THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK 1900


Table of Contents

PREFACE.

THE New Zealand Official Year-book, begun in 1892, has now reached its ninth issue.

There is evidence that the work is becoming known outside the colony, and the internal demand still increases.

The plan, first adopted in 1899, of supplying to the Agent-General in London sections of the book in the form of small pamphlets, must have proved useful, as further supplies were called for. This year the series of sectional pamphlets numbers twelve, and increased numbers of each have been despatched. As soon as enough matter for purposes of a pamphlet has been printed, copies are stitched and sent away without waiting for more, thus giving early circulation in England to conveniently small portions of the book handy for general use and especially for mailing.

E. J. VON DADELSZEN.

Registrar-General's Office.

Wellington, N.Z., 23rd August, 1900.

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.

CONSULS (p. 24): (1) Belgium, C. Bastin, Esq., appointed Acting-Consul-General at Melbourne; George Lyon Denniston, Esq., appointed Consul at Dunedin (provisionally). (2) France, F. O. Bridgeman, Esq., appointed Acting Consular Agent at Dunedin vice P. C. Neill, deceased.

HONOURS HELD BY COLONISTS (p. 26): Add Hon. Thomas Thompson, 1900.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL (p. 29): Hons. J. E. Jenkinson and J. Rigg from 7 June, 1900 (Gazette, June 14th, 1900, p. 1124).

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES (p. 31): Speaker, The Hon. Sir George Maurice O'Rorke (elected 22 June, 1900); Chairman of Committees, Arthur Robert Guinness (elected 3 July, 1900); Thomas Mackenzie, for Waihemo (elected 18 July, 1900; date of notification in Gazette, 23 July, 1900).

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (p. 27):—See inset facing p. 26.

PAGE 50: Defences, Military and Naval, 7th line, for Chief Engineer read Engineer-in-Chief.

PART I.—INTRODUCTORY; OFFICIAL.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1. NEW ZEALAND.

THE Colony of New Zealand consists of three main islands, with several groups of smaller islands lying at some distance from the principal group. The main islands, known as the North, the Middle, and Stewart Islands, have a coast-line 4,330 miles in length—North Island, 2,200 miles; Middle Island, 2,000 miles; and Stewart Island, 130 miles. The other islands now included within the colony are the Chatham, Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty, and Kermadec Islands. A protectorate over the Cook Islands (Hervey Group) is exercised by the Imperial Government, the Governor of New Zealand acting as responsible adviser.

New Zealand is mountainous in many parts, but has, nevertheless, large plains in both North and Middle Islands. In the North Island, which is highly volcanic, is situated the famous Thermal-Springs District, of which a special account will be given. The Middle Island is remarkable for its lofty mountains, with their magnificent glaciers, and for the deep sounds or fiords on the western coast.

New Zealand is firstly a pastoral, and secondly an agricultural country. Sown grasses are grown almost everywhere, the extent of land laid down being more than ten millions of acres. The soil is admirably adapted for receiving these grasses, and, after the bush has been burnt off, is mostly sown over without previous ploughing. In the Middle Island a large area is covered with native grasses, all used for grazing purposes. The large extent of good grazing-land has made the colony a great wool and meat-producing country; and its agricultural capabilities are, speaking generally, very considerable. The abundance of water and the quantity of valuable timber are other natural advantages.

New Zealand is, besides, a mining country. Large deposits of coal are met with, chiefly on the west coast of the Middle Island. Gold, alluvial and in quartz, is found in both islands, the yield having been nearly fifty-six millions sterling in value to the present time. Full statistical information on this subject is given further on, compiled up to the latest dates.

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENT.

The first authentic account of the discovery of New Zealand is that given by Abel Jansen Tasman, the Dutch navigator. He left Batavia on the 14th August, 1642, in the yacht “Heemskirk,” accompanied by the “Zeehaen” (or “Sea-hen”) fly-boat. After having visited Mauritius, and discovered Tasmania, named by him “Van Diemen's Land,” in honour of Anthony van Diemen, Governor of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, he steered eastward, and on the 13th December of the same year sighted the west coast of the Middle Island of New Zealand, described by him as “a high mountainous country, which is at present marked in the charts as New Zealand.”

Tasman, under the belief that the land he saw belonged to a great polar continent, and was part of the country discovered some years before by Schouten and Le Maire, to which the name of Staaten Land had been given, gave the same name of Staaten Land to New Zealand; but within about three months afterwards Schouten's “Staaten Land” was found to be merely an inconsiderable island. Upon this discovery being announced, the country that Tasman had called Staaten Land received again the name of “New Zealand,” by which it has ever since been known. Tasman sailed along the coast to a bay, where he anchored. To this he gave the name of Murderers (now Massacre) Bay, on account of an unprovoked attack on a boat's crew by the natives, and the massacre of four white men. Thence he steered along the west coast of the North Island, and gave the name of Cape Maria van Diemen to the north-western extremity thereof. After sighting the islands of the Three Kings he finally departed, not having set foot in the country.

There is no record of any visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until the time of Captain Cook, who, after leaving the Society Islands, sailed in search of a southern continent then believed to exist. He sighted land on the 6th October, 1769, at Young Nick's Head, and on the 8th of that month cast anchor in Poverty Bay. After having coasted round the North Island and the Middle and Stewart Islands—which last he mistook for part of the Middle Island—he took his departure from Cape Farewell on the 31st March, 1770, for Australia. He visited New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

M. de Surville, a French officer in command of the vessel “Saint Jean Baptiste,” while on a voyage of discovery, sighted the northeast coast of New Zealand on the 12th December, 1769, and remained for a short time. A visit was soon after paid by another French officer, M. Marion du Fresne, who arrived on the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand on the 24th March, 1772, but was, on the 12th June following, treacherously murdered at the Bay of Islands by the Natives.

In 1793 the “Daedalus,” under the command of Lieutenant Hanson, was sent by the Government of New South Wales to New Zealand, and two chiefs were taken thence to Norfolk Island. There was after this an occasional intercourse between the islands of New Zealand and the English settlements in New South Wales.

In 1814 the first missionaries arrived in New Zealand—Messrs. Hall and Kendall—who had been sent as forerunners by Mr. Marsden, chaplain to the New South Wales Government. After a short stay they returned to New South Wales, and on the 19th November of that year again embarked in company with Mr. Marsden, who preached his first sermon in New Zealand on Christmas Day, 1814. He returned to Sydney on the 23rd March, 1815, leaving Messrs. Hall and Kendall, who formed the first mission station at Rangihoua, Bay of Islands, under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society. Six years later, in 1821, the work of evangelization was put on a more durable basis; but the first station of the Wesleyan mission, established by Mr. Leigh and his wife, at the valley of the Kaeo, Whangaroa, was not taken possession of until the 10th June, 1823.

COLONISATION.

The first attempt at colonisation was made in 1825 by a company formed in London. An expedition was sent out under the command of Captain Herd, who bought two islands in the Hauraki Gulf and a strip of land at Hokianga. The attempt, however, was a failure, owing to the savage character of the inhabitants. In consequence of frequent visits of whaling-vessels to the Bay of Islands, a settlement grew up at Kororareka—now called Russell—and in 1833 Mr. Busby was appointed British Resident there. A number of Europeans—generally men of low character—gradually settled in different parts of the country, and married Native women.

In 1838 a colonisation company, known as the New Zealand Company, was formed to establish settlement on systematic principles. A preliminary expedition, under the command of Colonel William Wakefield, was despatched from England on the 12th May, 1839, and arrived in New Zealand in the following August. Having purchased land from the Natives, Colonel Wakefield selected the shore of Port Nicholson, in Cook Strait, as the site of the first settlement. On the 22nd January, 1840, the first body of immigrants arrived, and founded the town of Wellington. About the same time—namely, on the 29th January, 1840—Captain Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Natives, to proclaim the sovereignty of the Queen over the islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. A compact called “The Treaty of Waitangi,” to which in less than six months five hundred and twelve names were affixed, was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes. New Zealand was then constituted a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales, but on the 3rd May, 1841, was proclaimed a separate colony. The seat of Government had been previously established at Waitemata (Auckland), round which a settlement was formed.

The New Zealand Company having decided to form another settlement, to which the name of “Nelson” was to be given, despatched a preliminary expedition from England in April, 1841, for the purpose of selecting a site. The spot chosen was the head of Blind Bay, where a settlement was established. About the same time a number of pioneers arrived in Taranaki, despatched thither by the New Plymouth Company, a colonising society which had been formed in England, and had bought 50,000 acres of land from the New Zealand Company.

The next important event in the progress of colonisation was the arrival at Port Chalmers, on the 23rd March, 1848, of the first of two emigrant ships sent out by the Otago Association for the foundation of a settlement by persons belonging to or in sympathy with the Free Church of Scotland.

In 1849 the “Canterbury Association for founding a Settlement in New Zealand” was incorporated. On the 16th December, 1850, the first emigrant ship despatched by the association arrived at Port Cooper, and the work of opening up the adjoining country was set about in a systematic fashion, the intention of the promoters being to establish a settlement complete in itself, and composed entirely of members of the then United Church of England and Ireland.

THE MAORIS.

Prior to the colonisation of New Zealand by Europeans, the earliest navigators and explorers found a race of people already inhabiting both islands. Papers written in 1874 by Mr. (afterwards Sir) William Fox, and Sir Donald McLean, then Native Minister, state that at what time the discovery of these islands was made by the Maoris, or from what place they came, are matters of tradition only, and that much has been lost in the obscurity enveloping the history of a people without letters. Nor is there anything on record respecting the origin of the Maori people themselves, beyond the general tradition of the Polynesian race, which seems to show a series of successive migrations from west to east, probably by way of Malaysia to the Pacific. Little more can now be gathered from their traditions than that they were immigrants, and that they probably found inhabitants on the east coast of the North Island belonging to the same race as themselves—the descendants of a prior migration, whose history is lost. The tradition runs that, generations ago, the Maoris dwelt in a country named Hawaiki, and that one of their chiefs, after a long voyage, reached the northern island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a flattering description of the country he had discovered, this chief, it is said, persuaded a number of his kinsfolk and friends, who were much harassed by war, to set out with a fleet of double canoes for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remembered; and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the people of the principal canoes after their arrival in New Zealand; and from these traditional accounts the descent of the numerous tribes has been traced. Calculations, based on the genealogical staves kept by the tohungas, or priests, and on the well-authenticated traditions of the people, indicate that about twenty-one generations have passed since the migration, which may therefore be assumed to have taken place about five hundred and twenty-five years ago. The position of the legendary Hawaiki is unknown, but many places in the South Seas have been thus named in memory of the motherland. The Maoris speak a very pure dialect of the Polynesian language, the common tongue, with more or less variation, in all the Eastern Pacific Islands. When Captain Cook first visited New Zealand he availed himself of the services of a native from Tahiti, whose speech was easily understood by the Maoris. In this way much information respecting the early history of the country and its inhabitants was obtained which could not have otherwise been had.

For results of recent researches as to probable origin and present numbers of the Maoris, see Section II. of Part II., post.

BOUNDARIES AND AREA

The Proclamation of Captain Hobson on the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34° 30' S. lat.; on the south, 47° 10' S. lat.; on the east, 179° O' E. long.; on the west, 166° 5' E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In April, 1842, by Royal Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries of the colony were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. By Proclamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, lying between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude, were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the Colony of New Zealand.

The following now constitute the Colony of New Zealand:—

  1. The island commonly known as the North Island, with its adjacent islets, having an aggregate area of 44,468 square miles, or 28,459,520 acres.

  2. The island known as the Middle Island, with adjacent islets, having an aggregate area of 58,525 square miles, or 37,456,000 acres.

  3. Stewart Island, and adjacent islets, having an area of 665 square miles, or 425,390 acres.

  4. The Chatham Islands, situate 536 miles eastward of Lyttelton in the Middle Island, with an area of 375 square miles, or 239,920 acres.

  5. The Auckland Islands, about 200 miles south of Stewart Island, extending about 30 miles from north to south, and nearly 15 from east to west, the area being 210,650 acres.

  6. The Campbell Islands, in latitude 52° 33' south, and longitude 169° 8' west, about 30 miles in circumference, with an area of 45,440 acres.

  7. The Antipodes Islands, about 458 miles in a south-easterly direction from Port Chalmers, in the Middle Island. These are detached rocky islands, and extend over a distance of between 4 and 5 miles from north to south. Area, 12,960 acres.

  8. The Bounty Islands, a small group of islets, thirteen in number, lying north of the Antipodes Islands, and about 415 miles in an east-south-easterly direction from Port Chalmers. Area, 3,300 acres.

  9. The Kermadec Islands, a group lying about 614 miles to the north-east of Russell, in the Bay of Islands. Raoul or Sunday Island, the largest of these, is about 20 miles in circuit. The next in size is Macaulay Island, about 3 miles round. Area of the group, 8,208 acres.

The total area of the colony is thus about 104,471 square miles, of which the aggregate area of the outlying groups of islands that are practically useless for settlement amounts to about 438 square miles.

A protectorate is exercised by the Imperial Government over the Cook Islands (or Hervey Group) by Proclamation dated the 27th October, 1888. The British Resident* is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Government. He acts as Government Agent for the colony in all matters of trade.

Area of the Australian Colonies.

The areas of the several Australian Colonies, as given by different authorities, vary considerably. The total area of the Australian Continent is given as 2,944,628 square miles, according to a computation made by the late Surveyor-General of Victoria, Mr. J. A. Skene, from a map of Continental Australia compiled and engraved under his direction; but the following areas are taken from the latest official records of each colony:—

* Lieut.-Colonel Walter Edward Gudgeon is now British Resident at Rarotonga. His salary is paid by this colony. He succeeded Mr. Frederick J. Moss, who was the first Resident appointed.

 Square Miles.
Queensland668,497
New South Wales310,700
Victoria87,884
South Australia903,690
Western Australia975,920
          Total Continent of Australia2,946,691
Tasmania26,215
New Zealand (including the Chatham and other islands)104,471
          Total Australasia3,077,377

The size of these colonies may be better realised by comparison of their areas with those of European countries. The areas of the following countries—Austria—Hungary, Germany, France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, Portugal, Spain, Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), Switzerland, Greece, Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, Eastern Roumelia, and Turkey in Europe—containing on the whole rather less than 1,600,000 square miles, amount to little more than half the extent of the Australian Continent. If the area of Russia in Europe be added to those of the other countries the total would be about one-seventh larger than the Australian Continent, and about one-twelfth larger than the Australasian Colonies, including New Zealand.

Area of the Colony of New Zealand.

The area of the Colony of New Zealand is about one-seventh less than the area of Great Britain and Ireland, the Middle Island of New Zealand being a little larger than the combined areas of England and Wales.

United Kingdom.Area in Square Miles.
England and Wales58,311
Scotland30,463
Ireland32,531
          Total121,305
New ZealandArea in Square Miles.
North Island44,468
Middle Island58,525
Stewart Island665
Chatham Islands375
Other islands438
          Total104,471

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE NORTH ISLAND.

The North Island extends over a little more than seven degrees of latitude—a distance in a direct line from north to south of 430 geographical or 498 statute miles; but, as the northern portion of the colony, which covers more than three degrees of latitude, trends to the westward, the distance in a straight line from the North Cape to Cape Palliser, the extreme northerly and southerly points of the island, is about 515 statute miles.

This island is, as a whole, hilly, and, in parts, mountainous in character, but there are large areas of plain or comparatively level country that are, or by clearing may be made, available for agricultural purposes. Of these, the principal are the plains in Hawke's Bay on the East Coast, the Wairarapa Plain in the Wellington District, and a strip of country along the West Coast, about 250 miles in length, extending from a point about thirty miles from the City of Wellington to a little north of New Plymouth. The largest plain in the North Island, Kaingaroa, extends from the shore of Lake Taupo in a north-north-easterly direction to the sea-coast in the Bay of Plenty; but a great part of it is covered with pumicesand, and is unfitted for tillage or pasture. There are several smaller plains and numerous valleys suitable for agriculture. The level or undulating country in this island fit, or capable of being made fit, for agriculture has been roughly estimated at 13,000,000 acres. This includes lands now covered with standing forest, and swamps that can be drained; also large areas of clay-marl and pumice-covered land. The clay-marl in its natural state is cold and uninviting to the farmer, but under proper drainage and cultivation it can be brought to a high state of productiveness. This kind of land is generally neglected at the present time, as settlers prefer soils more rapidly remunerative and less costly to work. The larger portion of the North Island was originally covered with forest. Although the area of bush-land is still very great, yet year by year the amount is being reduced, chiefly to meet the requirements of settlement, the trees being cut down and burnt, and grass-seed sown on the ashes to create pasture. Hilly as the country is, yet from the nature of the climate it is especially suited for the growth of English grasses, which will flourish wherever there is any soil, however steep the land may be; once laid down in grass very little of the land is too poor to supply food for cattle and sheep. The area of land in the North Island deemed purely pastoral or capable of being made so, while too steep for agricultural purposes, is estimated at 14,200,000 acres. In the centre of the island is a lake, about twenty miles across either way, called Taupo. A large area adjacent to the lake is at present worthless pumice-country. The Waikato River, the largest in the North Island, flows out of its north-eastern corner, and runs thence northwestward until it enters the ocean a little distance south of the Manukau Harbour. This river is navigable for small steamers for about a hundred miles from its mouth. The Maori King-country, occupied by Natives who for several years isolated themselves from Europeans, lies between Lake Taupo and the western coast. The River Thames, or Waihou, having its sources north of Lake Taupo, flows northward into the Firth of Thames. It is navigable for about fifty miles, but only for small steamers. The other navigable rivers in this island are the Wairoa (Kaipara), the Wanganui, and the Manawatu, the two last of which flow towards the south-west into Cook Strait.

The mountains in the North Island are estimated to occupy about one-tenth of the surface, and do not exceed 4,000ft. in height, with the exception of a few volcanic mountains that are more lofty. Of these, the three following are the most important:—

  1. The Tongariro Mountain, situated to the southward of Lake Taupo. It consists of a group of distinct volcanic cones, the lava-streams from which have so overlapped in their descent as to form one compact mountain-mass at the base. The highest of these cones is called Ngauruhoe, and attains an elevation of 7,515ft. The craters of Ngauruhoe, the Red Crater (6,140ft.), and Te Mari (4,990ft.) are the three vents from which the latest discharges of lava have taken place, the most recent having occurred in 1868. These craters are still active, steam and vapour issuing from them with considerable force and noise, the vapours, charged with pungent gases and acids, making it dangerous to approach too near the crater-lips.

  2. Ruapehu. This mountain lies to the south of Ngauruhoe and Tongariro. It is a volcanic cone in the solfatara stage, and reaches the height of 9,008ft., being in part considerably above the line of perpetual snow. The most remarkable feature of this mountain is the crater-lake on its summit, which is subject to slight and intermittent eruptions, giving rise to vast quantities of steam. Recently—in March, 1895—such an eruption took place, forming a few hot springs on the margin of the lake, and increasing the heat in the lake itself. This lake lies at the bottom of a funnel-shaped crater, the steep sides of which are mantled with ice and snow. The water occupies a circular basin about 500ft. in diameter, some 300ft. below the enclosing peaks, and is quite inaccessible except by the use of ropes. This lake, and the three craters previously mentioned on Tongariro, are all in one straight line, which, if produced, would pass through the boiling springs at Tokaanu on the southern margin of Lake Taupo, the volcanic country north-east of that lake, and White Island, an active volcano in the Bay of Plenty, situated about twenty-seven miles from the mainland.

  3. Mount Egmont. This is an extinct volcanic cone, rising to a height of 8,260ft. The upper part is always covered with snow. This mountain is situated close to New Plymouth, and is surrounded by one of the most fertile districts in New Zealand. Rising from the plains in solitary grandeur, it is an object of extreme beauty, the cone being one of the most perfect in the world.

It is estimated that the area of mountain-tops and barren country at too high an altitude for sheep, and therefore worthless for pastoral purposes, amounts, in the North Island, to 300,000 acres.

Without a doubt the hot springs form the most remarkable feature of the North Island. They are found over a large area, extending from Tongariro, south of Lake Taupo, to Ohaeawai, in the extreme north—a distance of some 300 miles; but the principal seat of hydrothermal action appears to be in the neighbourhood of Lake Rotorua, about forty miles north-north-east from Lake Taupo. By the destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces and of Lake Rotomahana during the eruption of Mount Tarawera on the 10th June, 1886, the neighbourhood has been deprived of attractions unique in character and of unrivalled beauty; but the natural features of the country—the numerous lakes, geysers, and hot springs, some of which possess remarkable curative properties in certain complaints—are still very attractive to tourists and invalids. The world-wide importance of conserving this region as a sanatorium for all time has been recognised by the Government, and it is now dedicated by Act of Parliament to that purpose.

Notwithstanding the length of coast-line, good harbours in the North Island are not numerous. Those on the west coast north of New Plymouth are bar-harbours, unsuitable for large vessels. The principal harbours are the Waitemata Harbour, on which Auckland is situated—this is rather a deep estuary than a harbour; several excellent havens in the northern peninsula; and Port Nicholson, on the borders of which Wellington is situated. This is a landlocked harbour, about six miles across, having a comparatively narrow but deep entrance from the ocean. The water is deep nearly throughout.

The Cape Colville Peninsula is rich in gold-bearing quartz.

COOK STRAIT.

Cook Strait separates the North and Middle Islands. It is some sixteen miles across at its narrowest part, but in the widest about ninety. The strait is invaluable for the purpose of traffic between different parts of the colony.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE MIDDLE ISLAND.

The extreme length of the Middle Island, from Jackson's Head, in Cook Strait, to Puysegur Point, at the extreme south-west, is about 525 statute miles; the greatest distance across at any point is in Otago (the southernmost) District, about 180 miles.

The Middle Island is intersected along almost its entire length by a range of mountains known as the Southern Alps. Some of the summits reach a height of from 10,000ft. to 12,000ft., Mount Cook, the highest peak, rising to 12,349ft.

In the south, in the neighbourhood of the sounds and Lake Te Anau, there are many magnificent peaks, which, though not of great height, are, owing to their latitude, nearly all crowned with perpetual ice and snow. Further north the mountains increase in height—Mount Earnslaw, at Lake Wakatipu; and Mount Aspiring, which has been aptly termed the New Zealand Matterhorn, 9,949 ft. in height, at Lake Wanaka. Northward of this again are Mount Cook (or Aorangi), Mount Sefton, and other magnificent peaks.

For beauty and grandeur of scenery the Southern Alps of New Zealand may worthily compare with, while in point of variety they are said actually to surpass, the Alps of Switzerland. In New Zealand few of the mountains have been scaled; many of the peaks and most of the glaciers are as yet unnamed; and there is still, in parts of the Middle Island, a fine field for exploration and discovery—geographical, geological, and botanical. The wonders of the Southern Alps are only beginning to be known; but the more they are known the more they are appreciated. The snow-line in New Zealand being so much lower than in Switzerland, the scenery, though the mountains are not quite so high, is of surpassing grandeur.

There are extensive glaciers on both sides of the range, those on the west being of exceptional beauty, as, from the greater abruptness of the mountain-slopes on that side, they descend to within about 700ft. of the sea-level, and into the midst of the evergreen forest. The largest glaciers on either side of the range are easily accessible.

The following gives the sizes of some of the glaciers on the eastern slope:—

Name.Area of Glacier.Length of Glacier.Greatest Width.Average Width.
 Acres.Milesch.Milesch.Milesch.
Tasman13,664180214115
Murchison5,800107015066
Godley5,3128015513
Mueller3,20080061050
Hooker2,416725054041

The Alletsch Glacier in Switzerland, according to Ball, in the “Alpine Guide,” has an average width of one mile. It is in length and width inferior to the Tasman Glacier.

Numerous sounds or fiords penetrate the south-western coast. They are long, narrow, and deep (the depth of water at the upper part of Milford Sound is 1,270ft., although at the entrance only 130ft.), surrounded by giant mountains clothed with foliage to the snow-line, with waterfalls, glaciers, and snowfields at every turn. Some of the mountains rise almost precipitously from the water's edge to 5,000ft. and 6,000ft. above the sea. Near Milford, the finest of these sounds, is the great Sutherland Waterfall, 1,904ft. high.

The general surface of the northern portion of the Middle Island, comprising the Provincial Districts of Nelson and Marlborough, is mountainous, but the greater part is suitable for grazing purposes. There are some fine valleys and small plains suitable for agriculture, of which the Wairau Valley or Plain is the largest. Deep sounds, extending for many miles, break the coast-line abutting on Cook Strait. The City of Nelson is situated at the head of Blind Bay, which has a depth inwards from Cook Strait of about forty statute miles.

The Provincial District of Canterbury lies to the south of the Marlborough District, and on the eastern side of the island. Towards the north the land is undulating; then there is a stretch of almost perfectly level country extending towards the south-west 160 miles, after which, on the south, the country is undulating as far as the borders of the Otago District. On the east a block of hill-country rises abruptly from the plain and extends for some miles seaward. This is Banks Peninsula, containing several good harbours, the principal being Port Cooper, on the north, on which is situated Lyttelton, the chief port of the district: the harbour of Akaroa, one of the finest in the colony, is on the southern coast of this peninsula.

The District of Otago is, on the whole, mountainous, but has many fine plains and valleys suitable for tillage. The mountains, except towards the west coast, are generally destitute of timber, and suitable for grazing sheep. There are goldfields of considerable extent in the interior of this district. The inland lakes are also very remarkable features. Lake Wakatipu extends over fifty-four miles in length, but its greatest width is not more than four miles, and its area only 114 square miles. It is 1,070ft. above sea-level, and has a depth varying from 1,170ft. to 1,296ft. Te Anau Lake is somewhat larger, having an area of 132 square miles. These lakes are bounded on the west by broken, mountainous, and wooded country, extending to the ocean.

The chief harbours in Otago are Port Chalmers, at the head of which Dunedin is situated, and the Bluff Harbour, at the extreme south.

The District of Westland, extending along the west coast of the Middle Island, abreast of Canterbury, is more or less auriferous throughout. The western slopes of the central range of mountains are clothed with forest-trees to the snow-line; but on the eastern side timber is scarce, natural grasses covering the ground.

The rivers in the Middle Island are for the most part mountain torrents, fed by glaciers in the principal mountain ranges. When the snow melts they rise in flood, forming, where not confined by rocky walls, beds of considerable width, generally covered by enormous deposits of shingle. The largest river in the colony as regards volume of water is the Clutha. It is 154 miles in length, but is only navigable for boats or small river-steamers for about thirty miles. The Rivers Buller, Grey, and Hokitika, on the West Coast, are navigable for a short distance from their mouths. They form the only ports in the Westland District. In their unimproved state they admitted, owing to the bars at their mouths, none but vessels of small draught; but, in consequence of the importance of the Grey and Buller Rivers as the sole ports available for the coal-export trade, large harbour-works have been undertaken, resulting in the deepening of the beds of these rivers, and giving a depth of from 18ft. to 26ft. of water on the bar.

The area of level or undulating land in the Middle Island available for agriculture is estimated at about 15,000,000 acres. About 13,000,000 are suitable for pastoral purposes only, or may become so when cleared of forest and sown with grass-seed. The area of barren land and mountain-tops is estimated at about 9,000,000 acres.

STEWART ISLAND.

Foveaux Strait separates the Middle from Stewart Island. This last island has an area of only 425,390 acres.

Stewart Island is a great tourist resort during the summer months, and is easily reached by steamer from the Bluff, distant about 25 miles.

The principal peak is Mount Anglem, 3,200ft. above sea-level, which has an extinct crater at its summit. Most of the island is rugged and forest-clad; the climate is mild, frost being seldom experienced; and the soil, when cleared of bush, is fertile.

The chief attractions are the numerous bays and fiords. Paterson Inlet is a magnificent sheet of water, about ten miles by four miles, situated close to Half-moon Bay, the principal port, where between three and four hundred people live. Horse-shoe Bay and Port William are within easy reach of Half-moon Bay. Port Pegasus, a land-locked sheet of water about eight miles by a mile and a half, is a very fine harbour. At “The Neck” (Paterson Inlet) there is a Native settlement of over a hundred Maoris and half-castes. The bush is generally very dense, with thick undergrowth. Rata, black-pine, white-pine, miro, and totara are the principal timber trees. Fish are to be had in great abundance and variety; oysters form an important industry. Wild pigeons, ducks, and mutton-birds are plentiful.

THE OUTLYING ISLANDS.

The outlying group of the Chatham Islands, 480 statute miles east-south-east from Wellington, and 536 miles eastward of Lyttelton, consists of two principal islands and several unimportant islets. The largest island contains about 222,490 acres, of which an irregular-shaped lake or lagoon absorbs 45,960 acres. About one quarter of the surface of the land is covered with forest, the rest with fern or grass. The hills nowhere rise to a great height. Pitt Island is the next in size; the area is 15,330 acres. The greatest portion of both islands is used for grazing sheep.

The Kermadec group of islands, four in number, is situated between 29° 10' and 31° 30' south latitude, and between 177° 45' and 179° west longitude. They are named Raoul or Sunday Island, Macaulay Island, Curtis Island, and L'Esperance or French Rock. The principal island, Sunday, is 600 miles distant from Auckland. The islands are volcanic, and in two of them signs of activity are still to be seen. The rainfall is plentiful, but not excessive. The climate is mild and equable, and slightly warmer than the north of New Zealand. The following are the areas of the islands and islets of the group: Sunday Island, 7,200 acres; Herald group of islets, 85 acres; Macaulay Island, 764 acres; Curtis Islands, 128 acres and 19 acres; L'Esperance, 12 acres: total, 8,208 acres. Sunday Island is twenty miles in circumference, roughly triangular in shape, and at the highest point 1,723ft. above the sea-level. It is rugged and broken over a very large extent of its surface, and, except in a few places, covered with forest. The soil everywhere on the island is very rich, being formed by the decomposition of a dark-coloured pumiceous tuff and a black andesitic lava, with which is closely mixed a fine vegetable mould. The great luxuriance and richness of the vegetation bear witness to the excellence of the soil, which is everywhere—except where destroyed by eruptions, and on the steep cliffs—the same rich loam. Want of water is one of the drawbacks. Three of the four lakes on the island are fresh, but so difficult of approach as to be practically useless.

The Auckland Islands are about 290 miles south of Bluff Harbour, their position being given on the Admiralty chart as latitude 50° 31′ 29″ S., and longitude 166° 19′ 12″ E. They have several good harbours. Port Ross, at the north end of the principal island, was described by the eminent French commander, D'Urville, as one of the best harbours of refuge in the known world. At the southern end of the island there is a through passage extending from the east to the west coast. It has been variously named Adam's Strait and Carnley Harbour, and forms a splendid sheet of water. The largest of the islands is about 27 miles long by about 15 miles broad, and is very mountainous, the highest part being about 2,000ft. above the sea. The west coast is bold and precipitous, but the east coast has several inlets. The wood on the island is, owing to the strong prevailing wind, scrubby in character. The New Zealand Government maintains at this island a depot of provisions and clothing for the use of shipwrecked mariners.

CONSTITUTION.

British sovereignty was proclaimed over New Zealand in January, 1840, and the country became a dependency of New South Wales until the 3rd May, 1841, when it was made a separate colony. The seat of Government was at Auckland, and the Executive included the Governor, and three gentlemen holding office as Colonial Secretary, Attorney-General, and Colonial Treasurer.

The successors of these gentlemen, appointed in August, 1841, May, 1842, and January, 1844, respectively, continued in office until the establishment of Responsible Government on the 7th May, 1856. Only one of them—Mr. Swainson, the Attorney-General—sat as a member of the first General Assembly, opened on the 27th May, 1854. During the session of that year there were associated with the permanent members of the Executive Council certain members of the General Assembly. These latter held no portfolios.

The Government of the colony was at first vested in the Governor, who was responsible only to the Crown; but in 1852 an Act granting representative institutions to the colony was passed by the Imperial Legislature. Under it the constitution of a General Assembly for the whole colony was provided for, to consist of a Legislative Council, the members of which were to be nominated by the Governor, and of an elective House of Representatives. The first session of the General Assembly was opened on the 27th May, 1854, but the members of the Executive were not responsible to Parliament. The first Ministers under a system of Responsible Government were appointed on the 18th April, 1856. By the Act of 1852 the colony was divided into six provinces, each to be presided over by an elective Superintendent, and to have an elective Provincial Council, empowered to legislate, except on certain specified subjects. The franchise amounted practically to household suffrage. In each case the election was for four years, but a dissolution of the Provincial Council by the Governor could take place at any time, necessitating a fresh election both of the Council and of the Superintendent. The Superintendent was chosen by the whole body of electors of the province; each member of the Provincial Council by the electors of a district. The Provincial Governments, afterwards increased to nine, remained as integral parts of the Constitution of the colony until the 1st November, 1876, when they were abolished by an Act of the General Assembly, that body having been vested with the power of altering the Constitution Act. On the same day an Act of the General Assembly which subdivided the colony (exclusive of the areas included within municipalities) into counties, and established a system of local county government, came into force.

GOVERNMENT.

The Governor is appointed by the Queen. His salary is £5,000 a year, and is provided by the colony.

Members of the Legislative Council hold their seats under writs of summons from the Governor. Till the year 1891 the appointments were for life; but in September of that year an Act was passed making appointments after that time tenable for seven years only, though Councillors may be reappointed. In either case seats may be vacated by resignation or extended absence. Two members of the Council are aboriginal native chiefs.

The members of the House of Representatives are elected for three years from the time of each general election; but at any time a dissolution of Parliament by the Governor may render a general election necessary. Four of the members are representatives of Native constituencies. An Act was passed in 1887 which provided that, on the dissolution of the then General Assembly, the number of members to be thereafter elected to the House of Representatives should be seventy-four in all, of whom four were to be elected, under the provisions of the Maori Representation Acts, as representatives of Maori electors only. For the purposes of European representation the colony is divided into sixty-two electoral districts, four of which—the Cities of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—return each three members, and all the other electorates one each. Members of the House of Representatives are chosen by the votes of the inhabitants in every electoral district appointed for that purpose. By “The Members of the House of Representatives Disqualification Act, 1897,” no person, who, being a bankrupt within the meaning of “The Bankruptcy Act, 1892,” has not obtained an order of discharge under that Act shall be qualified to be nominated as a candidate for election, or to be elected, or to take his seat as a member of the House of Representatives, anything in “The Electoral Act, 1893,” or any other Act to the contrary notwithstanding.

In 1889 an amendment of the Representation Act was passed, which contained a provision prohibiting any elector from giving his vote in respect of more than one electorate at any election. “The Electoral Act, 1893,” extended to women of both races the right to register as electors, and to vote at the elections for members of the House of Representatives. The qualification for registration is the same for both sexes. No person is entitled to be registered on more than one electoral roll within the colony. Women are not qualified to be elected as members of the House of Representatives. The electoral laws are the subject of special comment further on in this work. Every man registered as an elector, and not coming within the meaning of section 8 of “The Electoral Act, 1893,” is qualified to be elected a member of the House of Representatives for any electoral district. For European representation every adult person, if resident one year in the colony and three months in one electoral district, can be registered as an elector. Freehold property of the value of £25 held for six months preceding the day of registration until 1896 entitled a man or woman to register, if not already registered under the residential qualification. But the Amendment Act of 1896 abolished the property qualification (except in case of existing registrations), and residence alone now entitles a man or woman to have his or her name placed upon an electoral roll. For Maori representation every adult Maori resident in any Maori electoral district (of which there are four only in the colony) can vote. Registration is not required in Native districts.

THE SEAT OF GOVERNMENT.

Up to the year 1865 the seat of Government of New Zealand was at Auckland. Several attempts were made by members of Parliament, by motions in the Legislative Council and House of Representatives, to have it removed to some more central place; but it was not until November, 1863, that Mr. Domett (the then ex-Premier) was successful in carrying resolutions in the House of Representatives that steps should be taken for appointing some place in Cook Strait as the permanent seat of Government in the colony. The resolutions adopted were: “(1.) That it has become necessary that the seat of Government in the colony should be transferred to some suitable locality in Cook Strait. (2.) That, in order to promote the accomplishment of this object, it is desirable that the selection of the particular site in Cook Strait should be left to the arbitrament of an impartial tribunal. (3.) That, with this view, a Bill should be introduced to give effect to the above resolutions.” On the 25th November an address was presented to the Governor, Sir George Grey, K.C.B., by the Commons of New Zealand, requesting that the Governors of the Colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, might each be asked to appoint one Commissioner for the purpose of determining the best site in Cook Strait. Accordingly, the Hon. Joseph Docker, M.L.C., New South Wales; the Hon. Sir Francis Murphy, Speaker of the Legislative Council, Victoria; and R. C. Gunn, Esq., Tasmania, were appointed Commissioners.

These gentlemen, having made a personal inspection of all suitable places, arrived at the unanimous decision “that Wellington, in Port Nicholson, was the site upon the shores of Cook Strait which presented the greatest advantages for the administration of the government of the colony.”

The seat of Government was, therefore, in accordance with the recommendation of the Commissioners, removed to Wellington in February, 1865.

PUBLIC WORKS.

Nearly all the public works of New Zealand are in the hands of the Government of the colony, and in the early days they simply kept pace with the spread of settlement. In 1870, however, a great impetus was given to the progress of the whole country by the inauguration of the “Public Works and Immigration Policy,” which provided for carrying out works in advance of settlement. Railways, roads, and water-races were constructed, and immigration was conducted on a large scale. As a consequence, the population increased from 267,000 in 1871 to 501,000 in 1881, and to 756,505 at the close of the year 1899, exclusive of Maoris.

Chapter 2. SUCCESSIVE GOVERNORS.

SUCCESSION OF GOVERNORS OF NEW ZEALAND, AND THE DATES ON WHICH THEY ASSUMED AND RETIRED FROM THE GOVERNMENT.

Captain William Hobson, R.N., from Jan., 1840, to 10 Sept., 1842.

[British sovereignty was proclaimed by Captain Hobson in January, 1840, and New Zealand became a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales until 3rd May, 1841, at which date it was proclaimed a separate colony. From January, 1840, to May, 1841, Captain Hobson was Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand under Sir George Gipps, Governor of New South Wales, and from May, 1841, Governor of New Zealand; the seat of Government being at Auckland, where he died in September, 1842. From the time of Governor Hobson's death, in September, 1842, until the arrival of Governor Fitzroy, in December, 1843, the Government was carried on by the Colonial Secretary, Lieutenant Shortland.]

Lieutenant Shortland, Administrator, from 10 Sept., 1842, to 26 Dec., 1843.

Captain Robert Fitzroy, R.N., from 26 Dec., 1843, to 17 Nov., 1845.

Captain Grey (became Sir George Grey, K.C.B., in 1848), from 18 Nov., 1845, to 31 Dec., 1853.

[Captain Grey held the commission as Lieutenant-Governor of the colony until the 1st January, 1848, when he was sworn in as Governor-in-Chief over the Islands of New Zealand, and as Governor of the Province of New Ulster and Governor of the Province of New Munster. After the passing of the New Zealand Constitution Act, Sir George Grey was, on the 13th September, 1852, appointed Governor of the colony, the duties of which office he assumed on the 7th March, 1853. In August, 1847, Mr. E. J. Eyre was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of New Munster: he was sworn in, 28th January, 1848. On 3rd January, 1848, Major-General George Dean Pitt was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of New Ulster: he was sworn in, 14th February, 1848; died, 8th January, 1851; and was succeeded as Lieutenant-Governor by Lieutenant-Colonel Wynyard, appointed 14th April, 1851; sworn in, 26th April, 1851. The duties of the Lieutenant-Governor ceased on the assumption by Sir George Grey of the office of Governor, on the 7th March, 1853.]

Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Henry Wynyard, C.B., Administrator, from 3 Jan., 1854, to 6 Sept., 1855.

Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B., from 6 Sept., 1855, to 2 Oct., 1861.

Sir George Grey, K.C.B., Administrator, from 3 Oct., 1861; Governor, from 4 Dec., 1861, to 5 Feb., 1868.

Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G., from 5 Feb., 1868, to 19 Mar., 1873.

Sir George Alfred Arney, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 21 Mar to 14 June, 1873.

Sir James Fergusson, Baronet, P.C., from 14 June, 1873, to 3 Dec., 1874.

The Marquis of Normanby, P.C., G.C.M.G., Administrator, from 3 Dec., 1874; Governor, from 9 Jan., 1875, to 21 Feb., 1879.

James Prendergast, Esquire, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 21 Feb. to 27 Mar., 1879.

Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G., Administrator, from 27 Mar., 1879; Governor, from 17 April, 1879, to 8 Sept., 1880.

James Prendergast, Esquire, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 9 Sept. to 29 Nov., 1880.

The Honourable Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G., from 29 Nov., 1880, to 23 June, 1882.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 24 June, 1882, to 20 Jan., 1883.

Lieutenant—General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B., from 20 Jan., 1883, to 22 Mar., 1889.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 23 Mar. to 2 May, 1889.

The Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G., from 2 May, 1889, to 24 Feb., 1892.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 25 Feb., to 6 June, 1892.

The Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G., from 7 June, 1892, to 6 Feb., 1897.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 8 Feb., 1897, to 9th Aug., 1897.

The Earl of Ranfurly, K.C.M.G., from 10th Aug., 1897.

Chapter 3. SUPREME COURT JUDGES.

SUPREME COURT JUDGES, PAST AND PRESENT, WITH DATES OF APPOINTMENT, AND OF RESIGNATION OR DEATH.

Sir W. Martin, appointed Chief Justice, 10 Jan., 1842. Resigned, 12 June, 1857.

H. S. Chapman, appointed, 26 Dec., 1843. Resigned, 30 July, 1850. Reappointed, 23 Mar., 1864. Resigned, 31 Mar., 1875.

S. Stephen, appointed, 30 July, 1850. Appointed Acting Chief Justice, 20 Oct., 1855. Died, 13 Jan., 1858.

Daniel Wakefield, appointed, Oct., 1855. Died, Oct., 1857.

Hon. H. B. Gresson, appointed temporarily, 8 Dec., 1857. Permanently, 1 July, 1862. Resigned, 31 Mar., 1875.

Sir G. A. Arney, appointed Chief Justice, 1 Mar., 1858. Resigned 31 Mar., 1875.

A. J. Johnston, appointed, 2 Nov., 1858. Died, 1 June, 1888.

C. W. Richmond, appointed, 20 Oct., 1862. Died, 3 Aug., 1895.

J. S. Moore, appointed temporarily, 15 May, 1866. Relieved, 30 June, 1868.

C. D. R. Ward, appointed temporarily, 1 Oct., 1868. Relieved, May, 1870. Appointed temporarily, 21 Sept., 1886. Relieved, 12 Feb., 1889.

Sir J. Prendergast, appointed Chief Justice, 1 April, 1875. Resigned, 25 May, 1899.

T. B. Gillies, appointed, 3 Mar., 1875. Died, 26 July, 1889.

J. S. Williams, appointed, 3 Mar., 1875.

J. E. Denniston, appointed, 11 Feb., 1889.

E. T. Conolly, appointed, 19 Aug., 1889.

Hon. Sir P. A. Buckley, K.C.M.G., appointed, 20 Dec., 1895, Died, 18 May, 1896.

W. B. Edwards, appointed, 11 July, 1896.

F. W. Pennefather, appointed temporarily, 25 April, 1898. Resigned, 24 April, 1899.

Hon. Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G., appointed Chief Justice, 22 June, 1899.

J. C. Martin, acting Judge, appointed, 12 April, 1900.

Chapter 4. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1843-56.

MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL OF THE COLONY OF NEW ZEALAND PREVIOUS TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT (NOT INCLUDING THE OFFICERS COMMANDING THE FORCES).

Willoughby Shortland, Colonial Secretary, from 3 May, 1841, to 31 Dec., 1843; succeeded by Mr. Sinclair.

Francis Fisher, Attorney-General, from 3 May to 10 Aug., 1841; succeeded by Mr. Swainson.

George Cooper, Colonial Treasurer, from 3 May, 1841, to 9 May, 1842; succeeded by Mr. Shepherd.

William Swainson, Attorney-General, from 10 Aug., 1841, to 7 May, 1856.

Alexander Shepherd, Colonial Treasurer, from 9 May, 1842, to 7 May, 1856.

Andrew Sinclair, Colonial Secretary, from 6 Jan., 1844, to 7 May, 1856.

[The three gentlemen last mentioned were nominated by Her Majesty as ex officio members of the Executive Council. Two of them, the Colonial Secretary and the Colonial Treasurer, were not members of the General Assembly, opened for the first time 27th May, 1854, but all three remained in office until the establishment of Responsible Government.]

James Edward FitzGerald, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 14 June to 2 Aug., 1854.

Henry Sewell, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 14 June to 2 Aug., 1854.

Frederick Aloysius Weld, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 14 June to 2 Aug., 1854.

Francis Dillon Bell, M.L.C., without portfolio, from 30 June to 11 July, 1854.

Thomas Houghton Bartley, M.L.C., without portfolio, from 14 July to 2 Aug., 1854.

Thomas Spencer Forsaith, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854.

Edward Jerningham Wakefield, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854.

William Thomas Locke Travers, M.H.R., without portfolio, 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854.

James Macandrew, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854.

Chapter 5. PARLIAMENTS.

NUMBER OF PARLIAMENTS SINCE THE CONSTITUTION ACT PASSED FOR CONFERRING REPRESENTATIVE INSTITUTIONS UPON THE COLONY OF NEW ZEALAND, WITH THE DATES OF OPENING AND CLOSING OF SESSIONS AND DATES OF DISSOLUTION.

Parliament.Date of Opening of
Sessions.
Date of Prorogation.
First (dissolved 15th September, 1855)27 May, 1854  9 August, 1854.
31 August, 185416 September, 1854.
  8 August, 185515 September, 1855.
Second (dissolved 5th November, 1860)15 April, 1856
(No session in 1857)
16 August, 1856.
10 April, 1858
(No session in 1859)
21 August, 1858.
30 July, 1860  5 November, 1860.
Third (dissolved 27th January, 1856)  3 June, 1861  7 September, 1861.
  7 July, 186215 September, 1862.
19 October, 186314 December, 1863.
24 November, 186413 December, 1864.
26 July, 186530 October, 1865.
Fourth (dissolved 30th December, 1870)30 June, 1866  8 October, 1866.
  9 July, 186710 October, 1867.
  9 July, 186820 October, 1868.
  1 June, 1869  3 September, 1869.
14 June, 187013 September, 1870.
Fifth (dissolved 6th December, 1875)14 August, 187116 November, 1871.
16 July, 187225 October, 1872.
15 July, 1873  3 October, 1873.
  3 July, 187431 August, 1874.
20 July, 187521 October, 1875.
Sixth (dissolved 15th August, 1879)15 June, 187631 October, 1876
19 July, 187710 December, 1877.
26 July, 1878  2 November, 1878.
11 July, 187911 August, 1879.
Seventh (dissolved 8th November, 1881)24 September, 187919 December, 1879.
28 May, 1880  1 September, 1880.
  9 June, 188124 September, 1881.
Eighth (dissolved 27th June, 1884)18 May, 188215 September, 1882.
14 June, 18838 September, 1883.
  5 June, 188424 June, 1884.
Ninth (dissolved 15th July, 1887)  7 August, 188410 November, 1884.
11 June, 188522 September, 1885.
13 May, 188618 August, 1886
26 April, 188710 July, 1887.
Tenth (dissolved 3rd October, 1890)  6 October, 188723 December, 1887.
10 May, 188831 August, 1888.
20 June, 188919 September, 1889.
19 June, 189018 September, 1890.
Eleventh (dissolved 8th November, 1893)23 January, 189131 January, 1891.
11 June, 1891  5 September, 1891.
23 June, 189212 October, 1892.
22 June, 1893  7 October, 1893.
Twelfth (dissolved 14th November, 1896)21 June, 189424 October, 1894.
20 June, 1895  2 November, 1895.
11 June, 189619 October, 1896.
Thirteenth (dissolved 15th November, 1899)  7 April, 189712 April, 1897.
23 September, 189722 December, 1897.
24 June, 1898  5 November, 1898.
23 June, 189924 October, 1899.

