Freehold Tenure, 291, 299.
Friendly Societies, 498-501.
Frozen Meat exported, 193-221.
Fruit Industry, The, 323.
Fruit-preserving, 324.
Fuel and Light: Index Numbers, 549.
Funds of Friendly Societies, 500.

G.

Gaols, Prisoners in, 169.
Gardens, Acreage in, 323.
Gauge, Railway, 276
Geese, 341.
General Assembly, 26.
Genital Organs, Diseases of, treated in Hospital, 121.
Geographical Distribution of Industries, 389.
Geology, 5.
German Samoa, 2, 583.
Gift Duty, 421.
Glaciers, 2.
Goats, 341.
Gold exported, 193-221.
Duty on, 258.
Goldfields, Subsidized Roads on, 377.
Gold-mining, 362.
Gonorrhœa: Hospital Cases, 114.
Goods carried on Railways, 277.
Government Departments, 35.
Government Insurance—
Accident, 489.
Fire, 496.
Life, 484.
Government Schools, Attendance at, 143.
Government, System of, 26.
Government Valuation of Land, &c., 464-469.
Government Water-races, 377.
Governor-General, 32.
Powers, Duties, &c., 27.
Grading—
Of Dairy-produce, 309, 338.
Of Honey, 343.
Of Phormium-fibre, 309.
Graduated Land-tax, 416.
Grain Crops, 313.
Grapes, 324.
Grass Lands, Acreage of, 320, 324.
Grass-seed, 212, 321.
Greasy Wool exported, 332.
Green-fodder, 320.
Greenstone, 373.
Groceries: Index Numbers, 538-551.
Gross Indebtedness, 425.
Grounds for Divorce, 159.
Growth of Population, 43.
Growth of Trade, 184.
Guarantee of Wheat Prices, 317.

H.

Habitual Criminals, 172.
Half-castes, 59.
Hands employed in Factories, 381.
Harbour Boards, Finances of, 438-446.
Hay, 320.
Heads of Government Departments, 35.
Health Act, 128, 573.
Health, Public, 128-133.
Hernia Cases treated in Hospital, 121.
Hervey Islands, 579.
Hides exported, 211.
High Schools, 147.
District, 148.
Technical, 150.
Higher Education, 152.
Hindu Immigrants, 52.
H.M.S. “Chatham,” 182.
H.M.S. “New Zealand,” 182.
H.M.S. “Philomel,” 182.
H.M.S. “Veronica,” 183.
History, 24.
Holdings, Occupied, 289.
Home Separators, 311.
Homes, Children's, 151.
Home-science Bursaries, 153.
Honey, 342.
Hops, 322.
Horahora Electric Power, 397.
Horses, 339.
Horticultural Stations, 309.
Hospitals, 110-125, 134-141.
Expenditure on, 134.
Maternity, 137.
Mental, 138.
Private, 136.
Private Mental, 140.
Public, 110-125, 134.
St. Helens, 137.
Hot Springs, 3.
House of Representatives, 28.
Members, of, 34.
Households, 56.
House-rent, 541, 548.
Housing, 453, 565.
Hydro-electric Power, 394-402.

I.

Illegitimacy, 71.
Immigration, 47.
Assisted, 48.
Restriction, 51.
Imports, 224-255.
Free and Dutiable, 263.
Improved Farm Settlements, 297.
Incomes, 517-520.
Income-tax, 418.
Increase in Food-prices during War, 544.
Increase in Public Debt, 428.
Increase of Population, 45.
Indebtedness of Local Bodies, 445.
Indebtedness, Public, 424-437.
Index Numbers, Price, 538-553.
Index of Mortality, 88.
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration, 521.
Industrial Disputes, 521-537.
Industrial Life Assurance, 481.
Industrial Manufacture, 380-393.
Industrial Schools, 151.
Industrial Unions, 522.
Industries, 380-393.
Infancy, Diseases of, 96, 123.
Infantile Mortality, 92.
Infant-life Protection, 92, 152.
Infectious Diseases, Notification of, 108.
Infectious Diseases, Prevention of, 129.
Influenza, 98.
Inland Fisheries, 361.
Inmates of Gaols, 169.
Inmates of Hospitals, 110.
Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 138.
Inquests, 160.
Insanity, 138-141.
Inscribed Stock, 430.
Insolvency, 157.
Inspection, Medical, of Schools, 133.
Inspection of Machinery, 556.
Instruction, Public, 142-155.
Instruments, Registration of, 294.
Insurance, 478-497.
Intercensal Estimates, 43.
Interest on Public Debt, 433.
Intermediate Customs Tariff, 561.
Inter-urban Telephones, 285.
Intervals between Births, 70.
Intestinal Obstruction, Hospital Cases, 121.
Iron Ores, 365.
Islands—
Administered on Mandate, 2, 583.
Annexed, 1, 579-583.
Outlying, 1, 578.
Issue of Bank-notes, 473.
Issue of Deceased Males, 90.
Under 16 Years of Age, 91.