Chapter 6. SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856.

Name of Ministry.Assumed Office.Retired.
* Owing to the death of the Premier, the Hon. J. Ballance, on 27th April, 1893.
  1. Bell-Sewell  7 May, 185620 May, 1856.
  2. Fox20 May, 1856  2 June, 1856.
  3. Stafford  2 June, 185612 July, 1861.
  4. Fox12 July, 1861  6 August, 1862.
  5. Domett  6 August, 186230 October, 1863.
  6. Whitaker-Fox30 October, 186324 November, 1864.
  7. Weld24 November, 186416 October, 1865.
  8. Stafford16 October, 186528 June, 1869.
  9. Fox28 June, 186910 September, 1872.
10. Stafford10 September, 187211 October, 1872.
11. Waterhouse11 October, 1872  3 March, 1873.
12. Fox  3 March, 1873  8 April, 1873.
13. Vogel  8 April, 1873  6 July, 1875.
14. Pollen  6 July, 187515 February, 1876
15. Vogel15 February, 1876  1 September, 1876.
16. Atkinson  1 September, 187613 September, 1876.
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)13 September, 187613 October, 1877.
18. Grey15 October, 1877  8 October, 1879.
19. Hall  8 October, 187921 April, 1882.
20. Whitaker21 April, 188225 September, 1883.
21. Atkinson25 September, 188316 August, 1884.
22. Stout-Vogel16 August, 188428 August, 1884.
23. Atkinson28 August, 1884  3 September, 1884.
24. Stout-Vogel  3 September, 1884  8 October, 1887.
25. Atkinson  8 October, 188724 January, 1891.
26. Ballance24 January, 1891  1 May, 1893.*
27. Seddon  1 May, 1893. 

Chapter 7. PREMIERS OF SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES.

Name of Premier.
Henry Sewell.
William Fox.
Edward William Stafford.
William Fox.
Alfred Domett.
Frederick Whitaker.
Frederick Aloysius Weld.
Edward William Stafford.
William Fox.
Hon. Edward William Stafford.
George Marsden Waterhouse.
Hon. William Fox.
Hon. Julius Vogel, C.M.G.
Daniel Pollen, M.L.C.
Sir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.
Harry Albert Atkinson.
Harry Albert Atkinson (Ministry reconstituted).
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.
Hon. John Hall.
Frederick Whitaker, M.L.C.
Harry Albert Atkinson.
Robert Stout.
Harry Albert Atkinson.
Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.
Sir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.
John Ballance.
Rt. Hon. Richard John Seddon, P.C.

Chapter 8. SPEAKERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

WITH DATES OF THEIR APPOINTMENT AND DATES OF RETIREMENT OR DEATH.

Name of Speaker.Date of Appointment.Date of Retirement or Death.
Hon. William Swainson16 May, 1854  8 August, 1855.
Hon. Frederick Whitaker  8 August, 185512 May, 1856.
Hon. Thomas Houghton Bartley12 May, 1856  1 July, 1868.
Hon. Sir John Larkins Cheese Richardson, Kt.  1 July, 186814 June, 1879.
Hon. Sir William Fitzherbert, K.C.M.G.14 June, 187923 January, 1891.
Hon. Sir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.23 January, 189128 June, 1892.
Hon. Henry John Miller  8 July, 1892. 
   6 October, 1897. 

Chapter 9. SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, WITH DATES OF THEIR ELECTION AND DATES OF RETIREMENT.

Name of Speaker.Date of Election.Date of Retirement.
Sir Charles Clifford, Bart.26 May, 1854 
 15 April, 1856  3 June, 1861.
Sir David Monro, Kt. Bach.  3 June, 1861 
 30 June, 186613 Sept., 1870.
Sir Francis Dillon Bell, K.C.M.G., C.B.14 August, 187121 October, 1875.
Sir William Fitzherbert, K.C.M.G.15 June, 187613 June, 1879.
Sir George Maurice O'Rorke, Kt. Bach.11 July, 1879 
 24 September, 1879 
 18 May, 1882 
   7 August, 1884 
   6 October, 1887  3 October, 1890.
Hon. Major William Jukes Steward23 January, 1891  8 November, 1893.
Hon. Sir George Maurice O'Rorke, Kt. Bach.21 June, 1894 
   6 April, 1897. 

Chapter 10. FOREIGN CONSULS.

CONSULS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES RESIDING IN, OR WITH JURISDICTION OVER, NEW ZEALAND, APRIL, 1900.

Country represented.Office held.Name.Place of Residence.
Austria-HungaryConsulE. LangguthAuckland.
“ ActingCarl Seegner
BelgiumConsul-GeneralEdouard PolletMelbourne.
ConsulCharles John JohnstonWellington.
Joseph James KinseyChristchurch.
John BurnsAuckland.
Hon. Richard Oliver, M.L.C.Dunedin.
ChiliWilliam BrownSydney.
DenmarkConsul (for North Island); Chief Consular Officer in New ZealandEduard Valdemar JohansenAuckland.
Consul (for South Island)Emil Christian SkogChristchurch.
Vice ConsulFrancis Henry Dillon BellWellington.
William PerryHokitika.
A. G. FenwickDunedin.
FranceConsul (for New Zealand)Count Louis Antoine Marie Joseph Henri De CourteWellington.
Consular AgentGeorge HumphreysChristchurch.
George DunnetAuckland.
Percival Clay NeillDunedin.
German EmpireConsul-General—KempermannSydney.
ConsulBendix HallensteinDunedin.
Willi FelsDunedin
Philip KippenbergerChristchurch.
Friedrich August KrullWanganui.
Carl SeegnerAuckland.
Vice-ConsulEberhard FockeWellington.
Hawaiian IslandsConsul—General (for Australasia)W. E. DixonSydney.
Consul(Vacant)Dunedin.
“ ActingGeorge DunnetAuckland.
ItalyConsul -General (in Australia)Commendatore P. CorteMelbourne.
Consular Agent(Vacant)Christchurch.
George FisherWellington.
Edward Bowes CargillDunedin.
Geraldo Giuseppe PerottiGreymouth.
R. Rose (acting)Auckland.
JapanConsulA. S. AldrichWellington.
NetherlandsConsul-GeneralW. W. BossehartMelbourne.
ConsulCharles John JohnstonWellington.
Vice-ConsulEdward Bowes CargillDunedin.
Ambrose MillarAuckland.
Harold Featherston JohnstonWellington.
PortugalConsulJohn Duncan
Vice-ConsulHenry Rees GeorgeAuckland.
Charles William RattrayDunedin.
RussiaConsulBaron d'Ungern-SternbergMelbourne.
SpainVice-Consul(Vacant)Christchurch.
ActingThomas Jamieson
Honorary Vice-ConsulAlexander H. TurnbullWellington.
Sweden and NorwayConsulArthur Edward PearceWellington.
Vice-ConsulEduard Valdemar JohansenAuckland.
Frank GrahamChristchurch.
United StatesConsul (for New Zealand)Frank DillinghamAuckland.
Vice-ConsulLeonard A. BachelderAuckland.
Consular AgentRobert PitcaithleyChristchurch.
John DuncanWellington.

Chapter 11. AGENT-GENERAL FOR NEW ZEALAND IN LONDON.

The Hon. W. P. Reeves, Westminster Chambers, 13, Victoria Street, S.W. Secretary—Walter Kennaway, C.M.G.

Chapter 12. THE COLONIAL OFFICE.

Table of Contents

APRIL, 1900.

(DOWNING STREET, S.W., LONDON), WITH DATES OF APPOINTMENT.

Principal Secretary of State for the Colonies—The Right Hon. Joseph Chamberlain, M.P., 28th June, 1895.

Under-Secretaries: Parliamentary—The Right Hon. the Earl of Selborne, 28th June, 1895. Permanent—Sir Edward Wingfield, K.C.B., B.C.L., 1st March, 1897.

Assistant Under-Secretaries: Frederick Graham, 1st March, 1897; Charles P. Lucas; H. B. Cox (Legal); and Reginald L. Antrobus, C.B.

Chapter 13. CROWN AGENTS FOR THE COLONIES.

DOWNING STREET, S.W. CITY OFFICE: 1, TOKENHOUSE BUILDINGS, E.C., LONDON.

Crown Agents—Sir Montagu Frederick Ommanney, K.C.M.G., Ernest Edward Blake, and Major Maurice Alexander Cameron, R.E.

Chapter 14. HONOURS HELD BY COLONISTS.

Buller, Sir Walter Lawry, F.R.S., C.M.G., 1875; K.C.M.G., 1886.

Grace, Hon. Morgan Stanislaus, C.M.G., 1890.

Gresson, Hon. H.B., 1877.

Hall, Hon. Sir John, K.C.M.G., 1882.

Hector, Sir James, F.R.S., C.M.G., 1875; K.C.M.G., 1887.

Kennaway, Walter, Esq., C.M.G., 1897.

O'Rorke, Hon. Sir George Maurice, Knt. Bach., 1880.

Perceval, Sir Westby Brook, K.C.M.G, 1894.

Prendergast, Sir James, Knt. Bach., 1881.

Richardson, Hon. Edward, C.M.G., 1879.

Roberts, John, Esq., C.M.G., 1891.

Seddon, Right Hon. Richard John, P.C., 1897.

Stafford, Hon. Sir Edward William, K.C.M.G., 1879; G.C.M.G., 1887.

Stout, Hon. Sir Robert, K.C.M.G., 1886.

Whitmore, Hon. Colonel Sir George Stoddart, C.M.G., 1869; K.C.M.G., 1882.

PERSONS ALLOWED TO RETAIN THE TITLE OF “HONOURABLE” WITHIN HER MAJESTY'S DOMINIONS.

By despatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies, dated Downing Street, 15th June, 1893, His Excellency the Governor was apprised that the title of “Honourable,” appertaining to Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils in colonies possessing Responsible Government, whether confined to duration of office or continued for life, is approved by Her Majesty for use and recognition throughout her dominions, either during office or for life, as the case may be.

By further despatch of 10th March, 1894, the Secretary of State announces that he is prepared in future to submit for the approval of the Queen the recommendation of the Governor of any colony having Responsible Government that the President of the Legislative Council or the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly may, on quitting office after three years' service in their respective offices, be permitted to retain the title of “Honourable.” This title is now held by Sir G. M. O'Rorke and Major William Jukes Steward.

Besides the Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils, the following ex-Ministers whose names do not appear in the list given above are allowed, as such, to retain the title of “Honourable”: Bryce, John, 1884; Fergus, Thomas, 1891; Haultain, Colonel T. M., 1870; Hislop, Thomas W., 1891; Johnston, Walter W., 1884; Mitchelson, Edwin, 1891; Oliver, Richard, 1884; Reeves, William P., 1896; Richardson, George F., 1891; Rolleston, William, 1884; Tole, Joseph A., 1888; Ward, Joseph George, 1896.

[Inset, see page 27.]

ALTERATIONS TO DATE (AUGUST, 1900).

BY a statute passed in August, 1900, which has been reserved for Her Majesty's assent, the Governor's allowance on account of his establishment is fixed at £1,500, and for travelling expenses at £500 per annum. This allowance is not payable for any period during which the Governor is absent from the colony.

By another statute the annual appropriation for Ministers' salaries is fixed at the sum of £8,900, of which £1,600 is for the Prime Minister, £1,300 for the Minister for Railways, and £1,000 for each of six other Ministers. All Ministers to whom salaries are appropriated are members of the Executive Council, holding one or more of the offices specified by law. Members of the Executive Council travelling within the colony on public service are entitled to allowance not exceeding one pound ten shillings per day when so engaged, but not during the time a Minister is attending a session of the General Assembly.

The Executive Council now consists of:—

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR presiding.

Right Honourable RICHARD JOHN SEDDON, P.C., Prime Minister, Colonial Treasurer, Commissioner of Trade and Customs, Minister of Labour, and Minister of Defence.

Honourable JOSEPH GEORGE WARD, Minister for Railways, Colonial Secretary, Postmaster-General and Commissioner of Electric Telegraphs, and Minister of Industries and Commerce.

Honourable JAMES CARROLL, Native Minister and Commissioner of Stamp Duties.

Honourable WILLIAM CAMPBELL WALKER, Minister of Education and Minister of Immigration.

Honourable WILLIAM HALL- JONES, Minister for Public Works.

Honourable JAMES MC GOWAN, Minister of Justice and Minister for Mines. (23rd January, 1900.)

Honourable THOMAS YOUNG DUNCAN, Minister of Lands and Minister for Agriculture. (2nd July, 1900.)

(Vacant) Attorney-General.

(Vacant) Minister for Public Health.

Honourable ALFRED JEROME CADMAN, Member of Executive Council without Portfolio.

Clerk of the Executive Council—ALEXANDER JAMES WILLIS.

Chapter 15. GOVERNOR OF NEW ZEALAND.

Ranfurly, His Excellency The Right Honourable Sir Uchter John Mark, fifth Earl of (Ireland, 1831), Viscount Northland (1791), Baron Welles (1781), Lord-in-Waiting to Her Majesty (1895–1897), Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George; Knight of Justice and Member of the Council of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem; son of third earl, brother of fourth earl; born 14th August, 1856; succeeded 1875; married, 1880, The Honourable Constance Elizabeth, only child of seventh Viscount Charlemont, C.B. Living issue: One son (Viscount Northland), two daughters (Ladies Constance and Eileen Knox). Appointed 6th April, 1897, and assumed office 10th August, 1897, as Governor and Commander-in-Chief in and over Her Majesty's Colony of New Zealand and its Dependencies. Salary, £5,000. Residences: Northland House, Dungannon, Ireland; Government House, Wellington; Government House, Auckland.

Private Secretary and Aide-de-Camp: Dudley Alexander (Captain, “The Prince of Wales's Own”—West Yorkshire—Regiment).

Assistant Private Secretary: The Honourable Charles Edward Hill-Trevor.

ADMINISTRATOR OF THE GOVERNMENT.—The Chief Justice holds a dormant commission.

Chapter 16. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.

23RD JANUARY, 1900.

His Excellency the GOVERNOR presides.

Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C., LL.D., Premier, Colonial Treasurer, Commissioner of Trade and Customs, Minister of Labour, and Minister of Defence.

Hon. J. McKenzie, Minister of Lands, Minister for Agriculture, and Commissioner of Forests.

Hon. J. Carroll, Minister of Native Affairs and Commissioner of Stamp Duties.

Hon. W. C. Walker, Minister of Education and Minister of Immigration.

Hon. W. Hall-Jones, Minister for Public Works and Minister of Marine.

Hon. J. G. Ward, Colonial Secretary, Postmaster-General, Electric Telegraph Commissioner, Minister of Industries and Commerce, and Minister for Railways.

Hon. J. McGowan, Minister of Justice and Minister of Mines. (23rd January, 1900).

Hon. A. J. Cadman, Member of Executive Council.

Clerk of Executive Council—Alexander James Willis.

Chapter 17. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY.

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

The number of members at present constituting the Legislative Council is forty-five. The number cannot be less than ten, but is otherwise unlimited. Prior to 1891 Councillors summoned by the Governor held their appointments for life; but on the 17th of September of that year an Act was passed giving the Council power to elect its own Speaker for a period of five years, and making future appointments to the Council tenable for seven years only, to be reckoned from the date of the writ of summons of the Councillor's appointment, though every such Councillor may be reappointed. The qualifications are that the person to be appointed be of the full age of twenty-one years, and a subject of Her Majesty, either natural-born or naturalised by or under any Act of the Imperial Parliament or by or under any Act of the General Assembly of New Zealand. All contractors to the public service to an amount of over £50 and Civil servants of the colony are ineligible as Councillors. Payment of Councillors is at the rate of £150 a year, payable monthly. Actual travelling-expenses to and from Wellington are also allowed. A deduction of £1 5s. per sitting day is made in case of an absence, except through illness or other unavoidable cause, exceeding five sitting days in any one session. Under “The Legislative Council Act, 1891,” a seat is vacated by any member of the Council: (1.) If he takes any oath or makes any declaration or acknowledgment of allegiance, obedience, or adherence to any foreign Prince or Power; or (2), if he does, or concurs in, or adopts any act whereby he may become a subject or citizen of any foreign State or Power, or is entitled to the rights, privileges, or immunities of a subject of any foreign State or Power; or (3), if he is a bankrupt, or compounds with his creditors under any Act for the time being in force; or (4), if he is a public defaulter, or is attainted of treason, or is convicted of felony or any infamous crime; or (5), if he resigns his seat by writing under his hand addressed to and accepted by the Governor; or (6), if for more than one whole session of the General Assembly he fails, without permission of the Governor notified to the Council, to give his attendance in the Council. By the Standing Orders of the Council, the presence of one-fourth of the members of the Council, exclusive of those who have leave of absence, is necessary to constitute a meeting for the exercise of its powers. This rule, however, may be altered from time to time by the Council. The ordinary sitting-days are Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, from 2.30 p.m. to 5 p.m., resuming again at 7.30 when necessary.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HONOURABLE THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND. (APRIL, 1900.)
Speaker—The Hon. HENRY JOHN MILLER.
Chairman of Committees—The Hon. WILLIAM DOUGLAS HALL BAILLIE.
Name.Provincial District.Date of Appointment.

* Reappointed, 16th October, 1899.

* Reappointed, 14th October, 1899.

Clerk of Parliaments, Clerk of the Legislative Council, and Examiner of Standing Orders upon Private Bills—Leonard Stowe.
Clerk-Assistant—Arthur Thomas Bothamley.
Second Clerk-Assistant—George Moore.
Interpreter—Henry S. Hadfield.

Arkwright, the Hon. FrancisWellington13 December, 1895.
Baillie, the Hon. William Douglas HallMarlborough  8 March, 1861.
Barnicoat, the Hon. John WallisNelson14 May, 1883.
Bolt, the Hon. William MouatOtago15 October, 1892.*
Bonar, the Hon. James AlexanderWestland27 June, 1868.
Bowen, the Hon. Charles ChristopherCanterbury20 January, 1891.
Cadman, the Hon. Alfred JeromeAuckland21 December, 1899.
Feldwick, the Hon. HenryOtago15 October, 1892.*
Fraser, the Hon. Francis HumphrisWellington22 June, 1899.
Gourley, the Hon. HughDunedin22 June, 1899.
Grace, the Hon. Morgan Stanislaus, C.M.G.Wellington13 May, 1870.
Harris, the Hon. BenjaminAuckland  3 February, 1897.
Holmes, the Hon. MathewOtago19 June, 1866.
Jenkinson, the Hon. John EdwardCanterbury  6 June, 1893.
Jennings, the Hon. William ThomasAuckland15 October, 1892.*
Johnston, the Hon. Charles JohnWellington20 January, 1891.
Jones, the Hon. GeorgeOtago13 December, 1895.
Kelly, the Hon. ThomasTaranaki15 October, 1892.*
Kelly, the Hon. WilliamAuckland  3 February, 1897.
Kenny, the Hon. Courtney William Aylymer ThomasMarlborough15 May, 1885.
Kerr, the Hon. JamesWestland15 October, 1892.*
McLean, the Hon. GeorgeOtago19 December, 1881.
Miller, the Hon. Henry John (Speaker)Otago  8 July, 1865.
Montgomery, the Hon. WilliamCanterbury15 October, 1892.*
Morris, the Hon. George BenthamAuckland15 May, 1885.
Oliver, the Hon. RichardOtago10 November, 1881.
Ormond, the Hon. John DaviesHawke's Bay20 January, 1891.
Peacock, the Hon. John ThomasCanterbury  9 October, 1877.
Pinkerton, the Hon. DavidOtago  3 February, 1897.
Pitt, the Hon. Albert, Lieut. ColonelNelson23 December, 1899.
Reeves, the Hon. Richard Harman JeffaresNelson13 December, 1895.
Rigg, the Hon. JohnWellington  6 June, 1893.
Scotland, the Hon. HenryTaranaki24 February, 1868.
Shrimski, the Hon. Samuel EdwardOtago15 May, 1885.
Smith, the Hon. Alfred LeeOtago18 June, 1898.
Smith, the Hon. William CowperHawke's Bay13 December, 1895.
Stevens, the Hon. Edward Cephas JohnCanterbury  7 March, 1882.
Swanson, the Hon. WilliamAuckland15 May, 1885.
Taiaroa, the Hon. Hori KereiOtago15 May, 1885.
Tomoana, the Hon. HenareHawke's Bay24 June, 1898.
Twomey, the Hon. Jeremiah MatthewOtago18 June, 1898.
Walker, the Hon. LancelotCanterbury15 May, 1885.
Walker, the Hon. William CampbellCanterbury15 October, 1892.*
Whitmore, the Hon. Sir George Stoddart, K.C.M.G.Hawke's Bay31 August, 1863.
Williams, the Hon. HenryAuckland  7 March, 1882.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is seventy-four—seventy Europeans and four Maoris. This number was fixed by the Act of 1887, which came for the first time into practical operation at the general election of 1890. Previously (from 1881) the House consisted of ninety-five members—ninety-one Europeans and four Maoris. The North Island returns thirty-four European members, and the Middle Island thirty-six. The Cities of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin return each three members, and all other electoral districts one each. The elections are triennial, except in the case of a dissolution by the Governor. Every registered elector, being of the male sex, and free from any of the disqualifications mentioned in section 8 of “The Electoral Act, 1893,” is eligible for membership. All contractors to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly, in any one financial year, as well as the Civil servants of the colony, are incapable of being elected as, or of sitting or voting as, members. The payment made to members of the House of Representatives is £20 per month, amounting to £240 per annum. £2 for every sitting-day exceeding five is deducted on account of absence during session not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. Travelling-expenses to and from Wellington are also allowed. This scale of payment came into force on the 1st January, 1893, under the provisions of “The Payment of Members Act, 1892.” Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum. Unless otherwise ordered, the sitting-days of the House are Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, from 2.30 p.m. to 5.30 p.m., resuming at 7.30 p.m. Order of admission to the Speaker's Gallery is by ticket obtained from the Speaker. The Strangers' Gallery is open free to the public.

BOLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. (APRIL, 1900.)
Speaker—
Chairman of Committees—
Name.Electoral
District.
Date of Notification of
Return of Writ.

* H. A. Field elected 6th December, 1899; died 10th December, 1899.

Clerk of House of Representatives—H. Otterson.
Clerk-Assistant—A. J. Rutherfurd.
Second Clerk-Assistant—A. F. Lowe.
Sergeant-at-Arms—W. Fraser.
Reader and Clerk of Bills and Papers—E. W. Kane.
Chief Hansard Reporter—J. Grattan Grey.
Interpreters—L. M. Grace, W. E. Goff.
Clerk of Writs—H. Pollen.
Deputy Clerk of Writs—–.
Acting Librarian—H. L. James, B.A.

* W. Crowther elected 6th December, 1899; died 14th March, 1900.

† Date of election.

        For European Electorates.  
Allen, Edmund GiblettWaikouaiti27 December, 1899.
Allen, JamesBruce
Arnold, James FrederickCity of Dunedin.
Atkinson, Arthur RichmondCity of Wellington
Barclay, Alfred RichardCity of Dunedin
Bennet, JamesTuapeka
Bollard, JohnEden
Buddo, DavidKaiapoi
Carncross, Walter Charles FrederickTaieri
Carroll, Hon. JamesWaiapu
Collins, William WhitehouseCity of Christchurch
Colvin, JamesBuller
Duncan, Thomas YoungOamaru
Ell, Henry GeorgeCity of Christchurch
Field, William Hughes*Otaki11 January, 1900.
Fisher, GeorgeCity of Wellington27 December, 1899.
Flatman, Frederick RobertGeraldine
Fowlds, GeorgeCity of Auckland
Fraser, Alfred Levavasour DurellNapier
Fraser, WilliamWakatipu
Gilfedder, MichaelWallace
Graham, JohnCity of Nelson
Guinness, Arthur RobertGrey
Hall, CharlesWaipawa
Hall-Jones, Hon. WilliamTimaru
Hanan, Josiah AlfredInvercargill
Hardy, Charles Albert CreerySelwyn
Herries, William. HerbertBay of Plenty
Hogg, Alexander WilsonMasterton
Hornsby, John Thomas MarryatWairarapa
Houston, Robert MorrowBay of Islands
Hutcheson, JohnCity of Wellington
Hutchison, GeorgePatea
Lang, Frederic WilliamWaikato
Laurenson, GeorgeLyttelton
Lawry, FrankParnell
Lethbridge, Frank YatesRangitikei
Lewis, CharlesCity of Christchurch
McGowan, Hon. JamesThames
McGuire, FelixHawera
McKenzie, Hon. JohnWaihemo
McKenzie, RoderickMotueka
McLachlan, JohnAshburton
McNab, RobertMataura
Massey, William FergusonFranklin
Meredith, RichardAshley
Millar, John AndrewCity of Dunedin27 December, 1899.
Mills, Charles HoughtonWairau
Monk, RichardWaitemata
Morrison, ArthurCaversham
Napier, William JosephCity of Auckland
O'Meara, JohnPahiatua
O'Rorke, Sir George Maurice, Kt.Manukau
Palmer, JacksonOhinemuri
Pirani, FrederickPalmerston
Rhodes, Robert HeatonEllesmere
Russell, George WarrenRiccarton
Russell, William RussellHawke's Bay
Seddon, Rt. Hon. Richard John, P.C. Westland 
Smith, Edward MetcalfTaranaki 
Stevens, JohnManawatu
Steward, Hon. William JukesWaitaki
Symes, WalterEgmont
Tanner, William WilcoxAvon
Thompson, RobertMarsden
Thomson, James WilliamClutha
Ward, Hon. Joseph GeorgeAwarua
Wilford, Thomas MasonSuburbs of Well'gton
Willis, Archibald DudingstonWanganui
Witheford, Joseph Howard*City of Auckland27 April, 1900.
        For Maori Electorates.     Day of Election.
Heke, HoneNorthern Maori19 December, 1899.
Kaihau, HenareWestern Maori
Parata, TameSouthern Maori
Pere, WiEastern Maori

Chapter 18. OFFICIAL LIST.

Table of Contents

[12th April, 1900.]

PREMIER'S OFFICE.

Premier—Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C. Secretary to Cabinet—A. J. Willis

COLONIAL SECRETARY'S DEPARTMENT.

CHIEF OFFICE.

Colonial Secretary—Hon. J. G. Ward

Under-Secretary—Hugh Pollen

Chief Clerk—R. F. Lynch

Clerks—J. F. Andrews, L. W. Loveday

Officer in Charge of Government Buildings—W. H. Hennah

AUDIT OFFICE.

Controller and Auditor-General—J. K. Warburton.

Assistant Controller and Auditor—J. C. Gavin

Chief Clerk—L. C. Roskruge

Clerks—W. Dodd, H. S. Pollen, W. G. Holdsworth, E. J. A. Stevenson, C. M. Georgeson, J. H. Fowler, J. Skerrett

Cadette—E. A. Casey

Extra Clerks—D. C. Innes, J. Swift, A. E. Bybles, J. Ward, A. A. Bethune, B. A. Meek, C. E. Briggs, A. Simpson, E. E. Smythe

Audit Officer, Agent-General's Office, London—C. F. W. Palliser

Audit Inspectors—P. P. Webb, A. H. Maclean, J. King, A. W. Eames, E. T. Greville, G. H. I. Easton, C. P. Johnson, J. T. Dumbell, W. H. Carlyle, H. A. Lamb

REGISTRAR-GENERAL'S OFFICE.

Registrar-General—E. J. Von Dadelszen

Chief Clerk and Deputy Registrar-General—G. Drury

Clerks—F. H. Machattie, W. W. Cook, S. Coffey

Cadet—Ben Keys

REGISTRARS OF BIRTHS, DEATHS, AND MARRIAGES.

Four Chief Towns.

Auckland—E. H. Lyons

Wellington—F. W. Mansfield

Christchurch—J. W. Parkerson

Dunedin—W. J. Hall

PRINTING AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENT.

Government Printer, Stationery Office Manager, and Controller of Stamp Printing—John Mackay

Superintending Overseer—J. Burns

Chief Clerk and Accountant—B. B. Allen

Clerk and Computer—N. B. K. Manley

Clerks—F. Barraud, J. W. Hall, R. Watts, A. Stace, A. Williams

Cadet—R. A. Gray

Hansard Supervisor—M. F. Marks

Overseers—J. J. Gamble, B. Wilson

Sub-overseer, Jobbing-room—G. Tattle

Overseer, Machine-room—

Overseer, Binding Branch—W. Franklin

Sub-overseer, Binding Branch—G. H. Broad

Night Foreman—J. F. Rogers

Stamp Printer—H. Hume

Stereotyper and Electrotyper—W. J. Kirk

Readers—W. Fuller, H. S. Mountier

Forewoman, Binding Branch—Miss O'Malley

Engineer—T. R. Barrer

COLONIAL TREASURER'S DEPARTMENT.

CHIEF OFFICE.

Colonial Treasurer—Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C.

Secretary to the Treasury, Receiver-General, Paymaster-General, and Registrar of Consols—James B. Heywood

Accountant to the Treasury—Robert J. Collins

Cashier—C. E. Chittey

Corresponding Clerk—H. Blundell

Clerks—C. Meacham, R. B. Vincent, W. E. Cooper, J. Driscoll, E. L. Mowbray, A. O. Gibbes, J. Holmes, J. Eman Smith, H. N. W. Church, T. H. Burnett, J. Radcliffe, A. J. Morgan, T. J. Davis, F. H. Tuckey, W. Wilson

Cadets—G. A. Fraser, E. J. Fitzgibbon

Cadettes—L. McIntosh, E. Fisher

Officer for Payment of Imperial Pensions at Auckland—B. J. Daveney

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES' AND TRADE UNIONS' REGISTRY OFFICE; ALSO OFFICE OF THE REGISTRAR UNDER THE INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION ACT.

Registrar—E. Mason

Revising Barrister for Friendly Societies and Trade Unions—L. G. Reid

Clerk—C. T. Benzoni

OLD-AGE PENSIONS OFFICE.

Registrar—E. Mason

Deputy Registrars—

Auckland—John King, Registrar of Electors

Wellington—F. W. Mansfield, Registrar of Births, &c.

Christchurch—L. C. Williams, Registrar of Electors

Dunedin—James Taylor, Deputy Registrar of Births, &c.

(In all other Pension Districts Clerks of the Magistrates' Courts are the Deputy Registrars)

LAND AND INCOME TAX DEPARTMENT.

Commissioner—John McGowan

Deputy Commissioner—G. F. C. Campbell

Chief Clerk—F. J. M. D. Walmsley

Accountant—P. Heyes

Clerks—A. J. McGowan, H. Nancarrow, J. M. King, W. M. Tyers, G. W. Jänisch, J. W. Black, D. R. Purdie, C. V. Kreeft, D. G. Clark, J. Stevenson, J. R. Smyth, R. Hepworth

Cadets—E. Panting, C. E. J. Dowland, C. J. Lovatt

DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE.

HEAD OFFICE.

Minister of Justice—Hon. Jas. McGowan

Under-Secretary—F. Waldegrave

Translator—G. H. Davies

Clerks—C. B. Jordan, C. E. Matthews, W. D. Anderson, G. F. Dixon

CROWN LAW OFFICE.

Attorney-General—(vacant)

Solicitor-General—W. S. Reid

Assistant Law Officer—L. G. Reid

Law Draftsman—F. Fitchett, M.A., LL.D.

Clerk—E. Y. Redward

PATENT OFFICE.

Registrar of Patents, Designs, and Trademarks—F. Waldegrave

Deputy Registrar—J. C. Lewis

Clerks—W. J. Organ, Mary Eyre

JUDICIAL.

Supreme Court Judges.

Chief Justice—

Wellington—Sir R. Stout, K.C.M.G.

Puisne Judges—

Wellington—W. B. Edwards

Auckland—E. T. Conolly

Christchurch—J. E. Denniston (on leave)

Christchurch—J. C. Martin (Acting)

Dunedin—J. S. Williams

District Court Judges.

Wairarapa, Wanganui, New Plymouth, Hawera, and Palmerston North—C. C. Kettle

Nelson—H. W. Robinson

Ashburton, Timaru, Oamaru, Queenstown, Naseby, Lawrence, Invercargill, Hokitika, Greymouth, Westport, Reefton, and Kumara—C. D. R. Ward

Registrars of the Supreme Court.

Auckland—H. C. Brewer

New Plymouth—R. L. Stanford

Wanganui—C. C. Kettle

Napier—A. Turnbull

Gisborne—W. A. Barton

Wellington—D. G. A. Cooper

Nelson—H. W. Robinson

Blenheim—J. Allen

Christchurch—A. R. Bloxam

Hokitika—V. G. Day

Dunedin—C. McK. Gordon

Invercargill—F. G. Morgan

Sheriffs.

Auckland—H. C. Brewer

Taranaki—A. H. Holmes

Hawke's Bay—A. Turnbull

Poverty Bay—W. A. Barton

Wellington—D. G. A. Cooper

Wairarapa—E. Rawson

Wanganui and Rangitikei—A. D. Thomson

Nelson—W. Heaps

Westland North—E. C. Kelling

Central Westland—H. Lucas

Marlborough—J. B. Stoney

Canterbury—A. R. Bloxam

Timaru—C. A. Wray

Westland—V. G. Day

Otago—C. McK. Gordon

Southland—J. R. Colyer

Crown Solicitors.

Auckland—Hon. J. A. Tole

New Plymouth—A. Standish

Gisborne—J. W. Nolan

Napier—A. J. Cotterill

Wellington—H. Gully

Wanganui—S. T. Fitzherbert

Nelson—C. Y. Fell

Blenheim—R. McCallum

Christchurch—T. W. Stringer

Timaru—J. W. White

Dunedin—J. F. M. Fraser

Invercargill—T. M. Macdonald

Oamaru—A. G. Creagh

Crown Prosecutors (District Courts).

New Plymouth—A. Standish

Hawera—E. L. Barton

Wonganui and Palmerston North—S. T. Fitzherbert

Masterton—A. R. Bunny

Nelson—C. Y. Fell

Westport and Reefton—C. E. Harden

Hokitika—J. Park

Greymouth—

Timaru—J. W. White

Oamaru—A. G. Creagh

Queenstown—Wesley Turton

Invercargill—T. M. Macdonald

Stipendiary Magistrates.

Auckland—H. W. Brabant

Pokeno, Waikato, &c.—T. Jackson

Onehunga, &c.—T. Hutchison*

Russell, &c.—E. C. Blomfield

Tauranga, &c.—J. M. Roberts*

Thames, &c.—R. S. Bush*

Gisborne, &c.—J. Booth

New Plymouth—R. L. Stanford

Hawera, &c.—H. Eyre-Kenny

Wanganui, &c.—C. C. Kettle

Palmerston North, &c.—A. Greenfield

Wellington, &c.—W. R. Haselden

Wairarapa, &c.—H. W. Northcroft

Napier, &c.—A. Turnbull

Nelson—H. W. Robinson*

Motueka, Collingwood, &c.—Wilson Heaps*

Blenheim, &c.—J. Allen*

Christchurch, &c.—R. Beetham

Kaiapoi, &c.—H. W. Bishop

Timaru, &c.—C. A. Wray

Greymouth, Westport, &c.—R. S. Hawkins*

Hokitika, &c.—D. Macfarlane*

Dunedin, &c.—E. H. Carew* and C. C. Graham

Oamaru, &c.—J. Keddell*

Milton, &c.—H. A. Stratford*

Clyde, &c.—S. E. McCarthy.*

Naseby—S. M. Dalgleish*

Invercargill, &c.—

Chatham Islands—R. S. Florance

Official Assignees in Bankruptcy.

Auckland—J. Lawson, J.P.

Wellington—J. Ashcroft, J.P.

Christchurch—G. L. Greenwood

Dunedin—C. C. Graham, S.M.

Clerks of District and Magistrates' Courts.

New Plymouth—A. H. Holmes

Hawera—A. Trimble

Wanganui—A. D. Thomson

Palmerston North—W. Matravers

Masterton—E. Rawson

Nelson—C. H. Webb-Bowen

Hokitika—C. A. Barton

Kumara—J. McEnnis

Greymouth—B. Harper

Weatport—E. C. Kelling

Reefton—H. Lucas

Timaru—T. Howley

Ashburton—T. W. Tayler

Oamaru—H. H. G. Ralfe

Invercargill—J. R. Colyer

Queenstown—H. N Firth

Lawrence—A. M. Eyes

Naseby—John Terry

* Are also Wardens of Goldfields.

Receivers of Gold Revenue, Mining Registrars, and Clerks of Wardens' and Magistrates' Courts.

Thames—J. Jordan

Coromandel—T. M. Lawlor

Paeroa—T. A. Moresby

Te Aroha—D. Banks

Tauranga—

Whangarei—G. M. Robertshaw

Havelock and Cullensville (Marlborough)—H. McArdle

Nelson—C. H. Webb-Bowen

Motueka—H. E. Gilbert

Collingwood—J. T. Foley

Westport—E. C. Kelling

Charleston—T. A. Godfrey

Reefton—H. Lucas

Ahaura—A. Askenbeck

Greymouth—B. Harper

Kumara—J. McEnnis

Hokitika—C. A. Barton

Naseby, &c.—John Terry

Wyndbam—D. Bogue

Clyde, Blacks, and Alexandra—F. T. D. Jeffrey

Cromwell—J. Fleming

Queenstown and Arrowtown—H. N. Firth

Lawrence—A. M. Eyes

Riverton—A. G. Ashby

Clerks of Magistrates' Courts.

Auckland—F. J. Burgess

Gisborne—W. A. Barton

Hamilton—T. Kirk

Napier—R. B. Mathias

Hastings—P. Skerrett

Marton, &c.—F. M. Deighton

Wellington—W. P. James

Blenheim—J. B. Stoney

Christchurch—W. Martin

Lyttelton—W. Shanaghan

Kaiapoi—M. Lynskey

Dunedin—W. G. P. O'Callaghan

NATIVE LAND COURT.

Chief Judge—G. B. Davy

Judges—A. Mackay, D. Scannell, R. Ward, H. W. Brabant, W. J. Butler, H. F. Edger, W. G. Mair, H. D. Johnson, J. M. Batham

Registrars—Auckland, J. W. Browne; Gisborne, J. Brooking; Wellington, R. C. Sim

Commissioners of the Native Land Court.

R. S. Bush, J. Booth, A. Turnbull, E. C. Blomfield, T. Jackson, C. C. Kettle, J. M. Roberts, W. Stuart, H. W. Bishop, E. H. Carew, H. E. Kenny, R. L. Stanford, T. Hutchison, H. W. Robinson, R. S. Florance: Sub-commissioners—J. Brooking, W. A. Thom

Government Native Agent, Otorohanga

—G. T. Wilkinson

VALIDATION COURT.

Chief Judge—G. B. Davy

Judges—The Judges of the Native Land Court

Registrars—The Registrars of the Native Land Court

CORONERS.

Coroner—Auckland, A. McArthur, H. Want, T. Hutchison, E. Baker; Akitio G. H. Saxton; Blenheim, J. Allen; Christchurch, R. Beetham and H. W. Bishop; Clyde, S. E. McCarthy; Collingwood, E. Davidson; Coromandel, A. R. H. Swindley; Dunedin, E. H. Carew and C. C. Graham; Foxton, E. S. Thynne; Gisborne, J. Booth; Greymouth, R. S. Hawkins; Huntly, T. H. White; Hawera, C. E. Major; Hokitika, D. Macfarlane and R. W. Wade; Invercargill,

; Lawrence, H. A. Stratford; Marton, A. Ross; Masterton, H. W. Northcroft; Napier, A. Turnbull; Naseby, S. M. Dalgleish; Nelson, H. W. Robinson, and L. G. Boor; New Plymouth, R. L. Stanford; Oamaru, J. Keddell; Ohakana, S. Bates; Otahuhu, S. Luke; Otaki, W. H. Simcox; Paeroa, W. Forrest; Palmerston North, A. Greenfield and G. M. Snelson; Pokeno, T. Jackson; Port Albert, L. P. Becroft; Pahi, J. B. Ariell; Queenstown, L. Hotop and S. E. McCarthy; Raglan, W. H. Wallis; Stratford,

; Tauranga, A. C. H. Tovey and J. M. Roberts; Te Awamutu, T. Gresham; Timaru, C. A. Wray; Te Kopuru, T. Webb; Thames, A. Bruce and R. S. Bush; Waimate, E. M. Williams; Waipawa, S. Johnson; Wellington, J. Ashcroft; Wanganui, H. Eyre-Kenny and C. C. Kettle; Whangarei, J. M. Killen; Woodville, E. J. Gothard; Chatham Islands, R. S. Florance

NEW ZEALAND POLICE FORCE.

Head Office.

Commissioner—John Bennett Tunbridge

Clerks—John Evans, John Tasker, William John Mahoney

Cadet—Walter Gollan

Police Department.

Inspectors—Peter Pender, William Stone Pardy, Francis McGovern, John Cullen, John Wybrant Ellison, Robert James Gillies

Sub-Inspectors—Terence O'Brien, Ewen Macdonell, Nicholas Kiely, Edward Wilson, Alfred James Mitchell

PRISONS DEPARTMENT.

Inspector—Lieut.-Colonel Arthur Hume, N.Z.M.

Clerk—T. E. Richardson

Gaolers—Auckland, Francis Egerton Severne, Dunedin, Samuel Charles Phillips; Hokitika, Thomas Rosson Pointon, Invercargill, John Henry Bratby; Lyttelton, Matthew Michael Cleary; Napier, Michael Flannery; New Plymouth, Bartholomew Lloyd O'Brien; Wanganui, Robert T. N. Beasley; Wellington, Patrick Samuel Garvey

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE.

Minister—Hon. J. G. Ward

Clerk—A. M. Smith

DEPARTMENT OF LABOUR.

Minister of Labour—Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C.

Secretary for Labour and Chief Inspector of Factories—E. Tregear

Chief Clerk—James Mackay

Clerk—F. W. T. Rowley

Cadet- F. A. De la Mare

Shorthand Writer and Typist—J. W. Collins

INSPECTORS OF FACTORIES.

North Island—J. Mackay, J. Shanaghan, H. Ferguson, L. D. Browett, W. J. Blake, Margaret Hawthorne, and 71 local Inspectors

South Island—J. Mackay, J. Shanaghan, J. Lomas, H. Maxwell, W. J. McKeown, Margaret Hawthorne, and 68 local Inspectors

(There are also 200 Bureau Agents in different parts of the colony.)

PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT.

HEAD OFFICE.

Minister for Public Works—Hon. W. Hall-Jones

Under Secretary—H. J. H. Blow

Engineer-in-Chief—W. H. Hales

Superintending Engineer—P. S. Hay, M.A., M. Inst, C.E.

Chief Clerk—W. D. Dumbell

Accountant—G. J. Clapham

Land-purchase Officer—H. Thompson

Record Clerk—H. W. H. Millais

Clerks—W. Black, C. T. Rushbrook, E. Horneman, A. Biddell, E. McCarthy, E. Bold, A. R. Stone, P. S. Waldie, N. Jacobs, A. H. Kimbell, P. J. Garvey, A. L. Goldfinch, L. White

Chief Draughtsman—W. G. Rutherford

Architect—J. Campbell

Draughtsmen—T. Perham, E. Jackson, A. Koch, C. F. Napper, W. Withers, E. McC. Blake, W. G. Swan, J. H. Price, P. N. Hunt, G. Bjornstad, C. A. Lawrence, L. I. Richards, A. E. King, T. G. Applegarth

Head Storekeeper—John Young

DISTRICT OFFICES.

District Engineers—Auckland, C. R. Vickerman; Dunedin, E. R. Ussher, M.Inst.C.E.

Resident Engineers—Hunterville, G. L. Cook, M.Inst.C.E.; Wellington, R. W. Holmes; Westport, R. A. Young, Assoc. M.I.C.E.; Greymouth, J. Thomson, B.E.; Jackson's, J. A. Wilson; Springfield, W. H. Gavin; Dunedin, W. A. Shain

Assistant Engineers—J. D. Louch, J. J. Hay, M.A., F. M. Hewson, D. Ross, T. Roberts. J. H. Dobson, J. S. Stewart, S. J. Harding, A. E. Barrowclough, F. H. Geiow, C. E. Armstrong, A. Ross, G. C. McGlashan, J. H. Lewis, A. Jack, H. Dickson, J. W. E. McEnnis, F. W. Furkert, J. Meenan, W. A. Jeff

Engineering Cadets—W. Sherratt, C. J. McKenzie, F. P. Bartley, J. J. Wilson

Clerks, Draughtsmen, &c.—C. Wood, A. S. Lewis, W. A. Cumming, P. F. M. Burrows, L. F. Tegnér, J. H. Denton, W. H. Hislop, E. Waddell, G. Glenister, J. C. Fulton, T. Douglas, C. Scholfield, W. E. Butler, J. B. Borton, C. T. Williams, T. J. McCosker, L. P. Cabot, F. E. Banks, W. E. Fitzgerald, L. M. Shera

RAILWAYS DEPARTMENT.

Minister for Railways—Hon. J. G. Ward

General Manager—T. Ronayne

Assistant General Manager—C. Hudson

Chief Clerk—T. W. Waite

Clerks—R. W. McVilly, E. J. Andrews, B. M. Wilson, W. S. Ridler, F. S. Pope, W. Johnston, J. Hislop, J. E. Widdop, P. G. Taylor, A. J. Will, S. S. Millington, D. Sinclair, J. D. Nash

Audit Inspectors—H. Baxter, D. Munro, C. L. Russell

Railway Accountant—A. C. Fife

Clerks—H. Davidson, J. H. Davies, G. G. Wilson, M. C. Rowe, S. P. Curtis, J. McLean, E. Davy, A. Morris, C. Batten, W. B. Fisher, J. Firth, E. J. Fleming, H. H. Leopard, R. J. Loe, W. Bourke, A. J. Belworthy, F. W. Lash, A. H. Hunt, W. E. Ahern, F. K. Porteous, T. A. O'Connor, J. W. Dayman, T. S. Hamer, W. H. Simmons

Stores Manager—G. Felton

Clerks—A. M. Heaton, F. J. Dawes, G. H. Norie, G. Bennett, S. Alpe, H. W. Barbor, E. J. Maguiness, R. P. Bray, L. B. Archibald, S. J. H. Dyer, G. B. Cope, J. R. Robertson, C. Brooke, H. D. Vickery, W. G. Caldwell

District Managers—Kaihu, E. E. Gillon; Auckland, A. Grant; Wanganui, H. Buxton; Napier and Wellington, T. E. Donne; Greymouth, C. A. Piper; Nelson, G. E. Richardson; Christchurch, W. H. Gaw; Dunedin, T. Arthur; Invercargill, S. F. Whitcombe

Stationmasters in charge—Kawakawa, R. B. Peat; Whangarei, A. B. Duncan; Westport, T. Hay-Mackenzie; Picton, W. Bowles

Chief Engineer for Working Railways—J. Coom, M.Inst.C.E.

Inspecting Engineer—J. Burnett

Signal Engineer—H. J. Wynne

Railway Land Officer—E. G. H. Mainwaring

Chief Draughtsman—G. A. Troup

Draughtsmen—J. Besant, W. R. B. Bagge, C. T. Jeffreys, Ad. Howitt, L. Reynolds, A. S. Henderson, C. H. Mackie, W. R. Davidson

Clerks—W. P. Hicks, M. Angus, J. T. Ford, W. A. Mirams, H. Jessup, H. W. Rowden, T. M. Lucy, H. H. Gardner, T. H. Wilson, F. J. Rowden, P. J. McGovern, E. D. Richards, A. N. Longton, G. P. Parrell, E. J. Wiseman

District Engineers—Auckland, C. H. Biss; Wanganui, D. T. McIntosh; Wellington, A. C. Koch; Westport, J. D. Harris; Greymouth, H. St. J. Christophers; Christchurch, H. Macandrew; Dunedin, F. W. MacLean; Invercargill, A. J. McCredie

Locomotive Superintendent—T. F. Rotherum

Clerks—R. Triggs, R. Aekins, P. A. Buck, C. G. Edwards, G. G. Haldane, J. Rumgay, W. B. Sinclair, W. A. Wellings, C. H. Virtue, H. McKeowen, C. M. Hill, E. J. Guthrie, G. H. Reynolds, N. P. G. Ewart, C. L. Pettit, E. R. Roskruge, A. Beaton, E. Hagenson

Chief Draughtsman—G. A. Pearson

Draughtsmen—R. Pye-Smith, W. A. Palmer, R. Eagle

Locomotive Engineers—Auckland, A. V. Macdonald; Wanganui-Napier, H. H. Jackson; Wellington, T. A. Peterkin; Hurunui-Bluff, A. L. Beattie; Relieving, J. H. Fox

BOARD OF APPEAL.

North Island.

H. Eyre Kenny, Stipendiary Magistrate, Chairman, appointed by the Governor.

H. Davidson, Railway Accountant's Office, elected.

T. Wilson, Fireman, elected.

Middle Island.

C. D. R. Ward, District Judge, Chairman, appointed by the Governor.

T. W. Brebner, Stationmaster, elected.

P. E. Nolan, Signalman, elected.

POST AND TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT.

GENERAL POST OFFICR.

Postmaster-General and Electric Telegraph Commissioner—Hon. J. G. Ward

Secretary—W. Gray

Superintendent of Electric Lines—J. K. Logan

Assistant Secretary and Inspector—T. Rose

Controller of Money-orders and Savingsbanks, and Accountant—G. Gray

Chief Clerk—D. Robertson

Clerks, Secretary's Office—F. V. Waters, H. Plimmer, J. C. Williamson, W. Crow, V. J. Brogan, W. Isbister, H. D. Grocott, J. C. Redmond, A. T. Markmann, W. J. Gow, F. W. Furby, R. A. Keenan

Mail Agent—A. P. Dryden

Clerks, Inspector's Branch—E. V. Senn, G. V. Hudson, H. S. B. Miller, J. Brennan, A. H. Tucker, W. A. Tanner

Clerks, Accountant's Branch—W. R. Morris, J. L. H. Ledger, H. A. R. Huggins, G. W. Moorhouse, W. Callaghan, W. Chegwidden, R. J. Thompson, H. Cornwall, F. Perrin, J. J. Esson, R. E. Hayes, D. A. Jenkins, E. Fitzsimons, H. N. McLeod, J. D. Avery, C. B. Harton, W. J. Drake, C. Dempsey, H. A. Smith, J. G. Roache, J. Coyle, F. W. Faber, F. E. Beamish, P. J. Kelleher, G. H. Harris, H. C. Milne, C. W. J. Panting, H. C. Hickson, P. D. Hoskins, W. R. Wakelin, F. Stewart, J. G. Howard, T. E. Diamond, J. B. Jordan, N. M. Chesney, R. de Lambert, H. E. Combs, J. E. Hull, A. Marshall, F. G. A. Eagles, C. G. Collins, E. Bermingham, C. Bermingham, S. Brock, E. Harris, I. Johnston, B. M. Kenny, V. Johnston, M. A. McLeod, C. Smith, M. A. Asquith

Electrician—

Assistant Electrician—T. Buckley

Mechanicians—R. Heinitz, F. Palmer

Storekeeper—J. Black

Assistant Storekeeper—C. B. Mann

Clerks in Store—C. Nicholls, T. Palmer, W. H. Carter, M. McGilvray, S. M. Harrison

Circulation Branch, Post Office—

CHIEF POSTMASTERS.

Auckland—S. B. Biss

* Thames—J. E. Coney

* Gisborne—G. W. Sampson

Napier—S. J. Jago

* New Plymouth—F. D. Holdsworth

* Wanganui—J. F. McBeth

* Blenheim—J. Bull

* Nelson—H. Calders

* Westport—J. H. Sheath

* Greymouth—C. J. Berry

* Hokitika—W. St. G. Douglas

Christchurch—R. Kirton

* Timaru—J. A. Hutton

* Oamaru—W. W. Beswick

Dunedin—E. Cook

* Invercargill—J. W. Wilkin

INSPECTORS OF TELEGRAPHS.

Auckland—E. H. Bold

Christchurch—J. W. Gannaway

Dunedin—J. Orchiston

Nelson—W. G. Meddings

ASSISTANT INSPECTORS OF POST OFFICES.

D. Cumming (Northern District), S. P. Stevens (Midland District), C. J. A. H. Tipping (Southern District)

OFFICERS IN CHARGE OF TELEGRAPH OFFICES.

Auckland—W. S. Furby

Napier—H. W. Harrington

Wellington—C. C. Robertson

Christchurch—J. W. Mason

Dunedin—J. G. Ballard

BOARD OF APPEAL.

J. McGowan, Commissioner of Taxes, Chairman (by Act).

J. K. Logan, Superintendent of Electric Lines (by Act).

F. M. Scully, Representing Postal Branch, elected.

W. McNickle, Representing Telegraph Branch, elected.

DEPARTMENT OF TRADE AND CUSTOMS.

Commissioner of Trade and Customs—Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C.

Secretary and Inspector of Customs and Secretary of Marine—W. T. Glasgow.

Chief Clerk—T. Larchin

Clerks, Customs—F. Oxford, V. R. Meredith, C. H. Manson

Cadet—L J. Thompson

Audit—H. W. Brewer, H. Crowther (Writer)

COLLECTORS OF CUSTOMS.

Auckland—A. Rose

Poverty Bay—E. Pasley

New Plymouth—H. Bedford

Napier—E. R. C. Bowen

Wellington—D. McKellar

Wanganui—A. Elliott

Wairau—W. J. Hawley

Nelson—W. Heaps

Westport—J. Mills

Greymouth—A. McDowell

Hokitika—J. P. Ridings

* Combined post- and telegraph-offices.

Lyttelton and Christchurch—E. Patten

Timaru—A. Hart

Oamaru—T. M. Cullen

Dunedin—C. W. S. Chamberlain

Invercargill and Bluff Harbour—D. Johnston, jun.

OFFICERS IN CHARGE OF PORTS, AND COASTWAITERS.

Thames—T. C. Bayldon, Coastwaiter

Russell—H. Stephenson, Coastwaiter

Tauranga—E. Northcroft, Officer in Charge

Whangaroa—A. G. Ratclifte, Coastwaiter

Whangarei—J. Munro, Coastwaiter

Mongonui—A. D. Clemett, Officer in Charge

Hokianga—G. Martin, Coastwaiter

Knipara—J. C. Smith, Officer in Charge

Waitara—J. Cameron, Coastwaiter

Fuxton—J. B. Imrie, Officer in Charge

Patea—J. W. Glenny, Officer in Charge

Picton—F. J. Robertshaw, Officer in Charge

Chatham Islands—R. S. Florance, Officer in Charge

MARINE DEPARTMENT.

Minister of Marine—Hon. W. Hall-Jones

Secretary—W. T. Glasgow

Chief Clerk—G. Allport

Clerks—J. J. D. Grix, G. Sinclair

Cadet—A. P. Owens

Marine Engineer for the Colony—W. H. Hales

Nautical Adviser and Chief Examiner of Masters and Mates—H. S. Blackburne

Weather Reporter—R. A. Edwin, Com. R.N.

Chief Inspector of Machinery, Principal Engineer Surveyor, and Chief Examiner of Engineers—R. Duncan

Chief Clerk—R. P. Milne

Clerk—J. H. Macalister

Cadet—J. Furlong

Inspectors of Machinery, Engineer Surveyors, and Examiners of Engineers:—Auckland—W. J. Jobson and L. Blackwood; Wellington—H. A. McGregor, P. J. Carman, and A. McVicar; Christchurch—G. Croll and A. W. Bethune; Dunedin—A. Morrison and H. Wetherilt

Board of Examiners of Traction, Locomotive, and Winding Engine Drivers: Robert Duncan, Chief Inspector of Machinery, Chairman; John Hayes, F.S.G.C, Inspecting Engineer of Mines; P. G. Hay, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., R. P. Milne, Secretary

Superintendent of Mercantile Marine and Examiner of Masters and Mates, Auckland—W. D. Reid

Superintendent of Mercantile Marine and Examiner of Masters and Mates—Wellington, G. G. Smith

Superintendent of Mercantile Marine and Examiner of Masters and Mates, Lyttelton—J. A. H. Marciel

Superintendent of Mercantile Marine and Examiner of Masters and Mates, Dunedin—C. E. W. Fleming

Master of s.s. “Tutanekai”—C. F. Post

Master of s.s. “Hinemoa”—J. Bollons

INSPECTORS OF SEA FISHERIES.

Russell—H. Stephenson

Whangarei—J. Munro

Wellington—L. F. Ayson and F. Moorhouse

Hokitika—J. Duncan

Bluff—P. McGrath

HARBOURMASTERS.*

Collingwood—F. Stallard

Foxton—A. Seabury

Hokianga—G. Martin

Kaipara—J. Christy Smith

Manukau—J. Neale

Motucka—H. L. Moffatt

Nelson—F. W. Cox

Picton—W. Bowles

Port Robinson—J. Sinclair

Russell—H. Stephenson

Waitapu—S. G. Robinson

STAMP DEPARTMENT.

Commissioner of Stamp Duties—Hon. Jas. Carroll

Secretary for Stamps—C. A. St. G. Hickson

Chief Clerk and Accountant—H. O. Williams

Custodian and Issuer of Stamps—W. H. Shore

Record and Receiving Clerk—J. P. Murphy

Clerk—J. Murray

Chief Stamper—C. Howe

Cadets—W. Wilkes, W. F. Alexander

* The more important harbours are controlled by local Boards, not by the Marine Department.

DEPUTY COMMISSIONERS OF STAMPS.

Auckland—E. Bamford

Gisborne—C. H. W. Dixon

Taranaki—R. L. Stanford

Hawke's Bay—Thos. Hall

Wellington—C. A. St. G. Hickson

Wanganui- J. F. McBeth

Nelson—W. W. de Castro

Marlborough—A. V. Sturtevant

Canterbury—E. Denham

Timaru—J. A. Hutton

Otago—P. C. Corliss

Southland—F. G. Morgan

Westland—V. G. Day

LAND TRANSFER DEPARTMENT AND DEEDS REGISTRY.

Registrar-General of Land and Deeds—G. B. Davy

Secretary, Land and Deeds—C. A. St. G. Hickson

DISTRICT LAND REGISTRARS AND REGISTRARS OF DEEDS.

Auckland—E. Bamford

Taranaki—R. L. Stanford

Wellington—Wm. Stuart

Hawke's Bay—Thos. Hall

Gisborne—J. M. Batham

Nelson—H. W. Robinson

Marlborough—J. Allen

Canterbury—G. G. Bridges, District Land Registrar; E. Denham, Registrar of Deeds

Otago—H. Turton

Southland—F. G. Morgan

Westland—V. G. Day

EXAMINERS OF TITLES.

Auckland—E. Bamford

Taranaki—R. L. Stanford

Wellington—Wm. Stuart, H. Howorth

Hawke's Bay—Thos. Hall

Gisborne—J. M. Batham

Nelson—H. W. Robinson

Marlborough—Wm. Stuart

Canterbury—G. G. Bridges

Otago—H. Turton

Southland—F. G. Morgan

Westland—V. G. Day

REGISTRAR OF JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.

C. A. St. G. Hickson

REGISTRARS OF BUILDING SOCIETIES, INDUSTRIAL AND PROVIDENT SOCIETIES, AND ASSISTANT REGISTRARS OF JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.

Auckland—E. Bamford

Taranaki—R. L. Stanford

Hawke's Bay—Thos. Hall

Wellington—H. O. Williams

Nelson—W. W. de Castro

Marlborough—A. V. Sturtevant

Canterbury—E. Denham

Otago—P. C. Corliss

Southland—F. G. Morgan

Westland—V. G. Day

Poverty Bay—C. H. W. Dixon

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT.

Minister of Education (administering also Native schools, industrial schools, and the institution for deaf-mutes)—Hon. W. C. Walker

Secretary for Education and Inspector-General of Schools—George Hogben, M.A.

Assistant Secretary—Sir E. O. Gibbes, Bart.

Clerks—F. K. de Castro, H. B. Kirk, M.A., R. H. Pope, F. L. Severne, E. C. Banks, F. D. Thomson, T. G. Gilbert, J. Beck

Inspector of Native Schools—James H. Pope. Assistant Inspector—H. B. Kirk. M.A.

EDUCATION BOARDS.

Auckland—V. E. Rice, Secretary

Taranaki—P. S. Whitcombe, Secretary

Wanganui—A. A. Browne, Secretary

Wellington—A. Dorset, Secretary

Hawke's Bay—G. T. Fannin, Secretary

Marlborough—J. Smith, Secretary

Nelson—S. Ellis, Secretary

Grey—W. Riemenschneider, Secretary

Westland—A. J. Morton, B.A., Secretary

Canterbury North—H. C. Lane, Secretary

Canterbury South—J. H. Bamfield, Secretary

Otago—P. G. Pryde, Secretary

Southland—J. Neill, Secretary

SCHOOL COMMISSIONERS

(Administrators of Education Reserves).

Auckland—H. N. Garland, Secretary

Taranaki—F. P. Corkill, Secretary

Wellington—N. J. Tone, Secretary

Hawke's Bay—E. P. A. Platford, Secretary

Marlborough—J. Smith, Secretary

Nelson—A. T. Jones, Secretary

Westland—A. J. Morton, Secretary

Canterbury—H. H. Pitman, Steward of Reserves

Otago—C. Macandrew, Secretary

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS.

Government Schools.

Auckland Industrial School—Miss S. E. Jackson, Manager

Burnham Industrial School (Canterbury)—T. Archey, Manager

Caversham Industrial School (Otago)—G. M. Burlinson, Manager

Private Schools.

St. Mary's Industrial School, Ponsonby—Rev. G. H. Gillan, Manager

St. Joseph's Industrial School, Wellington—Rev. W. J. Lewis, Manager

St. Mary's Industrial School, Nelson—Rev. W. J. Mahoney, Manager

St. Vincent de Paul's Industrial School, Dunedin—Rev. P. Murphy, Manager

INSTITUTION FOR DEAF-MUTES, SUMNER.

Director—G. van Asch

Steward—H. Buttle

LUNATIC ASYLUMS.

Inspector—Duncan MacGregor, M.A., M.B., C.M.*

Assistant Inspector—Mrs. Grace Neill

Medical Superintendent, Auckland Asylum—R. M. Beattie, M.B.

Medical Superintendent, Christchurch Asylum—E. G. Levinge, M.B.

Medical Superintendent, Porirua Asylum—Gray Hassell, M.D.

Medical Superintendent, Wellington Asylum-W. Baxter Gow, M.D.

Medical Superintendent, Seacliff Asylum—F. Truby King, M.B.

Superintendent, Hokitika Asylum—H. Gribben; Medical Officer, H. Macandrew, M.B.

Superintendent, Nelson Asylum—J. Morrison; Medical Officer, A. G. Talbot, M.B.

Ashburn Hall, Waikari (private asylum)—Proprietors, Dr. Alexander and Executor of James Hume; Medical Officer, Frank Hay, M.B.

MINES DEPARTMENT

CHIEF OFFICE.

Minister of Mines—Hon. James McGowan

Under-Secretary for Mines—H. J. H. Eliott

Inspecting Engineer—John Hayes

Chief Clerk—T. H. Hamer

Clerk—H. E. Radcliffe

Analyst—W. Skey

Geologist—Alexander McKay, F.G.S.

Assistant Geologist—W. A. McKay

Draughtsman—C. H. Pierard

Cadet—J. T. Watkins

INSPECTORS OF MINES.

Thames and Auckland Districts—James Coutts; Assistant Inspector, Thomas Ryan; Canterbury, Dunedin, and Southland Districts—E. R. Green; Cadet, H. Paton; West Coast Districts—R. Tennent; Assistant Inspector—A. H. Richards

MINING BUREAU.

Secretary—P. Galvin

MANAGERS OF WATER-RACES.

Waimea-Kumara—A. Aitken

Mount Ida—R. Murray

SCHOOLS OF MINES.

Lecturers and Instructors: Thames—F. B. Allen, M.A., B.Sc.; Assistant, W. H. Baker; Reefton—

Coromandel—P. J. MacLeod; Waihi—P. G. Morgan, M.A.; Assistant, K. M. Barrance

BOARD OF EXAMINERS UNDER “THE COAL-MINES ACT, 1891.”

The Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand; the Surveyor-General; the Inspecting Engineer of Mines; the Chief Inspector of Machinery, Wellington; James Bishop, of Brunnerton; Alfred Benjamin Lindop, and William Shore, of Kaitangata

BOARD OF EXAMINERS UNDER “THE MINING ACT, 1891.”

Same official members as above Board, excepting the Chief Inspector of Machinery, Wellington, with the following private members: H. A. Gordon, F. G. S., Auckland, Thomas Aitken Dunlop, Thames; Patrick Quirk Caples, Reefton; and Francis Hodge, Coromandel.

* Also holds appointment of Inspector of Hospitals and Charitable Institutions.

The Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand is Chairman of both Boards, and Mr. T. H. Hamer is the Secretary.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, MUSEUM, AND OBSERVATORIES.

Minister in Charge—The Hon. Minister of Mines

Director—Sir J. Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S.

Clerk, Curator, and Meteorological Observer for Wellington—R. B. Gore

Astronomical Observer—T. King

Meteorological Observer, Auckland—T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S.

Meteorological Observer, Dunedin—H. Skey

Meteorological Observer, New Plymouth—G. W. Palmer

Meteorological Observer, Hokitika—A. D. Macfarlane

Meteorological Observer, Rotorua—Dr. Kenny

Meteorological Observer, Te Aroha—W. Hill

Meteorological Observer, Lincoln—M. Guérin

Meteorological Observer, Hanmer Plains Miss C. Taylor

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

Manager—Sir J. Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S.

Hon. Treasurer—W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S.

Secretary—R. B. Gore

DEFENCE DEPARTMENT.

Minister of Defence—Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C.

Under-Secretary—Sir A. P. Douglas, Bart. (Retired Lieutenant R.N.), Major N.Z.M.

Commander of the N.Z. Forces.

Colonel Arthur Pole Penton, N.Z.M., Lieut.-Colonel, R.A.

Staff Officers to the Commander of the N.Z. Forces.

Major Wm. Robarts Napier Madocks, N.Z.M. (Lieutenant R.A.)

Lieut.-Commanding: L. J. Joyce (acting)

Staff Officers for the Instruction of Mounted Rifle Volunteers.

Middle and South Islands—Major Alfred W. Robin, N.Z.M.

North Island—Major Richard Hutton Davies, N.Z.M.

Clerk—T. F. Grey

Cadet—A. J. Baker

Defence Store Department.

Storekeeper—J. O'Sullivan (acting)

Assistant Storekeeper—T. H. Sewell

NEW ZEALAND PERMANENT MILITIA.

No. 1 Service Company.

Lieut.-Colonel W. B. Messenger

Captain H. C. Morrison

Lieutenant J. E. Hume

Lieutenant H. E. Pilkington

Lieutenant W. P. Wall

Lieutenant M. M. Gard'ner

Inspectors of Submarine Mining Establishment.

Captain J. Falconer

Captain William Coyle, late Coast Brigade, R.E.

No. 2 Service Company.

Captain J. Falconer

Captain William Coyle, late Coast Brigade, R.E.

Lieutenant F. Symon

Quartermaster, Permanent Militia.

Surgeon, Permanent Militia (Wellington).

John Teare, M.B.

Surgeon, Permanent Militia (Auckland).

John Wilkins, M.R.C.S.E.

Surgeon, Permanent Militia (Lyttelton).

C. H. Upham, M.R.C.S.E.

Honorary Surgeon, Permanent Militia.

Patrick J. O'Neill O'Carroll, L.R.C.S.I.

Honorary Chaplain, Lyttelton Detachment Permanent Militia.

The Rev. E. E. Chambers

Honorary Chaplain, Wellington Detachment Permanent Militia.

The Rev. W. C. Waters, M.A.

Officers Commanding Militia and Volunteer Districts, and Adjutants.

Auckland—Lieut.-Colonel Joseph Henry Banks, N.Z.M. (late Major H.M. 7th Dragoon Guards, &c.). Aćting Adjutant:

Wellington—Lieut—Colonel Stuart Newall, N.Z.M.

Canterbury—Lieut.-Colonel Henry Gordon, N.Z.M., late H.M. 44th Foot

North Otago (sub-district)—Y.D. Lieut.-Colonel Alfred Headland

Otago—Lieut.-Colonel William Holden Webb, N.Z.M., late H.M. 109th Foot

Southland (sub-district)—Captain John Edward Hawkins

Nelson—Captain Wm. S. Littlejohn (Captain, Nelson College Cadets)

DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND SURVEY.

HEAD OFFICE.

Minister of Lands—Hon. John McKenzie

Surveyor-General and Secretary for Crown Lands—S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S.

Assistant Surveyor-General and Under-Secretary for Crown Lands—Alexander Barron

Chief Draughtsman—F. W. Flanagan

Chief Clerk—W. S. Short

Chief Accountant—H. J. Knowles

Road Surveyor—C. W. Hursthouse

Auditor of Land Revenue—W. G. Runcie

Superintendent of Village-settlements—J. E. March

AUCKLAND DISTRICT.

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—G. J. Mueller

District Surveyors—L. Cussen, J. Baber, jun., G. A. Martin, A. H. Vickerman, H. D. M. Haszard

Assistant Surveyors—T. K. Thompson, R. S. Galbraith

Road Surveyors—A. B. Wright, A. C. Turner, T. Burd, D. Innes Barron

Chief Draughtsman—W. C. Kensington

Receiver of Land Revenue—T. M. Taylor

HAWKE'S BAY DISTRICT.

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—E. C. Gold-Smith

District Land Officer, Gisborne, L. Smith

District Surveyors—L. Smith, James Hay

Assistant Surveyors—P. A. Dalziel, T. Brook

Chief Draughtsman—F. Simpson

Receiver of Land Revenue—F. Bull

TARANAKI DISTRICT.

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—J. Strauchon

District Surveyors—H. M. Skeet, G. H. Bullard

Assistant-Surveyors—J. F. Frith, W. T. Morpeth, R. W. Watson

Road Surveyor—G. F. Robinson

Chief Draughtsman—C. R. Pollen

Receiver of Land Revenue—G. P. Doile

WELLINGTON DISTRICT.

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—J. W. A. Marchant

District Surveyors—J. D. Climie, F. A. Thompson, H. J. Lowe, W. J. Wheeler

Assistant Surveyors—J. McKay, J. R. Strachan

Road Surveyors—G. T. Murray, R. H. Reaney

Chief Draughtsman—J. Mackenzie

Receiver of Land Revenue—T. G. Waitt

NELSON DISTRICT.

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—T. Humphries

District Surveyors—J. A. Montgomerie, J. Snodgrass, R. T. Sadd

Assistant Surveyors—J. D. Thomson, C. Kain

Chief Draughtsman and Receiver of Land Revenue—H. Trent

MARLBOROUGH DISTRICT.

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—C. W. Adams

District Surveyors—F. S. Smith, D. W. Gillies

Assistant Surveyor—E. W. Buckeridge

Chief Draughtsman and Receiver of Land Revenue—W. Armstrong

WESTLAND DISTRICT.

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—W. G. Murray

Assistant Surveyor—W. Wilson

Road Surveyor—F. B. Wither

Chief Draughtsman and Receiver of Land Revenue—G. J. Roberts

CANTERBURY DISTRICT.

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—S. Weetman

District Surveyors—T. N. Broderick, G. H. M. McClure, L. O. Mathias

Chief Draughtsman—C. B. Shanks

Receiver of Land Revenue—A. A. McNab

Caretaker, Hanmer Springs—J. Rogers

Manager, Hanmer Springs Sanatorium—D. McDonald

OTAGO DISTRICT.

Commissioner of Crown Lands—J. P. Maitland

Chief Surveyor—John Hay

District Surveyors—J. Langmuir, E. H. Wilmot, D. M. Calder

Assistant Surveyors—W. D. R. McCurdie, W. T. Neill

Chief Draughtsman—S. Thompson

Receiver of Land Revenue—G. A. Reade

SOUTHLAND DISTRICT.

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—David Barron

Assistant Surveyor—A. Hodgkinson

Chief Draughtsman—G. Robinson

Receiver of Land Revenue—H. L. Welch

MEMBERS OF LAND BOARDS.

Auckland—G. Mueller, R. Thompson, B. Harris, D. Lundon, J. Renshaw

Hawke's Bay—E. C. Gold-Smith, C. Hall, T. Hyde, R. R. Groom, G. Mathewson

Taranaki—J. Strauchon, T. Kelly, C. K. Stock, J. Heslop

Wellington—J. W. A. Marchant, A. W. Hogg, J. Stevens, A. Reese

Nelson—Thomas Humphries, John Graham, D. Bate, F. Hamilton, O. Lynch

Marlborough—C. W. Adams, C. H. Mills, J. Redwood, A. P. Seymour, G. Taylor

Westland—W. G. Murray, A. Matheson, J. Chesney, J. S. Lang, A. Cumming

Canterbury—S. Weetman, A. C. Pringle, R. Meredith, D. McMillan, J. McLachlan

Otago—J. P. Maitland, H. H. Kirkpatrick, H. Clark, J. Duncan, W. Dallas

Southland—David Barron, A. Kinross, J. McIntyre, A. Baldey, D. King

BOARD OF EXAMINERS OF SURVEYORS.

The Surveyor-General; the Assistant Surveyor-General; the Chief Surveyors for the Land Districts of Wellington, Hawke's Bay, Nelson, and Canterbury

Secretary to Board—T. M. Grant

“THE LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS ACT, 1894.”

BOARD OF LAND PURCHASE COMMISSIONERS.

Chairman of Board and Land Purchase Inspector—Jas. McKerrow, F.R.A.S.

The Board consists of the Land Purchase Inspector as Chairman, the Surveyor—General, the Commissioner of Taxes—these for the whole colony—with the Commissioners of Crown Lands and a member of the Land Board in each land district, who are members only for the business arising within their respective districts.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CHIEF OFFICE.

Minister in Charge—Hon. J. McKenzie

Secretary of Agriculture and Chief Inspector of Stock—John D. Ritchie

Assistant Chief Inspector of Stock—T. A. Fraser

Chief Clerk—Richard Evatt

Clerk and Biologist—T. W. Kirk, F.L.S.

Clerks—J. Longton, J. E. D. Spicer, F. C. Hjorring, A. R. Kennedy, F. C. Matthews, W. Miller,

Agricultural Chemist—B. C. Aston

Poultry Expert—D. D. Hyde

Veterinary Surgeons—J. A. Gilruth, M.R.C.V.S. (Chief); Archibald Park, M.R.C.V.S.; A. R. Young, M.R.C.V.S., Wellington; C. J. Reakes, M.R.C.V.S., Dunedin; A. Crabb, M.R.C.V.S., Christchurch; J. G. Clayton, M.R.C.V.S., Auckland

Meat Inspectors—J. R. Charlton, M.R.C.V.S., Islington, Christchurch; D. H. Rait, M.R.C.V.S., Timaru; E. Nelson, M.R.C.V.S., Petone, Wellington; P. M. Edgar, M.R.C.V.S., Ngahauranga, Wellington; J. F. McEachran, Aramoho, Wanganui

Assistant, Veterinary Laboratory, Wellington—G H. Barker

Relieving Inspector of Stock—D. Munro

Produce Commissioner, London—H. C. Cameron

Dairy Commissioner—J. A. Ruddick

Dairy Instructors and Graders—J. A. Kinsella, Wellington; J. Sawers, Wyndham; R. W. D. Robertson, Wellington; J. T. Lang, Wellington; A. A. Thornton, Lyttelton; J. Johnston, New Plymouth; D. J. McGowan, New Plymouth; E. Townshend, Auckland

Assistant Entomologist and Fruit Inspector at Auckland—Thomas Broun, F.E.S.

Pomologists—W. J. Palmer, Auckland; J. C. Blackmore, Christchurch; S. I. Fitch, Christchurch

Fruit Inspectors—H. Palethorpe, Wellington; A. Cowie, Christchurch; A. F. Cargill, Dunedin

Experimental-Station, Waverley—Farm Overseer—F. Gillanders Nurseryman—(vacant)

INSPECTORS OF STOCK.

Auckland—E. Clifton (in charge), F. Schaw and F. H. Brittain, Auckland; D. Fleming, Whangarei; D. Ross, Hamilton; H. E. Collett, Whakatane

Napier—W. Miller (in charge), W. R. Rutherfurd, Napier; C. Thomson, Gisborne; J. Kerr, Wairoa; J. Harvey, Woodville

Wairarapa—G. H. Jenkinson, Masterton (in charge); T. C. Webb, Carterton

Wellington—J. Drummond, Wellington

West Coast—A. K. Blundell (in charge), Wanganui; J. W. Deem, New Plymouth; F. E. Orbell, Hawera; H. G. J. Hull, Palmerston North

Nelson—H. M. Campbell, Nelson (in charge); G. S. Cooke, Richmond

Marlborough—John Moore, Blenheim

Westland—V. A. Huddleston, Hokitika

Canterbury-Kaikoura—R. F. Holderness (in charge), E. A. Dowden, Christchurch; C. A. Cunningham, Rangiora; J. C. Huddleston, Rotherham; Blair Fullarton, Ashburton

South Canterbury—C. C. Empson, Timaru; W. Black, Fairl; R. Rowan, Kurow

Otago—J. E. Thomson, Dunedin; A. Ironside, Mosgiel; J. C. Miller, Oamaru; F. G. Wayne, Milton; J. L. Bruce, Balclutha; W. Dalgleish, Clyde; J. Budge, Queenstown; R. I. Gossage, Naseby; A. Mills, Lawrence; James Duncan, Palmerston; E. A. Field, Gore; H. T. Turner, Invercargill; T. Gilmour, Riverton; J. W. Raymond, Bluff

VALUATION DEPARTMENT.

Valuer General—John McGowan

Deputy Valuer-General—G. F. C. Campbell

Chief Clerk—F. J. M. D. Walmsley

Clerks—J. P. Dugdale, H. L. Wiggins, A. W. Knowles, A. E. Fowler, H. O'Rourke, H. Redmond, J. Ferguson

Cadet—H. A. Anderson

Draughtsman—H. H. Seed

Supervising Valuers—W. Duncan, Auckland; A. P. O'Callaghan, Christchurch; A. McKerrow, Dunedin; H. Carswell, Invercargill

District Valuers—James I. Wilson, jun., Whangarei; J. J. Reynolds, Auckland; W. Garrett, Paeroa; W. H. Wallis, Hamilton; Ian S. Simson, Gisborne; W. E. Griffin, Napier; H. J. C. Coutts, Hawera; S. Hill, New Plymouth; A. Barns, Wanganui; R. Gardner, Palmerston North; J. Fraser, Masterton; T. W. Caverhill, Petone; E. Kenny, Picton; J. Webster, Hokitika; A. D. Bayfield, Westport; D. Dick, Ashley; J. Whitelaw, Christchurch; A. Freeman, Christchurch; A. Allan, Timaru; E. A. Atkinson, Oamaru; W. L. Craig, Palmerston South; W. Dallas, Balclutha; A. J. Burns, Dunedin; J. George, Queenstown; John Smaill, Gore; Charles Rout, Invercargill; William Baird, Winton

Clerks—Auckland, E. W. Watson; Christchurch, J. M. Wheeler, A. Millar; Dunedin, A. Clothier, J. T. Bolt; Invercargill, T. Oswin, C. de R. Andrews

Cadet—Christchurch, E. J. R. Cumming

GOVERNMENT LIFE INSURANCE DEPARTMENT.

Commissioner—J. H. Richardson, F.F.A., F.I.A.V.

Assistant Commissioner—D. M. Luckie

Actuary—Morris Fox

Secretary—W. B. Hudson

Chief Medical Officer—T. Cahill, M.D.

Accountant—G. W. Barltrop

Assistant Actuary—G. Leslie

Chief Clerk—R. C. Niven

Second Assistant Actuary—P. Muter

Office Examiner—G. A. Kennedy

Clerks—J. W. Kinniburgh, D. J. McG. McKenzie, W. S. Smith, A. H. Hamerton, F. B. Bolt, C. E. Galwey, T. L. Barker, A. L. B. Jordan, H. S. Manning, A. Avery, A. E. Allison, G. Webb, C. W. Palmer, C. J. Alexander, F. K. Kelling, J. B. Young, G. C. Fache, J. A. Thomson, R. T. Smith, H. Rose, A. de Castro, R. P. Hood, G. A. N. Campbell, A. T. Traversi, F. M. Leckie, W. H. Woon, S. P. Hawthorne, J. G. Reid, A. E. Jackson, C. H. E. Stichbury, J. R. Samson, H. H. Henderson, R. Fullerton, A. H. Johnstone, J. S. Butler, R. S. Latta, H. Davies, T. Fouhy, J. Lindsay, J. R. Fraser, G. E. Sadd, J. T. Gunn, T. M. Dimant, W. Spence

Chief Messenger—W. Archer

AUCKLAND AGENCY.

District Manager—W. J. Speight

Chief Clerk—J. K. Blenkhorn

Clerks—C. H. Ralph and H. Wylie

NAPIER AGENCY.

Resident Agent—J. H. Dean

Clerk—G. C. Rodda

WANGANUI AGENCY.

Resident Agent—J. Fairburn

WELLINGTON AGENCY.

District Manager and Supervisor of New Business—G. Robertson

Chief Clerk—M. J. K. Heywood

Clerks—W. C. Marchant and A. M. McDonald

NELSON AGENCY.

Resident Agent—A. P. Burnes

GREYMOUTH AGENCY.

Resident Agent—A. W. G. Burnes

CHRISTCHURCH AGENCY.

District Manager—J. C. Prudhoe

Chief Clerk—J. W. H. Wood

Clerk—G. J. Robertson

TIMARU AGENCY.

Resident Agent—S. T. Wicksteed

OAMARU AGENCY.

Resident Agent—O. H. Pinel

DUNEDIN AGENCY.

District Manager—R. S. McGowan

Chief Clerk—G. Crichton

Clerks—A. Marryatt and G. S. Nicoll

INVERCARGILL AGENCY.

Resident Agent—J. Findlay

Clerk—W. J. Ewart

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE.

Public Trustee—J. W. Poynton

Solicitor—F. J. Wilson

Chief Clerk—A. A. K. Duncan

Assistant Chief Clerk—T. S. Ronaldson

Accountant—M. C. Barnett

Clerks—T. Stephens, M. Townsend, P. Fair, C. Zachariah, P. Hervey, E. C. Reeves, W. A. Fordham, A. Purdie, G. A. Smyth, A. J. Cross, W. McGowan, M. E. Harrap, S. Dimant, E. A. Smythe, J. B. Jack, W. Barr, E. O. Hales, C. Morris, S. W. Smith, C. A. Goldsmith, H. Masters, R. Price, M. Leahy, H. Turner, E. J. Holmes

District Agent, Christchurch—J. J. M. Hamilton; Clerks, T. R. Saywell, J. Allen, P. A. Devereux

District Agent, Auckland—E. F. Warren; Clerk, K. N. H. Browne

District Agent, Dunedin—F. H. Morice; Typist, F. Naphtali; Cadet, W. Campbell

District Agent, Greymouth—T. D. Kendall

District Agent, Nelson—E. P. Watkis

West Coast Settlement Reserves Agent—Thomas W. Fisher; Clerk, H. Oswin

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS OFFICE.

Superintendent—John McGowan

Deputy Superintendent—G. F. C. Campbell

Chief Clerk—F. J. M. D. Walmsley

Inspecting Accountant—P. Heyes

Clerks—W. Waddel, H. E. Williams, T. C. Somers, W. N. Hinchcliffe, J. Atkinson, J. E. Thompson, W. Auld, C. T. Fraser, T. W. Foote, A. A. Prichard, M. J. Crombie, C. Wilson C. B. Collins, D. Fraser, R. G. McLennan, A. Tudhope

Chief Valuers—W. Duncan, Auckland; A. P. O'Callaghan, Christchurch; A. McKerrow, Dunedin; H. Carswell, Invercargill

Clerks at Agencies—F. B. Robertson, Auckland; H. S. Barron, Invercargill

CADETS IN GOVERNMENT SERVICE TO BE VOLUNTEERS.

Cadets in the Civil Service are required, after arriving at the age of eighteen years, to serve for three years in a Volunteer corps. Heads of departments are required to see that cadets who come within the regulations join the Volunteer Force, and serve for the period named, and also to notify the Under-Secretary for Defence of the appointment of all cadets coming within this regulation.

Chapter 19. ECCLESIASTICAL.

THERE is no State Church in the colony, nor is State aid given to any form of religion. Government in the early days set aside certain lands as endowments for various religious bodies, but nothing of the kind has been done for many years past.

CHURCH OF THE PROVINCE OF NEW ZEALAND, COMMONLY CALLED THE “CHURCH OF ENGLAND.”

Bishops.

The Most Rev. William Garden Cowie, D.D., Auckland; consecrated 1869 (Primate).

The Right Rev. William Leonard Williams, D.D., Waiapu; consecrated 1895.

The Right Rev. Frederic Wallis, D.D., Wellington; consecrated 1895.

The Right Rev. Charles Oliver Mules, M.A., Nelson; consecrated 1892.

The Right Rev. Churchill Julius, D.D., Christchurch; consecrated 1890.

The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt Nevill, D.D., Dunedin; consecrated 1871.

The Right Rev. Cecil Wilson, M.A., Melanesia; consecrated 1894.

ROMAN CATHOLICCHURCH.

Archbishop.

The Most Rev. Francis Redwood, S.M., D.D., Archbishop and Metropolitan, Wellington; consecrated 1874.

Bishops.

The Right Rev. George Michael Lenihan, D.D., Auckland; consecrated 1896.

The Right Rev. John Joseph Grimes, S.M., D.D., Christchurch; consecrated 1887.

The Right Rev. Michael Verdon, D.D., Dunedin; consecrated 1896.

ANNUAL MEETINGS AND OFFICERS.

The principal present heads or officers of the various churches, and the places and times of holding the annual or periodical assemblies or meetings, are as follow:—

Church of England.—For Church purposes, the colony is divided into six dioceses, viz.: Auckland, Waiapu, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The General Synod meets every third year in one or other of the dioceses. Delegates attend from each diocese, and also from the diocese of Melanesia.—President, the Bishop of Auckland, Primate. The Diocesan Synods meet once a year, under the presidency of the Bishop of the diocese. The next General Synod will be held in Napier, on the 29th January, 1901.

Roman Catholic Church.—The diocese of Wellington, established in 1848, was in 1887 created the metropolitan see. There are three suffragan dioceses—Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin. A Retreat is held annually in each of the four dioceses, at the end of which a Synod is held, presided over by the Bishop, and at which all his clergy attend.

In January, 1899, the first Provincial Council of New Zealand was held in Wellington, under the presidency of the Metropolitan, and attended by all the Suffragan Bishops, and a number of priests elected specially in each diocese as representatives of the whole Catholic clergy in the colony. The decrees of this Council, when approved by Rome, will be published in the course of a few months, and will be binding in every diocese in New Zealand.

Presbyterian Church of New Zealand.—The Assembly has met annually, in February, at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, in succession. In 1901 it will meet in Wanganui. Moderator, the Right Rev. W. R. Campbell, B.A; Clerk and Treasurer, Rev. David Sidey, D.D., Napier.

Presbyterian Church of Otago and Southland.—The Synod meets annually in October at Dunedin. Moderator, Rev. W. Bannerman, Roslyn, Dunedin; Interim Clerk, Rev. A. M. Finlayson, Waitati, Dunedin; Church Factor, Mr. Frederick Smith, High Street, Dunedin. Theological Professors, Rev. John Dunlop, M.A., D.D., and Rev. Michael Watt, M.A., D.D. Mr. James Dunbar, Tutor in Greek.

Wesleyan Methodist Church.—The annual Conference meets on or about the last Tuesday in February, the exact date being determined by the President, who holds office for one year. Each Conference determines where the next one shall assemble. President (1900-1901), Rev. J. S. Smalley, F.R.G.S., Nelson; Secretary, Rev. D. J. Murray, Thames. The next Conference is to meet in Wesley Church, Taranaki Street, Wellington.

Primitive Methodists.—A Conference takes place every January. The next is to be held at Franklin Road, Auckland, commencing 11th January, 1901. The Conference officials for the present year are: President, Rev. James Cocker, Wanganui; Vice-President, Mr. William Dobbs, Christchurch; Secretary, Rev. Thomas H. Lyon, Forth Street, Invercargill; Secretary of Executive Committee, Mr. D. Goldie, Pitt Street, Auckland; Treasurer of Mission Funds, Mr. Joseph Watkinson, Mangare, Auckland.

Baptist Union of New Zealand.—President, Rev. Joseph Clark, Auckland; Treasurer, Mr. A. Chidgey, Christchurch; Secretary, Rev. A. H. Collins, Auckland. The Union comprises 32 churches, 3,531 members, 4,686 scholars in the Sunday schools, with 560 teachers. There were also 78 local preachers, and 17 preaching-stations. This religious body has a newspaper of its own, the New Zealand Baptist, published in Christchurch; Editor, Rev. F. W. Boreham, Mosgiel.

Congregational Union of New Zealand.—The annual meetings are held during the month of February, at such place as may be decided on by vote of the Council. Chairman for 1900-1901, Rev. S. J. Baker, Christchurch; Chairman-elect, Rev. J. R. Glasson, Wellington; Secretary, Rev. Frederic Warner, Auckland; Treasurer, Mr. W. H. Lyon, Auckland; Registrar, Mr. W. M. Trigg, Auckland; Head Office, Auckland. In 1901 the meeting of the Council will be held at Christchurch. The Committee of the Union meets in Auckland on the second Tuesday of each month.

Hebrews.—Ministers: Rev. S. A. Goldstein, Auckland; Rev. H. van Staveren, Wellington; Rev. A. T. Chodowski, Dunedin; Mr. Alexander Singer, Hokitika. Annual meetings of the general Congregations are usually held at these places during the month of Elul (about the end of August).

Chapter 20. DEFENCES, MILITARY AND NAVAL.*

THE defence forces consist of the Permanent Militia (Artillery and Submarine Mining Corps), and the auxiliary forces of Volunteers (Cavalry, Mounted Rifles, Naval Artillery, Field Artillery, Engineers, and Rifle companies). There is a Commander of the Forces, who is an Imperial officer, and he has a Staff officer who is also an Imperial officer. To the Under-Secretary for Defence all questions of expenditure are referred; while the Chief Engineer of the Public Works Department has charge of the defence-works.

MILITIA AND VOLUNTEER DISTRICTS.

The two islands (North and Middle) are divided into five districts and two sub-districts, each commanded by a Field Officer of Militia or Volunteers, with a staff of drill-sergeants.

PERMANENT MILITIA (ARTILLERY).

This Force is divided into four companies, which are stationed at Auckland, Wellington (head-quarters), Lyttelton, and Dunedin; their principal duties are to look after and take charge of all guns, stores, ammunition, and munitions of war at these four centres. The Force consists of one lieut-colonel, one captain, four subalterns, with an establishment of 215 of all ranks.

PERMANENT MILITIA (SUBMARINE MINERS).

This branch, like the Artillery, is divided amongst the four centres for submarine mining and torpedo work, and consists of two captains and one subaltern, with a total establishment of 77 of all ranks. They have charge of four torpedo-boats and four steamlaunches, and of all submarine mining and torpedo stores. They are likewise employed in blowing up rocks and wrecks, and generally improving harbours.

* For information as to Military Contingents sent for service in South Africa, see Part III.

VOLUNTEERS.—CAVALRY.

There are two troops of Cavalry, both being in the Middle Island. These corps are kept in a state of efficiency by going into camp for six days' training annually. The total strength of the two troops is 135 of all ranks.

VOLUNTEERS.—MOUNTED RIFLES.

There are sixteen corps of Mounted Rifles, nine in the North Island and seven in the Middle Island, with a total strength of 1,060 of all ranks. These corps go into camp for an annual training of six days.

VOLUNTEERS.—NAVAL ARTILLERY.

There are nine batteries of this branch of the service (six in the North Island and three in the Middle Island), having a total strength of 815 of all ranks. These corps are divided into port and starboard watches at the four centres; some of these corps are trained to assist the Permanent Artillery in working heavy ordnance, whilst others act as auxiliaries to the Submarine Miners in submarine mining and torpedo work. These corps have cutters and other boats provided and kept up for them, and are instructed in rowing, knotting, splicing, signalling, and such like duties, and go into camp annually for sixteen days.