J.

Joint-stock Companies, 555.
Journal, School, 145.
Judicial Separation, 158.
Justice, 15-180.
Juvenile Offenders, 174.

K.

Kaingaroa Plains Plantation, 347.
Kauri-gum, 373.
Exported, 193-221.
Kermadec Islands, 1, 579.

L.

Labour Department: Employment Branches, 557.
Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 522.
Lake Coleridge Works, 395.
Lakes, 5.
Lamb consumed and exported, 330.
Land and Income Tax, 415.
Land Boards, 296.
Maori, 305.
Land Districts, 296.
Land Drainage Boards, Finances of. 438-446.
Land for Discharged Soldiers, 302.
Land for Settlements, 300.
Land, Government Valuation of, 464-469.
Land, Occupation of, 289.
Land Offices, 296.
Land Purchase Board, 300.
Land Tenure and Settlement, 289-306.
Land Transfer and Deeds Registration, 293.
Land, Valuation of, 464-469.
Lands opened for Selection, 298.
Land-settlement Finance Associations, 301.
Land-tax, 416.
Latest Statistical Information, 593.
Law and Crime, 156-180.
Lease, Renewable, 297, 302.
Legislation of 1919 and 1920, 561-577.
Legislative Council, 27.
Members of, 33.
Legitimate Births, 68.
Legitimation Act, 73.
Letters of Naturalization, 53.
Letters posted, 283.
Liabilities—
Of Banks, 471.
Of Building Societies, 505.
Of Fire Insurance Companies, 492.
Of Friendly Societies, 500.
Of Life Insurance Companies, 482.
Of Local Bodies, 444.
Libraries, School, 145.
Licensed Houses, 558.
Licenses by Local Bodies, 441, 558.
Licenses, Fishing-boat, 360.
Licenses, Publicans', 558.
Licensing, 558.
Life, Expectation of, 86.
Life Insurance, 478-486.
State, 484.
Light, Fuel and: Index Numbers, 549.
Lighthouses, 274.
Lincoln Agricultural College, 153.
Linseed, 321.
Live-stock, 325-343.
Loans—
Allocation of, 429.
By Building Societies, 503.
Dates of Maturity of, 432.
Flotation of, 431.
Of Local Bodies, 445.
Local Administration, 29-31.
Local Bodies, 29-31.
Advances to, 451.
Finances of, 438-446.
Superannuation, 461.
Taxation by, 423, 438.
Local Option, 560.
Local Taxation, 423, 438.
Location of Industries, 389.
Location of New Zealand, 1.
Lockouts, 521-537.
Locomotives, 276.
Lodges, 499.
London Missionary Society, 581, 583.
Losses from Fires, 496.
Lower Departments of Secondary Schools, 147.
Lunacy, 138-141.

M.