VOLUNTEERS.—GARRISON ARTILLERY.

There is one corps of Garrison Artillery in the North, with a strength of 73 of all ranks, and one in the Middle Island, with a strength of 68 of all ranks, and go into camp annually for sixteen days.

VOLUNTEERS.—FIELD ARTILLERY.

There are five batteries of Field Artillery (two in the North Island and three in the Middle Island), with a total of 365 of all ranks. They are armed with 9-pounder Armstrong breech-loading rifled guns and 6-pounder Nordenfeldts, on field-carriages, and go into camp annually for sixteen days.

VOLUNTEERS.—ENGINEERS.

This branch consists of three corps, with a total of 277 of all ranks, one in the North and two in the Middle Island. Besides carrying rifles they are provided with entrenching tools and all appliances for blowing up bridges or laying land-mines.

VOLUNTEERS.—RIFLE CORPS.

In this branch of the service there are seventy-four corps (besides one honorary reserve, 45 strong), thirty-five being in the North Island and thirty-nine in the Middle Island, with a total strength of 4,794 of all ranks, including garrison bands.

VOLUNTEERS.—CADET CORPS.

There is a force of forty-one cadet corps—viz., fifteen in the North Island and twenty-six in the Middle Island, with a total strength of 2,064 of all ranks.

VOLUNTEERS.—CYCLE CORPS.

There are Volunteer cycle corps at Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, of a maximum strength of two officers and twenty-five non-commissioned officers, rank and file, and are attached to the infantry battalions at those centres.

VOLUNTEERS.—BEARER CORPS.

Volunteer bearer corps at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, of a maximum strength of two officers and twenty-five non-commissioned officers, rank and file, are attached to the infantry battalions at those centres.

ORDNANCE, ARMS, ETC.

The armament at the forts of the four centres consists of 8 in. 13-ton breech-loading rifled Elswick Ordnance Company's guns, with 6in. 5-ton, of like pattern, all mounted on hydro-pneumatic disappearing carriages; 7 in. 7-ton muzzle-loading rifled guns, on traversing slides; 64-pounder rifled muzzle-loading converted 71 cwt. guns, on garrison standing carriages and traversing slides; 64-pounder rifled muzzle-loading 64 cwt. guns on traversing slides; 6-pounder quick-firing Nordenfeldts, on garrison pillar-mountings, and field-carriages; Hotchkiss quick-firing guns and Maxim machine guns. The Volunteer. Field Artillery are armed with 9-pounder Armstrong breech-loading rifled guns, and 6-pounder Nordenfeldts, and the whole of the adult portion of the Force have carbines or rifles of Martini-Enfield and Martini-Henry patterns; Cadets being armed with Snider carbines.

There is a large stock of Whitehead torpedoes, contact- and groundmines, in charge of the Submarine Mining Companies, as well as four Thorneycroft torpedo-boats.

ENROLMENT, ETC.

Members of the Permanent Militia are enrolled to serve until lawfully discharged, and Volunteers for one year. The Permanent Militia is principally recruited from men who have one year's efficient service in the Volunteers; and after passing the gunnery and other courses and serving three years in the Permanent Militia the men are eligible for transfer to police and prison services.

INSTRUCTORS.

The Instructors for Permanent Artillery and Torpedo Corps are obtained from the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness, and from the Royal Engineers, under a three years' engagement, on completion of which they return to their regiments.

CAPITATION.

An annual capitation of £2 10s. is granted to each efficient Volunteer, and a sum not exceeding £20 to each efficient cadet corps. One hundred and fifty rounds of ball-cartridge are issued each year free to every adult Volunteer, and twenty-five rounds of Snider ball to each cadet over thirteen years of age.

ADMINISTRATION.

The defence forces of New Zealand are administered under “The Defence Act, 1886.”

EXPENDITURE ON THE ESTABLISHMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF DEFENCES FROM 1884-85 to 1898-99.
Year.Military
Expenditure.
Harbour
Defences.
Total.
 £££
1884–8590,8169,601100,417
1885–8691,242127,167218,409
1886–8789,927139,429229,356
1887–88122,06173,458195,519
1888–8953,59150,089103,680
1889–9063,61415,75279,366
1890–9180,89110,79891,689
1891–9275,3437,64482,987
1892–9359,80811,20571,013
1893–9456,5703,97660,546
1894–9562,1812,49564,676
1895–9684,9813,31488,295
1896–9782,4434,69087,133
1897–9883,0042,52585,529
1898–99114,78910,158124,947

Chapter 21. DÉPÔTS FOR SHIPWRECKED MARINERS.

As eleven of the crew of the barque “Spirit of the Dawn,” which was wrecked on Antipodes Island on the 4th September, 1893, remained on the island for eighty-eight days without becoming aware of the existence of the dépôt of provisions and clothing for castaways which is established there, attention may usefully be drawn to the fact that such dépôts are maintained by the New Zealand Government on that island, and on the Auckland, Campbell, Bounty, Kermadec, and Snares Islands.

The following are the positions of the dépôts:—

Auckland Islands.—A dépôt is placed on the south side of Erebus Cove, Port Ross, and another in Camp Cove, Carnley Harbour, and a third at the head of Norman Inlet. One boat is placed on the north-west end of Adams Island, another on Enderby Island, and another on Rose Island.

Campbell Island.—A dépôt is erected in Tucker Cove, Perseverance Harbour, and a boat has been placed at the head of that harbour.

Antipodes Islands.—A dépôt is placed abreast the anchorage on the north-east side of the principal island.

Bounty Islands.—There is a dépôt on the principal island.

Snares Island.—A dépôt has been established on this island in Boat Harbour.

Kermadec Islands.—A dépôt is established on Macaulay Island, near Lava Cascade, on the north-east end of the island, and another on Curtis Island, at the head of Macdonald Cove, on the northwestern end of the island.

Finger-posts to indicate the direction of the dépôts have also been put up.

The Government steamer visits the Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty, and Snares Islands twice a year, and the Kermadec Islands once a year.

Chapter 22. GRAVING DOCKS AND PATENT SLIPS.

VESSELS visiting New Zealand, and requiring docking or repairs, will find ample accommodation at the principal ports of the colony.

There are in New Zealand four graving-docks; two of these are situated in Auckland, one at Lyttelton, and one at Port Chalmers.

AUCKLAND DOCKS.

The Auckland Docks are the property of the Auckland Harbour Board, and cost, with machinery, appliances, &c., £207,000. The dimensions of the docks at Auckland are as follow:—

 Calliope Dock.Auckland Dock.
Length over all525 feet.312 feet.
Length on floor500      ”300      ”
Breadth over all100      ”65      ”
Breadth on floor40      ”42      ”
Breadth at entrance80      ”43      ”
Depth of water on sill at high water ordinary spring tides)33      ”13½      ”

The following is the scale of charges for the use of the Auckland and Calliope Graving Docks and appliances:—

AUCKLAND GRAVING DOCK.

 £s.d
Entrance fee110
For every vessel of 100 tons (gross register), or under, per day400
For every vessel over 100 tons (gross register), for first 100 tons, per day400
For every additional ton (gross register), per day002
For two or more vessels docking at the same time, the tonnage of which together does not exceed 100 tons (gross register), per day each2100
For shores out in docking or hanging the vessel, there must be paid, according to injury done, such amount as may be fixed by the Dockmaster.
For use of steam-kiln, 10s. per day.
For use of pitch furnace, 10s. per day.
CALLIOPE GRAVING DOCK.
 £s.d.
Entrance fee550
For all vessels up to 300 tons (gross register)2000
For all vessels 301 to 400 tons   ”22100
                ”     401 to 500 tons   ”2500
                ”     501 to 600 tons   ”27100
                ”     601 to 700 tons   ”3000
                ”     701 to 800 tons   ”32100
                ”     801 to 900 tons   ”3500
                ”     901 to 1,000 tons      ”37100
                ” 1,001 to 1,100 tons      ”4000
                ” 1,101 to 1,200 tons      ”4500
                ” 1,201 to 1,300 tons      ”5000
                ” 1,301 to 1,500 tons      ”5500
                ” 1,501 to 2,000 tons      ”6000
                ” 2,001 to 3,000 tons      ”6500
                ” 3,001 to 4,000 tons      ”7000
                ” 4,001 to 5,000 tons      ”7500

The foregoing charges are for three days or less. After the third day in dock the following rates are charged:—

For all vessels up to 500 tons (gross register)4d. per ton per diem.
For all vessels of 501 tons to 1,000 tons3d.       ”
For all vessels over 1,001 tons up to 2,000 tons2½d.    ”
For all vessels over 2,001 tons and upwards2d.       ”

Twenty per cent reduction on Calliope Dock rates is allowed when two or three vessels can arrange to dock on the same tide, and remain in dock the same number of hours; but such reduction is not allowed if any of the Auckland Harbour Board's vessels are docked at the same time as another vessel.

For shores cat in docking or hanging the vessel, there is to be paid, according to injury done, such amount as may be fixed by the Dockmaster.

During the year 1899, 91 vessels of various descriptions, with a total of 31,800 tons, made use of the Auckland Graving Dock, occupying it in all 154 days 2 hours, for repairs or painting.

In Calliope Dock 7 vessels were docked, viz.: 2 warships and 4 merchant steamers, also 1 dredge, of an aggregate tonnage of 8,575, occupying the dock for 29 days.

Dock dues for the year amounted to £1,305 Os. 7d.

Under arrangement with the Admiralty, a complete plant of the most efficient and modern machinery has been provided at Calliope Dock-yard. The workshops are now under construction, and the machinery is being placed in position. This plant will include 80-ton shear-legs complete, trolly to carry 80 tons and rails, 10-ton steam crane at side of dock, engines, boilers, overhead travellers; planing, shaping, and slotting machines; radial drills, vertical drills, band-saws for iron, punching- and shearing-machines, plate-bending rolls; 24 in.-centre gantry lathe, 70 ft. bed; 9in. and 12 in. gantry lathes, milling-machines, emery-grinders, screwing-machines, ditto for pipes, horizontal boring-machines, Root's blower, smiths' forges (six), coppersmith's forge, levelling-slabs, steam-hammers, leadfurnace, wall-oranes, zinc-bath, plate-furnace, jib-crane for foundry, circular-saw bench, band-saw for wood, lathe for wood, general joiner, carpenters' benches (four), kiln for steaming boards, Fox's trimmer, cupola to melt 5 tons of metal, countersinking-machine, pipe-bending machine, tools of various descriptions, moulders' bins, force-pumps for testing pipes, vice-benches, electric-light engines, dynamos, &c. (two); and all other appliances and machinery required to render the plant adequate to repair any of Her Majesty's ships upon the station, or any merchant vessel visiting the port. The dock and machinery will be available for use, when not required for Her Majesty's vessels, in effecting repairs to any merchant vessel requiring same. An abundant supply of the purest fresh water is available at Calliope Dock and Calliope Wharf; and upon the completion of the works contemplated a most complete establishment of up-to-date machinery and appliances will have been provided.

WELLINGTON PATENT SLIP.

The Port of Wellington has no dock; but there is a well-equipped patent slip at Evans Bay, on which vessels of 2,000 tons can be safely hauled up. This slip is the property of a private company, and is in no way connected with the Harbour Board. It is 1,070ft. long, with a cradle 260ft. in length. There is a depth of 32ft. at high water at the outer end of the slip. A dolphin and buoys are laid down for swinging ships in Evans Bay.

The company has convenient workshops, which contain machinery necessary for effecting all ordinary repairs to vessels using the slip.

During the year ending 31st March, 1899, eighty-nine vessels of various sizes, of an aggregate of 37,558 tons, were taken up on the slip for repairs, cleaning, painting, &c. The charges for taking vessels on the slip and launching them are 1s. per ton on the gross tonnage for the first full twenty-four hours, and 6d. per ton per day afterwards, unless by special agreement.

OTAGO GRAVING DOCK.

The dock at Port Chalmers is vested in the Otago Dock Trust, a body entirely distinct from the Otago Harbour Board. Vessels of large size can be taken in the Otago Dock, as the following measurements will show:—

Length over all335 feet.
Length on the floor328    “    
Breadth over all68    “    
Breadth on floor41    “    
Breadth where ship's bilge would be43    “    
Breadth at dock gates50    “    
Depth of water on sill at high-water (ordinary spring tides)17½    “    

Connected with the Otago Dock are a large machine-shop, steam-hammer, and forge, with all the appliances necessary for performing any work that may be required by vessels visiting the port. An 80-ton shear-legs has also been erected for heavy lifts.

There is also a patent slip, used for taking up small vessels.

All vessels using the Otago Graving Dock are liable to dock dues according to the following scale (unless under special contract), revised since the beginning of 1896:—

 £s.d.
Vessels under 200 tons, for the first three days, or part or three days2500
Vessels of 200 tons, and under 800 tons3500
      ”          800 tons and upwards5000

And for every day, or part of a day, after the first three days:—

Vessels under 300 tons Sd. per register ton per day.
    ”     300   ”and under 400 tons7.¾d.     ”
    ”     400   ”“     500        “    7.½d.    ”
    ”     500        ”“     600    ”     7.¼d  .  ”
    ”     600   ”    ”     700   ”      7d.        ”
    ”     700   ”    ”     800   ”      6.¾d.  .  ”
    ”     800   ”    ”     900   ”      6.½d.  .  ”
    ”     900   ”    ”  1,000   ”    6.¼d.  .  ”
    ”  1,000 tons and upwards6d.  .    ”

During the last twelve months, ending 31st December, 1899, the dock was in use 238 working-days. The number of vessels docked was fifty-seven, having a total registered tonnage of 39,152.

LYTTELTON DOCK AND PATENT SLIP.

The Graving-dock at Lyttelton, which is the property of the Harbour Board, is capable of docking a first-class ironclad, or any of the large ocean steamers except the “Gothic” now running to the colony. Its general dimensions are: Length over all, 503ft.; length on floor, 450ft.; breadth over all, 82ft.; breadth on floor, 46ft.; breadth at entrance, 62ft.; breadth where ship's bilge would be, on 6ft. blocks, 55ft.; depth of water on sill at high-water springs, 23ft.

The scale of charges for the use of the dock and pumping machinery are as follow:—

 £s.d.
For all vessels up to 300 tons, for four days or less2000
“       301 to 400 tons,       ”22100
“       401 to 500 tons,       ”2500
“       501 to 600 tons,       ”27100
“       601 to 700 tons,       ”3000
“       701 to 800 tons,       ”32100
“       801 to 900 tons,       ”3500
“       901 to 1,000 tons,       ”37100
“       1,001 to 1,100 tons,       ”4000
“       1,101 to 1,200 tons,       ”4500
“       1,201 tons and upwards,       ”5000

After the fourth day in dock, the following rates are charged:—

For all vessels up to 500 tons4d. per ton per day.
For all vessels of 501 tons to 1,000 tons3d.         ”
For all vessels over 1,001 tons up to 2,000 tons2.¾d.     ”
“       2,001 tons up to 3,000 tons2.½d.     ”
“       3,001 tons up to 4,000 tons2.¼       ”
“       4,001 tons up to 5,000 tons2d.         ”

Twenty per cent. reduction on the above rates is allowed when two or three vessels can arrange to dock on the same tide and remain in dock the same number of hours. Two vessels of 1,000 tons each can be docked at the same time. The 20 per cent. rebate is not allowed if any of the Lyttleton Harbour Board's vessels are docked at the same time as another vessel. The twenty-four hours constituting the first day of docking commences from the time of the dock being pumped out.

Any vessel belonging to H.M. Nails or any colonial Government, or any commissioned ship belonging to any foreign nation, is admitted into the graving dock without payment of the usual dock dues, but is charged only such sum as is necessary for the reimbursement of actual expenditure of stores, wages, and materials.

There are electric lights, one on each side of the graving-dock; and there is a workshop alongside the dock, and several other engineering works within a short distance of it, where repairs and heavy foundry-work can be done.

The graving dock and machinery cost £105,000. The interest and sinking fund on that sum, at 6½ per cent., amounts to £6,825 per annum. Since its construction, the dock dues for the seventeen years, ended 31st December, 1899, amounted to £15,683 5s. Id., and the working expenses to £10,021 16s. 9d., leaving a credit balance for seventeen years, ended 31st December, 1899, of £5,661 8s. 4d.

During the year 1899 twenty-six vessels were docked, and the dock dues amounted to £1,155 12s. For the seventeen years, ending 1899, 331 vessels were docked.

Alongside the graving dock is a Patent slip, with a cradle 150ft. in length, suitable for vessels of 300 tons. It belongs to the Harbour Board.

TIMARU SLIP.

The Timaru slip is capable of taking up a vessel of 200 tons.

NELSON CRADLE.

The Anchor Steamship Company's cradle can take up a vessel of 150 tons.

Chapter 23. LIGHTHOUSES.

THE coasts of New Zealand are, considering their extent, fairly well lighted, but there are many places where lights are still required. Additions to the existing lights are made from time to time as funds are available.

Including the lighthouse on East Cape, now building, there are twenty-nine coastal lights—eight of the first order, fifteen of the second, three of the third, and three of smaller orders.

There has been no special difficulty in the erection of lighthouses in New Zealand, apart from the trouble caused by indifferent landings. There are no lighthouses built in the sea, such as the well-known Eddystone or Bell Rock. That on The Brothers is the only one which it is considered necessary to keep as a rock-station: that is, the keepers are relieved from time to time, three being always at the station and one on shore.

The cost of the erection of the lighthouses is given by the Marine Department as about £174,000 (the Ponui Passage Lighthouse, having been built by the Provincial Government of Auckland, the cost is not given). The annual consumption of oil is about 19,800 gallons; and the cost of maintenance, irrespective of the cost of maintaining the lighthouse steamer, is about £13,000 a year.

Besides the coastal lighthouses, there are harbour-lights at most of the ports of the colony for the guidance of vessels into and out of the ports.

The following table shows the names of the lighthouses, indicating also their situation, the order of apparatus, description, period (in seconds) and colour of the lights, and of what material the respective towers are built:—

Name of Lighthouse.Order of Apparatus.Description.Period of Revolving Light.Colour of Light.Tower built of.
Cape Maria van DiemenDioptric. 1st orderRevolving FixedSeconds. 60White Red, to show over Columbia ReefTimber.
Moko Hinou1st       ”Flashing10WhiteStone.
Tiri-Tiri (Auckland)2nd       ”Fixed White, with red are over Flat RockIron.
Ponui Passage5th       ”      ”..White and redTimber
Cuvier Island1st       ”Revolving30WhiteIron.
Portland Island2nd       ”      ” Fixed30“ Red, to show over Bull RockTimber.
Cape Palliser2nd       ”FlashingTwice every half-minute, with three seconds intervals between flashesWhiteIron.
Pencarrow Head2nd       ”Fixed..WhiteIron.
Cape Egmont2nd       ”      ”..      ”      ”
Manukau Head3rd       ”      ”..      ”Timber
Kaipara Head2nd       ”Flashing10      ”      ”
Brothers (in Cook Strait)2nd       ”      ” Fixed10Red, to show over Cook Rook      ”
Cape Campbell2nd       ”Revolving60White      ”
Godley Head (Lyttelton)2nd       ”Fixed..      ”Stone.
Akaroa Head2nd       ”Flashing10      ”Timber.
Moeraki3rd.       ”Fixed..      ”      ”
Taiaroa Head3rd       ”      ”..RedStone.
Cape Saunders2nd       ”Revolving60WhiteTimber.
Nugget Point1st       ”Fixed..      ”Stone.
Waipapapa Point2nd       ”Flashing10      ”Timber.
 Catadioptric.    
Dog Island1st orderRevolving30      ”Stone.
 Dioptric.    
Centre Island1st orderFixed..White, with red arcs over inshore dangersTimber.
Puysegur Point1st       ”Flashing10White      ”
Cape Foulwind2nd       ”Revolving30      ”      ”
Farewell Spit2nd       ”      ”60White, with red arc over Spit end      ”
Nelson4th       ”Fixed..White, with red arc to mark limit of anchorageIron.
French Pass6th       ”      ”..Red and white, with white light on beacon..
Stephens Island1st       ”Group flashing80White      ”
East Cape (now building)2nd       ”Revolving10      ”      ”

Chapter 24. ANNUAL PENSIONS

PAID BY THE GOVERNMENT OF NEW ZEALAND, AS ON 31ST MARCH, 1900.

[By an Act passed in 1871 the pension system was abolished in New Zealand. In 1893 the Civil Service Insurance Act was passed, the main provisions of which are described at the end of this table.]
Name.Date from which Pension commenced.Amount.

* Per diem.

(a) 1s. 6d. from 25th October, 1869; increased to 2s. 2d., 7th December, 1870.

(b) 1s. from 17th December, 1868, to 17th December. 1869; 1s. 6d. from 17th December, 1869, to 17th December, 1870; 8d. from 17th December, 1870, to 30th September, 1874; increased to 1s. 6d, 1st October, 1874.

(c) 2s. from 5th June, 1867, to 5th June, 1868; 2s. from 5th June, 1868, to 5th June, 1869; permanent from 9th November, 1869.

(d) 2s. from 1st January, 1869, for eighteen months; permanent from 18th May, 1872.

(e) 1s. 6d. for twelve months, from 26th April, 1869; renewed for twelve months, 1870; renewed for twelve months, 1871; permanent from 12th May, 1872.

(f) 2nd October, 1869; ceased on 9th April, 1870; renewed, 22nd April, 874.

(g) 1s. 6d. from—, 1867; increased to 2s from 14th February, 1868.

(h) 1s. 6d. for twelve months, from 15th March, 1869; 1s. for twelve mouths, from March, 1870; 1s. for twelve months, from March, 1871; permanent from 1st April, 1872.

* Per diem.

(i) 3s. for twelve months, from 9th April, 1870; 2s. 8d., permanent, from 1st May, 1871.

(k) 1s. 6d. for twelve months, from 18th October, 1869; 1s. 6d. for twelve months, from October, 1870; permanent, from 5th November, 1871.

(l) 1s. 6d. for eight months, from 20th September, 1869; 2s. 2d. for twelve months, from 11th June, 1870; 2s. 2d. for twelve mouths, from 11th June, 1871; 2s. 2d. from 11th June, 1872; permanent from 12th June, 1873.

(m) 1s. from 10th May, 1805; renewed for twelve months, April, 1866; again renewed for twelve months; 8d. for twelve months, from 1868 to 10th May, 1860; 8d. for twelve months, from May, 1869; permanent from 11th May, 1870.

Under “The Civil Service Act, 1866.”
  £s.d.
Andrews, A.  1 May, 1896141120
Arrow, H.  1 Aug., 18812600
Austin, A. D.  1 Oct., 1887247100
Anderson, J. G.  6 Jan., 1896261181
Baddeley, H. C.12 Jan., 188822500
Baker, E.  1 Nov., 1880214171
Barnes, G. H.16 Feb., 189610000
Barr, A.  1 Oct., 1888366134
Batkin, C. T.  1 April, 189053360
Bertrand, J. R.17 Feb., 189513500
Bicknell, F.  1 Feb., 188296134
Blomfield, J.21 Mar., 1889101150
Bridson, W.  1 Aug., 189314687
Brown, W. R. E.  1 Aug., 1892265168
Burgess, A.  1 June, 1886116134
Burn, J. F.  1 July, 18875100
Butts, E. D.  1 April, 189325868
Campbell, F. E.  1 Mar., 1890466130
Cnrrington, O.  1 Feb., 187830000
Catley, J. T.  1 Oct., 189822368
Cheeseman, G. H.  1 Mar., 189382100
Cheesman, W. F.  1 April, 1890154151
Clarke, H. T.  1 Jan., 187940000
Clarke, H.  1 Oct., 187998130
Cook, R. C.  1 Sept., 1895160143
Costall, J.10 July, 1892131310
Creeke, W.  1 April, 189152158
Crowe, A.31 Dec., 188568123
Culpan, W.  1 Dec., 186862100
Cunningham, J.  1 Feb., 188817500
Dick, S. J.  1 Feb., 189325000
Dickey, A. J.  1 Nov., 187512205
Earle, J.13 Nov., 1888104100
Eliott, G. E.30 Nov., 187240000
Elliott, S.  1 July, 1898110114
Falck, F.  1 Mar., 1893125134
Ferguson, J.  1 Feb., 189719500
Filleul, W. G.16 April, 1896140168
Freeth, J. J.  1 Mar., 1894116134
Gill, R. J.  1 Sept., 1886228115
Graham, G. H.  8 Sept., 189152100
Gregory, J.16 Feb., 18815368
Greenway, J. H.  1 Nov., 1891116160
Giles, J.  1 Feb., 189423868
Halliday, C.31 Aug., 188696134
Hamilton, M.11 July, 188020000
Hart, J. T.12 Nov., 189019370
Haselden, C. J. A.  1 July, 1896255191
Hebberley, J.  1 June, 18987000
Heddell, P.17 Oct., 18949000
Henn, J.  1 April, 18938834
Hill, C. J.  9 Feb., 18957200
Holden, T.13 Oct., 18783150
Jackman, S. J.  1 May, 189214968
Johnson, J. W.  1 May, 18987816
Johnston, D.15 Dec., 1880366134
Judd, A.  1 April, 188717368
Keetley, E.  1 July, 1884181210
Keily, J. D.  1 July, 1891130190
Kissling, T.  1 Jan., 189431752
Laing, E. B.  1 April, 1887112100
Laing, W.  1 Feb., 1896212100
Lang, A.  1 Feb., 189375153
Lemon, C.  1 Mar., 189535000
Lincoln, R. S.  1 Mar., 188968170
Lodge, W. F.  1 Oct., 188118500
Lubecki, A. D.  1 April, 189620000
Lusher, R. A.31 Aug., 188076168
Millar, G.  1 Feb., 18968070
Miller, F.  1 April, 1899141134
Mitford, G. M.  1 Feb., 1869196150
Monson, J. R.  1 Oct., 1882271160
Morro, H. A. H.  1 Nov., 1880342172
Morpeth, W. J.  4 Aug., 189419549
Morrow, H.  1 June, 1890120168
Macarthur, J.  1 Jan., 18766500
McCulloch, H.  1 Aug., 189023300
MacDonnell, R. T.23 July, 189015000
McKellar, H. S.  1 Aug., 189243368
Norris, E. F.  1 Oct., 189588179
Nuttall, J.  1 July, 189774134
O'Brien, L.  1 April, 189627350
O'Connor, L.  1 Sept., 189214706
Parker, T. W.  1 June., 188124239
Parris, R.  1 Jan., 187731458
Pearson, W. H.30 Sept., 188434096
Phillips, W. M.  1 Dec., 18946945
Pickett, R.  1 Aug., 1866209106
Pinwill, A.  1 July, 1891120170
Pitt, H.  1 May, 188110000
Powell, D.  1 July, 18934418
Rawson, C. E.  1 Dec., 1895244011
Ronnell, W.  1 Dec., 1895167184
Rich, E. F.  1 June, 189221700
Robertson, J.  6 Oct., 189215500
Rodgerson, W. J.  1 July, 189224868
Rowe, C.  1 Oct., 1894109160
Searancke, W. N.  1 Feb., 187924000
Shrimpton, J.16 July, 1889146140
Sinclair, A.  1 June, 187819500
Slater, J.  1 April, 1898223162
Smith, J.  1 June, 18944956
Smith, J. E.  1 July, 1877484116
Smith, T. H.  1 July, 187637187
Snoswell, T.  5 Dec., 189183140
Snow, G. H.  1 Dec., 1887157100
Somerville, W.  1 July, 189619500
Stevens, F.  1 Dec., 189218300
Stewart, J. T.  1 May, 188930000
Thomas, G. W.  1 Nov., 187538150
Thompson, R.  1 Mar., 189622000
Tizard, E. F.  1 July, 1888180190
Tovey, J. H.  1 April, 189577010
Treseder, P.13 Oct., 189718434
Tucker, W.31 Dec., 1880104134
Veal, J.  1 Sept., 188549153
Veale, J. S.  1 Sept., 188756210
Von Sturmer, S.  1 July, 1895288111
Wardell, H. S.  1 July, 1888366130
Watson, R.  1 Oct., 189214500
White, W.  1 July, 18813650
White, W. B.  1 July, 187337549
Williams, E. M.  1 April, 188013500
Wilson, W. W.  1 Feb., 1881100143
Woon, J. G.  1 July, 1892209106
Wrigg, H. C. W.  1 Aug., 1889157210
Young, C.  8 Mar., 189911761
Under “The Hamerton Pension Act, 1891.”
 £s.d. 
Hamerton, R. C.11 Sept.,189125000
Under “The Mcredith and Others Pensions Act, 1870.”
Hamlin, Rhoda B.—18655000
Under “The Military Pensions Act, 1866.”
Arapera te Reo  1 July, 18702000
Brown, M. R. 7500
Hastings, L. 5500
Iritona, Hanita  8 Nov., 18681200
Marara, Ngakoa  3 Dec., 18603600
McDonald, E. 3600
Morrison, Ann.26 Oct., 18663600
Russell, C. 3600
Von Tempsky, A.  3 Oct., 186812000
Adamson, T.(a)022*
Beamish, J. G.(b)016*
Corbett, George(c)020*
Crawford, C. F. 020*
Dore, G. H.(d)020*
Gibbons, M. C.12 Oct., 1869022*
Hamblyn, J.  1 Oct., 1872022*
Hope, E. L.(e)016*
Kedy, T.  9 April, 1870022*
Kershaw, P.  9 Aug., 1869016*
Lacey, Garrett. 022*
Lake, T. 026*
Lloyd, T.(f)020*
McDonnell, W. 15000
McDongall, T. R.  1 April, 18984000
McKay, G. 010*
McMahon, T.(g)020*
Monck, J. B.  1 April, '72 (h)010*
Ross, Edward O.17 Nov., 18667500
Shanaghan, J. 016*
Shepherd, B.(i)028*
Timms, W.(k)016*
Tuffin, G. 022*
Vance, R.  8 April, 1870022*
Walsh, W.15 Nov., 1866016*
Wasley, Edw. O.(l)022*
Williamson, F.  1 June, 1869020*
Anaru Papapu14 May, 1865009*
Apera te Keunga14 May, 1864026*
Karena Ruataniwha  1 July, 1870010*
Matiu Whitiki  1 April, 1885006*
Mauparoa  1 July, 1867010*
Mehaka Kepa  2 Aug., 1865009*
Pera Taitimu12 Oct., 1869010*
Under “The Walsh and Other Pensions Act, 1869.”
Hewett, Ellen A.10 Feb., 18655000
Under “The Militia Act Amendment Act, 1862.”
Bending, W. 020*
Bilcon, F. 020*
Cody, W. 010*
Dunn, A. J. N. 020*
King, E. M. 8000
Leaf, R.(m)006*
Sarten, Lucy1864020*
Skinner, W. H. 026*
Vickery, W. 020*
Wcolfe, T. 020*
Under “The Schafer, McGuire, and Others Pensions Act, 1872.”
McGuire. E.29 Sept, 1871010*
Russell, W.  1 July, 1871010*
Sohafer, C.  1 July, 18713000
Under “The Supreme Court Judges Act, 1874.”
Gresson, H. B.  1 April, 187575000

NEW ZEALAND CROSS GRATUITIES (£10 per Annum).

Adamson, Thomas, 7th May, 1869.

Austin, Samuel, 10th March, 1869.

Black, Solomon, 10th March, 1869.

Biddle, Benjamin, 10th March, 1869.

Hill, George, 10th April, 1869.

Lingard, William, 10th March, 1869.

Mace, Francis Joseph, 10th March, 1869.

Maling, Christopher, 10th March, 1869.

Mair, Gilbert, 7th February, 1870.

Preece, George, 10th March, 1869.

Roberts, John Mackintosh, 10th March, 1869.

Rodriguez, Antonio, 10th March, 1869.

Shepherd, Richard, 13th March, 1869.

Smith, Angus, 7th June, 1869.

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS.

Pensions of late Provincial Government, Nelson—Mrs. Robinson's three daughters, £100.

Pension to Mrs. Elizabeth Ford, £46; pension of late F. G. Rawson continued to his widow, £45; pension to Aperahama Tahumirangi for wounds received when in the service of the New Zealand Government, £10.

Chapter 25. “THE CIVIL SEEVICE INSURANCE ACT, 1893.”

IT is provided by the above-named Act that every person appointed to the Civil Service under “The Civil Service Reform Act, 1886,” shall retire at the age of sixty years; but the Governor in Council may, nevertheless, require any officer who has attained such age to continue to perform his duties, unless unfitted by reason of ill-health or other cause. It is also provided that if any officer appointed under “The Civil Service Reform Act, 1886,” shall become permanently incapacitated through no fault of his own he shall receive compensation equal to one month's salary for each year of service. It is further provided that every officer under a certain age, to be fixed by regulations, appointed after the passing of this Act shall effect a policy, on his (or her) own life with the Life Insurance Commissioner, providing the following combined benefits:—

  1. The payment of a sum of money on the death of such officer, should it occur before he attains the age of sixty years (or after that age, in consideration of his paying the necessary additional premium); and

  2. The payment to such officer of an annuity until death should he survive the age of sixty years.

The policies and moneys secured thereby are not assignable, and cannot be charged or attached, unless the officer leaves the service voluntarily or otherwise, when he may either surrender the policy or maintain it in force, as he may choose.

The premiums are paid in the form of monthly deductions from salaries, according to the following schedule:—

Salary per Annum.Monthly Deduction from Salary.Yearly Deduction.
 £s.d.£s.d.
Under £150084500
£150 and under £20001267100
£200 and under £25001681000
£250 and under £300101012100
£300 and under £3501501500
£350 and under £40019217100
£400 and under £45011342000
£450 and under £500117622100
£500 and under £5502182500
£550 and under £600251027100
£600 and under £65021003000
£650 and under £700214232100
£700 and under £75021843500
£750 and under £80032637100
£8003684000

When the salary is increased so that it falls in the next higher category in the schedule, the deductions and benefits are also proportionately increased, according to the then present age of the policyholder, by endorsement of the policy.

By regulations under the Act, made by the Governor in Council, dated 8th March, 1894, scales of benefits were adopted. For every £5 annually deducted from the salary in accordance with the schedule already given there is provided a temporary insurance of £100 (constant at all ages at entry), ceasing at age sixty, together with a deferred annuity (varying with the age at entry from £63 11s. 1d. at age fifteen to £10 10s. 5d. at age forty) after the age of sixty. By consenting to a small additional deduction from salary, any officer may have the insurance continued after age sixty to the end of life. Newly-appointed officers who are over forty are allowed the option of accumulating 5 per cent, of their salaries in the Public Trust Office, or of taking out insurances or annuities in the Government Insurance Department.

At the end of 1899 there were 290 Civil Service policies in force, insuring £42,655 (including bonuses), and providing deferred annuities amounting to £11,954. Twenty-six policies had been lapsed or surrendered, insuring £4,565 at death, with £1,074 deferred annuities; four policies, insuring £556, had become claims by death; and the holders of seven policies, insuring £2,513 (with £168 deferred annuities), had left the Civil Service, but elected to continue their policies with the Insurance Department.

These policies, placed in separate tables, are merged in the general business of the Insurance Department, and share in the periodical distributions of profits. At successive valuations the necessary reserve is made to fully cover the liability which has accrued upon each of the contracts, thus avoiding the possibility of any future danger such as has overtaken so many pension schemes administered on unsound principles. Indeed, it may be said that two of the greatest benefits conferred upon the participants in this scheme are the avoidance of fluctuation in the fund through amalgamating with a large insurance institution, and the possession of fixed and irrevocable contracts, clearly defining the benefits to be received at death or by way of pension.

Chapter 26. NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS.

THERE are (January, 1900) 219 publications on the register of newspapers for New Zealand. Of these, 51 are daily papers, 32 are published twice a week, 42 three times a week, 61 once a week, 3 fortnightly, 1 three times a month, and 29 monthly.

The names of the newspapers, with the postal districts and towns in which they are printed, are given in the following list, the second column showing the day or period of publication.

M. signifies morning paper; E. evening paper:—

AUCKLAND.
Auckland—
Auckland Evening Star (E.)Daily.
Auckland Weekly News and Town and Country Journal (M)Saturday
Bible Standard (M.)Monthly.
Christian Worker      ”
Church Gazette (M.)      ”
Danica (M.)Thrice monthly (1st, 10th, 20th).
New Zealand A B C Guide.Monthly.
New Zealand Farmer, Bee and Poultry Journal (M.)      ”
New Zealand Graphic, Ladies' Journal, and Youths' CompanionWednesday.
New Zealand Herald (M.)Daily.
New Zealand Illustrated MagazineMonthly.
New Zealand Illustrated Sporting Review and Licensed Victualler's Gazette (M.)Thursday.
New Zealand Joyful NewsMonthly.
New Zealand Punch (M.)Wednesday.
Observer (M.)Saturday.
Produce Circular and Monthly Report (M.)Monthly.
Sharland's Trade JournalSaturday.
Coromandel—
Coromandel County News (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Dargaville—
Wairoa Bell and Northern Advertiser (E.)Tu., Fri.
Hamilton—
Waikato Argus (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Waikato Times and Thames Valley Gazette (E.)Daily.
Kawakawa—
Northern Luminary (E.)Friday.
Onehunga—
Manukau County Chronicle (M.)Saturday.
Weekly Onehunga Independent and District Advertiser (M.)Saturday.
Rotorua—
Hot Lakes Chronicle (M.)Saturday.
Whangarei—
Northern Advocate (E.)Friday.
THAMES.
Karangahake—
Goldfields Advocate and Ohinemuri County Chronicle (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Opotiki—
Opotiki Herald, Whakatane County and East Coast Gazette (E.)Tuesday, Friday.
Paeroa—
Hauraki Tribune and Thames Valley Advertiser (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Ohinemuri Gazette (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Tauranga—
Bay of Plenty Times and Thames Valley Warden (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Tauranga Herald and Te Puke Gazette (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
Te Aroha—
Te Aroha and Ohinemuri News and Upper Thames Advocate (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Thames—
Thames Star (E.)Daily.
Thames Advertiser and Miners' News (M.)      ”
Waihi—
Waihi Chronicle (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Waihi Miner and Hauraki Goldfield Gazette (E.)Daily.
Waitekauri—
Golden Age (E.)Wed., Sat.
GISBORNE.
Gisborne—
Poverty Bay Herald (E.)Daily.
Telephone (M.)Wed., Saturday.
NEW PLYMOUTH.
Inglewood—
Record and Waitara Age (M.)Wed., Saturday
Weekly Record (M.)Saturday.
New Plymouth—
Budget and Taranaki Weekly Herald (M.)      ”
Daily News (M.)Daily.
Stockwhip (M.)Sat., fortnightly.
Taranaki Herald (E.)Daily.
Taranaki News (E.)Saturday.
Opunake—
Opunake Times (E.)Tuesday, Friday.
Stratford—
Egmont Post (E.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Egmont Settler (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Waitara—
Waitara Evening Mail and Clifton County Chronicle (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Waitara Times and Clifton County Gazette (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
NAPIER.
Dannevirke—
Bush Advocate (E.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Morning Press (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Hastings—
Hastings Standard (E.)Daily.
Napier—
Daily Telegraph (E.)Daily.
Hawke's Bay Herald (M.)      ”
New Zealand Fire and Ambulance RecordMonthly.
Waipawa—
Waipawa Mail (E.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
Wairoa—
Wairoa Guardian and County Advocate (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
WANGANUI.
Eltham—
Eltham Argus and District Advertiser (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Eltham Guardian; Kaponga, Ngaire, Te Roti, Hawera, Stratford, and Cardiff Advertiser (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Hawera—
Egmont Star (M.)Saturday.
Hawera and Normanby Star, Patea County Chronicle, and Waimate Plains Gazette (E.)Daily.
Hawera Morning Post, Patea, Normanby, Eltham, Stratford, Kaponga, Manaia, and Opunake Register (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Hunterville—
Paraekaretu Express, Hunterville, Ohingaiti, Moawhango, and Rata Advertiser (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
Manaia—
Waimate Witness (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Mangaweka—
Mangaweka Mail, and Ohingaiti, Rangiwhaia, Utiku, Taihape, and Moawhango Courier (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Mangaweka Settler, and Ohingaiti, Rangiwhaia, Taihape, and Waimarino Advertiser (M.)Wed., Sat.
Marton—
Rangitikei Advocate and Manawatu Argus (E.)Daily.
Patea—
Patea County Press (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Raetihi—
Waimarino Argus and Raetihi, Ohakune, Karioi, Pipiriki, and Upper Wanganui Advocate (M.)Tuesday.
Wanganui—
Jubilee (M.)Tuesday.
Wanganui Chronicle and Patea-Rangitikei Advertiser (M.)Daily.
Wanganui Herald (E.)Daily.
Weekly Chronicle and Patea-Rangitikei Record (M.)Saturday.
Yeoman (M.)Friday.
WELLINGTON.
Carterton—
Wairarapa Leader (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Wairarapa Observer, Featherston Chronicle, East Coast Advertiser, and South County Gazette (E.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
Eketahuna—
Eketahuna Express and North Wairarapa Courier (E.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Feilding—
Feilding Star (E.)Daily.
Foxton—
Manawatu Herald (E.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
Greytown—
Wairarapa Standard and Featherston Advocate (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Levin—
Manawatu Farmer and Horowhenua County Chronicle (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Masterton—
Wairarapa Daily Times (E.)Daily.
Wairarapa Star (E.)      ”
Weekly Star and Wellington District Advertiser (M.)Thursday.
Otaki—
Otaki Mail and Horowhenua County and West Coast Advertiser (M.)Tu., Thur., Sat.
Pahiatua—
Pahiatua Herald (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Palmerston North—
Manawatu Daily Standard, Rangitikei Advertiser, and West Coast Gazette (E.)Daily.
Manawatu Daily Times (E.)      ”
Petone—
Hutt and Petone Chronicle (M.)Wednesday.
Wellington—
Advocate (M.)Tuesday.
Church Chronicle (M.)Monthly.
Evening Post (E.)Daily.
Guardian (E.)Thursday.
Mercantile Protection Gazette of New Zealand (M.)Saturday.
New Zealand Craftsman (M.)Monthly.
New Zealand Cyclists' Touring Club Gazette      ”
New Zealand Dairyman and Dairy Messenger (E.)      ”
New Zealand Field (M.)Friday.
New Zealand Insurance, Finance, and Mining Journal (M.)Monthly.
New Zealand Mail, Town and Country Advertiser (M)Friday.
New Zealand Mines Record (M.)Monthly.
New Zealand Times (M.)Daily.
Pioneer of Social Reform (M.)Monthly.
Register and Property Investors' GuideMonthly.
Wellington Price Current and New Zealand Trade Review (M)Monthly.
Woodville—
Woodville Examiner (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
BLENHEIM.
Blenheim—
Marlborough Daily Times and Town and Country Advertiser (M.)Daily.
Marlborough Express (E.)      ”
Havelock—
Pelorus Guardian and Miners' Advocate (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
Picton—
Marlborough Press, County of Sounds Gazette (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
NELSON.
Brightwater—
Brightwater Independent Chronicle (M.)Thursday.
Collingwood—
Golden Bay Argus (E.)Thursday.
Nelson—
Colonist (M.)Daily.
Nelson Evening Mail (E.)      ”
Takaka—
Takaka News and Collingwood Advertiser (E.)Thursday.
WESTPORT.
Charleston—
Charleston Herald, Brighton Times, and Croninville Reporter (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Murchison—
Buller Post (E.)Thursday.
Westport—
Buller Miner (M.)Friday.
Westport News (M.)Daily.
Westport Times and Evening Star (E.)      ”
GREYMOUTH.
Brunnerton—
Brunner News, Blackball Courier, and Grey Valley Advertiser (E.)Daily.
Greymouth—
Evening Star and Brunnerton Advocate (E.)      ”
Grey River Argus (M.)      ”
Weekly Argus (M.)Weekly.
Reefton—
Inangahua Herald and New Zealand Miner (M.)Daily.
Inangahua Times and Reefton Guardian (E.)      ”
HOKITIKA.
Hokitika—
Hokitika Guardian and Evening Star (E.)Daily.
Leader (M.)Saturday.
West Coast Times (E.)Daily.
Kumara—
Kumara Times and Dillman's and Goldsborough Advertiser (E.)      ”
Ross—
Ross and Okarito Advocate and Westland Advertiser (M.)Wed., Saturday.
CHRISTCHURCH.
Akaroa—
Akaroa Mail and Banks Peninsula Advertiser (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
Ashburton—
Ashburton Guardian (E.)Daily.
Ashburton Mail, Rakaia, Mount Somers, and Alford Forest Advertiser (M.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
Ashburton Standard and Farmers' Advocate (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Cheviot—
Cheviot News (M.)Tues., Fri.
Christchurch—
Canterbury Times (M.)Wednesday.
Lyttelton Times (M.)Daily.
Mercantile and Bankruptcy Gazette of New Zealand (E.)Thursday.
New Zealand BaptistMonthly.
New Zealand Church News (M.)      ”
New Zealand Cyclist (M.)Saturday.
New Zealand Railway ReviewMonthly.
New Zealand Schoolmaster (E.)      ”
New Zealand War Cry and Official Gazette of the Salvation Army (M.)Saturday.
New Zealand WheelmanWednesday.
Press (M.)Daily.
ProhibitionistFortnightly, Fri.
Spectator (M.)Wednesday.
Star(E.)Daily.
Truth (E.)Daily.
Weekly Press (incorporating the “Referee”) (M.)Wednesday.
Oxford (East)—
Oxford Observer (M.)Saturday.
Kaikoura—
Kaikoura Star and North Canterbury and South Marlborough News (E.)Tu., Fri.
Rangiora—
Rangiora Standard and North Canterbury Guardian (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Southbridge—
Ellesmere Guardian (M.)    ”     ”
TIMARU.
Geraldine—
Geraldine Advocate (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Mackenzie County Chronicle (E.)    ”     ”     ”
Pleasant Point Mail (E.)    ”     ”     ”
Temuka Times (E.)    ”     ”     ”
Temuka—
Geraldine Guardian (M.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
Gladstone Guardian (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Temuka Leader (M.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
Timaru—
Morning Post (M.)Daily.
South Canterbury Times (E.)Daily.
Timaru Herald (M.)Daily.
Waimate—
Waimate Advertiser (M.)Saturday.
Waimate Times (M.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
OAMARU.
Oamaru—
North Otago Times (M.)Daily.
Oamaru Mail (E.)    ”
DUNEDIN.
Alexandra South—
Alexandra Herald and Central Otago Gazette (M.)Thursday.
Balclutha—
Clutha Leader (M.)Tuesday, Friday
Free Press (M.)    ”     ”
Clyde—
Dunstan Times, Vincent County Gazette, and General Goldfields Advertiser (M.)Friday.
Cromwell—
Cromwell Argus and Northern Goldfields Gazette (M.)Tuesday, Sat.
Cromwell TimesTuesday, Friday.
Dunedin—
Christian Outlook (M.)Saturday.
Evening Star (E.)Daily.
Farmers' Circular (M.)Thur., fortn'ly
KatipoMonthly.
New Zealand Guardian (M.)Monthly.
New Zealand Journal of Education    ”
New Zealand Mining Journal and Financial Guide (M.)    ”
New Zealand Tablet (M.)Friday.
Otago Daily Times (M.)Daily.
Otago Witness (M.)Thursday.
Otago Workman, Dunedin and Suburban Advertiser (M)Saturday.
SchoolmatesMonthly.
Temperance Standard    ”
Trade Review and Farmers' Gazette (M.)Thursday.
Triad (M.)Monthly.
Weekly Budget (M.)Saturday.
Lawrence—
Tuapeka Recorder (M.)Friday.
Tuapeka Times (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Milton—
Bruce Herald (M.)Tuesday Friday.
Mosgiel—
Taieri Advocate (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Naseby—
Mount Ida Chronicle (E.)Friday (twice).
Palmerston—
Palmerston and Waikouaiti Times (M.)Friday.
Roxburgh—
Mount Benger Mail (M.)Saturday.
Tapanui—
Tapanui Courier and Central Districts Gazette (M.)Wednesday.
INVERCARGILL.
Arrowtown—
Lake County Press (E.)Thursday.
Gore—
Mataura Ensign (E.)Tues., Th., Sat.
Southern Standard (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
Invercargill —
Southern Cross (M.)Saturday.
Southlander (M.)Friday.
Southland Daily News (E.)Daily.
Southland Times (M.)    ”
Weekly Times (M.)Friday.
Queenstown—
Lake Wakatipu Mail (E.)    ”
Riverton—
Orepuki Miner (E.)Tues., Th., Sat.
Otautau Mail and Wallace County Advertiser (M.)    ”     ”     ”
Riverton Times and Wallace County Advertiser (E.)    ”     ”     ”
Western Star and Wallace County Gazette (M.)Tues., Fri.
Winton—
Winton Record and Hokonui Advocate (M.)Friday.
Wyndham—
Wyndham Farmer (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Wyndham Herald (M.)Wed., Friday.

The foregoing towns are arranged according to the postal district in which they are situated.

Taking the provincial districts, Auckland has 40 publications registered as newspapers, Taranaki 12, Hawke's Bay 8, Wellington 49, Marlborough 4, Nelson 13, Westland 8, Canterbury 37, and Otago 48.

CUSTOMS DUTIES AMENDMENT ACT, 1900.

THE above Act, dated 15th September, brings into force the following alterations of duties, and exemptions:—

DUTIES IMPOSED.
Names of Articles.Rates of Duty.
 £s.d. 
Tea002the lb.
Currants and raisins001
Candles001the lb. or package of that reputed weight, and so in proportion for packages of greater or less reputed weight.
Cocoa003the lb.
Coffee, roasted003
Stearine, for match-making00
Paraffin wax00
Matches—
      Wax, “plaid vestas” in cardboard boxes containing under 100 matches010the gross of boxes.
      Wax, “pocket vestas” in tin or other boxes containing under 100 matches014
      Wax, “sportsman's,” “ovals,” and “No. 4 tin vestas” in boxes containing not more than 200 matches046
      Wax, other kinds, for every 100 matches or fraction thereof contained in one box023
Patent medicines1500per cent.
Proprietary medicines and medicaments—
1. Bearing the name of the proprietor on label or package1500
2. Bearing a prefixed name in the possessive case1500
3. Not otherwise enumerated, prepared by any occult secret or art1500
Sarsaparilla1500
Drugs and druggists' sundries and apothecaries ' wares not otherwise enumerated1500
Chemicals not otherwise enumerated, including photographic chemicals and glacial acetic acid (B.P. standard)1500
Tinctures and medicinal spirits of any recognised pharmacopoeia containing 50 per cent, proof spirit or less1500
Steam-engines and parts thereof, including the boiler or boilers therefor, imported specially for mining or gold saving purposes and processes, or for dairying purposes500
EXEMPTIONS.
Names of Articles.
Kerosene
Rice, dressed or undressed
Rice, manufactured into starch in bond
Salt
Coffee, raw
Confectioners' moulding-starch
Liquid chlorine
Cyanide of sodium
Picric acid
Prussiate of potash
Hyposulphite of sodium
All machinery for agricultural purposes, including chaff-cutters, corncrushers, corn-shellers; also articles used in manufacturing the same—viz., chaff-outting knives, tilt-rakes, fittings for threshing-mills, forgings for ploughs
All agricultural implements
Machinery for dairying purposes
Machinery of every description for mining purposes, including machine pumps, hut not including machinery for dredging
Machinery exclusively for the purpose of the manufacture of beetroot sugar
Portable engines on four or any greater number of wheels, with boiler of locomotive type; also traction engines
Engine governors
All bolts and nuts, blank or screwed nuts, black or finished nuts
Blowers
Welded and flanged boiler-furnaces, plain or corrugated
Chain pulleys, and chains for same
Engineers', boilermakers', brass finishers', smiths', and all metal. and wood-workers' machine and hand tools
Chamfering, crozing and howelling machine for cask-making
Steel rams, black or finished, for hydraulic cranes or jiggers
Bags made of New Zealand tow or flax

For the purposes of this Schedule the expression “machinery” shall be deemed not to include steam-engines or parts of steam-engines, or steam-boilers (land or marine).

Chapter 27. THE CUSTOMS TARIFF OF NEW ZEALAND.

Under the Customs and Excise Duties Acts, 1888 and 1895, and “The Tobacco Excise Duties Act, 1896.”

TABLE OF DUTIES.

THE headings of the respective classes in this Table and in the Table of Exemptions are used solely for convenience of classification, and shall not in any way affect the articles specified therein, or be construed to indicate the material of which any such article is made.

The word “iron” includes steel, or steel and iron combined.

Neither steam-engines, nor parts of steam-engines, nor steam boilers (land or marine) are included in the expression “machines” or “machinery” in either this Table or the Table of Exemptions.

The abbreviaton “n.o.e.” means not otherwise enumerated.

In computing “ad valorem” duties the invoice value of the goods is increased by 10 per cent.

CLASS I.—FOODS AND ARTICLES FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION.

Names of Articles and Rates of Duty.

1. Almonds, in the shell, 2d. the lb.

2. Almonds, shelled, n.o.e, 3d. the lb.

3. Bacon and hams, 2d. the lb.

4. Biscuits, ships', plain and unsweetened, 3s. the cwt.

5. Biscuits, other kinds, 2d. the lb.

6. Boiled sugars, comfits, lozenges, Scotch mixtures, and sugar-candy, 2d. the lb., including internal packages.

7. Candied peel and drained peel, 3d. the lb.

8. Capers, caraway seeds, catsup, cayenne pepper, chillies, chutney, curry-powder and -paste, fish-paste, gelatine, isinglass, liquorice, olives, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

9. Chocolate confectionery, and all preparations of chocolate or cocoa—

In plain trade packages, 3d. the lb.
In fancy packages, or in small packages for retail sale, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

10. Confectionery, n.o.e., 2d. the lb., including internal packages.

11. Fish, dried, pickled, or salted, n.o.e., 10s. the cwt.

12. Fish, potted and preserved, 2d. the lb., or packages of that reputed weight, and so in proportion for packages of greater or less reputed weight.

13. Fruit, fresh, viz.:—

Apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines, medlars, apricots, quinces, tomatoes, 1d. the lb.

(No duty exceeding ½d. the lb. to be levied on apples and pears from 14th July to 31st December.)

Currants, raspberries, gooseberries, blackberries, and strawberries, ½d. the lb

Lemons, ½d. the lb.

14. Fruits, dried, 2d. the lb.

15. Fruits, preserved in juice or syrup, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

16. Fruit-pulp, and partially preserved fruit, n.o.e., 1.½d. the lb.

17. Fruits preserved by sulphurous acid, 1d. the lb.

18. Glucose, 1d. the lb.

19. Honey, 2d. the lb.

20. Jams, jellies, marmalade, and preserves, 2d. the lb. or packages of that reputed weight, and so in proportion for packages of greater or less reputed weight

21. Jellies concentrated in tablets or powder, 4d. the lb.

22. Maizena and cornflour, ¼d. the lb.

23. Meats, potted or preserved, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

24. Milk, preserved, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

25. Mustard, 2d. the lb.

26. Nuts of all kinds, except coconuts, 2d. the lb.

27. Oysters, preserved, 2d. the lb. or packages of that reputed weight, and so in proportion for packages of greater or less reputed weight.

28. Pearl barley, 1s. the cwt.

29. Peas, split, 2s. the cwt.

30. Pickles, 3s. the imperial gallon.

31. Provisions, n.o.e., 20 per cent., ad valorem.

32. Rice and rice-flour, 6s. the cwt.

33. Rice, undressed, and dressed in bond, 4s. the cwt.

34. Salt, except rock-salt, 10s. the ton.

35. Sardines, including the oil, 2d. the lb.

36. Sauces, 4s. the imperial gallon.

37. Spices, including pepper and pimento, unground, 2d. the lb.

38. Spices, including pepper and pimento, ground, 4d. the lb.

39. Sugar, ½d. the lb.

40. Treacle and molasses, ½d. the lb.

41. Vegetables, fresh, dried, or preserved, 20 per cent., ad valorem.

42. Vinegar, table, not exceeding 6.5 per cent. of acidity,* 6d. the gallon.

CLASS II.—TOBACCO.

43. Cigarettes, not exceeding in weight 2.½lb. per 1,000, 17s. 6d. the 1,000. And for all weight in excess of 2.½lb. per 1,000, 6d. the oz.

44. Cigars, 7s. the lb.

45. Snuff, 7s. the lb.

46. Tobacco, 3s. 6d. the lb.

47. Tobacco unmanufactured, entered to be manufactured in the colony in any licensed tobacco manufactory, for manufacturing purposes only, into tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, or snuff, 2s. the lb.

CLASS III.—ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, AND MATERIALS FOR MAKING SAME.

48. Ale, beer of all sorts, porter, cider, and perry, the gallon, or for six reputed quart bottles, or 12 reputed pint bottles, 2s. the gallon.

49. Cordials, bitters, and liqueurs, 16s. the liquid gallon.

50. Hops, 6d. the lb.

51. Malt, 2s. the bushel.

52. Rice malt, 1d. the lb.

53. Solid word, 6d. the lb.

54. Spirits and strong waters, the strength of which can be ascertained by Sykes's hydrometer, 16s. the proof gallon.

(No allowance beyond 16.5 under proof shall be made for spirits or strong waters of a less hydrometer strength than 16.5 under proof.)

55. Spirits and strong waters, sweetened or mixed, when not exceeding the strength of proof, 16s. the liquid gallon.

56. Spirits and strong waters in cases shall be charged as follows, namely:—

Two gallons and under, as two gallons; over two gallons and not exceeding three, as three gallons; over three gallons and not exceeding four, as four gallons; and so on for any greater quantity contained in any case.

57. Spirits or strong waters, mixed with ingredients in any proportion exceeding 33 per cent. of proof spirit, and although thereby coming under any other designation, excepting patent or proprietary medicines, or tinctures and medicinal spirits otherwise enumerated, 16s. the liquid gallon.

58. Wine, Australian, containing not more than 35 per cent. of proof spirit verified by Sykes's hydrometer, the gallon, or for six reputed quart bottles, or twelve reputed pint bottles, 5s. the gallon.

* Vinegar exceeding 6.5 per cent. of acidity to be treated as acetic acid.

59. Wine, other than sparkling and Australian, containing less than 40 per cent. of proof spirit verified by Sykes's hydrometer, the gallon, or for six reputed quart bottles, or twelve reputed pint bottles, 6s. the gallon.

60. Wine, sparkling, 9s. the gallon.

CLASS IV.—NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, AND MATERIALS FOR MAKING SAME.

61. Aërated and mineral waters and effervescing beverages, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

62. Chicory, 3d. the lb.

63. Chocolate, 3d. the lb.

64. Cocoa, 3d. the lb.

65. Coffee, essence of, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

66. Coffee, raw, 2d. the lb.

67. Coffee roasted, 5d. the lb.

68. Syrups; lime- or lemon-juice sweetened; raspberry vinegar, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

69. Tea, 4d. the lb.

CLASS V.—DRUGS, MEDICINES, CHEMICALS, AND DRUGGISTS' SUNDRIES.

70. Acid, acetic, n.o.e., containing not more than 30 per cent. of acidity, 1.1/d. the lb. For every 10 per cent. of acidity or fraction thereof additional, ½d. the lb.

71. Acid, tartaric, 1d. the lb.

72. Baking-powder, yeast preparations, and other ferments, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

73. Chemicals n.o.e., including photographic chemicals and glacial acetic acid, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

74. Cream of tartar, 1d. the lb.

75. Drugs and druggists' sundries and apothecaries' wares, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

76. Essences, flavouring, spirituous, 15 per cent. ad valorem until 1st February, 1896, and thereafter 16s. the liquid gallon.

77. Essences, flavouring, n.o.e., 15 per cent. ad valorem.

78. Eucalyptus oil, in bulk or bottle, 20 per. cent. ad valorem.

79. Glycerine, refined, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

80. Opium, 40s. the lb.

81. Patent medicines, 40 per cent. ad valorem.

82. Proprietary medicines, or medicaments, (1) bearing the name of the proprietor on label or package; (2) bearing a prefixed name in the possessive case; (3) n.o.e., prepared by any occult secret or art, 40 per cent. ad valorem.

83. Saccharine, except in the form of tabloids or tablets; 1s. 6d. the ounce.

84. Sarsaparilla, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

85. Soda, carbonate and bicarbonate, 1s. the cwt.

86. Soda, crystals, 2s. the cwt.

87. Tinctures and medicinal spirits of any recognised pharmacopoeia, containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 1s. the lb.

88. Tinctures and medicinal spirits of any recognised pharmacopoeia, containing less than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 6d. the lb.

CLASS VI.—CLOTHING AND TEXTILE GOODS.

89. Apparel and ready-made clothing, and all articles n.o.e. made up wholly or in part from textile or other piece-goods, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

90. Apparel made by British or foreign tailors, dress-, mantle-, or jacket-makers, to the order of residents in the colony, and intended for the individual use of such residents, whether imported by the residents themselves or through an importing firm, 40 per cent. ad valorem.

91. Blankets, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

92. Collars and cuffs, of paper or other material, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

93. Cotton counterpanes, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

94. Cotton piece goods, to include turkey twills, dress prints (hard-spun and plain-woven), where the invoice value does not exceed 4d. the yard; and cotton piece goods n.o.e., 10 per cent. ad valorem.

95. Cotton piece goods—namely, tapestry; cretonnes; chintz art crêpe, and serges; velveteens, velvets, and plushes, all kinds; damasks, moquette; sateens, linenettes; crepons; crimps; zephyrs; ginghams; turkey twills; prints; printed cottons; piqués; vestings; quiltings and marcellas; muslins of all kinds; nets; window-nets; hollands, curtains, and blinds; diapers; ticks, including coloured Belgian; towellings; laces: 20 per cent. ad valorem.

96. Drapery n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

97. Feathers, ornamental (including ostrich), and artificial flowers, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

98. Forfar, dowlas, and flax sheeting, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

99. Furs, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

100. Haberdashery n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

101. Hats of all kinds, including straw hats, also caps, 25 per cent ad valorem.

102. Hosiery n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

103. Lace, and laces, n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

104. Millinery of all kinds, including trimmed hats, caps, and bonnets, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

105. Ribbons and crape, all kinds, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

106. Rugs, woollen, cotton, opossum, or other, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

107. Shawls, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

108. Silks, satins, velvets, plushes, n.o.e., composed of silk mixed with any other material, in the piece, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

109. Textile piece-goods other than cotton or silk, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

110. Umbrellas, parasols, and sunshades 20 per cent. ad valorem.

111. Yarns n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

CLASS VII.—LEATHER AND MANUFACTURES OF LEATHER.

112. Boots, shoes, and slippers, n.o.e; goloshes, clogs, pattens, vamps, uppers, and laces, 22.½ per cent. ad valorem.

113. Heel-plates, and toe-stiffeners and plates, 22.½ per cent. ad valorem.

114. Leather—

Leather belting and belt-leather, harness, bridle, legging, bag, kip (other than East India), 4d. the lb.

Buff and split, including satin hides and tweeds, 3d. the lb.

Cordovan, levanted leather, roans, sheepskins, morocco n.o.e., basils, 3d. the lb.

Sole-leather, 2d. the lb.

East India kip, Persians, lambskins and goatskins (dressed other than morocco), kangaroo and wallabi skins (dressed), tan and coloured calf, 2d. the lb.

Leather n.o.e., 1d. the lb.

115. Leather board or compo, 4d. the lb.

116. Leather bags and leather-cloth bags, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

117. Leather, chamois, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

118. Leather cut into shapes, 22.½ per cent. ad valorem.

119. Leather leggings, 22.½ per cent. ad valorem.

120. Leather manufactures n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

121. Portmanteaux; trunks; travelling-bags and brief-bags of leather or leather-cloth, 10 in. in length and upwards, and carpet-bags, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

122. Saddlery and harness, whips and whip-thongs, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

CLASS VIII.—FURNITURE AND HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS.

123. Basket- and wicker-ware n.o.e., not being furniture, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

124. Carpets and druggets; floorcloth; mats and matting, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

125. Desks, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

126. Furniture and cabinetware, n.o.e., and other than iron, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

127. Furniture-, knife-, and plate-powder and polish, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

128. Mantelpieces, other than stone, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

129. Upholstery n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

CLASS IX.—CHINA, GLASS, AND EARTHEN GOODS.

130. Bricks, known as firebricks, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

131. China, porcelain, and parianware, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

132. Drainage pipes and tiles, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

133. Earthen flooring and garden tiles, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

134. Earthenware, stoneware, and brownware, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

135. Filters, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

136. Fireclay, ground, and fireclay goods, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

137. Glass, crown, sheet, and common window, 2s. the 100 superficial feet.

138. Glassware; also plate-glass, and glass polished, coloured, and other kinds n.o.e.; globes and chimneys for lamps, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

139. Lamps, lanterns, and lamp-wick, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

140. Plate-glass, bevelled or silvered; mirrors and looking-glasses, framed or unframed, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

CLASS X.—FANCY GOODS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC.

141. Artificial flies, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

142. Cards, playing, 6d. per pack.

143. Clocks, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

144. Dressing-cases, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

145. Fancy goods, and toys, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

146. Fishing tackle, including artificially-baited hooks other than flies, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

147. Jewellery; plate, gold or silver; greenstone, cut or polished: 20 per cent. ad valorem.

148. Mouldings in the piece, for picture-frames, cornices, or ceilings, 15 per cent. ad valorem.

149. Musical instruments of all kinds n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

150. Oil, perfumed, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

151. Papier-maché ware, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

152. Perfumery n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

153. Perfumed spirits and Cologne-water; £1 1s. the liquid gallon until the 1st February, 1896, and thereafter £1 10s. the liquid gallon.

154. Photographic goods n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

155. Pictures, paintings, drawings, engravings, and photographs, framed or unframed; picture- or photograph-frames and -mounts, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

156. Platedware, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

157. Statues, statuettes, casts, and bronzes, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

158. Tobacco-pipes and cases, cigar- and cigarette-holders and cases, cigarette-papers and -cases, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

159. Toilet preparations n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

160. Watches, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

161. Walking-sticks, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

CLASS XI.—PAPER MANUFACTURES AND STATIONERY.

162. Calendars and show-cards, all kinds, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

163. Cardboard boxes complete, or cardboard cut and shaped for boxes (including match-boxes), 25 per cent. ad valorem.

164. Directories of New Zealand, or of any part thereof; also covers for directories, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

165. Handbills, programmes, and circulars, playbills and printed posters, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

166. Ink, writing, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

167. Paper bags, coarse (including sugar-bags), 7s. 6d. the cwt.

168. Paper bags n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

169. Paper-hangings, 15 per cent. ad valorem.

170. Paper, wrapping—viz., blue candle, glazed cap, glazed casings small hand, lumber hand, and tissue, 5s. the cwt.

171. Paper, wrapping, other kinds, including brown, cartridge, and sugar papers, 5s. the cwt.

172. Printed matter relating to patent or proprietary medicines; trade catalogues, price-lists, and fashion-plates of the goods of firms or persons in the colony, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

173. Stationery and writing paper n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

174. Stationery, manufactured—viz., account-books; manuscript books; bill-head, invoice, and statement forms; printed or ruled paper; counter-books; cheque- and draft forms; tags; labels; blotting-pads; sketch-books; book covers; copying letter-books; manifold writers; albums (other than for photographs); diaries; birthday-books; plain or faintlined ruled books; printed window-tickets; printed, lithographed, or embossed stationery; and Christmas, New Year, birthday, and Easter cards and booklets: 25 per cent. ad valorem.

175. Stereotypes and matrices, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

CLASS XII.—MANUFACTURES OF METAL.

176. Bicycles, tricycles, and the like vehicles; also finished or partly finished or machined parts of same, n.o.e., including weldless steel tubing cut to short lengths, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

177. Boilers, land and marine, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

178. Brass cocks, valves, unions, lubricators, and whistles, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

179. Brass manufactures n.o.e, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

180. Cartridges (shot), 10- to 24-bore, 1s. 6d. the 100.

181. Cartridge-cases, 9d. the 100.

182. Cartridges, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

183. Cash-registering machines, 10 per cent. ad valorem.

184. Coffin-furniture, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

185. Composition-piping, 3s. 6d. the cwt.

186. Copper manufactures n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

187. Copying-presses, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

188. Crab-winches, cranes n.o.e., capstans, and windlasses, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

189. Cutlery, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

190. Firearms, all kinds, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

191. Galvanised-iron manufactures n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

192. Gasometers, and other apparatus for producing gas; also gas-meters, 10 per cent. ad valorem.

193. Gaspipes, iron, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

194. Hardware, ironmongery, and holloware, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

195. Iron bridges, and iron material, n.o.e., for the construction of bridges, wharves, jetties, or patent slips, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

196. Iron columns for buildings, and other structural ironwork, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

197. Iron doors for safes and vaults, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

198. Iron, galvanised corrugated sheets, screws, and nails, 2s. the cwt.

199. Iron galvanised tiles, ridging, guttering, and spouting, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

200. Iron gates and gate-posts, staples, standards, straining posts and apparatus, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

201. Iron nails, 2s. the cwt.

202. Iron pipes, and fittings for same, including main-cocks, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

203. Iron, plain galvanised sheet and hoop, 1s. 6d. the cwt.

204. Iron tanks, exceeding 200 gallons and not exceeding 400 gallons, 10s. each.

205. Iron tanks, of and under 200 gallons, 5s. each.

206. Iron-work and wire-work, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

207. Japanned and lacquered metal ware, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

208. Lawn-mowers, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

209. Lead, in sheets, 1s. 6d. the cwt.

210. Lead piping, 3s. 6d. the cwt.

211. Machinery, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

212. Machinery, electric, and appliances, 10 per cent. ad valorem.

213. All machinery for agricultural purposes, including chaff-cutters, corn-crushers, corn-shellers, also articles used in manufacturing the same—namely, chaff cutting knives, tilt-rakes, fittings for threshing-mills, forgings for ploughs; but excluding reapers and binders, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

214. Machinery for dairying purposes (excluding separators and coolers), 5 per cent. ad valorem.

215. Machinery for flour-mills, woollen-mills, paper-mills, rope- and twine-making, dredging, saw-milling, planing, and wood-working (including lathes), oil-refining, boring, and also machinery for refrigerating or preserving meat, leather-splitting machines, and band-knives for same, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

216. Machinery for stamping and blocking tin, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

217. Machinery of every description for mining purposes, including machine pumps, but excluding machinery for gold-saving purposes and processes, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

218. Manufactures, n.o.e., of metal, or of metal in combination with any other material, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

219. Nails n.o.e., 3s. the cwt.

220. Portable engines on four or any greater number of wheels, with boilers of locomotive type; also traction-engines, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

221. Printing machines and presses, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

222. Pumps and other apparatus for raising water n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

223. Railway and tramway plant and materials n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

224. Sad-irons, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

225. Shot, 10s. the cwt.

226. Soda-water machines; also machines for aërating liquids, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

227. Steam engines and parts of steam engines n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

228. Steam-engines and parts thereof (including the boiler or boilers therefor), imported specially for mining and dairying purposes, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

229. Tinware, and tinsmiths' furniture, n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

230. Waterworks pipes, iron, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

231. Weighbridges and weighing-machines, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

232. Wire mattresses and webbing, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

233. Zinc tiles, ridging, guttering, piping, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

234. Zinc manufactures n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

CLASS XIII.—TIMBER AND ARTICLES MADE FROM TIMBER.

235. Bellows, other than forge, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

236. Blocks, wooden tackle, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

237. Buckets and tubs, of wood, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

238. Carriages, carts, drays, wagons and perambulators, and wheels for the same, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

239. Carriage shafts, spokes, and felloes, dressed: bent carriage timber n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

240. Doors, glazed with ornamental glass, 4s. each.

241. Doors, plain, 2s. each.

242. Sashes, glazed with ornamental glass, 4s. the pair.

243. Sashes, plain, 2s. the pair.

244. Timber, palings, 2s. the 100.

245. Timber, posts, 8s. the 100.

246. Timber, rails, 4s. the 100.

247. Timber, sawn, dressed, 4s. the 100 ft. superficial.

248. Timber, sawn, rough, 2s. the 100 ft. superficial.

249. Timber, shingles and laths, 2s. the 1,000.

250. Woodenware and turnery n.o.e., and veneers, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

CLASS XIV.—OILS, PAINTS, ETC.

251. Axle grease and other solid lubricants, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

252. Harness oil and composition, and leather dressing, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

253. Naphtha, 6d. the gallon.

254. Oil, kerosene, 6d. the gallon.

255. Oil, linseed, 6d. the gallon.

256. Oil, mineral, including shale-waste or unrefined mineral-oil n.o.e., 6d. the gallon.

257. Oil, n.o.e., 6d. the gallon.

258. Oil, olive, in bulk, 6d. the gallon.

259. Oil vegetable, in bulk, n.o.e., 6d. the gallon.

260. Oil, vegetable or other, in bottle, 15 per cent. ad valorem.

261. Paints and colours ground in oil or turpentine, 2s. 6d. the cwt.

262. Paints and colours mixed ready for use, 5s. the cwt.

263. Putty, 2s. the cwt.

264. Stearine, 1.½d. the lb.

265. Varnish, enamel paints, gold size, 2s. the gallon.

266. Whiting and chalk, 1s. the cwt.

CLASS XV.—AGRICULTURAL AND FARM PRODUCTS, ETC.

267. Animals, food for, of all kinds, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

268. Cattle (horned), 10s. each.

269. Chaff, £1 the ton.

270. Grain—namely, barley, 2s. the 100 lb.

271. Grain and pulse of every kind n.o.e., 9d. the 100 lb.

272. Grain and pulse of every kind, when ground or in any way manufactured, n.o.e., 1s. the 100 lb.

273. Horses, £1 each.

274. Linseed, £1 the ton.

275. Maize, 9d. the 100 lb.

276. Onions, £1 the ton.

277. Prepared calf-meal, £1 5s. the ton.

CLASS XVI.—MISCELLANEOUS.

278. Bags, flour, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

279. Bags, calico, forfar, Hessian, and linen, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

280. Bagging and bags n.o.e., 15 per cent. ad valorem.

281. Blacking and boot-gloss, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

282. Blacklead, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

283. Blue, 2d. the lb.

284. Brooms, brushes, and brushware n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

285. Brushes, hair, and combs; toilet, clothes, and hat brushes, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

286. Candles, 2d. the lb. or package of that reputed weight, and so in proportion for packages of greater or less reputed weight.

287. Cement, 2s. the barrel.

288. Cordage and rope n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

289. Cork, cut, including bungs, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

290. Fireworks n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

291. Flock, 10 per cent. ad valorem.

292. Glue and size, 1.½d. the lb.

293. Granite, sawn on not more than two sides, and not dressed or polished, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

294. Marble, granite, and other stone, dressed or polished, and articles made therefrom, including mantelpieces, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

295. Matches—

Wooden, in boxes containing not more than 60 matches, 1s. the gross of boxes.

In boxes containing over 60 and not more than 100 matches, 2s. the gross of boxes.

In boxes containing more than 100 matches, for every 100 matches or fraction thereof contained in one box, 2s. the gross of boxes.

Wax, “plaid vestas” in cardboard boxes containing under 100 matches, 1s. 2d. the gross of boxes.

“Pocket vestas” in tin or other boxes containing under 100 matches, 1s. 9d. the gross of boxes.

“Sportsman's,” “Ovals,” and “No. 4 tin vestas” in boxes containing not more than 200 matches, 5s. the gross of boxes.

Other kinds, for every 100 matches or fraction thereof contained in one box, 2s. 6d. the gross of boxes.

296. Nets and netting, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

297. Powder, sporting, 6d. the lb.

298. Rice, manufactured into starch in bond, 2s. the cwt.

299. Sacks, other than cornsacks and jute sacks, 15 per cent. ad valorem.

300. Sausage-skins and casings (including brine or salt), 3d. the lb.

301. Soap, common yellow and blue mottled, 5s. the cwt.

302. Soap n.o.e. 25 per cent. ad valorem.

303. Soap-powder, extract of soap, dry soap, and soft-soap, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

304. Spirits, methylated, 1s. the liquid gallon.

305. Spirits, cleared from warehouse, methylated under prescribed conditions, 6d. the liquid gallon.

306. Starch, 2d. the lb.

307. Tarpaulins, tents, rick- and wagon-covers, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

308. Twine, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

309. Washing-powder, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

310. Wax, paraffin, mineral, vegetable, and Japanese, 1.½d. the lb.

In addition to any duty chargeable by law on any goods imported into the colony, a further duty of 20 per cent. ad valorem shall be charged when the goods are prison-made.

TABLE OF EXEMPTIONS FROM DUTIES OF CUSTOMS.

CLASS I.—FOODS, ETC.

Names of Articles.

311. Almonds, Barbary, Sicily, and French, used in confectioners' manufactures.

312. Anchovies, salted, in casks.

313. Arrowroot, sago, tapioca, macaroni, vermicelli, and prepared groats.

314. Rock salt.

CLASS IV.—NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, ETC.

315. Cocoa-beans.

CLASS V.—DRUGS, ETC.

316. Acids—viz.: boracic; carbolic, in bulk; fluoric; muriatic; nitric; oxalic; oleic; pyrogallic; salicylic; sulphuric.

317. Concentrated extracts, or essences in liquid form or preserved in fat for perfume-manufacturing purposes in manufacturing warehouses, in bottles of not less than 1 lb. in weight.

318. Disinfectants.

319. Drugs and chemicals—viz.: alum; sulphate of aluminium; sulphate of ammonia; anhydrous ammonia; aniline dyes; arsenic, bluestone, or sulphate of copper; borax; catechu; chloride of calcium; nitrate of silver; cochineal; creosote, crude or commercial; glycerine, crude; gum, Arabic and tragacanth; gum benzoin; artificial gum Arabic; gum damar; phosphorus; potash, caustic potash, and chlorate of potash; pearlash; cyanide of potassium; sal-ammoniac; saltpetre; acetate of soda, crude; soda-ash; caustic soda; nitrate of soda; silicate of soda, sulphate of soda; sulphide of sodium; strychnine; sulphur; chloride of zinc; iron-sulphates; gall-nuts; turmeric; saffron; nitrous-oxide gas; tree washes; insecticides; maltine; chlorodyne.

320. Essential oils, except eucalyptus; cod-liver oil; oil of rhodium.

321. Horse-drenches.

322. Medicinal barks, leaves, herbs, flowers, roots, and gums.

323. Scrub-exterminator.

324. Sheep dip; sheep-drenches; sheep-licks.

325. Surgical and dental instruments and appliances.

326. Scientific and assay balances, retorts, flasks, and other appliances for chemical analysis and assay work.

327. Water-hardening chemicals for brewers' use.

CLASS VI.—CLOTHING AND TEXTILES.

328. Accoutrements for military purposes, excepting uniform clothing.

329. Brace-elastic and brace mountings.

330. Bunting, in the piece.

331. Butter- and cheese-cloth.

332. Buttons, tapes, wadding, pins, needles.

333. Calico, white and grey, also cotton sheetings, in the piece.

334. Corduroy, moleskin, and plain beaverskin, of cotton, in the piece.

335. Coloured cotton shirtings; flannelette shirtings.*

336. Forfar, dowlas, and flax sheeting, when cut up under supervision in sizes not exceeding 47 in. x 36 in. for making flour-bags, and not exceeding 54 in. for lining wool mats.

337. Fur-skins, green or sun-dried.

338. Gold or silver lace or braid for military clothing.

339. Hatmaker's materials—viz.: silk plush; felt hoods; shellac; galloons; calicoes; spale-boards for hat-boxes; leathers and linings; blocks; moulds; frames; ventilators; and tassels.

340. Hessians, plain or striped, and scrim.

341. Leather-cloth.

342. Minor articles (required in the making-up of apparel, boots, shoes, hats, caps, saddlery, umbrellas, parasols, and sunshades), enumerated in any order of the Commissioner, and published in the Gazette.

343. Sailcloth, canvas, and unbleached double-warped duck, in the piece.

344. Sewing cottons, silks, and threads; crotchet, darning, and knitting cottons; angola mendings not exceeding 45 yards, on cards.

345. Silk for flour-dressing.

346. Silk twist (shoemakers' and saddlers').

347. Staymakers' binding, eyelets, corset-fasteners, jean, ticks, lasting, sateen, and cotell.

348. Tailors' trimmings—viz.: plain-coloured imitation hair-cloth; canvas; plain Verona and plain diagonal, and such patterns of checked Italian cloth as may be approved of by the Commissioner of Customs; Italian cloth of cotton or wool; buckram; wadding and padding; silk, worsted, and cotton bindings and braids; stay-bindings; Russia braids; shoulder-pads; buckles; silesias; drab, slate, and brown jeans; pocketings; slate, black, and brown dyed unions and linens.

* See note on next page.

349. Umbrella-makers' materials—viz.: reversible and levantine silk mixtures, gloria, and satin de chêno of not less than 44 in. in width; alpaca cloth, with border; zanella cloth, with border; also other piece-goods on such conditions as the Commissioner may approve; sticks, runners, notches, caps, ferrules, cups, ribs, stretchers, tips, and rings.

350. Union shirtings the invoice value of which does not exceed 6d. the yard.*

351. Waterproof material in the piece.

CLASS VII.—LEATHER, AND ARTICLES USED IN LEATHER MANUFACTURES.

352. Boot-elastic.

353. Bootmakers' linings, canvas, plain or coloured, bag and portmanteau linings, of such materials, qualities, and patterns as may be approved by the Commissioner.

354. Boots, shoes, and slippers—viz., children's, Nos. 0 to 3.

355. Cork soles, and sock soles.

356. East India kip, crust or rough-tanned, but undressed.

357. Goatskins, crust or rough-tanned, but undressed.

358. Grindery, except heel- and toe plates.

359. Hogskins.

360. Kangaroo-, wallabi-skins, undressed.

361. Leather, japanned or enamelled; goatskins, dressed as morocco, coloured (other than black).

362. Saddle-trees.

363. Saddlers' ironmongery (except bits and stirrup-irons), hames, and mounts for harness; straining, surcingle, brace, girth, and roller-webs; collar-check, and the same article plain, of such quality as may be approved by the Commissioner; legging-buckles.

364. Tanning materials, crude.

CLASS VIII.—FURNITURE, ETC.

365. Blind-webbing and tape.

366. Upholsterers' webbing, hair seating, imitation hair-seating, curled hair; gimp and cord, of wool, cotton, or silk; tufts and studs.

CLASS IX.—CHINA, GLASS, ETC.

367. Bottles, empty, plain glass, not being cut or ground; also jars up to 3 in. in diameter at the mouth.

368. Glass plates (engraved) for photo-lithographic work.

369. Jars or other dutiable vessels, containing free goods or goods subject to a fixed rate of duty, and being ordinary trade packages for the goods contained in them.

CLASS X.—FANCY GOODS, ETC.

370. Action-work and keys, in frames or otherwise, for manufacture of organs, harmoniums, and pianos; organ-pipes and stop knobs.

371. Artists' canvas, colours, brushes, and pallet-knives.

372. Magic-lanterns, lenses, and slides.

373. Microscopes and astronomical telescopes, and lenses for same.

374. Musical instruments, specially imported for Volunteer bands.

375. Paintings, statuary, and works of art, presented to or imported by any public institution or art association registered as a body corporate, for display in the buildings of such institution or association, and not to be sold or otherwise disposed of.

* Whenever any dispute arises as to the application of the exemption in favour of coloured cotton, flannelette, or union shirtings, in the case of fabrics alleged to be such shirtings, the Commissioner has power to decide such dispute: and in case of doubt on his part, he may require the fabric in dispute to be cut up for shirt-making, under such conditions as he prescribes.

376. Photographic cameras and lenses.

377. Photographs of personal friends in letters or packet.

378. Precious stones, cut or uncut and unmounted.

379. Sensitized surfaces for photographic purposes.

CLASS XI.—PAPER, ETC.

380. Bookbinders' materials—viz., cloth, leather, thread, headbands, webbing, end-papers, tacketing-gut, marbling-colours, marble-paper, blue-paste for ruling-ink, staple-presses, wire-staples, staple-sticks.

381. Butter-paper, known as parchment paper or waxed paper.

382. Cardboard and pasteboard, of sizes not less than that known as “royal.”

383. Cardboard boxes, materials for—viz., gold and silver paper, plain and embossed, gelatine and coloured papers, known as “box-papers.”

384. Cartridge paper, for drawing books.

385. Cloth lined boards, not less than “royal.”

386. Cloth-lined papers; enamelled-paper; ivorite and gelatine; metallic paper, not less than “demy.”

387. Copy-books and drawing-books.

388. Copying-paper, medium and double-foolscap, in original mill wrappers and labels.

389. Hand-made cheque-paper.

390. Ink, printing.

391. Masticated para.

392. Millboard and bookbinders' leather-board.

393. Paper, hand-made or machine-made book or writing, of sizes not less than the size known as “demy,” when in original wrappers.

394. Printing-paper.

395. Printed books, papers, and music n.o.e.

396. School slates, and educational apparatus.

CLASS XII.—METALS.

397. Anchors.

398. Artificers' tools.

399. Axes and hatchets; spades, shovels, and forks; picks; mattocks; quartz and knapping hammers; scythes, sheep-shears, reaping-hooks; soldering-irons, paperhangers' scissors; butchers' saws and cleavers.

400. Axles, axle-arms, and boxes.

401. Band-saws and folding-saws, including frames.

402. Bellows nails.

403. Bicycles and tricycles, fittings for—viz., rubber-tires, pneumatic-tires, outside covers, and inner tubes; rubber and cork handles, and pedal rubbers; also drop-forgings and stampings, ball-bearings, weldless steel tube in full lengths, rims, forks, and spokes, in the rough.

404. Blacksmiths' anvils, forges, and fans.

405. Bolts, 5in. by ½in. in diameter, and under, and nuts for same.

406. Brass and copper, in pigs, bars, tubes, or sheets.

407. Brass tubing and stamped work, in the rough, for gasaliers and brackets.

408. Caps, percussion.

409. Card-clothing for woollen-mills.

410. Chains, trace and plough chains; or metal articles required to repair or complete riding or driving harness or saddlery to be repaired or made in the colony.

411. Copper and composition rod, bolts, sheathing, and nails.

412. Couch-roll jackets, machine-wires, beater-bars, and strainer-plates for paper-mills.

413. Crucibles.

414. Emery-grinding machines and emery-wheels.

415. Empty iron drums, not exceeding 10 gallons capacity.

416. Engineers' machine tools.

417. Eyelets.

418. Fire-engines, including Merryweather's chemical fire-engines.

419. Fish-books.

420. Galvanising-baths, welded.

421. Gas-engines and hammers, and oil-engines.

422. Glassmakers' moulds.

423. Hydraulic cranes.

424. Iron- and brass-wove wire and wire gauze; also wire netting.

425. Iron boiler-plates and unflanged end-plates for boilers; boiler-tubes not exceeding 6in. in diameter, and unflanged; Bowling's expansion rings; furnace-flues.

426. Iron, plain black sheet, rod, bolt, bar, plate, hoop, and pig.

427. Iron rolled girders.

428. Iron plates, screws, and castings for ships.

429. Iron wire n.o.e., including fencing-wire, plain and barbed.

430. Lead, in pigs and bars.

431. Locomotives.

432. Machine saws.

433. Machinery for gold-saving purposes and processes.

434. Metal fittings for trunks, portmanteaux, travelling-bags, leggings, bags, and satchels.

435. Metal sheaves for blocks.

436. Metallic capsules.

437. Perambulators and the like vehicles, fittings for, n.o.e.

438. Perforated or cellular sheet zinc or iron.

439. Printing type and materials n.o.e.

440. Rails for railways and tramways.

441. Reapers and binders, and reaping and mowing machines, and extra parts for same; materials for manufacturing agricultural machinery—namely, reaper-knife sections, fingers, brass and steel springs, malleable castings, discs for harrows, mould-boards and plough-shares, mould-board plates, and steel share-plates cut to pattern, skeith plates; ploughs and harrows, combined threshers.

442. Riddles and sieves.

443. Rivets and washers.

444. Separators and coolers for dairying purposes.

445. Set-screws, engineers' studs, and split-pins.

446. Sewing-, knitting-, and kilting-machines.

447. Spiral springs (except sofa- and mattress-springs).

448. Steam and hydraulic pressure and vacuum gauges.

449. Surveyors' steel bands and measuring-tapes.

450. Swords.

451. Tacks of all kinds.

452. Tea-packing lead.

453. Tin, in pigs, bars, or sheets.

454. Tinsmiths' fittings, including stamped or blocked tin, planished or unplanished.

455. Tins, tops of, ornamented.

456. Wire, of brass, copper, or lead.

457. Zinc, plain sheet.

458. Zinc plates and copper plates for photo-lithographic work.

CLASS XIII.—TIMBER, ETC.

459. Ash, hickory, and lancewood timber, unwrought.

460. Blacksmiths' bellows.

461. Brush woodware.

462. Carriage- and cart-shafts, spokes and felloes in the rough; hubs, all kinds; poles if unbent and unplaned, all kinds; bent wheel-rims.

463. Carriage- and cart-makers' materials—viz., springs, mountings, trimmings, brass hinges, tire bolts, shackle-holders, step treads, and other iron fittings (except steps, lamp-irons, dash-irons, seat-rails, and fifth wheels), rubber-cloth.

464. Churns.

465. Lignum-vitaeæ.

466. Sieves, hair.

467. Wooden handles for tools.

CLASS XIV.—OILS, ETC.

468. Benzine in bulk.

469. Oils—viz., candlenut, fish, whale, seal, penguin, and palm.

470. Paints and colours n.o.e.

471. Shale oil, once run, suitable for gas-making.

472. Spirits of tar.

473. Turpentine, driers, and terebene.

CLASS XV.—MISCELLANEOUS.

474. Apparatus and appliances solely for teaching purposes, as may be approved by the Commissioner.

475. Belting for machinery, other than leather.

476. Binder-twine.

477. Bricks, other than fire-bricks.

478. Building materials n.o.e.

479. Brushes for cream-separators and combined screens.

480. Candlenuts and candlenut kernels.

481. Candlewick.

482. Canvas aprons and elevators for reapers and binders.

483. Carpenters' baskets.

484. Charts and maps.

485. Cotton waste.

486. Dye-stuffs and dyeing materials, crude.

487. Felt sheathing.

488. Food preservative n.o.e.

489. Gum boots.

490. Hawsers of 12 in. and over.

491. Honey and brown Windsor soap composition.

492. Iron and steel cordage.

493. Jute bagging, bags, and sacks.

494. Manures.

495. Marble and other stone, hewn or rough-sawn, not dressed or polished.

496. Netmakers' cotton twine.

497. Official supplies for consular officers of countries where a similar exemption exists in favour of British Consuls.

498. Papermakers' felts.

499. Passengers' baggage and effects, including only wearing apparel and other personal effects that have been worn or are in use by persons arriving in the colony; also implements, instruments, and tools of trade, occupation, or employment of such persons; and household or other effects not exceeding £100 in value, which have been in use for twelve months prior to embarkation by the persons or families bringing them to the colony, and not intended for any other person or persons or for sale; also cabin furnishings belonging to such persons.

500. Plaster of Paris.

501. Powder, blasting and meal.

502. Ship-chandlery n.o.e.

503. Ships' rockets, blue-lights, and danger-signals.

504. Spirits for manufacturing perfumed spirit, flavouring essences, and culinary essences in manufacturing warehouses.*

505. Stones, mill-, grind-, oil-, and whet-.

* This exemption ceased on the 1st day of February, 1896.

506. Tobacco for sheepwash or for insecticide, after being rendered unfit for human consumption to the satisfaction of the Commissioner.

507. Treacle or molasses, mixed with bone-black in proportions to the satisfaction of the Commissioner.

508. Tubular woven cotton-cloth in the piece, for meat-wraps.

509. Type-writers.

510. Wax, bottling.

511. Woolpacks and woolpockets.

512. Yarn—viz., coir, flax, hemp.

513. Articles and materials (as may from time to time be specified by the Commissioner) which are suited only for, and are to be used solely in, the fabrication of goods within the colony. All decisions of the Commissioner in reference to articles so admitted free to be published from time to time in the Gazette.

514. And all articles not otherwise enumerated.

TABLE OF EXCISE DUTIES.

515. Tobacco, 1s. in the lb.*

516. Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff, 1s. 6d. the lb.*

517. Beer, 3d. the gallon.

518. Articles in which spirit is a necessary ingredient, manufactured in a warehouse appointed under section 26 of “The Customs Laws Consolidation Act, 1882,” namely,—

Pharmacopoeia tinctures, essences, extracts, and medicinal spirits containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 9d. the lb.

Pharmacopoeia tinctures, essences, extracts, and medicinal spirits containing less than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 3d. the pound.

Culinary and flavouring essences, 12s. the liquid gallon, from 1st February, 1896.

Perfumed spirit, 20s. the liquid gallon, from 1st February, 1896.

Toilet preparations which are subject to 16s. the liquid gallon on importation, 12s. the liquid gallon.

Toilet preparations which are subject to 25 per cent. duty on importation, 6s. the liquid gallon.

DUTIES IMPOSED BY HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR UNDER SECTION 17 OF “THE CUSTOMS AND EXCISE DUTIES ACT, 1888.”

519. Olive stones, ground (see New Zealand Gazette, 15th May, 1890), 4d. the lb.

520. Brewers' caramel (see New Zealand Gazette, 21st August, 1890), 3d. the lb.

521. Liquid hops (see New Zealand Gazette, 21st December, 1893), 6s. the lb.

522. The United Asbestos Patent Salamander Decorations (see New Zealand Gazette, 14th May, 1896), 15 per cent. ad valorem.