Macaulay Island, 579.
Machinery, Farm, 310.
Machinery, Inspection of, 556.
Magistrates' Courts—
Civil Cases, 156.
Criminal Cases, 161.
Mail-services—
Aerial, 287.
Rural, 283.
Maize, 320.
Male and Female Death-rates, 85.
Malformations: Hospital Cases, 123.
Mandated Territories, 2, 583.
Mangaia Island, 579.
Manganese-ore, 367.
Mangolds, 322.
Mangrove Oysters, 360.
Manihiki Island, 1, 580.
Manual Education, 144.
Manufactories and Works, 380-393.
Maori Land Boards, 305.
Maoris, 24.
Births of, 60, 74.
Children attending Schools, 146.
Deaths of, 60, 106.
Half-castes, 59.
In Mental Hospitals, 140.
Marriages of, 82.
Members of Parliament, 34.
Offences by, 177.
Population, 59.
Schools for, 146.
Maori-war Pensions, 457.
Marine Fish-hatchery, 361.
Marine Insurance, 491.
Marine Officers' Certificates, 274.
Market-gardens, 323.
Marriages, 75-83.
Dissolution of, 158.
Materials used in Manufactories, 386.
Maternal Mortality, 104.
Maternity Allowances, 461.
Maternity Hospitals, 137.
Maturity of Loans, Dates of, 432.
Mauke Island, 579.
Meat—
Export of, 193-221.
Retail Prices, 538-551.
Medical Examination for Expeditionary Force, 125.
Medical Inspection of Schools, 133.
Medical Practitioners, Registration of, 130.
Medicine, School of, Dunedin, 137.
Mental Defectives, 138.
Mental Hospitals, 138-141.
Mercury-mines, 368.
Metal Mines, Accidents at, 374.
Meteorology, 8-23.
Method of Recording—
Exports, 192.
Imports, 224.
Midwives, Registration of, 131.
Migration, External, 47.
Military Forces, 181.
Military Pensions, 457.
Milking-machines, 311.
Milk-testing, 309, 335.
Milling-wheat, 315.
Mills, Wool used at, 332.
Minerals,' 363-379.
Miners' Pensions, 379, 457.
Mining, 363, 379.
Accidents, 374.
Produce exported, 195.
Mining Act, Board of Examiners under, 378.
Mining Advances, 377.
Ministers of each Denomination, 83.
Marriages by, 82.
Minor's, Marriages of, 81.
Missionaries, Arrival of, 25.
Mitiaro Island, 579.
Money, Purchasing-power of, 544.
Money-orders issued and paid, 284.
Moratorium, 512.
Morbidity, 108-127.
Mortality, Index of, 88.
Mortality, Infantile, 92.
Mortality Investigation, 86.
Mortgages, 506-513.
Mothers, Ages of, 68.
In Illegitimate Cases, 72.
Motive-power in Factories, 384.
Mountains, 2.
Movement of Specie and Bullion, 188.
Mules, 340.
Multiple Births, 67.
Municipal Fish-markets, 362.
Mutton consumed and exported, 329.
Mutton, Export Prices of, 553.

N.

National Endowments, 298.
National Prohibition, 560.
National Provident Fund, 461.
National Scholarships, 148.
Nationality of Vessels, 269.
Native Grasses, 324.
Native Land Court, 305.
Native Land Purchase Board, 306.
Native Lands, 305.
Native Schools, 146.
Native Trust Office, 555.
Natural Increase of Population, 45, 62.
Naturalization, 53.
Nauru Island, 2, 586.
Naval Board, 183.
Naval Defence, 182.
Navigators Islands, 2, 583.
Navy, 182.
Nephrite, 373.
Nervous System, Diseases of the, treated in Hospital, 118.
Net Indebtedness, 425.
New Zealand Born, Offences by, 176.
“New Zealand,” H.M.S., 182.
New Zealand Produce exported, 193-221.
New Zealand University, 152.
Newspapers—
Posted, 283.
Registered, 284.
Nisi Decrees in Divorce, 158.
Niue Island, 1, 580.
Nomination of assisted Immigrants, 48.
Note-issue of Banks, 473.
Notification of Births, 60.
Notification of Diseases, 108.
Nullity of Marriage, 158.
Nurseries and Plantations, 323.
Nurses, Registration of, 131.

O.

Oath of Allegiance, 51, 53.
Oats, 319.
Exported, 193.
Occupation of Land, 289, 299.
Occupation with Right of Purchase, 297, 302.
Occupations of Bankrupts, 158.
Occupations of Deceased Males, 89.
Ocean Cables, 287.
Offences, 161-180.
Offenders Probation Act, 173.
Officers, Military, 181.
Officiating Ministers, 83.
Oil, 372.
Old Age, Deaths from, in Hospital, 124.
Old-age Pensions, 456.
Orchards, 323.
Origins of Earthquakes, 7.
Ornamental Stones, 373.
Orphanages, 151.
Orphanhood, 90.
Otekaike Special School, 152.
Outlying Islands, 1, 578.
Oversea Shipping, 268.
Overseas Representatives, 36.
Oyster-picking, 360.