* “The Tobacco Excise Duties Act, 1896,” section 2, enacts:—
“On and after the thirty-first day of December, one thousand eight hundred and ninety-six, section three of “The Customs and Excise Duties Act, 1891,” shall be deemed to be repealed, and in lieu of the duties imposed by that section there shall be levied, collected, and paid, on and after that day, upon tobacco manufactured in the colony, at the time of making the entry for home consumption thereof, the several duties of excise following, that is to say,—

”On tobaccoOne shilling the pound,
“On cigars and snuffOne shilling and sixpence the pound.
“On cigarettes— 
      If manufactured by machineryTwo shillings and sixpence the pound.
      If made by handOne shilling the pound.”

Chapter 28. FEES PAYABLE UNDER LAND TRANSFER ACT.

FEES PAYABLE TO DISTRICT LAND REGISTRARS UNDER “THE LAND TRANSFER ACT, 1885.”

For the bringing land under the provisions of this Act (over and above the cost of advertisements)—£s.d.
      When the title consists of a Crown grant, and none of the land included therein has been dealt with020
      When the title is of any other description and the value exceeds £300100
      When the title is of any other description and the value exceeds £200 and does not exceed £3000150
      When the title is of any other description and the value exceeds £100 and does not exceed £2000100
      When the title is of any other description and when the value does not exceed £100050
Contribution to the Assurance Fund upon first bringing land under the Act, and upon the registration of an estate of freehold in possession derived by settlement, will, or intestacy—
      In the pound sterling000.½
Other fees—
      For every application to bring land under the Act050
      For every certificate of title on transfer where the consideration does not exceed £1000100
      For every other certificate of title100
      Registering memorandum of transfer, mortgage, incumbrance, or lease0100
      Registering transfer or discharge of mortgage or of incumbrance, or the transfer or surrender of a lease050
      Registering proprietor of any estate or interest derived by settlement or transmission0100
      For every power of attorney deposited0100
      For every registration abstract100
      For cancelling registration abstract050
      For every revocation order0100
      Noting caveat0100
      Cancelling or withdrawal of caveat, and for every notice relating to any caveat050
      For every search020
      For every general search050
      For every map or plan deposited050
      For every instrument declaratory of trusts, and for every will or other instrument deposited0100
      For registering recovery by proceeding in law or equity or re-entry by lessee0100
      For registering vesting of lease in mortgagee, consequent on refusal of Trustee in Bankruptcy to accept the same0100
      For entering notice of marriage or death0100
      For entering notice of writ or order of Supreme Court0100
      Taking affidavit or statutory declaration050
      For the exhibition of any deposited instrument, or for exhibiting deeds surrendered by applicant proprietor050
      For certified copy, not exceeding five folios050
      For every folio or part folio after first five006
      For every notice to produce deeds or instruments050
      For every outstanding interest noted on certificate of title050
      When any instrument purports to deal with land included in more than one grant or certificate, for each registration memorial after the first020

Regulations.

All fees under the Act shall be due and payable in advance.

Where several properties are included in one form of application, there shall be charged in respect of each property an application fee, and a fee for bringing the land under the Act. Land included within one outer boundary shall be deemed one property for the purpose of this regulation.

In all cases a fee of one pound (£1) is hereby prescribed as the charge to be made for advertising notice of application; provided that, whenever it is necessary that unusual publicity shall be given to any application, the District Land Registrar may require payment of such additional sum as shall, in his judgment, be sufficient to defray the cost of such advertisements.

In all cases where application is made to bring land under the Act, and the certificate of title is directed to issue and is issued in the name of the applicant, the fees for bringing such land under the Act, with the exception of the “application fee,” may, at the request of the applicant, remain unpaid until such land is dealt with by him as registered proprietor. The District Land Registrar shall retain any such certificate of title until the fees due upon the same have been paid, and, until such payment, shall not register any dealing with the land included in such certificate of title.

Printed forms supplied by the Registrar for use under the Act shall be charged for at the rate of one shilling each. Solicitors, land-brokers, and others having forms printed for their own use, and at their own expense, shall, on approval of such forms by the Registrar, be entitled to have the same sealed free of charge.

Chapter 29. DUTIES ON ESTATES OF DECEASED PERSONS.

BY the Amendment Act of 1885 the Schedule of Duties payable under the principal Act of 1881 has been repealed, and the following imposed in lieu thereof:—

1. When the value does not exceed £100No duty
2. Upon any amount exceeding £100 but not exceeding £1,000— 
On the first £100No duty
And on the remainder£2.½ per cent.
3. Upon any amount exceeding £1,000 but not exceeding £5,000£3.½ per cent.
4. Upon any amount exceeding £5,000, but not exceeding £20,000£7 per cent.
Upon £20,000 and any amount over that sum£10 per cent.
Strangers in blood, excepting adopted children£3 per cent.
 additional.

These duties are leviable upon the final balance of the real and personal estates.

The exemption in respect of property passing absolutely to widow at death of husband is now extended vice versaá.

There are also special provisions in the law affecting children and half children inheriting property, as to deeds of gift, &c.

PART II.—STATISTICAL INFORMATION.
[The progress of the colony from the beginning is shown in the statistical broadsheets which follow the General Index.]

Table of Contents

Chapter 30. SECTION I.—POPULATION.

THE estimated population of New Zealand on the 31st December, 1899, with the increase for the year, is shown below:

      Persons.    Males.    Females.
Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris) on 31st December, 1898743,463392,124351,339
Increase during year 1899:—By excess of births over deaths  11,155    5,2605,895
Excess of arrivals over departures1,887    1,295       592
Estimated population, exclusive of Maoris, on 31st December, 1899756,505398,679357,826
Maori population (1896)  39,854  21,673  18,181
            Total estimated population of Colony on 31st December, 1899796,359420,352376,007

The number of the Chinese in New Zealand at the end of the year 1899 was estimated to be 3,263 persons, of whom 33 were females.

INCREASE OF POPULATION.

The increase for each quarter of the year 1899 was:—

First Quarter.   
                  Increase from:    Total.    Males.    Females.
Excess of births over deaths2,9841,4161,568
Excess of arrivals over departures229298—69
 3,2131,7141,499
Second Quarter.   
Excess of births over deaths2,7331,3201,413
Excess of departures over arrivals (decrease)—1,478–911–567
 1,255409846
Third Quarter.   
Excess of births over deaths2,7271,2521,475
Excess of arrivals over departures369210159
 3,0961,4621,634
Fourth Quarter.   
Excess of births over deaths2,7111,2721,439
Excess of arrivals over departures2,7671,6981,069
 5,4782,9702,508
Year 1899.   
Excess of births over deaths11,1555,2605,895
Excess of arrivals over departures1,8871,295592
 13,0426,5556,487

The movement of population since 1885 is given next. Although the large increase in 1893 by excess of arrivals over departures was not maintained during the six following years, the arrivals in the colony nevertheless exceeded the departures in each of these years, and the total excess of arrivals for the eight-year period 1892–99 inclusive is found to be 27,325 persons, drawn from other colonies or countries. The number may be somewhat greater than the actual fact, but probably not very much so. Reference to the possible source of error and its degree will be found further on.

Year.Estimated Population on the 31st December.Increase during the YearCentesimal Increase on Population of Previous Year.
By Excess of Births over Deaths.By Excess of Arrivals over Departures.*Net Increase.

* Corrected in accordance with census results of 1886, 1891, and 1896. The amount of loss by departures in the period 1886–91, though correct in the aggregate, cannot be allocated with exactness to the respective years.

† Loss.

‡ The results of the census taken in April, 1896, disclosed the fact that the estimate of population for December, 1895, was too low by 1,804 persons. Adding this number to the increase for 1896 (13,652 persons) makes 15,456, which is the difference between the populations given for the years 1895 and 1896.

1885575,17213,612  –2,744†10,8681.93
1886589,38613,164–17,194†58,88610.24
1887603,36112,998
1888607,38013,194
1889616,05212,685
1890625,50812,284
1891634,05811,755
1892650,43311,4174,95816,3752.58
1893672,26511,42010,41221,8323.36
1894686,12811,6102,25313,8632.06
1895698,706‡11,68389512,5781.83
1896714,16212,1801,47213,652‡1.95
1897729,05612,1422,75214,8942.09
1898743,46311,7112,69614,4071.98
1899756,50511,1551,88713,0421.75

POPULATION OF PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS.

At a distance of four years' time from the date of the census it is impossible to state with anything like certainty of accuracy what the populations of the provincial districts may be. The natural increase by excess of births over deaths is correctly found and added, but the internal movement of people cannot be measured; and, in respect of the North and Middle Islands, it is known that a process of leaving the south and settling in the north has been going on for a long while. Further, the arrivals in the colony of persons from abroad and the departures to places outside New Zealand are counted in the Customs returns as at the first port of entry and the last of departure. Thus, the total excess of arrivals over departures has to be afterwards divided amongst the provincial districts proportionally, which is certainly not a method likely to give perfectly true results, though it is the best perhaps that can possibly be adopted for the years lying between those on which the quinquennial census is taken.

From the foregoing remarks, it will be seen that the estimated populations given below are no doubt too high for the Middle Island and too low for the North, but there is no means of allowing for the presumed error. The figures are given subject to these qualifications:—

ESTIMATED POPULATIONS OF PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS, 31ST DECEMBER, 1899.
(Figures given subject to previous remarks.)
 Persons.
Auckland165,793
Taranaki34,486
Hawke's Bay37,139
Wellington132,420
Marlborough13,499
Nelson38,142
Westland15,042
Canterbury145,058
Otago174,664
    Chatham Islands255
    Kermadec Islands7
Estimated total population of colony, excluding Maoris, Dec. 31, 1899, 756,505

CENSUS, 1896.

The population of the colony (exclusive of Maoris), as returned in the census schedules for the night of the 12th April, 1896, was 703,360 persons, of whom 3,711 were Chinese, and 2,259 half-castes living amongst and as Europeans.

A census of the Maori population was taken during February of 1896, when the number of the Native race was found to be 39,854 persons, including 3,503 half-castes living as Maoris. 229 Maori women were returned as married to European husbands. The complete population (European and Maori) of the colony was therefore 743,214 persons, as exhibited in the following statement, specifying the numbers for each sex:—

     Persons.    Males.    Females.

* Not including 171 persons, officers and crew of a British man-of-war.

Population (exclusive of persons of the aboriginal native race, of mixed European and Native blood, and Chinese)697,390366,607330,783
Half-castes and persons of mixed race living as and among Europeans    2,259    1,123    1,136
Chinese    3,711    3,685         26
Aboriginal natives (including 229 Maori wives of Europeans)  36,351  19,729  16,622
Half-castes and persons of mixed race living among and as members of Maori tribes    3,503    1,944    1,559
              Total population on 12th April, 1896*743,214393,088350,126

The total half-caste or mixed European and Native population was 5,762 persons. The number of half-castes living among Europeans increased since 1891 by 75, or at the rate of 3.4 per cent. In that year the number of Maori wives of Europeans was 251; in 1896 it was 229. The Chinese decreased from 4,444 at the time of the census of 1891 to 3,711 in April, 1896; or at the rate of 16.5 per cent., caused mainly by the excess of departures over arrivals.

The Maori population fell from 41,993 in 1891 to 39,854 in 1896, according to the returns.

The increase on the total European population between April, 1891, and April, 1896, amounted to 76,702 persons, or a rate of 12.24 per cent. Between the census of 1886 and that of 1891 the numerical increase was 48,176 persons, or 8.33 per cent., so that an improved progress was made during the last five-year period to the extent of 3.91 per cent. The average annual increase in the period 1891–96 was at the rate of 2.33 per cent.

The population of the principal divisions of the colony in April, 1896, was—

     Persons.    Males.    Females
North Island and adjacent islets (exclusive of Maoris)340,631181,089159,542
Middle Island and adjacent islets (exclusive of Maoris)362,236190,038172,198
Stewart Island       252       152       100
Chatham Islands (exclusive of Maoris)       234       132       102
Kermadec Islands           7           4           3
      Total for the colony (exclusive of Maoris)703,360371,415331,945

POPULATION OF COUNTIES.

New Zealand is, by “The Counties Act, 1876,” divided into counties and boroughs, excepting certain outlying islands, which are not within county boundaries. It is provided by the above-mentioned Act that boroughs shall not be included in counties. In April, 1896, the number of the counties was 81. Of these, the North Island had 47, with a population amounting altogether to 191,374 persons. The Middle Island had 33 counties, the population being 200,117 persons. Stewart Island is a county in itself, and had a population of 244 persons. The names and populations of the various counties in the colony were as under at the date of the enumeration:—

CensusCounties, 1896.

*Since the census was taken in 1896 four new counties have been constituted: Akitio, Eketahuna, and Mauriceville, cut out of Wairarapa North County; and Opotiki, cut out of Whakatane.

Since the 12th April, 1896, the following new boroughs have been constituted: New Brighton (population 800 in 1898), cut out of Selwyn County; Whangarei (population 1,250 in 1896), cut out of Whangarei County; Te Aroha (population 600 in 1899), cut out of Piako County; Stratford (population 1,700 in 1899), cut out of Stratford County.

Mongonui  1,889
Whangaroa     969
Hokianga  1,909
Bay of Islands  2,723
Hobson  3,750
Whangarei  6,847†
Otamatea  2,483
Rodney  3,464
Waitemata  6,762
Eden15,940
Manukau12,185
Coromandel  4,987
Thames  4,515
Ohinemuri  4,761
Piako  2,706†
Waikato  2,814
Waipa  3,584
Raglan  1,545
Kawhia     598
West Taupo     156
East Taupo     232
Rotorua     840
Tauranga  1,622
Whakatane1,988*
Waiapu     447
Cook  5,287
Clifton  1,450
Taranaki  9,970
Stratford  5,141†
Hawera  6,934
Patea  3,084
Waitotara  2,737
Wanganui  3,095
Rangitikei  6,030
Kiwitea  2,428
Oroau  6,450
Pohangina  1,351
Manawatu  2,709
Horowhenua  3,792
Hawke's Bay  6,894
Wairoa  1,490
Waipawa  8,866
Patangata  2,374
Pahiatua  3,208
Wairarapa North  7,209*
Wairarapa South  5,409
Hutt  5,750
Sounds     747
Marlborough  6,330
Kaikoura  1,575
Collingwood  2,509
Waimea  8,591
Buller  4,833
Inangahua  4,254
Grey  4,592
Westland  4,723
Amuri     916
Cheviot  1,042
Ashley11,913
Selwyn30,090†
Akaroa  3,886
Ashburton10,820
Geraldine  7,499
Levels  7,723
Mackenzie  1,514
Waimate  4,777
Waitaki  8,876
Waihemo  2,148
Waikouaiti  4,389
Peninsula  2,645
Taieri  6,950
Bruce  4,828
Tuapeka  6,477
Clutha  6,5    
Maniototo  3,742
Vincent  4,090
Lake  2,663
Southland21,603
Wallace  6,657
Fiord     151
Stewart Island     151244

As before stated, the total county population amounted to 391,735, or 55.69 per cent. of the total for the colony. In counties are included all towns not constituted municipal boroughs; but, on the other hand, the people living in many of the boroughs can hardly be called town population. The population in boroughs was 307,294 persons, or 43.69 per cent. of the whole. For every 100 persons resident in counties in 1896 there were 78 residing in boroughs. In 1891 the counties had 352,097 persons, and the boroughs 270,343, or, in other words, for every 100 persons in counties, 76 were residents of the boroughs. Thus it will be seen that the proportion of the town to the county population was slightly greater in 1896 than in 1891.

POPULATION OF BOROGUHS

The populations of the municipal boroughs in the colony, as estimated for the year 1899, are stated, there being no means of giving exact information until another census enumeration has been made, which will be in April of the year 1901.

BoroughsEstimated Population 1899.

* For population of ridings, road districts, and localities, see Census volume, p. 32, Part I.

Formerly known as Newton.

Whangarei  1,500
Birkenhead     780
Devonport  3,430
Auckland38,400
Grey Lynn  3,331
Newmarket  2,170
Parnell  4,402
Onehunga  2,913
To Aroha     600
Thames  5,000
Hamilton  1,250
Cambridge     880
Tauranga  1,050
Gisborne  2,500
New Plymouth  4,041
Stratford  1,700
Hawera  2,300
Patea     800
Wanganui  6,842
Marton  1,200
Feilding  2,150
Palmerston North  6,263
Foxton (1898)  1,140
Hastings  3,300
Napier  9,486
Dannevirke  1,700
Woodville  1,150
Pahiatua  1,200
Masterton  3,800
Carterton  1,300
Greytown  1,120
Lower Hutt  1,550
Petone  3,250
Onslow  1,400
Wellington42,986
Karori  1,096
Melrose  2,400
Picton     870
Blenheim  2,970
Nelson  7,120
Richmond     610
Westport  3,200
Greymouth  3,423
Brunner  1,200
Kumara  1,150
Hokitika  2,463
Ross     750
Rangiora  1,871
Kaiapoi  1,880
Christchurch18,500
Linwood  6,707
St. Albans  6,440
Sydenham11,388
Woolston  2,305
Sumner     592
New Brighton     900
Lyttelton  4,026
Akaroa     630
Ashburton  2,100
Timaru  5,795
Waimate  1,500
Oamaru  5,411
Hampden     320
Palmerston South     775
Hawksbury     730
Port Chalmers  2,100
North-east Valley  3,540
Maori Hill  1,603
West Harbour  1,364
Dunedin23,560
Roslyn  4,454
Mornington  3,854
Caversham  4,838
St. Kilda  1,420
South Dunedin  5,158
Green Island     700
Mosgiel  1,500
Milton  1,500
Kaitangata  1,400
Balclutha  1,000
Lawrence  1,050
Roxburgh     500
Tapanui     450
Naseby     550
Cromwell     580
Alexandra     600
Arrowtown     400
Queenstown     750
Gore  2,800
Mataura     950
Winton     400
Invercargill     5,681
North Invercargill     950
South Invercargill  1,950
East Invercargill     985
Avenal     350
Gladstone     380
Campbelltown  1,200
Riverton  1,000

The Cities of Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin have considerable suburbs. The suburban population of Wellington is comparatively small. The following gives the names and populations of the several localities which may fairly be termed suburbs of the four principal cities:—

SUBURBS OF AUCKLAND.
Boroughs—Estimated Population, Dec., 1899.
    Birkenhead    780
    Devonport  3,430
    Newmarket  2,170
    Grey Lynn (Newton)  3,331
    Parnell  4,402
Road Districts— 
    Arch-hill  1,557
    Eden Terrace  1,604
    Epsom     660
    Mount Albert  1,668
    Mount Eden  3,677
    Mount Roskill     495
    One-tree Hill     975
    Point Chevalier     591
    Remuera  2,034
Northcote Riding     530
Outlying portion of Parnell Riding, being land in the Domain with hospital on it     197
          Total suburbs28,101
          Auckland City38,400
          Total Auckland and suburbs66,501
SUBURBS OF WELLINGTON.
    Boroughs— 
    Onslow  1,400
    Melrose  2,400
    Karori  1,096
               Total suburbs  4,896
               Wellington City42,966
               Total Wellington and suburbs47,862
SUBURBS OF CHRISTCHURCH.
Boroughs—Estimated Population, Dec.,1899
  St. Albans  6,440
  Sydenham11,388
  Linwood  6,707
  Woolston  2,305
Road Districts—
  Avon (part)  2,962
  Heathcote (part)  1,980
  Riccarton (part)  3,657
  Spreydon  1,278
  Halswell (part)     224
        Total suburbs36,941
        Christchurch City18,500
        Total Christchurch and suburbs55,441

In laying off the suburbs of Christchurch the boundaries of the Christchurch Health District have been mainly followed.

SUBURBS OF DUNEDIN.
Boroughs— 
  Caversham  4,838
  Maori Hill  1,603
  Mornington  3,854
  North-East Valley  3,540
  Roslyn  4,454
  St. Kilda  1,420
  South Dunedin  5,158
  West Harbour  1,364
     Total suburbs26,231
     Dunedin City23,560
     Total Dunedin and suburbs49,791

The increase of population for eight years at the four chief centres, with their suburbs, was:—

         Census, 1891.        Dec., 1899. Estimated.        Numerical Increase.            Increase per Cent.
    Auckland and suburbs    51,287    66,501    15,214    29.66
    Wellington and suburbs    34,190    47,862    13,672    39.99
    Christchurch and suburbs    47,846    55,441  7,59515.87
    Dunedin and suburbs45,86949,791  3,922  8.55

Thus the two principal cities of the North Island are found to have progressed between 1891 and 1899 at a greater rate than those of the Middle Island, and Wellington in particular to have developed at nearly five times the rate of Dunedin, and more than twice as fast as Christchurch.

While New South Wales and Victoria present what is termed by the statistician of the former colony “the disquieting spectacle of capital towns growing with wonderful rapidity, and embracing in their limits one-third of the population of the territory of which they are the centre,” New Zealand is saved from this by the configuration of the country, which has resulted in the formation of four chief towns, besides others of secondary importance but nevertheless trading centres.

POPULATION OF TOWN DISTRICTS AND SMALL CENTRES.

Besides the boroughs, there are 37 town districts (including the special town district of Rotorua, constituted under “The Thermal-Springs Districts Act, 1881,”) which are portions of the counties in which they are situated. One only of these, Hampstead, has more than 1,000 inhabitants. A list of these town districts is subjoined, with populations, as in 1896:—

                      Town Districts.          Population.

* Constituted under “The Thermal-Springs Districts Act, 1881.”

Kamo222
Helensville564
Papakura274
Te Awamutu347
Kihikihi202
Ngaruawahia235
Rotorua*499
Opotiki641
Waitara (Raleigh)517
Opunake400
Inglewood658
Normanby396
Manaia471
Waverley442
Lethbridge251
Bulls521
Halcombe376
Clyde (Wairoa)579
Taradale807
Ormondville453
Waipawa764
Kaikora North301
Featherston711
Johnsonville493
Havelock365
Amberley437
Southbridge494
Hampstead1,214
Tinwald538
Geraldine841
Temuka660
Arowhenua789
Allanton (formerly Grey)274
Outram452
Clinton474
Wyndham483
Otautau367

In addition to the boroughs and town districts above referred to, the census results showed for 1896 throughout the colony no less than 561 places of the nature of townships, villages, or small centres without boundaries. One of these (New Brighton) has since been constituted a borough. It is impossible to say that the populations of these small centres are all strictly accurate, even for the census date, or given in such a way as to be fit for comparison one with another. In different cases more or less of surrounding country may have been considered as belonging to the centre, but there is at least at each place mentioned some sort of nucleus of population, if not a well-defined village or township. In making the statement the best has been done with a difficult matter, and the information is given as useful—in some cases, like that of Reefton, important—even if open to objection here and there. The county in which each is situated is also given:—

           Population.

*Now known as Kimbolton. (Gazette, 5th January, 1899.)

Abbotsford, Taieri197
Adair, Levels127
Adams's Flat (and vicinity), Bruce72
Adamson's, Southland80
Addington, Selwyn480
Addison's Flat, Buller277
Ahaura, Grey252
Albert Town, Vincent52
Albury, Mackenzie96
Alford Forest, Ashburton426
Alfredton, Wairarapa North88
Allandale, Waihemo93
Allenton, Ashburton763
Alma, Waitaki158
Alton, Patea72
Anderson's Bay, Peninsula489
Annat, Selwyn72
Antonio's Flat, Inangahua59
Aongatete, Tauranga33
Apiti, Pohangina110
Aratapu, Hobson508
Arden, Taieri85
Arthurtown, Westland51
Arundel, Geraldine78
Ashley, Ashley70
Ashurst, Oroua361
Athol, Southland85
Avondale, Eden872
Awanui, Waiapu43
Bainfield, Southland114
Bainham, Collingwood106
Bald Hill Flat, Vincent242
Ballance, Pahiatua93
Bannockburn, Vincent410
Barkly, Southland146
Bay View, Southland38
Beaconsfield, Levels141
Beck's Maniototo76
Belfast, Selwyn600
Belgrove, Waimea332
Bendigo, Vincent56
Bennett's, Ashley150
Berwick, Taieri77
Birmingham,* Kiwitea155
Blackball, Grey176
Black's Point, Inangahua283
Blackwater, Inangahua163
Blue Spur, Westland53
Bluestone, Tuapeka188
Brighton, Taieri57
Brightwater, Waimea409
Broad Bay, Peninsula301
Brockville, Taieri44
Buffalo, Coromandel146
Bunnythorpe (and vicinity), Oroua309
Burke's, Mackenzie90
Burnside, Taieri159
Cabbage Bay, Coromandel133
Calcium, Wallace31
Callaghan's, Westland47
Cambrian's Maniototo134
Cambridge West, Waipa255
Canvastown, Marlborough54
Cape Foulwind, Buller223
Capleston, Inangahua170
Cardinal, Lake176
Castlereagh, Waitotara269
Castlepoint, Wairarapa North31
Caversham, Levels37
Centre Bush, Southland66
Charleston Buller151
Charlton, Southland32
Cheltenham, Kiwitea43
Chertsey, Ashburton93
Clareville, Wairarapa South46
Clifton, Collingwood58
Clyde, Vincent310
Coalbrookdale, Buller165
Coal Creek, Tuapeka305
Coalgate, Selwyn116
Cobden, Grey274
Courtenay, Selwyn67
Crofton, Rangitikei113
Cromarty (and vicinity), Fiord39
Crushington, Inangahua108
Cullensville, Marlborough136
Culverden, Amuri40
Cust, Ashley117
Dalefield, Wairarapa South194
Danieltown, Wallace34
Darfield and Horndon, Selwyn262
Dargaville, Hobson358
Deborah, Waitaki60
Deborah Bay, Waikouaiti131
Denlair, Wanganui52
Denniston, Buller181
Dillman's, Westland467
Dipton, Southland86
Doyleston, Selwyn241
Dromore, Ashburton54
Drummond, Wallace213
Dunback, Waihemo134
Dunganville, Grey125
Dunkeld, Tuapeka80
Dunsandel, Selwyn153
Duntroon, Waitaki195
Durie Town, Wanganui172
Duvauchelle's Bay, Akaroa89
East Clive, Hawke's Bay239
East Dipton, Southland162
Eastown, Wanganui228
East Winton, Southland137
Edendale, Southland184
Eketahuna, Wairarapa North476
Eltham, Hawera306
Enfield, Waitaki254
Epworth, Geraldine62
Ettrick, Tuapeka69
Evansdale, Waikouaiti45
Eweburn, Maniototo166
Fairdown, Buller44
Fairfax (and vicinity), Bruce171
Fairfield, Taieri80
Fairlie, Mackenzie369
Fendalton, Selwyn367
Fernhills, Southland67
Fernside, Ashley390
Ferntown, Collingwood81
Flax Swamp, Waikouaiti88
Flaxton, Ashley138
Fordell, Wanganui151
Fortrose, Southland140
Frankton, Lake156
Frasertown, Wairoa176
Galatea, Whakatane82
Garfield, Wallace41
Georgetown, Geraldine34
Georgetown, Waitaki119
German Bay, Akaroa212
Gibbston, Lake155
Gibbstown, Collingwood181
Gimmerburn, Maniototo178
Glenavy, Waimate55
Gleniti (and vicinity), Levels111
Glenore (and vicinity), Bruce91
Glentunnel, Selwyn189
Goldsborough, Westland179
Gordon Special Settlement, Piako70
Governor's Bay, Akaroa163
Granity Creek, Buller193
Grassmere, Southland104
Greatford, Rangitikei90
Greendale, Selwyn370
Green Island Bush, Taieri237
Greenpark, Selwyn349
Greenstone, Grey100
Greerton, Tauranga54
Grovetown, Marlborough316
Gumtown, Coromandel51
Hakaru, Otamatea34
Hakataramea, Waimate90
Hamilton, Maniototo50
Hampden, Waipawa188
Hamua, Wairarapa North103
Hardie's Taieri82
Harwood, Southland58
Hastings, Thames101
Hastwell, Wairarapa North169
Hatter's, or Nelson Creek, Grey128
Havelock, Hawke's Bay407
Hawarden, Ashley32
Hawksbury, Waikouaiti132
Heddon Bush, Wallace119
Henderson, Waitemata60
Henley, Taieri303
Herbert, Waitaki401
Herbertville, Patangata113
Heriot (and outlying), Tuapeka163
Highcliffe, Peninsula278
Hikurangi, Whangarei354
Hikutaia, Thames179
Hillgrove, Waitaki93
Hilton, Geraldine47
Hindon, Taieri117
Hirstfield, Wallace169
Hobsonville, Waitemata195
Hodgkinson, Wallace60
Hororata, Selwyn242
Howick, Manukau220
Huirangi, Taranaki50
Hunterville, Rangitikei755
Huntly, Waikato512
Hurunui, Ashley53
Hyde, Maniototo222
Ida Valley, Vincent262
Inangahua Junction, Inangahua31
Inglewood, Southland73
Islington, Selwyn207
Jackeytown, Oroua72
Kaeo, Whangaroa181
Kai Iwi, Waitotara64
Kaikohe, Bay of Islands134
Kaikoura, Kaikoura394
Kaitaia, Mongonui114
Kakanui (North), Waitotara163
Kakanui (South), Waitotara204
Kakaramea, Patea110
Kanieri, Westland175
Kapanga, Coromandel500
Karangahake, Ohinemuri609
Kaukapakapa, Waitemata313
Kawakawa, Bay of Islands321
Kawarau Gorge, Vincent44
Kawhia, Kawhia37
Kennedy Bay, Coromandel72
Kennington, Southland50
Kensington, Levels167
Kereru (and vicinity), Horowhenua135
Killinchy, Selwyn54
Kimberley, Selwyn162
Kingston, Lake47
Kirwee, Selwyn74
Kokonga, Maniototo111
Kohukohu, Hokianga262
Kopu, Thames136
Kuaotunu, Coromandel424
Kuaotunu Upper, Coromandel299
Kumeroa, Waipawa104
Kuri Bush, Taieri46
Kuriwao, Clutha122
Kurow, Waitaki271
Kyeburn Diggings, Maniototo97
Kyeburn, Lower, Maniototo113
Kyeburn, Upper, Maniototo72
Lake Hayes, Lake104
Lamlash, Peninsula31
Lauder, Maniototo51
Le Bon's Bay, Akaroa271
Leedstown, Rangitikei36
Leeston, Selwyn573
Leithfield, Ashley345
Levin, Horowhenua581
Lichfield, Piako49
Lime Hills, Southland126
Lincoln, Selwyn569
Lintley, Southland47
Linton, Oroua51
Little Akalca, Akaroa259
Little River, Akaroa137
Livingstone, Waitaki110
London, Taieri100
Long Bush, Southland84
Longridge, Southland105
Lowburn, Vincent132
Lower Hawea, Vincent225
Lower Woodstock, Westland57
Lowther, Southland28
Luggate, Vincent76
Lumsden, Southland223
Lumsden Extension, Southland154
Lyell, Buller159
Macandrew, Southland72
Macetown, Lake161
Mackaytown, Ohinemuri32
Mackenzie, Cheviot53
Macrae's (and vicinity), Waihemo103
Maheno, Waitaki206
Mairtown, Whangarei177
Makakahi, Pahiatua61
Makarewa, Southland250
Maketu, Tauranga72
Makikihi, Waimate57
Makuri, Pahiatua93
Makutoku, Waipawa175
Mangamahce, Wairarapa North35
Mangaonoho, Rangitikei166
Mangatainoko, Pahiatua106
Mangawai, Otamatea272
Mangaweka, Rangitikei349
Mangawhare, Hobson471
Manakau, Horowhenua149
Mandeville, Southland108
Mansfordtown, Waikouaiti380
Manutahi, Patea69
Manutahi, Taranaki175
Maori Gully, Grey58
Marlboroughtown, Marlborough148
Marsden, Grey44
Marshalltown, Kiwitea63
Matakohe, Otamatea93
Matamau, Waipawa137
Matata, Whakatane70
Martinborough, Wairarapa South75
Maungatua, Taieri63
Mauriceville East, Wairarapa North77
Mayfield, Waitemata76
Maxwelltown, Waitotara153
Meanee, Hawke's Bay145
Menzies' Ferry, Southland125
Mercer (and vicinity), Manukau210
Mercury Bay, Coromandel472
Merryjigs, Inangahua81
Merton, Waikouaiti753
Methven, Ashburton295
Middlemaren, Taieri130
Midhirst, Stratford248
Milford, Geraldine247
Mohaka, Wairoa36
Mokau, Kawhia108
Mokihinui, Buller45
Mongonui, Mongonui226
Morley, Wallace53
Morrinsville, Piako151
Morton, Levels235
Motueka, Waimea877
Mount Somers, Ashburton206
Mount Pisa, Vincent49
Murchison, Inangahua75
Nenthorn, Waikouaiti59
Newman, Wairarapa North227
Newport, Hobson97
Ngahauranga, Hutt212
Ngahere, Grey137
Ngapara, Waitaki233
Nightcaps, Wallace167
Normanby, Levels36
Norsewood (and vicinity), Waipawa898
North Heads, Waikouaiti78
North Taieri, Taieri183
No Town, Grey80
Nukumaru, Waitotara93
Oakura, Taranaki46
Oaklands, Peninsula52
Oban, Stewart Island41
Ohaeawai, Bay of Islands92
Ohakune, Wanganui40
Ohau (and vicinity), Horowhenua256
Ohinemutu, Rotorua131
Ohingaiti, Rangitikei410
Ohoka, Ashley654
Okaiawa, Hawera107
Okaihau and Omapera, Bay of Islands286
Okain's Bay, Akaroa222
Okarito, Westland62
Okato, Taranaki64
Ongaonga, Waipawa92
Ophir, Vincent266
Opua, Bay of Islands57
Oraka, Wallace111
Orari, Geraldine135
Oropi, Tauranga37
Orwell Creek, Grey105
Otago Heads, Peninsula179
Otahuhu, Manukau942
Otaki (and vicinity), Horowhenua836
Otakia, Taieri42
Otara, Southland200
Otekaike, Waitaki53
Otiahi, Waitaki176
Owaka, Clutha611
Owharoa, Ohinemuri163
Owhiro, Taieri38
Oxford East, Ashley153
Oxford West, Ashley241
Paeroa, Ohinemuri779
Pahia, Wallace84
Paikakariki, Hutt146
Pakawau, Collingwood71
Panmure, Eden323
Papanui, Selwyn479
Paraparaumu, Hutt192
Parkville, Wairarapa North233
Patangata, Patangata103
Patutahi (and vicinity), Cook263
Peel, Geraldine53
Pembroke, Lake176
Pigeon Bay, Akaroa352
Pihama, Hawera37
Piko, Levels160
Pine Hill, Waikouaiti88
Pipiriki, Wanganui44
Pirongia East, Waipa89
Pleasant Valley, Waikouaiti34
Plimmerton, Hutt49
Pohangina, Pohangina163
Point, Levels90
Porirua, Hutt74
Porangahau, Patangata171
Port Albert, Rodney56
Port Moeraki, Waitaki150
Portobello Town, Peninsula37
Pourakino, Wallace33
Prebbleton, Selwyn330
Prestonville, Southland107
Pukerau, Southland126
Purakanui, Waikouaiti47
Puriri, Thames143
Raetihi, Wanganui83
Rakaia, Ashburton458
Rangiriri, Waikato47
Rangiwhia (Pemberton), Kiwitea63
Rangotea, Manawatu136
Ranzau, Waimea60
Rata Settlement, Rangitikei195
Rawene, Hokianga120
Redcliffe, Waimate227
Reefton, Inangahua1,591
Reidston, Waitaki184
Renwicktown, Marlborough324
Reynolds, Waikouaiti38
Riccarton, Taieri99
Riccarton, Lower, Selwyn422
Riccarton, Upper, Selwyn502
Richmond, Salwyn288
Richmond Grove, Southland96
Rikiorangi, Hutt96
Rimu, Westland174
Riversdale, Southland265
Riwaka, Waimea575
Rockville, Collingwood102
Rolleston, Selwyn136
Rotheram, Amuri132
Rotorua, Rotorua499
Round Hill Diggings, Wallace225
Ruapekapeka, Bay of Islands92
Russell, Bay of Islands257
Sandymount, Peninsula299
Sanson, Manawatu255
Sarau, Waimea58
Sawyer's Bay, Waikouaiti382
Scarborough, Pahiatua76
Sefton, Ashley270
Selwyn, Selwyn55
Shaftesbury, Piako44
Shannon, Horowhenua262
Sheffield, Selwyn176
Shiel Hill, Peninsula47
Shortland, Thames1,191
Silverstream, Mackenzie118
Skippers, Lake63
Southbrook, Ashley352
South Malvern, Selwyn92
Spreydon, Selwyn354
Springfield, Selwyn211
Spring Grove, Waimea361
Springston, Selwyn584
Stafford, Westland140
St. Andrews, Waimate201
St. Bathans, Maniototo254
Stirling (and vicinity), Bruce211
Stoke, Waimea547
Studholme Junction, Waimate93
Swannanoa, Ashley161
Swanson, Waitemata88
Switzers, Southland98
Taiaroa Heads, Peninsula40
Tairua, Thames141
Taitapu, Selwyn376
Takapau, Waipawa159
Tauherenikau, Wairarapa South71
Taupaki, Waitemata276
Taupo, East Taupo72
Taupiri, Waikato47
Taylorville, Wanganui51
Te Aroha West, Piako131
Te Aute, Waipawa93
Teddington, Akaroa103
Te Karaka, Cook67
Te Kopuru, Hobson184
Templeton, Selwyn310
Te Puke, Tauranga169
Thornbury, Wallace125
Thorpe, Waimea67
Tikokino, Waipawa39
Tiniroto, Cook57
Tinker's, Vincent242
Tinui, Wairarapa North221
Tokaanu, East Taupo59
Toko, Stratford134
Tokomaru, Horowhenua88
Totara, Whangaroa263
Tuakau, Manukau377
Tutaekara, Pahiatua74
Turua, Thames247
Upper Hutt, Hutt339
Upper Woodstock, Westland167
Urenui, Clifton91
Vauxhall, Peninsula89
Waddington, Selwyn121
Wade, Waitemata208
Waianiwa, Southland49
Waiau, Amuri183
Waihi, Ohinemuri1,102
Waihola, Bruce142
Waihou, Piako85
Waikaia, Southland256
Waikaka, Southland41
Waikanae, Horowhenua84
Waikare, Ashley258
Waikiwi, Southland45
Waikoikoi, Clutha215
Waimangaroa, Buller399
Waimate, Bay of Islands106
Waimatuku, Wallace225
Waimea West, Waimea293
Wainuiomata, Hutt45
Waiomio, Bay of Islands76
Waiorongomai, Piako201
Waipahi, Clutha109
Waipara, Ashley48
Waipiro, Waiapu73
Waipori, Tuapeka157
Waipu Central, Whangarei183
Waipukurau, Waipawa549
Wairio, Wallace81
Waitahuna, Tuapeka289
Waitati (and vicinity), Waikouaiti339
Waitekauri, Ohinemuri463
Waitotara, Patea207
Waituna, Kiwitea37
Waiwera, Clutha70
Wakefield, Waimea694
Wallacetown, Southland159
Wallingford, Patangata65
Walton, Taieri32
Wanstead, Patangata80
Warepa, Clutha257
Washdyke, Levels494
Waterford, Tauranga116
Waterton (and vicinity), Ashburton235
Watlington, Levels39
Wayne's, Waihemo38
Weber, Patangata108
Weedon's, Selwyn43
Wereroa, Horowhenua87
West Clive, Hawke's Bay428
Weston, Waitaki138
Weston Park, Waitaki49
Whakakiti, Wairarapa North71
Whakatane, Whakatane119
Whangapoua, Coromandel77
Whangaroa, Whangaroa152
Whare Flat Road, Taieri64
Whenuakiti, Coromandel90
Whitecliffs, Selwyn34
Whitmore, Oroua75
Whitstone, Waitaki84
Wickliffe Bay, Peninsula41
Wimbledon, Patangata79
Winchester, Geraldine212
Windsor, Waitaki99
Wingatui, Taieri174
Woodbury, Geraldine318
Woodend, Ashley498
Woodend, Southland96
Woodfield, Southland46
Woodlands, Taieri35
Woodlands, Southland218
Woodside, Taieri163
Wrey's Bush, Wallace123

POPULATION OF ADJACENT ISLANDS.

The names and populations of the islands adjacent to and included in the colony were, in April, 1896:—

              Islands.    Total.    M.    F.
Rangitoto33 
Great Barrier307193114
Week's Island211
Waiheke1667690
Kawau1073
Motiti981
Tiritiri624
Ponui (Light)11 
Ponui Island281315
Cuvier642
Moturoa211
Mercury725
Mokohinau532
Motuhora844
Bean Rock (Light)11 
Motuhihi1165
Pahiki1073
Rakino431
Motutapu1183
Brown's11 
Rotoroa (Ruth's)1569
Slipper33 
Portland251015
Kapiti11 
Somes's936
Stephens1679
The Brothers33 
Quarantine211
Dog1358
Ruapuki99 
Centre15105
Chatham234132102
Kermadec743
 950538412

The islands which are not included within the boundaries of the counties had in 1896 a population of 950 persons (exclusive of Maoris), against 913 in 1891. Only three of the islands had a population over 100 persons at last census. The population of the Great Barrier increased since 1891 from 262 to 307 persons; Waiheke showed a decrease from 215 to 166 persons. Europeans at the Chatham Islands decreased from 258 to 234.

POPULATION OF AUSTRALASIA.

The growth of population in these colonies over a period of thirty-nine years is shown in a comparative table. The total for 1899, being 4,482,980 persons, is greater than the population of Scotland, but very little less than that of Ireland for 1898, and more than one-seventh part of the population of England and Wales for that year. The Australasian Colonies have now twice the population of Denmark, over one-third more than Switzerland, and nearly that of the Netherlands.

Colony.        1860. Persons.        1870. Persons.        1880. Persons.        1890. Persons.        1899. Persons.
New South Wales348,546498,659747,9501,121,8601,356,650
Victoria537,847726,599860,0671,133,2661,163,400
Queensland28,056115,567226,077392,965482,400
South Australia124,112183,797267,573319,414370,700
Western Australia15,22725,08429,01946,290171,030
Tasmania87,775100,765114,762145,290182,300
New Zealand79,711248,400484,864625,508756,500
          Australasia1,221,2741,898,8712,730,3123,784,5934,482,980

In respect of the five federating colonies, the official estimates adopted at the Conference held in Sydney (which exclude aborigines throughout) are as below:—

New South Wales1,348,400
Victoria1,162,900
Queensland482,400
South Australia (including Northern Territory)370,700
Tasmania182,300

The total population as estimated for the group of federating colonies is thus 3,546,700 persons.

ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES.

The number of persons who arrived in the colony in the year 1899 was 18,506, a decrease of 349 on the number for the previous year. Of the arrivals in 1899, 16,529 persons were classified as adults, being above the age of twelve years, and 1,977 as children. The total number of males was 11,862 and of females 6,644. The arrivals from the United Kingdom numbered 1,918, and from Australia 15,529. Besides these, 205 persons came from Fiji, and 854 from the South Seas and other ports, including arrivals by mail-steamers from San Francisco.

Classified in respect of birthplace, it is found that 7,092 of the arrivals were persons born in the Australasian Colonies, 10,706 in the United Kingdom, and 40 in other British possessions. Of 668 persons born in foreign countries who arrived during 1899, 113 were born in Austria, 144 in Germany, 98 in the United States, 101 in France, 46 in Italy, 16 in Sicily, 19 in Sweden, 8 in Norway, and 123 in other countries.

Among the arrivals in 1899 are noticed 123 “race-aliens,” or persons of other than European descent. Particulars of birthplace and sex are as under:—

  Birthplace.        M.        F.        Total.
United Kingdom112
China24226
Syria452065
Pacific Islands628
Fiji415
India13114
Ceylon202
Jamaica101
              Total9627123

The practice of nominating immigrants to be brought out partly at the Government expense has been discontinued since the 16th December, 1890, and there was no free immigration in the year 1899.

Only 26 Chinese (24 men and 2 women) arrived in the colony during 1899, but 184 (all men) left, the departures thus exceeding the arrivals by 158.

The total departures in 1899, including 210 officers and men of the first contingent for service in South Africa, were 16,619 persons, being 460 more than in 1898. Thus, the movement of population to the colony is found to have been less, and from the colony to have been greater, than in the previous year.

In 1890 and in 1891 the colony lost population by excess of departures over arrivals, but in each of the years 1892 to 1899, inclusive, New Zealand has drawn to itself more population than it has parted with, notwithstanding the attractions of Australian and other goldfields.

The departures from the colony by the Union Steamship Company's boats, as given through the Customs Department, are checked by special returns kindly furnished by the pursers of the steamers, and, where persons who did not book their passages have been omitted, the necessary additions are made. The pursers' returns also serve to prevent the occasional omission of the full number of persons leaving by any one vessel, which sometimes had happened previous to the introduction of this check. Unless more passengers are at any time of great pressure taken away from New Zealand than can lawfully be carried, the returns of outgo of population should prove very fairly correct, and indeed the census of 1896 showed that the estimates of population even after five years' interval was a very close approximation to the truth.

Of the departures in 1899, 15,043 persons were over twelve years of age, and 1,576 children. Nearly twice as many males left the colony as females, the numbers being 10,567 and 6,052 respectively. The departures to the United Kingdom amounted to 1,324 persons, and those to Australia numbered 14,184. Besides these, 113 persons left for Fiji, and 998 for other ports (including passengers for San Francisco).

The arrivals and departures for ten years are given in the following tables, in which 1893 shows the highest number of persons inwards, 26,135, and 1894 of persons outwards, 22,984. In regard to Australia the movement was also greatest during the same years, the arrivals in 1893 being 22,351, and departures in 1894 20,488 persons:—

ARRIVALS, TEN YEARS.
Year.        From United Kingdom.        From Australian Colonies.        From Other Places.        Total Arrivals.
18902,81211,53967715,028
18912,43511,14485214,431
18922,55514,67489318,122
18932,92922,35185526,135
18942,84621,2911,10025,237
18952,36518,57392421,862
18961,95614,1251,15517,236
18972,72414,7991,06918,592
18982,59814,9691,28818,855
18991,91815,5291,05918,506
    Totals, ten years25,138158,9949,872194,004
DEPARTURES, TEN YEARS.
Year.To United Kingdom.To Australian Colonies.To Other Places.Total Departures.

*Figures given according to the returns, but short of actual fact, as proved by the census of 1891.