P.

Pacific Cable, 287.
Pacific Islands annexed in 1901, 1, 579-583.
Packet Licenses, 558.
Palmerston Island, 1, 580.
Parapara Iron-ore Deposit, 365.
Parcel-post, 284.
Parliamentary Elections, 29.
Parliamentary Reports, 599.
Parry Island (Mauke), 579.
Party-line Telephones, 285.
Passages at reduced Rates, 48.
Passengers, Railway, 277.
Passports, 50.
Pastoral Produce exported, 193-213.
Pastoral Production, 325-343.
Pasture Grasses, 324.
Patents, Designs, and Trade-marks, 555.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 138.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 110.
Payers of Income-tax, 418.
Peas and Beans, 320.
Export of, 211.
Pelts, Export of, 193-213.
Penrhyn Island, 1, 580.
Pensions, 456-459.
Permanent Building Societies, 502.
Permanent Heads of Departments, 35.
Permanent Military Forces, 181.
Permission to enter New Zealand, 50.
Permits and Passports, 50.
Petroleum, 372.
“Philomel,” H.M.S., 182.
Phormium Tenax, 323.
Fibre exported, 193-221.
Grading of Fibre, 309.
Phosphate Rock, 373.
From Nauru Island, 586.
Phthisis, 99, 113.
Minrs', 379.
Physical Instruction of School-children, 144.
Physiography, 1-23.
Pig-iron Manufacture, 366.
Pigs, 340.
Plantations, 33.
State Forest, 37.
Planting of Shelter-trees—
By Local Bodies, 349.
By Settlers, 348.
Platinum, 368.
Pleasant Island, 586.
Plumbers Registration, 131.
Plural Births, 67.
Pneumonia Cases treated in Hospital, 120.
Police, 160.
Pensions, 459.
Policies, Industrial Assurance, 481.
Policies, Life-assurance, 479.
Population, 43-59, 595-598.
Of Cook Islands, 581.
Of Western Samoa, 585.
Pork consumed, 341.
Portobello Marine Fish-hatchery, 361.
Ports—
Exports, 221.
Imports, 225.
Shipping, 271-273.
Post Office Savings-bank, 474.
Postal and Telegraphic, 283-288.
Postal Notes, 284.
Potatoes, 322.
Poultry, 341.
Pounamu, 373.
Power in Factories, 384.
Power, Water, 394-402.
Preferential Tariff, 265.
Pre-natal Influences, 94.
Prevention of Quackery, 132.
Previous Convictions of Prisoners, 171.
Previous Issue of Parents, 69.
Prices, 538-553.
Effect on Exports, 214.
Of Stock, 436.
Of Wheat, 317.
Primary Schools, 143.
Principal Exports, 193-213.
Prisoners, 169.
New-Zealand-born, 176.
Prisons, 169.
Prisons Board, 172.
Private Hospitals, 136.
Private Mental Hospital, 140.
Private Railways, 282.
Private Savings-banks, 476.
Private Scholarships, 149.
Private Schools, 146.
Private Wealth, 514.
Probate, Estates passed for, 516.
Probation, 173.
Proclamation of British Sovereignty, 25.
Production of Wool, 331.
Products of Manufactories, 387.
Prohibited Immigrants, 51.
Prospecting-drills, Government, 376.
Protection of Infant Life, 92, 152.
Provident Fund, National, 46.
Provincial Districts, 29.
Industries in, 389.
Public Debt, 424-437.
Extinction Fund, 435.
Public Finance, 403-446.
Public Health, 128-133.
Public Hospitals-
Admissions and Discharges, 110.
Ages of Patients, 112.
Diseases treated in, 112.
Finances, 134.
Public Instruction, 142.
Public Reserves, 298.
Public Schools, 143.
Public Service Superannuation, 459.
Public Trust Office, 544.
Public Works Co-operative System, 557.
Public Works Fund, 408.
Publicans' Licenses, 558.
Publications, 600.
Statistical, 41, 599.
Puerperal Accidents and Diseases, 104, 122.
Pukapuka Island, 1, 580.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis, 99, 113.
Pulse Crops, 313.
Punishments by Magistrates' Courts, 163.
Punishments by Supreme Courts, 167.
Pupil Teachers, 145.
Pupils at Public Schools, 143.
Purchase of Estates for Settlement, 300.
Purchase of Native Lands, 306.
Purchase of Workers Dwellings, 453.
Purchasing-power of Money, 544.

Q.

Quackery Prevention Act, 132.
Quarantine, 129.
Quarries, 373.
Quartz-mining, 364.
Quicksilver-mining, 368.
Quinnat Salmon, 362.
Quorum:-
Executive Council, 27.
House of Representatives, 29.
Quotations, New Zealand Stock, 436.

R.

Rabbit-skins, Exports of, 211.
Race Aliens, 52.
Racing, Tax on, 421.
Radio-telegraph, 286.
Railway Districts, Finances of, 438-446.
Railways, 276-282.
Private, 282.
Superannuation Fund, 461.
Rainfall, 8-23.
Rakaanga Island, 1, 580.
Rarotonga Island, 579.
Rateable Value of Land, 446.
Rates collected by Local Bodies, 440.
Rates of Interest-
On Local Bodies Debt, 445.
On Mortgages, 512.
On Public Debt, 432.
Reapers and Binders, 312.
Rebate of Rent, 297.
Reception of Assisted Immigrants, 49.
Reciprocity, 265, 561.
Reduced Passage-rates for Assisted Immigrants, 48.
Re-exports, 190, 213.
Reformative Detention, 172.
Registered Companies, 555.
Registered Factories, 380.
Registered Mortgages, 506.
Registered Vessels, 268.
Registrars, Marriages before, 82.
Registration-
Of Adopted Children, 60.
Of Aliens, 54.
Of Births, 60.
Of Companies, 555.
Of Dairy Companies, 338.
Of Deaths, 84.
Of Deeds, 293.
Of Dentists, 131.
Of Firearms, 570.
Of Industrial Unions, 522.
Of Marriages, 75.
Of Medical Practitioners, 130.
Of Newspapers, 284.
Of Nurses and Midwives, 131
Of Plumbers, 131.
Of Vessels, 268.
Under Defence Act, 181.
Relief Fund, Coal-miners', 378.
Religious Donominations—
Marriages by Ministers of, 82.
Ministers on Marriage List, 83.
Renewable Leases, 297, 302.
Rent, Rebate of, 297.
Rent, Restrictions on, 453.
Rents, House, 541, 548.
Repatriation of Soldiers, 454.
Representatives Abroad, 36.
Representatives, Members of House of, 34.
Research Scholarships, 153.
Reserve Funds of Banks, 470.
Reserves administered by Land Boards, 298.
Reserves, Public, 298.
Respiratory Diseases treated in Hospital, 120.
Restitution of Conjugal Rights, 158.
Restriction, Immigration, 51.
Retail Prices, 538-551.
Revenue—
Customs, 259.
Local Body, 438.
Postal, 288.
Public, 403-413.
Railway, 279.
Revocation of Naturalization, 53.
Rhodes Scholarships, 153.
Rifle Clubs, 181.
River Districts, Finances of, 438-446.
Rivers, 4.
Road Districts, 30.
Finances of 438-446.
Roads, 560.
On Goldfields, Subsidized, 377.
Rock Oysters, 360.
Rolling-stock, Railways, 276.
Roman Catholic Schools, 146.
Root Crops, 321.
Rural Mail Deliveries, 283.
Rural Security on Mortgages, 508.
Rye-grass, 321.

S.