18901,86313,862*1,085*16,810*
18911,70515,016*908*17,629*
18921,61210,66988313,164
18931,58313,27786315,723
18941,66920,48882722,984
18951,70318,37788720,967
18961,57813,20897815,764
18971,59213,29395515,840
18981,19913,6191,34116,159
18991,32414,1841,11116,619
Totals, ten years15,828145,9939,838171,659

It will be found that the above figures give the total arrivals from the United Kingdom in ten years as 25,138 persons, and the departures as 15,828; and there is no reason to doubt the correctness of these results. The colony drew directly from the Mother-country 9,310 persons over and above those that went back directly during the ten - year period. For each year in the period the arrivals from the United Kingdom exceed the departures, but the excess was only 730 in the year 1891 and 594 in 1899. In regard to Australia, for each year given in the table, except 1890 and 1891, the balance of interchange is in favour of New Zealand. For this ten-year period there was a net gain amounting to 13,001 persons from Australia.

The interchange of people with places other than the United Kingdom and Australia has been very even during the ten years under review, the balance in favour of New Zealand amounting to 34 persons only.

The Board of Trade, London, publishes the total emigration from the United Kingdom to Australasia as a whole. By the figures given it will be seen that there was of late years an annual decrease in the number of persons coming to these colonies from the Home country until 1897, when the number somewhat increased. Prior to 1893 the arrivals from the United Kingdom ranged from 44,055 in 1886 down to 16,183 in 1892. Alongside of the Imperial returns of departures to Australasia are shown in the following statement the arrivals in New Zealand direct from the United Kingdom, taken from our own returns, which numbers are short of the full total of persons coming here from England by the arrivals viâ Australia or the United States of America. But, using the information available, it seems evident that New Zealand has been latterly preferred to Australia, from the high proportion which the arrivals here (direct) bear to every hundred of departures from England for the Australasian Colonies.

So long as New Zealand can secure one-sixth or more of the total persons leaving England for Australasia, she takes more than the proportion her population bears to that of the seven colonies collectively:—

Year.Emigration from United Kingdom to Australasia.Arrivals in New Zealand from United Kingdom.Arrivals in New Zealand per 100 Departures for Australasia from United Kingdom.
189311,4122,92925.67
189411,1512,84625.52
189510,8092,36521.88
189610,7101,95618.26
189712,3962,72421.97
189811,0202,59823.58

A statement is added giving the arrivals and departures for each of the Australasian Colonies during the year 1899, and the result is shown to be a net gain to these colonies of 7,335 persons during the year:—

ColonyArrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.

—Denotes loss.

NOTE.—In these figures allowance has been made for unrecorded departures.

 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.
New South Wales92,10450,969143,07390,40150,422140,8231,7035472,250
Victoria (by sea only)55,79929,58585,38461,46832,93194,399–5,669–3,346–9,015
Queensland27,75112,16539,91623,09410,49633,5904,6571,6696,326
South Australia (including Northern Territory)48,66025,35874,01846,38925,94972,3382,271–5911,680
Western Australia (by sea only)13,1427,13620,27814,0296,19620,225–88794053
Tasmania16,5818,37824,95913,6217,18420,8052,9601,1944,154
New Zealand11,8626,64418,50610,5676,05216,6191,2955921,887

THE CHINESE.

At the census of 1881, the year in which taxation was first imposed on Chinese landing in the colony, the Chinese population amounted to 5,004 persons, which fell to 4,542 in 1886, and further to 4,444 in 1891. In April, 1896, the census revealed a further fall to 3,711 persons. During the period 1881–96 the poll-tax was £10 per head, and this seemed sufficient for the purpose of preventing a large influx of the Chinese, except for the circumstance that, during the years 1894 and 1895, the arrivals shown by the Customs returns are found to have been somewhat greater than the departures. In 1896, the Chinese Immigrants Act Amendment Act of that year raised the poll-tax on Chinese immigrants to £100 per head, and limited the number of Chinese passengers that may be carried by vessels to this colony to one for every 200 tons burthen. In 1896 the amount paid by the Chinese as poll-tax was £1,270, in 1897 the sum was £240, in 1898 £400, and in 1899 £300. The number of Chinese in the colony at the end of the year 1899 is estimated to have been 3,263, of whom 33 were females.

Chinese immigration is under restraint in Australia as well as in New Zealand. In New South Wales the arrivals have been reduced until the number for 1896 was only 99, against 450 departures, by means of a similar poll-tax to that of New Zealand, and requirement that every vessel should not bring more than one Chinaman to every 300 tons. These conditions are helped by the law which forbids the naturalisation of a Chinese, and some prohibition as to mining without special authority. In 1887 no less than 1,798 Chinese paid poll-tax in New South Wales, and in 1896 the number was only 2.

Of the Chinese living in New Zealand in 1896, when the last census was taken, 3,685 were males and 26 females. Of the males, 88 were returned as married. The number of the Chinese under 14 years of age was only 14 males and 11 females. These numbers do not include the issue of unions between Chinese men and European women.

The occupations show 2,162 gold-miners, 527 market and other gardeners with 129 assistants, 94 greengrocers and 38 assistants, 94 shop- or store-keepers and 30 assistants, 59 labourers, 43 hotel servants; 31 vegetable, 27 general, and 25 fish hawkers; 31 laundry-men and women, 31 domestic servants, 29 lodginghouse keepers, 27 cooks (not domestic), 24 farm-labourers, 19 eating-house keepers, 19 grocers with 21 assistants, 16 fishermen, 11 merchants with 6 assistants, 7 drapers and 1 assistant. Amongst various others, in small numbers each, are returned 1 law-clerk, 2 missionaries, 5 medical men, 1 dentist, 1 chemist, 1 interpreter, 2 bankers, 1 opiumseller. Three of the Chinese were inmates of hospitals, and 3 others of benevolent asylums. While 22 were lunatics, only 2 were prisoners in gaol.

PARTICULARS RESPECTING THE POPULATION GIVEN IN THE CENSUS OF 1896.

The Year-book for 1898 states, in the form of extracts from the Census report, full information as to the density of population in New Zealand, the proportions of the sexes, the religions, birthplaces, ages, and occupations of the people. It is not considered necessary to reprint the figures, or the remarks which accompany them, as these will be found on pages 105 to 115 of the book for that year.

THE HOLLERITH ELECTRICAL MACHINE.

A description of this machine, which is used in some countries for purposes of dealing with the cards by means of which census computations are now usually made, may be found interesting. The machine is not suited for a country like New Zealand, where the population is not very large, and where the combinations required are not of the most elaborate nature. It was tested in Victoria before the census of 1896 was compiled, and the Government decided against it on that occasion. The question was raised in this colony, whether greater speed could not be achieved by means of the machine, which has led to this explanation. It has been thus described in connection with the Canadian census of 1891:—

“In tabulating the returns, the Hollerith electrical tabulating-machine (which should, perhaps, rather be called a totalling-machine), introduced in the United States, was used. For this purpose, a card, similar in principle to that used in New Zealand, is devoted to each person; but, instead of drawing lines, a hole is punched in the centre of the compartment. Each card is then successively placed on a horizontal board. This board is pierced with holes, corresponding in number to the total number of compartments on the card, and so situated that each hole is under the centre of a compartment. Under each of these holes, again, is a tube partly filled with mercury, which communicates by means of a wire from the bottom of the tube with the index of a counter. Above the card is a second horizontal board, on the lower side of which are springs, terminating in blunted needles, these being so arranged as to dip into the tubes wherever there is a hole in the card, and thus complete an electric circuit wherever the needle meets the mercury. The electric current then moves the index of the counter through one division each time the board is lowered. By passing all the cards through the machine, the number of persons corresponding to each particular fact can be counted at once, and this number is then written on the tabulation-sheets. The machine is so arranged also as to permit of particular needles only reaching the mercury, and thus a combination of two or more particulars can be worked out by merely passing the cards through the machine. Two or three different combinations can be worked out simultaneously, provided that any one particular does not enter more than one of the combinations—e.g., the religion according to education, and the infirmities according to age, could be worked out at the same time. It is, I believe, recognised that the device would not have been of so much value in the United Kingdom and the other colonies, where the number of details required is not so great. Owing to the time occupied in punching the cards as compared with that of ticking the compartments, the economy only begins to be appreciable when the combinations are very numerous.”

Chapter 31. SECTION II.—THE MAORIS: PROBABLE ORIGIN, AND PRESENT NUMBERS

RESULT OF RESEARCHES AS TO ORIGIN

THE following notes on this subject are supplied by Mr. S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S.:—

In extension of the article under the head of “Maoris,” given on page 4, ante, it may be stated that progress in the sciences of ethnology and philology has made some strides since those pages were first penned. Although an origin for the Maoris cannot be stated with certainty at present, it will serve a useful turn if some indication is given of the direction in which these researches, undertaken by several people, are tending. It is impossible in the brief space of a page or two to give the evidence on which the following is based; and, moreover, there are conflicts of detail which require further discussion, but the main outlines of the history of the Polynesians—of which race the Maori forms the most important section—can be given as a tentative theory.

It is obvious that the further back in point of time these researches are carried the more uncertain become the conclusions. But there is a point in the history of the race where their carefully treasured traditions become history. Comparison of the traditions preserved by various branches of the race all point to the West as their origin; and when we take up the direction thus indicated, and follow it out by the light shed on the subject by ethnology and philology, it will take us very far from the present home of the race.

It appears, then, from these indications, that the race once inhabited a mainland, which is believed to be India—inland India, the plains and foot-hills of the Himalaya, with their borders touching the sea on the Persian Gulf. Ages must have passed whilst the people dwelt in those parts; they became navigators, crossed the neighbouring seas, acquired many customs from some race of a Semitic origin, together with some words of their language. This neighbouring race was probably dwelling in Arabia and the shores of the Persian Gulf. But a time came when the Aryan race began to make its appearance in India, a race of superior mental calibre, and probably more numerous. Before this intruding race the ancient Polynesian gradually retreated; but not at once. There was a period when much intercourse took place between the two races, when they mutually borrowed words and customs, and probably intermarried. How long this intercourse lasted there is no means at present of saying; but, in the course of centuries, probably, the intrusive race gradually forced the Polynesians southwards and seaward, where they acquired increased powers of navigation and the knowledge of surrounding lands. Voyages were made far East, to Indonesia, where the Polynesians found in occupation a negrito race, which is connected with, if not the same as the Papuan.

Pressure from behind, as the Aryans increased in numbers, added to the knowledge of the east acquired by the Polynesians, now induced that people to remove in large numbers to Indonesia, where their superior physique and intelligence would soon render them the masters of the former inhabitants. The race as a whole, however, did not migrate, for there are strong reasons for thinking that some of the hill tribes of India represent those who remained. Along the shores of the many-isled Indonesia the people formed their homes; the very nature of this islet-dotted sea exciting their powers as navigators and rovers. It cannot yet be said how long the race remained in that part of the world, but it must have been counted by centuries. There is strong reason for thinking that their voyages extended far into the Pacific, and to the north.

Tradition begins now to take its part in the history of the race, and it is probable that the original names of Atea, Hawaiki-te-varinga, Vavau, Herangi, and many others must be looked for in these regions. But here comes in a difficulty in tracing these early names, due to the fact of the subsequent irruption of other races, who brought their own names with them, and applied them to those places already named by the Polynesians, which thus became lost, except where preserved in the traditions of the emigrants.

About the first and second centuries of the Christian era the Polynesians came into touch with another ethnic wave-the Malay race, from the west and north-west. Again were the same scenes enacted as in distant India. At first wars, then periods of peace, when an interchange of customs and language took place. After a time of considerable duration, the Polynesians again moved on, nearly always to the east. The pressure of the Malay race forced them onward. Expert navigators and daring sailors as they were, the unknown was to them an attraction rather than a deterrent. There is little doubt that their patriarchal form of government had existed from the most ancient times, and that they were organized in tribes, owing allegiance to their own Arikis or supreme chiefs. Thus some tribes, and those that felt the outward pressure most, started away from Indonesia independently of the others, carrying with them their tribal gods and tribal customs. It is probable that at this time, some one tribe or more, varying the route that they had hitherto taken, retraced their steps, and finally reached Madagascar, where their descendants, the Hovas, are still found. But this was not the general direction of the movement. The larger number proceeded to the Hitinga or sunrise. This was the first migration into the Pacific. Tracing them by their own histories, and by such lights as modern science throws on the darkness of the past, it appears probable that these early voyagers, coasting along Northern New Guinea, the Solomon, the New Hebrides, and Fiji Islands—islands already occupied by the Papuan and Melanesian races—finally reached Samoa, or Hawaiki, as all that group is still called by the eastern Polynesians, but under the form Hawaiki-raro, or Leeward Hawaiki, to distinguish it from Hawaiki-runga, or Windward Hawaiki, the Tahitian and neighbouring group. This first migration, no doubt, extended its voyages very far. The Menehune people of Tahiti, and of Hawaii, the first inhabitants of New Zealand (the same people as the Moriori of the Chatham Islands) and the first inhabitants of Marquesas perhaps formed part of it.

But the pressure of the Malay races became more and more pronounced as they increased in numbers, and shouldered those of the Polynesian race remaining in Indonesia. The traditions refer to this as a time of trouble and unrest. Many of the Polynesians left for new fields; others who remained were eventually, and to a considerable extent, forced to the mountains, where, it is believed, their remnant may be seen to this day in several of the islands of Indonesia. Those who came east followed the footsteps of their countrymen who had preceded them, until they reached the Fiji group. This later migration appears to have been composed of a more warlike and more capable people than the first—centuries of contact with the Malays had influenced them—for we can trace them all through their migrations as the conquerors, whether pitted against their own race or the Melanesian. In Fiji, they occupied the Lau, or eastern group, but held frequent communication with the other islands, to all of which they gave names, differing from those known to the Fijians of to-day. It is obvious they mixed in blood with the original Melanesians, and thus acquired that strain that may be recognised in some branches of the Polynesians to-day. Doubtless, the original Fijians, occupying as they did the most easterly outpost of Melanesia, were the most adventurous of that race, and the best navigators. It is probable for this reason, and for others now obscure, that the Polynesian, with his high idea of caste, and racial dislike of black people, condescended to mix with the Fijians, which there is reason for thinking he did not do, or only to a limited extent with other Melanesians, on the passage south past the Solomons, New Hebrides, &c.

During the occupation of Fiji, voyages were not infrequent to the neighbouring islands of Samoa and Tonga. This is apparent from both Samoan and Tongan histories. Here it is necessary to remark that a close study of the above traditions leads to the conclusion that when the Fijians are mentioned therein, it is the Polynesian immigrants that formed the later migration into the Pacific that are referred to, not the native Fijians.

A time, however, came in the history of the race when great troubles arose in Fiji; there was much fighting and general unrest—much voyaging to and fro to the neighbouring groups and to more distant ones. Eventually a combination of forces took place between the Fijian Polynesians and the Tongans of Vavau and Haapai, and a descent was made on Samoa. This group was practically conquered, and the Samoans driven to the mountains, whilst the invaders occupied the coasts. This occupation of Samoa covered some generations; and during this time—which was, roughly, about from the tenth to the twelfth century—these capable, warlike, Fiji Polynesians, warriors and sailors, spread far and wide over the Pacific. These are the people who formed the southern and later migration to the Hawaiian Islands referred to by Fornander, and who, on their arrival in that group, soon acquired the leading position, which they have held down to the present day. The same thing occurred in other groups. They occupied Tahiti and the neighbouring islands, the Paumotu group, the Marquesas, Rarotonga, and, after some time, turned their faces south-westward and settled in New Zealand, where they arrived in a fleet of canoes in about the year 1350. These are the people who are generally termed Maoris, and who, on their arrival and after settling down in the land, by their masterful ways, greater intelligence, force of character, and probably superior physique, eventually became the conquerors of the people belonging to the prior migration into the Pacific, whom they found in occupation of these Islands.

These people were daring voyagers, in comparison with whom the most noted European navigators of the middle ages were mere coasters. The Polynesian chronicles relate voyages extending from Fiji to Easter Island, from New Zealand to the Hawaii group, and even to the antarctic regions. They were never equalled as voyagers until the sixteenth century, which saw such an extension of nautical enterprise, originating in Europe.

PRESENT NUMBERS OF THE MAORIS.

The census of the Maori population—that is, full-blooded Maoris, with all half-castes living as members of a Native tribe—was taken under the supervision of the officers of the Justice Department in the latter part of February, 1896. The enumeration of the Natives cannot be effected for one particular night, as is done with Europeans, and the instruction given to Enumerators was that the work should be done in as short a period of time as possible, beginning in the third week of February, and leaving the remainder of that month, and the month of March, for the work of examining, correcting, and completing the returns.

The names of the Natives were given in the Sub-Enumerators' books, besides information as to sex, age, principal tribe, sub-tribe, or hapu to which belonging, and particulars as to extent of cultivations owned individually or communally, with live stock.

Enumerators for the Maori census were directed to report on the general state of health of the Natives, and any other matters of interest relating to them.

The Enumerators for the northernmost counties reported fairly good health among the Natives, but that a habit of camping in low swampy places during the gum-digging season was injurious. Digging for kauri-gum is their principal occupation throughout the country north of Auckland.

In the country over which the Maori “King,” Mahutu, has. influence, Sub-Enumerators experienced great difficulties, being told that the “King” had already taken a census, and no other was required. The Maoris also seemed to connect the census with taxation, and objected to it on those grounds.

The Sub-Enumerators for Waikato, Kawhia, and Thames Counties reported very little sickness. In Counties Tauranga, Whakatane, Rotorua, and Taupo (East and West) no unusual sickness was found.

The Natives round Tauranga are stated to be more industrious than formerly, and taking to agricultural pursuits.

In the Counties of Cook and Waiapu the Maoris were stated to be in very good health, and, as a rule, comfortably off; most of the young and middle-aged were working at bush-falling, shearing, &c., and making good wages.

For Counties Wairoa and Hawke's Bay the accounts were not so good. In parts there had been fever of a typhoid character. Paucity of children and old people was observed by several Sub-Enumerators.

Around New Plymouth there had been no sickness. The same was reported for Hutt County.

In the Middle Island, where the Native population is only a little over two thousand people, the reports speak of satisfactory health, and, for parts in respect of which comment is made, of a sufficiently prosperous condition.

Although the above leads to the conclusion that the Maoris were fairly thriving at the time of the census, there is reference in some of the reports to epidemics sweeping away numbers of the people during the five years 1891–96; and the actual results of the census indicate either (1) a decrease of population, or (2) that at the enumeration of 1891 some Natives must have been counted more than once, and where names had not been given, the number returned was greater than the reality. The comparison of the figures is as under:—

MAORIS (INCLUDING HALF-CASTES LIVING AS MEMBERS OF MAORI TRIBES).
 Persons.Males.Females.
April, 189141,99322,86119,132
April, 189639,85421,67318,181
      Apparent decrease in five years2,1391,188951

The numbers for the different counties cannot be compared for the two census years to much purpose, because of the movements of the Maoris during the quinquennium, but the Enumerator for Waikato distrusts the degree of decrease shown for his whole large district, though of the belief that there has been a decrease to a lesser extent. He considers that more Maoris are working for Europeans than formerly, and these are liable to be missed. Probably at next census the schedule left at the dwellings of Europeans should have a slip attached on which might be taken particulars relating to Maoris working on their farms, and not living in the kainga Maori.

In February, 1896, the numbers of Maoris on the principal islands of New Zealand was as shown on the next page:—

 Maoris.Half-castes living as Members of Maori Tribes (included in the preceding Numbers).
Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.
North Island37,10220,34316,7592,477                1,395                1,082                
Middle Island2,2071,1661,041895                485                410                
Stewart Island1175958104                49                55                
Chatham Islands—
      Maoris179948527                15                12                
      Morioris20119..                ..                ..                
Maori wives living with European husbands229..229..                ..                ..                
            Totals39,85421,67318,1813,503                1,944                1,559                

Besides the half-castes included in the above table, there were 2,259 half-castes (males, 1,123; females, 1,136) living with and enumerated as Europeans at the time of the census.

In these numbers will be noticed 20 of the old aboriginals, termed Morioris, at the Chatham Islands, and 229 Maori wives of European husbands. These Native wives of Europeans numbered 251 at the census of 1891, and 40 Morioris were then enumerated.

HALF-CASTES.

The half-caste population consists of those who live as members of Maori tribes, and others living with and counted as Europeans in the census. Adding the numbers of the two kinds gives the following figures for three censuses:—

Census.Half-castes living as Members of Maori Tribes.Half-castes living as Europeans.Total Half-caste Population.
Persons.Persons.Persons.
18812,2541,9584,212
18912,6812,1844,865
18963,5032,2595,762

These numbers indicate an increasing population of half-castes, notwithstanding the apparent decrease of the Maori population, before alluded to as probably in part correct.

PROPORTIONS OF DIFFERENT AGE-GROUPS.

It has been stated that the decrease shown by the census of 1896 in the Maori population can scarcely be considered a certainty to the full degree exhibited. It remains to see if consideration of the proportions of the people under and over fifteen years tends to confirm the conclusion. The proportions are accordingly given for six successive census years:—

PROPORTIONS PER 100 PERSONS LIVING—MAORIS.
 Males.Females.
Under 15 Years.Over 15 Years.Under 15 Years.Over 15 Years.
189635.2864.7236.8263.18
189133.2266.7835.2264.78
188631.6468.3633.5666.44
188133.6566.3534.6465.36
187832.0068.0031.6368.37
187435.1664.8436.3963.61

The figures here, taken over the full range of years, would seem to indicate almost unchanged conditions. The proportions per cent, under 15 years of the young people of either sex are somewhat different from those found in the European population—viz.: Males under 15, 34.81; over 15, 65.19; and females under 15, 38.01; and over 15 years, 61.99. But there is nothing to indicate decrease of numbers.

Dividing the whole Maori population into ten age-periods, the proportions per 100 living of each sex at these ages are next compared with those of the European population. The proportions for persons under 5 years for the two races are very nearly the same.

Ages.New Zealand European Population, 1896.Maori Population, 1896.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
Under 5 years11.4512.4210.8811.86
  5 and under 10 years11.7512.8014.4315.02
10             ″             15             ″            11.6112.799.739.59
15             ″             20             ″            10.8812.1710.2911.90
20             ″             30             ″            17.4919.1317.9418.80
30             ″             40             ″            12.4711.9213.2212.71
40             ″             50             ″            9.938.3210.289.19
50             ″             60             ″            8.216.077.506.30
60             ″             70             ″            4.863.253.823.08
70 and upwards1.351.131.911.55
 100.00100.00100.00100.00

DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAORI POPULATION.

The localization of the Maoris is shown by the numbers found to be living in the several counties, as under:—

Counties.Persons.
Mongonui1,616
Whangaroa656
Hokianga1,839
Bay of Islands2,509
Hobson1,011
Whangarei606
Otamatea264
Rodney193
Waitemata260
Eden177
Great Barrier Island60
Waiheke Island58
Manukau676
Coromandel638
Thames1,010
Ohinemuri483
Piako291
Waikato324
Waipa294
Raglan1,269
Kawhia1,444
West Taupo961
East Taupo519
Rotorua1,047
Tauranga1,099
Whakatane3,524
Waiapu2,393
Cook1,402
Clifton368
Taranaki1,069
Stratford226
Hawera816
Patea280
Waitotara293
Wanganui1,133
Rangitikei411
Oroua307
Manawatu149
Horowhenua886
Wairoa1,766
Hawke's Bay1,326
Waipawa325
Patangata170
Pahiatua30
Wairarapa North319
Wairarapa South349
Hutt256
Sounds139
Marlborough167
Kaikoura77
Collingwood32
Waimea98
Buller26
Westland82
Ashley165
Selwyn62
Akaroa238
Levels141
Waimate74
Waitaki180
Waikouaiti168
Peninsula71
Taieri61
Clutha24
Bruce20
Southland121
Wallace261
Stewart Island117
Chatham Islands199

229 Maori wives of European husbands have not been included in these figures.

Chapter 32. SECTION III.—VITAL STATISTICS

Table of Contents

BIRTHS

THE number of births registered in the colony during 1899 was 18,835, or 25.12 in every 1,000 persons living. The rate is lower than that for the preceding year, and indeed since the year 1881 there has been a steady decline. The number of births registered in a year reached its maximum in 1884, when it stood at 19,846, after which it fell to 17,876 in 1892, rising year by year to 18,955 in 1898, but falling again in 1899 to 18,835, as stated above.

The position still remains, that the increase in the number of marriages solemnised of late years has not as yet had any considerable effect in raising the number of births, and the birth-rate for last year (1899) is the lowest so far recorded in the statistics of the colony.

The figures for each year are worthy of notice, especially in connection with the subsequent particulars given as to marriages solemnised and the growth of population:—

Year.Number of Births.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
188219,00937.32
188319,20236.28
188419,84635.91
188519,69334.35
188619,29933.15
188719,13532.09
188818,90231.22
188918,45730.07
189018,27829.44
189118,27329.01
189217,87627.83
189318,18727.50
189418,52827.28
189518,54626.78
189618,61226.33
189718,73725.96
189818,95525.74
189918,83525.12

While this process of a diminishing birth-rate* has been going on the marriages have been increasing numerically, and the population of the colony also (facts which, taken together, lead to the conclusion that child-bearing is to a certain extent avoided):—

Year.Number of Marriages.Mean Population (excluding Maoris).
18813,277493,482
18823,600509,309
18833,612529,292
18843,800552,590
18853,813573,362
18863,488582,117
18873,563596,374
18883,617605,371
18893,632612,716
18903,797620,780
18913,805629,783
18924,002642,245
18934,115661,349
18944,178679,196
18954,110692,417
18964,843706,846
18974,928721,609
18985,091736,260
18995,461749,984

* In respect of Australian birth-rates, see remarks from Mr. Coghlan's pamphlquoted at the end of this section.

In the year 1881 there were in New Zealand 5.72 births to every marriage in the previous year, and in 1899 the proportion had fallen to 3.46 births to each marriage.

In the Australian Colonies a similar decrease is noticeable. It has been remarked that in all the Australian Colonies the average number of children to a marriage tends to decrease. In Victoria the number for the year 1880 was 4.99, but fell to 4.05 in 1898. In New South Wales the figures are 5.0 and 4.11 for the same years respectively.

New Zealand had in 1880 the highest birth-rate of all the Australasian Colonies (40.78), but now the case is reversed.

The fall over ten years is calculated as under:—

BIRTH-RATESPER 1,000 OF POPULATION.
Colony.1890.1891.1892.1893.1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.
Queensland37.1536.3535.8433.7331.8632.8530.0629.9228.2827.31
New South Wales35.3634.5033.8933.3331.4830.6628.3528.4227.1427.10
Victoria33.6033.5732.5431.2329.1628.5627.3326.5925.7226.71
South Australia33.2533.9232.4131.7630.4930.2328.4626.9724.9825.51
Western Australia34.8535.6333.0934.2228.2726.3022.6525.8229.3530.64
Tasmania33.4933.3732.4733.9231.1130.0928.1627.7326.2425.98
New Zealand29.4429.0127.8327.5027.2826.7826.3325.9625.7425.12

With a falling birth-rate, the census taken in 1896 showed lower numbers of each sex living at the period under five years than at the next quinquennial period, which is unsatisfactory, indicating as it does that there are not now sufficient living at the earlier years to maintain the number of those of five years and under ten now found in the tables. The census thus demonstrates the general correctness of the birth-rates, and shows that the results of the statistics are fairly accurate.

A declining birth-rate is noticeable in many civilised countries, and attention has been drawn to the serious consequences that may result by statisticians and political economists. That the fertility of women in New Zealand is decreasing further facts will tend to show.

Taking the number of married women in New Zealand at what may be considered the child-bearing ages (i.e., from fifteen to forty-five years, inclusive) as shown by each census since 1878, and for the same years the number of legitimate births (excluding plural) registered, the birth-rate per 1,000 married women of the above-stated ages is easily found, and is shown to be steadily declining. In 1878 the rate was 337 per 1,000, and in 1896 it had fallen to 252 or, in other words, in 1878 one married woman of the ages specified in every three gave birth to a child, while in 1896 the rate was 1 in 4 only. The figures for each census year are given below, and are followed by a table showing the declining birth-rate, and the increase in the marriage-rate, in the United Kingdom.

BIRTH RATES (LEGITIMATE) PER 1,000 MARRIED WOMEN AT CHILD BEARING AGES FOR EACH CENSUS YEAR, 1878 TO 1896.
Year (Census).Number of Married Women between 15 and 45 Years of Age.Number of Legitimate Births (Confinements).Birth-rate per 1,000 Married Women of from 15 to 45 Years of Age.
187850,99517,196337.2
188157,45818,003313.3
188662,70418,532295.5
189163,16517,455276.3
189669,80717,596252.1
BIRTH AND MARRIAGE RATES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, 1886, 1891, 1896, AND 1898.
Year.Mean Population.Births.Marriages.
Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
188636,313,5821,145,68331.55241,1806.64
189137,796,3901,148,25930.38275,9707.30
189639,464,5821,152,12229.19296,0897.50
189840,190,8061,159,19228.84309,4917.70

The above figures are taken from the “Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom, 1884 to 1898” (forty-sixth number), published in August, 1899.

From the year 1895 marriages have shown an increase, the rate being then 5.94 per 1,000 of population. In 1899 the rate rose to 7.28, the highest record since 1879, when it was 7.48 per 1,000 of mean population. The number of marriages solemnised in 1899 was 5,461, an increase of 370 on the number for 1898.

MARRIAGE RATES IN AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES PER 1,000 OF POPULATION.
 1874.1886.1891.1896.1898.1899.
Queensland8.628.677.186.056.036.78
New South Wales7.707.997.396.596.666.89
Victoria6.337.847.696.486.53..
South Australia8.006.247.316.206.186.16
Western Australia6.967.988.008.459.899.89
Tasmania6.837.266.635.886.296.37
New Zealand8.815.996.046.856.917.28

In April, 1891, New Zealand had 83,204 children living under the age of 5 years, and in 1896 the number was 83,659, an increase of only 455, although the population at all ages increased in the quinquennium by 12.24 per cent. Between 1886 and 1891 the children living under 5 years actually decreased in number by 3,624, the increase of population of all ages (8.33 per cent.) being less than between 1891 and 1896 (12.24 per cent.). The number of children under one year to the total population at all ages, according to the results of three censuses, was:—

 Children under One Year.Total Population (all Ages).
Census, 188618,355578,482
      ”       189116,443626,658
      ”       189617,070703,360

Thus, in 1886, with a population of 578,482 persons, there were 18,355 children under one year, against 17,070 children of that age in 1896, with a population of 703,360 persons.

The births registered in 1885 were 19,693, against 18,546 in 1895, and the birth-rate fell from 34.35 per 1,000 of the population in the former year to 26.78 in the latter.

Deducting 1,637, the number of deaths of children under one year registered in 1895, from 18,546, the number of births for that year, leaves 16,909, or within 161 of the living children under one year at the time of the last census.

TWIN BIRTHS

There were 176 cases of twin births (352 children), and triplets were registered in one instance, in 1899. The number of children born was 18,835; the number of mothers was 18,657: thus on an average one mother in every 106 gave birth to twins, against 97 in 1898, and 101 in each of the years 1897 and 1896. In 1895 the proportion was one in 93, and in 1894 one in 103.

ILLEGITIMACY

The births of 829 children were illegitimate: thus 44 in every 1,000 children born were born out of wedlock, against 42 in 1898.

The following table gives the rates of illegitimacy in each of the Australasian Colonies. The rate in New Zealand is less than in any other of the Australasian Colonies except South Australia:—

PROPORTION OF ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS IN EVERY 100 BIRTHS.
Year.Queensland.New South Wales.Victoria.South Australia.Western Australia.Tasmania.New Zealand.
18904.855.265.092.50..4.053.30
18914.655.365.362.93..3.723.49
18925.055.715.592.935.894.753.32
18934.976.165.462.844.174.413.70
18944.526.145.503.054.665.093.80
18954.936.515.333.134.474.974.50
18965.225.715.633.455.615.914.48
18976.026.585.423.535.275.744.41
18986.046.935.293.624.995.094.23
18995.977.15..3.954.916.084.40

These figures show a rise in the proportion of illegitimate births to every 100 births for this colony, amounting to 1.10 for the period 1890–99.

The fall in the actual number of all births in New Zealand must not be forgotten when considering the increase in the number of illegitimates. The total number of births registered fell from 19,299 in 1886 to 18,612 in 1896, while the illegitimate births rose from 602 to 834. The causes that led to the fall in the birth-rate certainly did not greatly affect the number of illegitimate children.

ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1886 AND 1896.
 Proportion Illegitimate
in
every 100 Births.
Total Number of
all Births.
Number of
Illegitimate
Births.
1886.1896.1886.1896.1886.1896.
The whole Colony3.124.4819,29918,612602834
Auckland and suburbs4.347.232,3761,922103139
Wellington and suburbs4.708.051,3411,34263108
Christchurch and suburbs4.707.711,8721,51988117
Dunedin and suburbs5.557.841,5851,1738892

The number of spinsters in the colony between 15 and 45 increased during the ten years from 52,348 (census 1886) to 85,105 (census 1896), or at the rate of 62.6 per cent., while the illegitimate births increased from 602 to 834, or at the rate of 38.5 only.

It would therefore appear that the larger proportion of illegitimate births now obtaining cannot with any certainty be taken as indicative of increased looseness of living on the part of the people.

The following figures, taken from “The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales, 1897–98,” showing the rate of illegitimacy per 100 births in the Australasian Colonies and in the United Kingdom, are based on statistics for a period of five years:—

Country.Illegitimate Births per Cent.
New South Wales6.45
Victoria5.47
Queensland5.13
South Australia5.92
Western Australia4.92
Tasmania5.20
New Zealand4.18
England and Wales4.24
Ireland2.63
Scotland7.29

Of the total number of children born in Australasia during the five years ended 1897, 5.54 per cent. were illegitimate, as compared with 4.43 per cent. in the United Kingdom for the period 1892–96.

The figures in the next table, which give the percentages of illegitimate births in a number of foreign countries, also cover a period of five years, 1890–94.

CountryIllegitimate Births per Cent.
Germany9.08
      Prussia7.66
      Bavaria14.09
      Saxony12.33
Austria14.66
Hungary9.11
France8.65
Belgium8.81
Netherlands3.16
Sweden10.35
Norway7.09
Italy7.01

For England and Wales the proportion of illegitimate births to the total births in 1898 was 4.2 per cent., having gradually diminished from 7 per cent. in 1845. The minimum rate was 2.9 per cent., in Essex, and the maximum 7.8 per cent., in Herefordshire. For London the percentage was 3.7 in 1897.

The average proportion of illegitimate births in Scotland in 1897 was 7.0 per cent., the rate varying from 3.5 per cent., in Dumbartonshire, to 14.1 in Wigtownshire; but in Ireland in that year the extremely low average of 2.6 per cent. obtained, the rate varying from 0.7 in Connaught to 3.6 in Ulster.

The following figures, which represent the number of illegitimate births that have occurred in the maternity homes maintained at Christchurch and Auckland by the Salvation Army since their commencement, have been supplied by the chief officer of that organization:—

Christchurch.
1892–9563
189629
189724
189822
189923
            Total161
Auckland.
189819
189925
            Total44

THE LEGITIMATION ACT

An important Act was passed in 1894, entitled the Legitimation Act, which makes provision for the legitimation of children born before marriage on the subsequent marriage of their parents. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock, whose parents afterwards marry, is deemed to be legitimised by such marriage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes Registrars must register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father of an illegitimate child; but such person is required to make a solemn declaration that he is the father, and that at the time of the birth there existed no legal impediment to his marriage with the mother of the child. He has also to produce the evidence of his marriage. It will thus be seen that in cases dealt with under the Act registration becomes the test of legitimacy. In the December quarter of 1894, 11 children were legitimised; in 1895 the number was 68; in 1896, 56; in 1897, 48; in 1898, 59; and in 1899, 41; making altogether 283 legitimations since the passing of the law.

“THE INFANT LIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1896.”

By this statute it has been rendered unlawful for a person to take charge, for payment, of an infant to maintain or nurse for more than three days without holding license as an infants' home keeper. The house of such a person must be registered as an infants' home.

The administration of this law is a matter entirely managed by the police, and the Commissioner reports the working to be satisfactory after a two years' experience. The licensed homes are periodically inspected by the police authorities, and the results have shown that licensees generally comply with the required conditions, the homes and infants being well looked after.

The Commissioner adds: “During the year 1898 there were 553 licensed homes throughout the colony, representing 829 infants. Twenty-seven deaths occurred in the licensed homes during the year, an inquest being held in each case, but in no instance was wilful neglect or other misconduct on the part of the licensee disclosed. The mortality in the homes was equal to 32.57 per thousand. The mortality throughout the colony of infants under four years of age—the age to which the Act applies—for the year was 26.92. Considering that a large majority of these infants are illegitimate, and are the offspring of very young mothers; that they have struggled into existence against tremendous odds, their advent being naturally regarded as a curse; that when received into the homes they are, with few exceptions, what may be termed ‘rickety’ infants; that they are all deprived of their natural food (their mother's milk) and have to be reared artificially, I think the mortality compares favourably with that of infants of corresponding age throughout the colony. During the year twenty-four licensees were prosecuted for offences under the Act, sixteen of whom were convicted, and three licenses were cancelled.”

BIRTHS AND BIRTH-RATES IN THE FOUR CHIEF CITIES

The total number of births registered as occurring in the four chief centres and suburbs in 1899 was 4,563, as against 4,629 for the previous year.

The births in the four cities fell from 2,878 in 1898 to 2,854 in 1899, and in the suburban boroughs from 1,751 to 1,709. The birth-rates for 1899 were,—

  Birth-rates per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Auckland City25.77 
      ”       and five suburban boroughs 25.30
Wellington City24.24 
      ”       and three suburban boroughs 24.97
Christchurch City18.74 
      ”       and four suburban boroughs 22.05
Dunedin City20.82 
      ”       and eight suburban boroughs 21.55

Thus, by the inclusion of the suburbs the rate is raised at Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, but lowered at Auckland. It will be observed that Auckland has the highest rate, Wellington next highest, Christchurch and Dunedin following with intervals. The difference between the Auckland rate (25.30) and the Dunedin rate (21.55) is considerable. The birth-rate for the whole colony for 1899 was 25.12 per thousand. Auckland is thus over the average, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin below it.

Taking the births in the four central boroughs without their suburbs, and comparing the numbers for 1899 and 1898, an increase is observed at Auckland of 72; a decrease at Christchurch of 50, at Wellington of 29, and at Dunedin of 17. The figures for the last five years are:—

 1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.
Auckland (without suburbs)888892906916988
Wellington       ″      1,0001,0051,0671,0651,036
Christchurch       ″      359370376390340
Dunedin       ″      475498498507490

The birth-rates for the four central boroughs in 1899 show in each case a fall when compared with 1898. In Auckland the rate fell from 26.96 to 25.77; in Wellington, from 25.75 to 24.24; in Christchurch, from 22.07 to 18.74; and in Dunedin, from 21.61 to 20.82. The rates for five years, 1895 to 1899, are as follows:—

 Births per 1,000 of Population.
1895.1896.18971898.1899.
Auckland (without suburbs)28.0428.3928.2926.9625.77
Wellington       ″      28.3026.8427.7125.7524.24
Christchurch       ″      20.3621.8121.8822.0718.74
Dunedin       ″      19.8721.8821.5421.6120.82

NATURALISATION

Aliens residing in the colony may, on taking the oath of allegiance to Her Majesty, obtain letters of naturalisation entitling them to enjoy all the rights and privileges that a natural-born subject of the United Kingdom can enjoy or transmit within this colony. Six hundred and seventy-four aliens (614 men and 60 women) were naturalised in 1899. The abnormal increase on the number naturalised in 1898 is, no doubt, due to the fact that a general election was held in 1899.

The number belonging to each nationality was as under:—

 NUMBER OFALIENS NATURALISED IN 1899.
M.F.
Natives of—
      German Empire16822
      Norway and Sweden1388
      Denmark10415
      Russia, Poland, and Finland210
      France and possessions225
      Italy and Sicily22
      Austria-Hungary545
      China40
      United States of America171
      Netherlands80
      Greece70
      Switzerland202
      Belgium80
      Portugal and possessions110
      Turkey and Syria60
      Brazil10

The number of natives of each country naturalised during the last eighteen years is next shown,—

Natives of—
      Germany1,312
      Sweden and Norway953
      Denmark698
      China340
      Italy and Sicily161
      Switzerland149
      Russia160
      Austria181
      France93
      Netherlands41
      Greece35
      Portugal31
      United States of America37
      Belgium22
      Other countries74
            Total4,287

By section 2 of “The Aliens Act Amendment Act, 1882,” repealed and re-enacted by section 2 of “The Aliens Act Amendment Act, 1892,” it is provided that when the father, or mother being a widow, has obtained naturalisation in the colony, every child who during infancy has become resident with them in New Zealand shall be deemed to be naturalised, and shall have the rights and privileges of a natural-born subject.

MARRIAGES

The marriages for 1899 show an increase on the number for the previous year. The number was 5,461, or 370 more than in 1898. The marriage-rate rose from 6.91 per 1,000 persons living in 1898 to 7.28 in 1899, the rate for the latter year being the highest obtained since 1879, when it stood at 7.48 per 1,000 persons. The improvement shown during the last four years sets New Zealand in a good position relatively to the colonies in Australia.

The rates for a series of twelve consecutive years were:—

MARRIAGES PER 1,000 OF THE POPULATION.
Year.QueenslandNew South Wales.Victoria.South AustraliaWestern Australia.Tasmania.New Zealand.
18888.637.378.036.707.186.585.97
18898.376.768.146.476.996.505.94
18908.497.148.217.065.806.646.12
18917.187.397.697.318.006.636.04
18926.676.776.646.517.296.516.23
18935.916.405.996.266.345.516.22
18945.706.205.986.096.245.436.15
18956.236.356.005.886.835.325.94
18966.056.596.486.208.455.886.85
18976.056.726.365.4610.736.236.83
18986.036.666.536.189.896.296.91
18996.786.89..6.169.896.377.28

But the improved rate for this colony is still lower than the rate for many European countries.

MARRIAGES IN EVERY 1,000 OF THE POPULATION.
German Empire18968.3
Belgium18968.1
Hungary18968.1
England and Wales18967.9
Austria18967.9
Switzerland18967.8
Spain18947.8
France18967.5
Netherlands18967.5
Denmark18967.3
Scotland18967.2
Italy18967.1
Norway18966.7
Sweden18955.9
Ireland18965.0

Of the marriages solemnised in 1899, 4,905 were between bachelors and spinsters, 184 between bachelors and widows, 252 between widowers and spinsters, and 120 between widowers and widows. Divorced men and women have been classified as bachelors or spinsters: 9 divorced men and 14 divorced women were married during the year.

Included amongst spinsters are thirteen married women, and amongst the bachelors two married men, who elected to go through the form of marriage with other persons under the protection of the provisions of section 204, subsection (5), of “The Criminal Code Act, 1893,” which runs: “No one commits bigamy by going through a form of marriage if he or she has been continually absent from his or her wife or husband for seven years then last past, and is not proved to have known that his wife or her husband was alive at any time during those seven years.”

The total number of marriages solemnized (5,461) does not include marriages where both parties are of the aboriginal native race, such persons being exempted from the necessity of complying with the provisions of the Marriage Act, although at liberty to take advantage thereof. Twenty-seven marriages in which both parties were Maoris were contracted in 1899 in terms of the Act: 17 by Registrars, 8 by clergymen of the Church of England, 1 by a Wesleyan, and 1 by a Presbyterian Minister.

BACHELORS AND SPINSTERS IN NEW ZEALAND

The results of the last three censuses in respect of the number of bachelors of 20 years and upwards, and spinsters of 15 years and upwards, in the colony show some interesting features. While in 1886 there was an excess of bachelors over the spinsters amounting to 12,339 men, in 1891 the census gave an excess of 3,497 only, showing that a process of equalisation had been going on. But by 1896 not only had the preponderance of the male element been lost, but an excess of spinsters over bachelors was reported amounting to 1,786 women.

It is curious to notice how differently the numbers for the Provincial Districts have been affected by the process in operation. An excess of bachelors was preserved in Auckland, Taranaki, Hawke's. Bay, Wellington, Marlborough, Nelson, and Westland from 1886 to 1896, but in all these cases except Taranaki it diminished very much. In Canterbury, however, an excess of spinsters was found in 1886 of 910, which increased to 2,516 in 1891, and to 3,997 in 1896; while in Otago an excess of 2,359 bachelors in 1886 changed to an excess of 773 spinsters in 1891, which increased to 2,066 in 1896: these two important districts of the Middle Island losing large numbers of bachelors by departures to the North Island.

The following table exhibits the excess of bachelors over spinsters or of spinsters over bachelors in each provincial district in 1886, 1891, and 1896:—

Provincial Districts.Census, 1886.Census, 1891.Census, 1896.
Excess of Bachelors over Spinsters.Excess of Spinsters over Bachelors.Excess of Bachelors over Spinsters.Excess of Spinsters over Bachelors.Excess of Bachelors over Spinsters.Excess of Spinsters over Bachelors.
    Total excess12,339..    3,497..    ..    1,786
Auckland2,996..    156..    703..    
Taranaki242..    121..    524..    
Hawke's Bay1,809..    1,337..    1,142..    
Wellington2,225..    2,129..    637..    
Marlborough607..    644..    183..    
Nelson1,524..    1,486..    580..    
Westland1,479..    900..    501..    
Canterbury..    910..    2,516..    3,997
Otago2,359..    ..    773..    2,066
Chatham Islands8..    15..    7..    
Kermadec Islands..    ..    ..    2..    ..    

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS DENOMINATIONS

Of the marriages in the year 1899, 24.17 per cent. were solemnised by ministers of the Church of England, 25.30 per cent. by ministers of the Presbyterian Churches, 12.91 per cent. by ministers of the Wesleyan and other Methodist Churches, 10.87 per cent. by ministers of the Roman Catholic Church, 9.34 per cent. by ministers of other denominations, and 17.41 per cent. by Registrars.

The following shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the principal denominations in the past eight years, and the percentages of these denominations to the total population:—

Denomination.Percentage of Marriages.Percentage of Denomination to Total Population in 1896.
1892.1893.1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.
Church of England20.7823.0622.8622.7422.8623.0023.3724.1740.27
Presbyterians29.3826.5825.3024.3225.0125.4426.0225.3022.78
Wesleyans and other Methodists14.8216.1315.9915.6917.9217.6113.9812.9110.45
Roman Catholics9.748.9910.0811.1910.2610.1210.3710.8714.07
Other denominations6.346.666.657.296.055.869.259.3412.43
      By Registrars18.9418.5819.1218.7717.9017.9717.0117.41..
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Marriage by the Registrar is found to be rather less frequent than it was seven years ago, the percentage falling from 18.94 in 1892 to 17.41 in 1899.

MARRIAGE REGISTER SIGNED BY MARK

Of the men married in 1899, 24, or 4.39 in every 1,000, and of the women 35, or 6.41 per 1,000, signed the register by marks.