St. Helens Hospitals, 137.
Sale of Food and Drugs, 132.
Salmon, Acclimatization of, 362.
Samoa, 2, 583.
San Pablo Island, 580.
Sanitation, 128.
Sausage-skins, Exports of, 211.
Savage Island, 1, 580.
Savaii, Island of, 585.
Savings-banks, 474-477.
Scheelite, 367.
Scholars, 143.
Scholarships, 148.
School Journal, 145.
School Libraries and Class-books, 145.
School-children, 143.
Dental Treatment for, 133.
Medical Inspection of, 133.
Schools, 142-155.
Medical Inspection of, 133.
Of Mines, 377.
Scoured Wood exported, 332.
Seals, 361.
Season Tickets, Railway, 277.
Secondary Education, 147.
Seed-gardens, 323.
Seeds, Grass and Clover, 322.
Exported, 212.
Seismology, 6.
Selections of Land, 298.
Senior Cadets, 181.
Sentences of Criminals, 163, 167.
Settlement and Colonization, 25.
Settlement Conditions, Selections under, 298.
Settlements, Land for, 300.
Settlers, Advances to, 447.
Sex Proportions, 44.
Of Children born, 64.
Of First-born, 65.
Of Persons dying, 85.
Of Public-school Children, 144.
Shearing-machines on Farms, 311.
Sheep, 326-330.
Sheep-skins and Pelts exported, 193-221.
Shipping, 268-275.
Ships, Survey of, 274.
Silver, Production of, 365.
Sinking Funds, 434.
Skin-diseases treated in Hospital, 123.
Skins, Export of, 193-221.
Slaughter of Animals for Food-
Cattle, 336.
Pigs, 341.
Sheep and Lambs, 329.
Slaughterhouses, 309.
Sliped Wool exported, 332.
Snares Islands, 1, 578.
Soldiers, 181.
Acquisition of Land by, 302.
Dwellings, 303.
Financial Assistance to, 454.
Pensions, 457.
Settlement of, 302, 454.
War Bursaries for Dependants, 149.
South Africa, Reciprocity with, 266.
South African War Pensions, 459.
Sown Grasses, Extent of, 324.
Special Articles in Previous Issues, 603.
Special Schools, 151.
Specie, Movement of, 188.
Spirits, Consumption of, 180.
Springs, Hot, 3.
Stakes, Tax on, 421.
Standardized Death-rates, 88.
State Advances, 447-460.
State Afforestation, 347.
State Aid-
To Dairy Industry, 338.
To Discharged Soldiers, 303, 454.
To Friendly Societies, 498.
To Immigrants, 48.
To Kauri-gum Industry, 373.
To Local Authorities, 451.
To Mining, 375.
To Settlers, 447.
To Tree-planting, 349.
To Water-power Development, 395.
To Workers, 450.
State Coal-mines, 371.
State Forests, 344.
State Indebtedness, 424-437.
State Instruction, 142.
State Insurance-
Accident, 489.
Fire, 496.
Life, 484.
State Railways, 276-282.
State Scheme for Water - power Supply, 398.
State Schools, 143.
Statistical Information, Latest, 593.
Statistical Legislation, 38.
Statistical Organization, 38-42.
Statistical Publications, 41, 599.
Statistical Summary, 587-592.
Still-births, 73.
Stipendiary Magistrates' Courts-
Civil Cases, 156.
Criminal Cases, 161.
Stock, Character of, 430.
Stock, Live, 325-343.
Stock, Quotations for, 436.
Stomach Diseases treated in Hospital, 120.
Stones, Building and Ornamental, 373.
Strikes, 521-537.
Subdivision of Land, 299.
Submarine Cable, 287.
Subsidiary Accounts or Funds, 410.
Subsidized Prospecting, 375.
Subsidized Roads on Goldfields, 377.
Succession Duty, 420.
Suffrage, 29.
Suicide, 106, 160.
Sulphur, 369.
Summary Convictions, 162.
Summary of Industries, 390.
Summary of Legislation, 561-577.
Sumner School for Deaf, 152.
Sunday Island, 579.
Sunshine, 8-14.
Superannuation, 459.
Supreme Court-
Civil Cases, 156.
Criminal Cases, 166.
Surtax, Preferential, 265.
Survey of Ships, 274.
Suwarrow Island, 1, 580.
Sympathetic Strikes, 521-537.
Syphilis Cases in Hospitals, 114.

T.

Tallow exported, 193-221.
Taranaki Ironsand, 366.
Tariff, Customs, 256-258, 560.
Tasman's Discovery of New Zealand, 24.
Tax, Land and Income, 416.
Tax on Totalizator Investments, 421.
Taxation, 414-423.
Taxpayers, 417, 419.
Teachers, Public-school, 145.
Superannuation Fund, 460.
Training of, 146.
Technical Education, 149.
Telegraph, Electric, 285.
Telephones, 285.
Temperature, 8-23.
Tenure of Occupied Lands, 291.
Terminating Building Societies, 502.
Territorial Forces, 181.
Thermal Regions, 3.
Three Kings Islands, 1, 578.
Threshing-machines, 312.
Timber—
Export, 193-221.
Duty, 258.
Output, 345.
Plantations, 347.
Supplies, 344.
Tin, 368.
Title, Certificates of, issued, 294.
Tolls, 441.
Tomato-culture, 324.
Tongareva Island, 1, 580.
Tonnage of Vessels entered and cleared, 268-271.
Tonsils and Adenoids: Hospital Cases, 119.
Totalizator Taxation, 421.
Town Districts, 30.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 469.
Finances of, 438-446.
Population, 598.
Tractors on Farms, 312.
Trade, 184-267.
Representatives, 36.
Trade-marks, 555.
Training of Defence Forces, 181.
Training of Discharged Soldiers, 455.
Training of Teachers, 146.
Train-miles run, 277.
Tramway Boards, Finances of, 438-446.
Transfer, Land, 293.
Treaty of Waitangi, 25.
Tree-planting, 347.
Trout, Acclimatization of, 361.
Tuberculosis, 99, 113.
Tungsten-ore, 367.
Turkeys, 341.
Turnips, 322.
Twins and Triplets born, 67.

U.

Undeveloped Water-power, 401.
Unimproved Value of Land, 464-469.
Rating on, 440.
Unions, Industrial, 522.
University of New Zealand, 152.
Unpaid Totalizator Fractions, 422.
Upolu Island, 585.
Urban Areas—
Births, 64.
Deaths, 90.
Population, 595.
Urban Drift of Population, 55.
Urban Security on Mortgages, 508.
Urinary Diseases treated in Hospital, 121.

V.

Valuation of Land, 464-469.
Value of Exports affected by Prices, 214.
Vehicles, Railway, 276.
Venereal Diseases: Hospital Cases, 114.
“Veronica,” H.M.S., 183.
Vessels entered and cleared, 268.
Nationality of, 269.
Vessels registered, 268.
Village-settlements, 297.
Vineyards, 324.
Virgin Bush, Area of, 293.
Vital Statistics, 60-127.
Volcanoes, 2.
Voluntary Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 139.

W.

Wages paid to Factory Employees, 383.
Waikato Electric-power, 397.
Waiotapu Forest Plantation, 347.
Waipori Power-supply, 398.
Waitangi, Treaty of, 25.
Wakari Private Mental Hospital, 140.
War, 181.
Bursaries, 149.
Expenditure, 182, 427.
Increases in Food-prices, 544.
Pensions, 457.
War Loans Sinking Fund, 436.
Warships, 182.
Washed Wool exported, 332.
Water-power, 394-402.
Water-races, Government, 377.
Water - supply Boards, Finances of 438-446.
Wealth, Private, 514.
Weather, 8-23.
Welfare of Children, 151.
Wellington Fish-market, 362.
Western Samoa, 2, 583.
Whakarewarewa Forest Plantation, 347.
Whaling, 25, 361.
Wheat, 314.
Export of, 193.
White Island Sulphur, 369.
Wholesale Prices, 551-553.
Widows left by Married Men, 91.
Widows' Pensions, 456.
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 554.
Wine, Consumption of, 180.
Wine Licenses, 558.
Wire (Telegraph), Miles of, 285.
Wireless Telegraphy, 286.
Women, Deaths of, in Childbirth, 104.
Women, Offences by, 176.
Women's Branch, Labour Department, 557.
Women's Suffrage, 29.
Wool, 331.
Exported, 193-221.
Used at Local Mills, 332.
Woollen-mills, Wool purchased by, 332.
Wool-presses on Farms, 311.
Workers, Advances to, 450.
Workers' Compensation, 489.
Workers' Dwellings, 453, 566.
Workers' Educational Association, 153.
Workers' Unions, 522.
World's Cattle, 337.
World's Coal-production, 372.
World's Gold-production, 365.
World's Sheep Flocks, 330.
Wrecks, 275.

Y.

Year-book, The, 41.
Yields of Crops, 313.