The illiteracy of the people, as measured by the proportion of married persons who affix marks instead of signatures to the marriage register, has greatly decreased of late, having fallen since 1881 from 32.04 per 1,000 among men to 4.39 per 1,000, and from 57.98 per 1,000 to 6.41 per 1,000 among women. This is shown in a very striking manner by the following table:—

PERSONS IN EVERY 1,000 MARRIED WHO SIGNED BY MARK.
Denomination.1881.1891.1899.
M.F.M.F.M.F.
Church of England16.5927.158.2910.663.031.52
Presbyterians10.2529.615.798.692.171.45
Wesleyans and other Methodists32.4141.798.9310.712.849.93
Roman Catholics117.78133.3331.3318.2810.105.05
Other denominations10.3620.729.26..1.967.84
      By Registrars39.2293.5127.4243.088.4117.88
            Total marriages32.0457.9813.9316.824.396.41

The proportion of illiterates in 1899 was greatest among those married before Registrars. Previously the proportion was largest among Roman Catholics; but since 1881 it has, as shown by the table, most remarkably decreased.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED

Of the persons married in 1899, 115 bridegrooms and 1,027 brides were under 21 years of age—three of the bridegrooms were between 17 and 18 years of age, and eight between 18 and 19. Of the brides, one was under 15 years of age, ten were between 15 and 16, and twenty-eight between 16 and 17 years of age. The proportion of men married is greatest at the ages of 25 to 30, and of women at from 21 to 25 years.

The following are the proportions of men and women married at each age-period to every 100 marriages in the years 1888 and 1899:—

Age.1888.1899.
M.F.M.F.
Under 21 years1.8524.302.1018.81
21 and under 2528.1742.0525.0139.17
25             ″             3033.8121.1536.9726.44
30             ″             4026.028.9827.1412.12
40             ″             506.692.745.332.40
50             ″             602.520.612.200.82
60             ″             700.880.141.010.22
70 and upwards0.060.030.240.02

Registrars of Marriages are prohibited by law from issuing certificates for the marriage of minors without the consent of their parents or lawful guardians, if there be any in the colony. If a declaration be made in any case that there is no parent or lawful guardian in the colony, then a certificate may be issued after the expiration of fourteen days following the date on which the notice of intended marriage is given.

A marriage may not be solemnised except after the delivery to the minister or Registrar who officiates of a certificate issued by a Registrar authorising such marriage, and if any persons knowingly and wilfully intermarry without such certificate the marriage is null and void; and no clergyman or minister of any denomination is empowered to solemnise marriages until his name has been placed on the Registrar-General's list of officiating ministers for the year.

The ages at which persons may contract binding marriages are the same as in England—12 years for females and 14 for males. Marriage may be contracted at earlier ages than those stated, but would be voidable at the discretion of either of the parties upon reaching the age of 12 or 14, as the case may be, and without the necessity of proceedings in Court.

Although in New Zealand the age at which girls may legally marry is as above; nevertheless, by the criminal law, to unlawfully carnally know a girl under the age of 16 years is now a punishable offence. The age of consent was raised from 15 to 16 by statute passed in 1896.

The average age of the men married in this colony in 1899 was 29.86 years, and of the women, 25.48 years. In England the mean age of those whose ages were stated was (in the year 1894) 28.41 years for men, and 26.15 years for women. Thus the average age at marriage in the colony is higher for men, but lower for women, than in England.

The proportion of bridegrooms under 21 is much greater in England than in New Zealand; but the proportion of brides under 21 is greater in the colony.

In England, in 1891–95, of every 1,000 bridegrooms whose ages were stated, 56 were under 21 years of age, and of every 1,000 brides 183 were under 21 years of age. In New Zealand, in 1899, the proportions were 21 bridegrooms and 188 brides of similar ages in every 1,000 married:—

Year.Bridegrooms under 21 in every 100.Brides under 21 in every 100.
18881.8524.30
18901.8922.75
18921.6220.14
18941.4419.53
18961.9619.51
18981.5718.13
18992.1018.81

NUMBER OF MINISTERS

The number of the clergy enumerated at the census of 1896 was 777. In 1891 the number returned was 732. Besides the regular clergy, there were, in 1896, 11 Mormon missionaries and 221 Salvation Army officers, of whom 112 were females; also 17 evangelists, 52 missionaries (11 women), and 45 preachers. The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act is (March, 1900) 946, and the denominations to which they belong are shown hereunder.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS, 31ST MARCH, 1900.
Denomination.No.
Church of England314
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand116
Presbyterian Church of Otago and Southland87
Roman Catholic Church155
Wesleyan Methodist Church143
Congregational Independents20
Baptists24
Primitive Methodist Connexion31
Lutheran Church10
Hebrew Congregations6
Church of Christ13
Free Methodist Churches6
Newton (Auckland) Gospel Mission1
Independent Wesleyan1
Brethren1
The Forward Movement1
Salvation Army9
Catholic Apostolic Church3
Seventh-day Adventists4
Conditionalists1
            Total946

There were, at the time of the census, 25 theological students, 72 church officers such as sextons and others, and 82 members of religious orders not ministering to charity or education.

DEATHS

The deaths in 1899 numbered 7,680, being equivalent to a rate of 10.24 in every 1,000 persons living, as against 9.84 in 1898. The lowest experienced since the year 1887, when the deaths were 10.29 per 1,000 of the population, was that for 1896 (9.10).

The death-rate in New Zealand contrasts very favourably with that in the other Australasian Colonies and in European countries, as will be seen by the figures given for a series of years:—

Country.1890.1891.1892.1893.1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.
* Excluding the Northern Territory.
New Zealand9.6610.3510.0610.2310.199.919.109.149.8410.24
Queensland13.5912.7712.6613.3412.0811.3812.1011.3312.6612.07
New South Wales12.9014.2412.2013.2412.3611.7912.3010.8812.4811.82
Victoria16.1016.2413.6314.1113.1413.2513.3512.9015.9414.28
South Australia*12.5913.3011.4113.4411.6411.2511.4811.2413.0612.09
Western Australia12.0617.3316.6715.3114.4017.7816.4516.9716.0513.76
Tasmania14.7415.0013.5313.4712.4211.3811.6311.5313.5112.25
England and Wales19.520.219.019.216.618.717.117.717.6..    
Scotland19.720.718.619.517.219.716.918.818.4..    
Ireland18.218.419.417.918.218.416.618.418.1..    
Denmark19.020.019.418.917.516.915.716.615.6..    
Norway17.917.517.816.316.915.715.215.215.2..    
Sweden17.116.817.916.816.415.215.615.4..    ..    
Austria29.428.228.827.227.827.726.425.624.9..    
Hungary32.433.135.031.130.429.628.828.427.9..    
Switzerland21.020.619.220.420.519.618.318.218.6..    
German Empire24.423.424.124.622.322.120.821.320.6..    
Netherlands20.520.721.019.218.518.617.216.917.0..    
France22.622.622.622.821.422.320.219.621.2..    
Italy26.426.226.325.325.125.224.222.123.1..    

In this statement New Zealand is conspicuous as showing the lowest death-rate. The rates for the principal colonies in Australia are a little higher, but, generally speaking, far below those for the United Kingdom or the European Continental States mentioned in the table.

DEATHS AND DEATH-RATES OF THE FOUB PRINCIPAL CITIES AND THEIR SUBURBS

In the earlier annual reports on the vital statistics of the four chief towns the central boroughs alone were dealt with, particulars respecting the suburbs not having been obtained. But this omission was held to be a grave defect, as the suburban death-rate may differ much from the death-rate at the centre. Steps were therefore taken early in 1895 to collect statistics of the suburban boroughs as well as of the four chief cities. As regards Auckland and Christ-church, the whole of the area usually recognised as suburban has not yet been brought under municipal government, and the statistics given below do not deal with such portions as still remain in road districts. The omission, however, is not very important, for there are in either case quite enough suburbs included within borough boundaries to give a fair idea of the death-rate of greater Auckland and greater Christchurch. As further boroughs are formed the vital statistics will be made to include them.

The total number of deaths registered for the four centres in 1899 was 2,254—viz., 1,523 in the cities, and 731 in the suburbs. In 1898 the number was 2,203: 1,489 in the cities, and 714 in the suburbs.

By including the suburbs the death-rate for last year is lowered at each of the four centres. The rates for the year are:—

 Death-rates per 1,000 of mean Population.
Auckland City13.02 
      ”       and five suburban boroughs 11.98
Wellington City11.16 
      ”       and three suburban boroughs 10.86
Christchurch City12.68 
      ”       and four suburban boroughs 11.58
Dunedin City13.47 
      ”       and eight suburban boroughs 11.99

MORTALITY AT FOUR CENTRES, INCLUDING SUBURBS

If the suburbs are included, the death-rate is found to be highest in Dunedin and lowest in Wellington; Auckland and Christchurch taking second and third places respectively. The death-rate for the colony was 10.24 per 1,000 of mean population. The four centres, as might be expected, each show a higher average than this.

If the number of deaths of infants under one year be excluded, the mortality among the rest of the population is found to have been for 1898 and 1899 in the following ratio to the 1,000 living:—

 1898.1899.
Auckland (including suburbs)8.978.40
Wellington      ″      8.527.91
Christchurch      ″      8.408.43
Dunedin      ″      9.909.99

The degree of infantile mortality is perhaps best shown in the proportion of deaths of children under one year of age to every 100 births. For 1898 and 1899 the proportions at the chief centres were,—

 1898.1899.
Auckland (including suburbs)15.1014.17
Wellington      ″      13.1111.79
Christchurch      ″      9.1614.30
Dunedin      ″      8.019.25

Thus the proportion at Dunedin is considerably less than that found at either of the other chief cities. Again, the percentage of deaths of children under 5 to the total number of deaths is: in Auckland, 37.60; in Christchurch, 34.94; in Wellington, 33.14; and in Dunedin, only 22.35. The total of deaths under 5 is 720, or 31.94 per cent. of all deaths, as against 642 and 29.14 for 1898. The deaths of persons of 65 and upwards numbered 505 last year; in 1898 they were 506.

MORTALITY AT FOUR CENTRES, EXCLUDING SUBURBS

Excluding suburbs, and dealing with the deaths at all ages in the four cities or central boroughs only, the rates for 1899 are found to be lower in Auckland and Wellington, but higher in Christchurch and Dunedin than in the previous year. The total number of deaths, and the death-rates, for four years are given:—

Cities (excluding Suburbs).Deaths, 1896.Deaths, 1897.Deaths, 1898.Deaths, 1899.
No.Per 1,000 of Population.No.Per 1,000 of Population.No.Per 1,000 of Population.No.Per 1,000 of Population.
Auckland45314.4241612.9948314.2249913.02
Wellington43411.5946312.0351612.4747711.16
Christchurch19511.4922613.1519210.8723012.68
Dunedin2199.6027311.8129812.7331713.47

By omitting the deaths of infants under one year, and calculating the rate on the population of one year of age and upwards, the position of the four cities as regards magnitude of death-rate in 1899 remains unaltered.

 Deaths per 1,000 of Population, excluding Infants (under One Year of Age).
1896.1897.1898.1899.
Auckland (excluding suburbs)10.029.649.869.53
Wellington      ″      9.179.359.188.39
Christchurch      ″      8.8610.658.859.16
Dunedin      ″      8.0710.7010.8711.59

Subjoined is a table showing the rates of infant mortality in the four cities for each of the past five years, together with the mean rates for the period.

 Deaths of Children under One Year to every 100 Births.
1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.Mean of Five Years.
Auckland (excluding suburbs)14.8616.4812.8017.1414.4715.15
Wellington      ″      12.4010.0510.5913.7112.2611.80
Christchurch       ″      11.1412.9712.5010.0019.7113.26
Dunedin       ″      9.477.836.229.6610.208.67

CAUSES OF DEATH AT FOUR CENTRES, INCLUDING SUBURBS

While treating of the death-rates at the chief cities and surroundings, it is desirable to refer to the causes of mortality, which is done in the remarks that follow. The deaths for the whole colony, classified according to their cause, are treated of at length a little further on.

Specific Febrile and Zymotic Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

The mortality from these diseases at Christchurch and Dunedin, with their suburbs, was much higher in 1899 than in 1898. Growth of population can only be said to account for a very small part of the increase. At Wellington and at Auckland the deaths for last year by zymotic diseases were fewer than in 1898. The total deaths in this class for the four towns were 304 for 1898 and 360 for 1899.

Deaths from Febrile and Zymotic Diseases.
 Auckland and Suburbs.Wellington and Suburbs.Christchurch and Suburbs.Dunedin and Suburbs.Total.
18991106210484360
1898117994444304

Of the above, diarrhoea diseases caused most deaths in 1899 at the four centres taken together, the total number being 142. Whooping-cough came next, with 54 deaths, then influenza with 42, measles 37, typhoid fever 36, diphtheria 19, and other zymotic complaints 30. diarrhoea was most prevalent at Christchurch (61 deaths), whooping-cough at Auckland (23 deaths) and Wellington (20).

Comparison of the deaths for each city shows,—

Zymotic, &c., Diseases.Auckland and Suburbs.Wellington and Suburbs.Christchurch and Suburbs.Dunedin and Suburbs.
1899.1898.1899.1898.1899.1898.1899.1898.
diarrhoea diseases3959163661142615
Influenza9149215171918
Typhoid fever1622912546..
Measles12731513294
Diphtheria233211332
Whooping cough23..20..2..9..
Other zymotic diseases91221374125

Parasitic Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

Hydatids were fatal at Auckland (2 deaths), Wellington (3 deaths), Christchurch (1 death), and Dunedin (2 deaths). These, with 1 death from thrush at Auckland, make a total of 9.

Dietetic Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

These numbered 29, of which 12 were attributed to intemperance; 17 being due to want of breast-milk or malnutrition.

Constitutional Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

From these, deaths at the four towns numbered 466 in 1899. The first in importance of these diseases, and of all causes of death, is tubercle. The figures for 1899 and 1898 show 248 and 249 deaths for each year respectively.

Phthisis and other Tubercular Diseases (at Four Chief Centres).
 1899.1898.
Phthisis.Other Tubercular Diseases.Phthisis.Other Tubercular Diseases.
Auckland and suburbs5911483
Wellington       ″      46125012
Christchurch       ″      3613495
Dunedin       ″      56156121
 1975120841

The mortality from tubercular diseases for 1899 was 11.00 per cent. of the total deaths at the four boroughs from all causes.

Deaths from cancer at the chief towns decreased in number from 160 in 1898 to 151 in 1899. The latter number is 6.70 per cent. of deaths for the year from all causes.

Diabetes showed 15 deaths, against 18 in 1898.

Developmental Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

There were 196 deaths; 81 of which were from premature birth, and 108 from old age.

Local Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

Deaths in this class were 5 less than in 1898, the figures being 1,007 against 1,012. Diseases of the respiratory system showed 245 deaths for 1899, or rather less than one-fourth of the whole mortality in the class, against 250 in the former year. Bronchitis, pneumonia, congestion of lungs, pleurisy, and allied diseases form this group.

Under the head of diseases of the digestive system there were 183 deaths at the four centres, including 42 from enteritis; gastritis, 14; cirrhosis of liver, 14; hepatitis, 5; and dentition, 22.

Diseases of the urinary system caused 86 deaths. The remaining deaths were: 223 from nervous diseases, 1 disease of organs of special sense, 230 of organs of the circulatory system, 10 of the lymphatic, 19 of the reproductive system, 7 of the organs of locomotion, and 3 of the integuments.

Violent Deaths (at Four Chief Centres)

There were 102 violent deaths at the cities and suburbs, 87 of which were classed as accidental. Nine of these latter were caused by fractures, and 16 by falls. In 6 cases death resulted from the deceased being run over by cab, cart, wagon, or train. Six deaths were from burning, 19 by drowning, 9 by suffocation, 4 by poisoning, 1 by misadventure with chloroform, 3 by an explosion of gun cotton, besides 8 from accident at birth, and 6 others.

Of 12 suicides, 5 were by shooting, 1 by cutting throat, 3 by poison, and 3 by hanging.

VITAL STATISTICS OF AUSTRALASIAN CAPITALS, 1899

The vital statistics of the chief cities, with their suburbs, of the Australasian Colonies, show that the death-rate in Wellington (N.Z.) for 1899 was lower than that of any other of the principal towns for the same year.

Capital Cities (including Suburbs).Estimated Mean Population.Births.Deaths.Excess of Births over Deaths.
Total Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.Total Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
* Ten-mile radius.      
Melbourne475,38012,43526.167,31715.395,118
Sydney432,62512,23928.295,51112.746,728
Adelaide148,6444,16528.022,26015.201,905
Brisbane*119,7283,25127.151,31310.971,938
Perth37,1051,26634.1260716.36659
Hobart41,04084220.5257614.04266
Wellington47,5351,18724.9751610.86671

DEATHS IN THE WHOLE COLONY AT VARIOUS AGE-PERIODS

The average age at death of persons of either sex, in each of the five years, 1895–99, was as follows:—

 Males.Females.
189536.21 years30.17 years.
189636.80             ″            32.41             ″            
189738.80             ″            34.77             ″            
189839.29             ″            35.69             ″            
189937.73             ″            33.54             ″            

From a mortality table, constructed by the Assistant Actuary of the Government Life Insurance Department for his own purposes, it appears that out of every 1,000 males born 662 reach the age of 50 years, 614 the age of 55, 550 the age of 60, and 471 the age of 65. For females, 688 out of every 1,000 born live to 50 years, 648 to 55, 598 to 60, and 530 to 65. These results must not be regarded as put forward by authority of the department.

Subjoined is a classified statement of the deaths of infants under one year during 1899, with the ratio of the deaths in each class to the 1,000 births during the year:—

Year.Sex.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Total under 12 Months.
NUMBER OF DEATHS.
1899Male3732142102191,016
Female246175168201790
DEATHS TO THE 1,000 BIRTHS.
1899Male38.3622.0121.5922.52104.48
Female27.0019.2018.4422.0686.70

One hundred and four out of every thousand of male children born, and eighty-seven of every thousand females, are found to have died before attaining the age of one year. The mortality is thus one in nine of male children and one in eleven of females, even in New Zealand, where conditions are far more favourable to infant life than in Australia, at least as far as relates to the cities.

It will also be seen from the figures that the chances of living during the first year of age are far greater for female than for male infants. Thus, during the year 1899 there were—

100 deaths of males to 70 deaths of females under 1 month of age;
100       ″       87       ″       from 1 to 3 months of age;
100       ″       85       ″       from 3 to 6 months of age;
100       ″       98       ″       from 6 to 12 months of age;
100       ″       83       ″       under 12 months of age.

The rates of infantile mortality—that is, the proportion the deaths of children under one year of age bear to the births—are higher in the Australian Colonies than in New Zealand.

CAUSES OF DEATH (THE WHOLE COLONY)

The deaths registered in the colony during the last five years, when distributed among the several classes according to their assigned causes, give the rates shown hereunder:—

Causes of Death.Rate per 10,000 living.
1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.
Zymotic diseases11.2410.248.4410.9912.41
Parasitic diseases0.360.240.180.370.38
Dietetic diseases0.810.860.840.871.03
Constitutional diseases18.9517.0617.9918.8118.75
Developmental diseases7.127.257.468.809.64
Local diseases48.6043.3145.3046.8648.69
Violence8.628.327.557.437.23
Ill-defined and not-specified causes3.423.723.634.264.27
            All causes99.1291.0091.3998.39102.40

The next table shows that forty-eight in every one hundred deaths in 1899 were from local diseases, of which diseases of the respiratory system formed 13 per cent., diseases of the circulatory system 10 per cent., and of the nervous system 11 per cent., while diseases of the digestive system contributed 8 per cent. Constitutional diseases, including, with others, phthisis and cancer, comprised 18 per cent. of the total mortality. Twelve per cent. of deaths were from zymotic causes, including 7.19 per cent. from miasmatic diseases, and 3.88 per cent. from diarrhoea. Deaths from developmental diseases come next in proportion, being 9.41 per cent. of the whole, followed by violent deaths, with 7.06 per cent.

Causes of Death.Number of Deaths.Proportion to Total Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 living, 1899.Proportion per 10,000 living, 1898.
Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.
Class I. Specific febrile or zymotic diseases,—Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.  
      Order 1. Miasmatic diseases2962565526.637.967.197.366.11
            ”       2. diarrhoea diseases1651332983.704.133.883.973.74
            ”       3. Malarial diseases…    …    …    …    …    …    …    …    
            ”       4. Zoogenous diseases…    …    …    …    …    …    …    …    
            ”       5. Venereal diseases168240.360.250.310.320.39
            ”       6. Septic diseases2136570.471.120.740.760.75
                            Total Class I.49843393111.1613.4612.1212.4110.99
Class II. Parasitic diseases1316290.290.500.380.380.37
Class III. Dietetic diseases4928771.100.871.001.030.87
Class IV. Constitutional diseases7806261,40617.4719.4718.3118.7518.81
Class V. Developmental diseases4143097239.279.619.419.648.80
Class VI. Local diseases,—
      Order 1. Diseases of nervous system48432480810.8410.0710.5210.7710.59
            ”       2. Diseases of organs of special sense2570.040.160.090.090.18
            ”       3. Diseases of circulatory system50229679811.259.2010.3910.6410.54
            ”       4. Diseases of respiratory system57341498712.8412.8712.8513.1611.36
            ”       5. Diseases of digestive system3413086497.649.588.458.668.08
            ”       6. Diseases of lymphatic system1218300.270.560.390.400.50
            ”       7. Diseases of urinary system163922553.652.863.323.403.72
            ”       8. Diseases of reproductive system,—
                         (a.) Of organs of generation…    1111…    0.340.140.150.35
                         (b.) Of parturition…    7171…    2.210.930.950.98
      ”       9. Diseases of locomotive system146200.310.190.260.250.33
      ”       10. Diseases of integumentary system97160.200.220.210.220.23
                            Total Class VI.2,1001,5523,65247.0448.2647.5548.6946.86
Class VII. Violence,—
      Order 1. Accident or negligence366964628.202.996.026.166.29
            ”       2. Homicide5490.110.120.120.120.08
            ”       3. Suicide5813711.300.400.920.951.03
            ”       4. Execution…    …    …    …    …    …    …    0.03
                            Total Class VII.4291135429.613.517.067.237.43
Class VIII. Ill-defined and not-specified causes1811393204.664.324.174.274.26
                            Grand totals4,4643,2167,680100.00100.00100.00102.4098.39

The next table shows, for either sex, the number of deaths from each cause registered during the year 1899:—

CAUSES OF DEATH
Class.Causes of Death.Males.Females.Total.
Orders and Diseases.
I.—SPECIFIC FEBRILE OR ZYMOTIC DISEASES.      ORDER 1.—Miasmatic.
Small-pox…    …    …    
Chicken-pox…    …    …    
Measles7463137
Epidemic rose-rash, rubeola…    …    …    
Scarlet fever, scarlatina…    …    …    
Typhus…    …    …    
Dengue…    …    …    
Relapsing fever…    …    …    
Influenza7758135
Whooping-cough4380123
Mumps…    …    …    
Diphtheria352358
Cerebro-spinal fever…    …    …    
Simple and ill-defined fever246
Enteric fever, typhoid652893
Other miasmatic diseases…    …    …    
            Total Order 1296256552
      ORDER 2.—diarrhoea.
Simple cholera8412
Diarrhoea151126277
Dysentery639
            Total Order 2165133298
      ORDER 3.—Malarial.
Remittent fever…    …    …    
Ague…    …    …    
Beriberi…    …    …    
            Total Order 3…    …    …    
      ORDER 4.—Zoogenous.
Hydrophobia…    …    …    
Glanders…    …    …    
Splenic fever…    …    …    
Cow-pox and other effects of vaccination…    …    …    
            Total Order 4…    …    …    
      ORDER 5.—Venereal.
Syphilis13821
Gonorrhoea, stricture of urethra, ulcer of groin3…    3
            Total Order 516824
      ORDER 6.—Septic.
Phagedaena…    …    …    
Erysipelas6410
Pyaemia, Septicaemia151732
Puerperal fever, Pyaemia, Septicaemia…    1515
            Total Order 6213657
            Total Class I.498433931
II.—PARASITIC DISEASES.Thrush235
Other diseases from vegetable parasites…    …    …    
Hydatid disease111122
Worms…    22
Other diseases from animal parasites…    …    …    
            Total Class II.131629
III.—DIETETIC DISEASES.Starvation7310
Want of breast-milk11415
Scurvy…    …    …    
Intemperance—
      Chronic alcoholism23932
      Delirium tremens314
Other dietetic diseases51116
            Total Class III.492877
IV.—CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES.Rheumatic fever182038
Rheumatism459
Gout4…    4
Rickets…    22
Cancer271197468
Tabes mesenterica, tubercular peritonitis303262
Tubercular meningitis, acute hydrocephalus353772
Phthisis334259593
Other forms of tuberculosis, scrofula402868
Purpura, haemorrhagic diathesis347
Anaemia, chlorosis, leuco-cythaemia161935
Diabetes mellitus232144
Other constitutional diseases224
            Total Class IV7806261,406
V.—DEVELOPMENTAL DISEASES.Premature birth145116261
Atelectasis7310
Cyanosis6410
Spina bifida628
Imperforate anus…    …    …    
Cleft palate, hare-lip1…    1
Other congenital defects13518
Old age236179415
            Total Class V.414309723
VI.—LOCAL DISEASES      ORDER 1.—Diseases of Nervous System.
Inflammation of the brain or its membranes533992
Cerebro-spinal meningitis…    …    …    
Apoplexy12483207
Softening of brain7714
Hemiplegia, brain paralysis191433
Paralysis (undescribed)413374
Paralysis agitans…    22
Insanity, general paralysis of insane402060
Chorea…    …    …    
Epilepsy211637
Convulsions8867155
Laryngismus stridulus1…    1
Idiopathic tetanus224
Paraplegia, diseases of spinal cord161026
Locomotor ataxia12113
Other diseases of nervous system603090
            Total Order 1484324808
      ORDER 2.—Diseases of Organs of Special Sense
Otitis, otorrhoea257
Epistaxis, and diseases of nose…    …    …    
Ophthalmia, and diseases of eye…    …    …    
            Total Order 2257
      ORDER 3.—Diseases of Circulatory System.
Endocarditis, valvular disease313210523
Pericarditis112
Hypertrophy of heart10818
Fatty degeneration of heart351752
Angina pectoris19625
Syncope8937126
Aneurism22224
Senile gangrene347
Embolism, thrombosis549
Phlebitis112
Varicose veins, piles…    …    …    
Other diseases of circulatory system4610
            Total Order 3502296798
      ORDER 4—Diseases of Respiratory System.
Laryngitis17522
Group181937
Other diseases of larynx and trachea213
Asthma, emphysema291039
Bronchitis188181369
Pneumonia237152389
Pleurisy312152
Other diseases of respiratory system512576
            Total Order 4573414987
      ORDER 5.—Diseases of Digestive System.
Stomatitis, cancrum oris358
Dentition232851
Sore throat, quinsy156
Dyspepsia538
Haematemesis2…    2
Melaena628
Diseases of stomach, gastritis322961
Enteritis10789196
Ulceration, perforation, of intestine51015
Ileus, obstruction of intestine253257
Stricture or strangulation of intestine213
Intussusception of intestine6511
Hernia11819
Fistula…    …    …    
Peritonitis283664
Ascites134
Gall-stones628
Cirrhosis of liver21930
Other diseases of liver, hepatitis, jaundice352964
Other diseases of digestive system221234
            Total Order 5341308649
      ORDER 6.—Diseases of Lymphatic System and Ductless Glands.
Diseases of lymphatic system516
Diseases of spleen1…    1
Bronchocele21214
Addison's disease459
            Total Order 6121830
      ORDER 7.—Diseases of Urinary System.
Acute nephritis12618
Bright's disease7762139
Uraemia11920
Suppression of urine…    11
Calculus426
Haematuria112
Diseases of bladder and prostate37542
Other diseases of urinary system (kidney diseases undescribed)21627
            Total Order 716392255
      ORDER 8.—Diseases of Reproductive System.
      (a.) Diseases of organs of generation,—
Ovarian disease…    44
Diseases of uterus and vagina…    77
Disorders of menstruation…    …    …    
Pelvic abscess…    …    …    
Perineal abscess…    …    …    
Diseases of testes, penis, scrotum, &c.…    …    …    
      (b.) Diseases of parturition,—
Abortion, miscarriage…    2020
Puerperal mania…    11
Puerperal metritis…    11
Puerperal convulsions…    99
Placenta prævia (flooding)…    44
Phlegmasia dolens…    …    …    
Other accidents of childbirth…    3636
            Total Order 8…    8282
      ORDER 9.—Diseases of Organs of Locomotion.
Caries, necrosis8412
Arthritis, ostitis112
Other diseases of organs of locomotion516
            Total Order 914620
      ORDER 10.—Diseases of Integumentary System.
Carbuncle325
Phlegmon, cellulitis448
Lupus…    11
Ulcer, bed-sore…    …    …    
Eczema2…    2
Pemphigus…    …    …    
Other diseases of integumentary system…    …    …    
            Total Order 109716
            Total Class VI.2,1001,5523,652
VII.—VIOLENCE.      ORDER 1.—Accident or Negligence.
Fractures, contusions16024184
Gunshot wounds718
Cut, stab10414
Burn, scald202141
Sunstroke314
Poison336
Drowning11922141
Suffocation181028
Otherwise261036
            Total Order 136696462
      ORDER 2.—Homicide.
Murder, manslaughter549
Wounds in battle…    …    …    
            Total Order 2549
      ORDER 3.—Suicide.
Gunshot wounds22…    22
Cut, stab8…    8
Poison5712
Drowning448
Hanging19120
Otherwise…    11
            Total Order 3581371
      ORDER 4.—Execution.
Hanging…    …    …    
            Total Class VII.429113542
VIII.—ILL-DEFINDED AND NOT-SPECIFIED CAUSES.Dropsy…    11
Marasmus, &c.168134302
Mortification, gangrene1…    1
Tumour…    11
Abscess112
Haemorrhage…    …    …    
Sudden (cause unascertained)10212
Other ill-defined and not-specified causes1…    1
            Total Class VIII.181139320
            General totals4,4643,2167,680

MORTALITY FROM ZYMOTIC AND FEBRILE DISEASES

The deaths in 1899 from specific febrile or zymotic diseases amounted to 931, a proportion of 12.41 in every 10,000 persons living, and an increase of 122 on the number of deaths in 1898, when the proportion was only 10.99. Measles and whooping-cough were the main causes of the increased death-rate in this class.

The following are the diseases in this class that have caused the greatest mortality during the past ten years:—

Diseases.1890.1891.1892.1893.1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.
Measles11..52514..1156137
Scarlet fever and scarlatina3124415..422..
Diphtheria11686195128927674494558
Whooping-cough82242115551901502426123
Influenza7021014410623312589120219135
Diarrhoeal diseases290319329193207232334257275298
Enteric or typhoid fever145119134971159412410612093
Puerperal fever19272924383210181915

Measles, which was epidemic in 1893, caused only 16 deaths in the four succeeding years; but in 1898 the mortality rose to 56 and in 1899 to 137 deaths. From scarlatina there were no deaths last year. The mortality from diphtheria rose from 45 deaths in 1898 to 58 in 1899.

Whooping-cough in 1894 destroyed 190 lives, and 150 in 1895, but was in 1896, 1897, and 1898 much less fatal. In 1899 the mortality sprang up again to a total of 123 deaths.

Influenza, the deaths from which were 89 in 1896, 120 in 1897, and 219 in 1898, caused 135 deaths in 1899.

From diarrhoeal complaints the deaths in 1899 were 298, or 23 more than in 1898; while in 1896 the mortality reached the height of 334 deaths, and in 1889 was even higher (355), with a much smaller population than in 1899. Diarrhoeal diseases are the most fatal of the order “zymotic and febrile,” measles coming second for the year 1899, influenza third, and whooping-cough fourth.

Enteric or typhoid fever was less fatal in 1899 than in 1898, the figures being 93 deaths, against 120 for the former year. The highest mortality during the decennium was in 1890, when the deaths numbered 145 for the colony.

VACCINATION

From small-pox there were no deaths. The vaccinations registered for the last ten years are as under:—

Year.Total Vaccinations registered.Number of Births registered.Proportion of Successful Vaccinations of
Children under 1 Year of Age to Total Births. Per Cent.Children under 14 Years of Age to Total Births. Per Cent.
18995,13318,83517.9427.25
189810,34918,95529.0554.60
189712,44018,73332.8966.41
189611,91718,61230.7864.03
18958,52318,54631.7244.34
18949,32218,52832.4250.31
18937,41218,18728.0940.75
18928,21617,87632.4145.96
18919,28418,27338.8150.81
18909,35718,27842.6651.19

The number of successful vaccinations registered in 1899 was only 5,133, against 10,349 in 1898—a decrease foretold in last year's edition of this work as consequent on the alteration of the law in England, where vaccination is in effect no longer compulsory.

One child in every six is shown to have been successfully vaccinated, and for a matter so peculiar as vaccination, and so differently regarded by many persons (see evidence taken by the Royal Commission in England), the above results are quite as much as could reasonably be expected. Comparison with such colonies as New South Wales shows New Zealand to have been hitherto more careful in regard to the prevention of smallpox than some others.

Mr. Coghlan, for instance, writes that “Vaccination is not compulsory in New South Wales, and is resorted to chiefly in times of scare, when an epidemic of small-pox is thought to be imminent. It is easy to discern,” says he, “from the returns the years when the community was threatened by the disease.” Thus, in 1881, the Government Vaccinators in New South Wales vaccinated 61,239 persons; in 1883, only 896; of late years averaging about 2,000 per annum, but only 945 in 1896.

An extract from the report of the Registrar-General of England published in 1897 is given, which is highly interesting in its reference to the epidemic at Gloucester:—

Small-pox.—The deaths referred to small-pox in the year 1896 were 541 in number, and corresponded to a rate of 18 per million of the population, as compared with rates of 49, 27, and 7 per million respectively in the three preceding years. Of the total deaths from small-pox registered in England and Wales, not fewer than 443 occurred in the registration district of Gloucester, in the course of the epidemic which prevailed there. Within the first two quarters of the year 1896 there were registered in the City of Gloucester 716 deaths from all causes, and of these as many as 421 deaths, or 59 per cent., were ascribed to small-pox. During the first half of the year, therefore, the mortality of the city was increased on account of small-pox alone by 143 per cent. In England and Wales, out of the 541 persons whose deaths were caused by small-pox during 1896, 45, or 8.3 per cent., were certified to have been vaccinated, and 118, or 21.8 per cent., to have been unvaccinated, whilst with respect to the remaining 378, or 69.9 per cent., no sufficient statement as to vaccination appeared in the certificates. In addition to the deaths definitely referred to small-pox, 151 deaths were attributed to chicken-pox, and 42 to effects of vaccination; so that in the year 1896 the total number of deaths either certainly or possibly caused by variola, and of deaths alleged to have been caused by measures taken to prevent that disease, was 734, or 24 per million of the population.

The 42 deaths ascribed to the effects of vaccination include not only the deaths which were directly referred to vaccination, but also those which were stated in the certificates, or were found on inquiry to have been caused by the entrance of any noxious material whatever at the site of vaccination.

The main features of the new English law include a system of domiciliary visitation by public vaccinators, in substitution for that requiring children to be taken to vaccination stations, and exemption of parents and others from any penalty for not vaccinating children on production to the proper officer of a magistrate's certificate to the effect that he is satisfied as to the conscientious objections raised. Vaccination with glycerinated calf lymph, or other lymph issued by Local Government Boards is offered by the Government. The Act continues in force until the beginning of the year 1904.

PARASITIC DISEASES

There were 29 deaths from parasitic diseases, the proportion per 10,000 living being 0.30. Deaths from hydatids increased from 20 in 1898 to 22 in 1899.

DIETETIC DISEASES: MORTALITY IN LIQUOR TRADE (ENGLAND)

Under the class “Dietetic Diseases” are included 36 deaths from intemperance. But these cannot be said to represent the full extent of the mortality really caused by the abuse of alcoholic liquors. Many deaths of intemperate persons are attributed to disease of the liver, kidneys, &c., in the medical certificates.

The mortality of persons engaged in the liquor trade has been calculated for England, and the conclusions drawn are quoted: “The mortality of persons directly engaged in the supply of spirituous liquors still continues to be enormous. Up to the age of twenty-five years brewers experience little more than the average mortality, but after that age the baneful influence of their employment rapidly becomes apparent. Their mortality throughout the main working period of life exceeds that of occupied males by about 50 per cent. At all ages after the twentieth year publicans are subject to a death-rate which is much higher than the average among occupied males, while at the age-groups 25–35 and 35–45 years the rates are just double the average…. The comparative mortality figure of brewers is 1,427, that of publicans is 1,838 in London, 1,948 in the industrial districts, and 1,348 in the agricultural districts, as against 953—the standard figure for occupied males…. Taking publicans without distinction of locality, a table shows that they die seven times as fast as do occupied males from alcoholism, 6 1/2 times as fast from diseases of the liver, six times as fast from gout, and more than double as fast from diseases of the urinary system, from rheumatic fever, from diabetes, and from suicide.

“Among publicans in London the case is in some respects worse. Their mortality from all causes is nearly double that of all occupied males taken as a standard. They die nearly ten times as fast from alcoholism, 3 3/4 times as fast from diseases of the liver, and more than twice as fast from affections of the urinary organs and from suicide.”

CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES: PHTHISIS, CANCER, ETC

The deaths from constitutional diseases in 1899 numbered 1,406, or 18.75 per 10,000 of population, and 18 out of every 100 deaths from all causes. This class of disease is more fatal than any other except that defined as “Local diseases,” on account of the great numbers of deaths from cancer and phthisis, with other tubercular complaints, which are classed as “Constitutional.”

From phthisis there are more deaths than from any other cause. The number of deaths was 593 in 1899, against 597 in 1898 and 596 in 1897. The deaths in 1899 were in the proportion of 7.91 in every 10,000 persons living, against 8.11 in the previous year.

Figures for ten years are quoted, showing that the total number of deaths from this disease for 1898 was the highest recorded during the decennium, though the rate had been slightly higher in some of the previous years.

Year.Deaths from Phthisis.Rate per 10,000.
18905208.38
18914957.86
18925248.16
18935458.24
18945768.48
18955537.99
18965237.40
18975968.26
18985978.11
18995937.91

In all the Australasian Colonies the rate is materially increased by the deaths of persons who have come out either already suffering from phthisis or predisposed thereto. There is no reason for believing that this circumstance has more effect on the death-rate in Australia than in New Zealand; so that the lower rate referred to in previous issues of this work as obtaining in this colony may be taken as proof of the superiority of its climate for withstanding consumptive tendencies.

The death-rate of England and Wales from phthisis, though declining, is far higher than that of New Zealand. In 1896 it stood at 13.07 per 10,000, which is the lowest rate on record.

Phthisis is now known to be and is treated as an infectious preventable disease caused by the bacillus tuberculosis, which is communicable in many ways. Certain constitutions are far more predisposed than others to receive this bacillus, especially under conditions of life unfavourable to robust health, when a nidus is formed for the development of the bacillus.

From other forms of tuberculosis the deaths in 1899 were 202, or 2.69 per 10,000 of population. Thus a large addition has to be made to the deaths from phthisis to appreciate the full mischief done by tubercular disease.

Deaths from all Tubercular Diseases

The mortality from all forms of tubercular disease, taken together, has been at the average rate of about 10 1/2 persons per 10,000 living for the last ten years. This rate is far lower than that which obtained in England during the year 1897, when the proportion was 19.30 per 10,000 living.

A table is supplied showing the results for each of ten years in New Zealand. Besides the death-rate from tubercular diseases, it also shows the percentage of deaths by tubercle to those from all causes, which was from 10 to 11 1/2 per cent. for the decennial period 1890–99.

DECENNIAL TABLE, 1890–99, SHOWING THE DEATH RATE FROM TUBERCLE PER 10,000 LIVING AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL DEATHS.
Year.Mean Population.Number of Deaths from Tubercular Diseases.Rate per 10,000.Percentage of Total Deaths from all Causes.
1890620,78065010.4710.84
1891629,78366310.5310.17
1892642,24570010.9010.84
1893661,34972911.0210.77
1894679,19675211.0710.87
1895692,41776110.9911.09
1896706,8466809.6210.57
1897721,60976310.5711.57
1898736,26076910.4410.62
1899749,98479510.6010.35
DECENNIAL TABLE, 1890–1899.—Deaths from various Tubercular Diseases registered in New Zealand, specifying the Number under and over Five Years of Age.
Persons
Year.Tabes Mesenterica, Tubercular Peritonitis.Tubercular Meningitis, Acute HydrocephalusPhthisis.Other Forms of Tuberculosis, Scrofula.Total Deaths from Tuberculosis.Total All Ages.
Under 5 Years.Over 5 Years.Under 5 Years.Over 5 Years.Under 5 Years.Over 5 Years.Under 5 Years.Over 5 Years.Under 5 Years.Over 5 Years.
189028728199511192984566650
189142103835114841627107556663
18924718333285161630104596700
1893351433398537214297632729
1894361333307569164892660752
18954715253755482856105656761
1896361130285518193390590680
189735933327589134588675763
18983712373810587113795674769
18994319324010583125697698795

It will be seen that the term “tubercular diseases” includes “phthisis,” “tabes mesenterica,” “tubercular peritonitis,” “tubercular meningitis,” “acute hydrocephalus,” with other forms of tuberculosis (scrofula, &c.,. Of these the mortality from phthisis forms by far the greatest part of the whole. Thus, in 1899, there were 593 deaths from phthisis out of a total of 795 deaths from all tubercular complaints. Of 593 deaths by phthisis, only 10 were of persons under five years of age.

Examination of the next table, giving the full series of ages of persons who died from tubercular disease during the year 1899, shows that of 62 deaths from tabes mesenterica, with tubercular peritonitis, 43 were of children under 5 years. Also, that of 72 deaths from tubercular meningitis, with acute hydrocephalus, 32 were of persons under 5 years, and 29 from 5 to 20 years. Under “other forms of tuberculosis” (excepting phthisis) the greater numbers of deaths are at the earlier ages.

The mortality from phthisis is heaviest at 20–30 years, being 192 deaths out of 593 of all ages; but large numbers are found in the columns as far as that for the advanced term of 65 to 70 years, at which the deaths for 1899 were 22.

TABLE showing the Number of Deaths from Tubercular Diseases registered in New Zealand during the Year 1899, arranged in Groups of Ages.
Persons.
Under 1 Year.Under 5 Years.5 to 10.10 to 15.15 to 20.20 to 25.25 to 30.30 to 35.35 to 40.40 to 45.45 to 50.50 to 55.55 to 60.60 to 65.65 to 70.70 to 75.75 to 80.80 and upwards.Ages not specified.Total, 5 Years and over.All Ages.
Tabes Mesenterica, Tubercular Peritonitis40431272221111962
Tubercular Meningitis, Acute Hydrocephalus1032915554114072
Phthisis610315509498715640302435352264583593
Other forms of Tuberculosis, Scrofula1012387145514212315668
            Totals6697164069115109785941322637382564698795

To show the mortality from tuberculosis in various parts of the colony, a table giving the deaths in the various provincial districts is added, which, however, only shows that the mortality is distributed very much according to population. The deaths in the North Island are, however, found to be 27 fewer than those for the South Island, or 384 deaths and 411 deaths for those divisions respectively:—

TABLE showing the Number of Deaths from Tubercular Disease registered in each Provincial District of New Zealand during the Year 1899.
Provincial District.Tabes Mesenterica, Tubercular Peritonitis.Tubercular Meningitis, Acute Hydrocephalus.Phthisis.Other Forms of Tuberculosis, ScrofulaTotal Deaths from Tuberculosis.
Auckland16815314191
Taranaki2321228
Hawke's Bay2125634
Wellington5209610131
Marlborough....8..8
Nelson2330338
Westland3..12116
Canterbury2299712140
Otago102815120209
            Totals627259368795

Nine deaths from “lupus” have not been included in the comparative table for ten years. All these were deaths of adult persons; one of them took place in the year 1899.

The report of the Royal Commission, presented to the Imperial Parliament and dated 4th April, 1898, states that inquiry was made as to what administrative procedures are available and desirable for controlling the danger to man through using as food the meat and milk of tuberculous animals. Nothing was adduced to raise any doubt as to the accuracy of the opinion expressed at a previous Commission in 1895, that tubercular disease in bovine and other animals is identical with that in the human subject, and communicable from one to the other, nor doubt that any person who takes tuberculous matter into the body as food incurs risk of acquiring tuberculous disease. But the conclusion arrived at was that there has been a tendency to exaggerate the extent of the risk arising from meat. Dealing with the question of milk-supply, the Commissioners say:—

Whatever degree of danger may be incurred by the consumption of the flesh of tuberculous animals, there can be little doubt that the corresponding danger in respect of milk-supply is a far greater one. On this point the opinion of the previous Royal Commission on tuberculosis was emphatic: “No doubt the largest part of the tuberculosis which man obtains through his food is by means of milk containing tuberculous matter.” In Great Britain and Ireland meat, as a rule, is cooked before it is eaten to an extent which goes largely to destroy infective matter. Milk, on the other band, is largely consumed in a raw state, especially by children, and there exists a general distaste for cooked milk as a beverage. Amongst most continental nations the practice is to some extent the opposite of this, and large quantities of meat, especially in the various forms of sausages, are consumed absolutely raw, while the greater proportion of the milk is cooked before consumption. It has been proved over and over again that milk from tuberculous udders, and even milk which has been purposely contaminated with tuberculous matter, can be rendered perfectly harmless by being boiled for one minute—a method of sterilisation which we agree with the former Commission in preferring for general application to any of the other plans which have been employed. We have already explained how unsatisfactory is the system of meat inspection in this country; but as regards milk, in relation to tuberculosis, inspection is still mere so; indeed, it may be said not to exist. Even local authorities, who exert themselves to prevent the sale of tuberculous meat, are without sufficient powers to prevent the sale within their districts of milk drawn from diseased cows.

Legislative action has been recommended to safeguard the life and health of the people from tubercle; and the complete isolation of consumptive patients, with the disinfecting of their sputa, and of everything that has been in contact with them, is suggested from time to time as a necessary measure.

Cancer

The deaths from cancer during the year 1899 were 468. There were more deaths of males than of females, the numbers being, males 271, females, 197. The rate of mortality per 10,000 living was 6.24. The apparent increase in deaths from this disease is shown further on and compared with that of England. But the increase is not believed by all authorities to be a fact to the extent represented, but partly the result of more careful certification of the causes of death, and of improved diagnosis in cases of what is termed inaccessible cancer.

It is certain, however, that out of a total of 7,680 deaths from all causes in New Zealand during 1899, 468, or 6.09 per cent., were caused by cancer.

The death-rate from cancer is not so great as that from tubercular diseases, but is nevertheless a most alarming matter, not only on account of the number of deaths, but because of its progressive increase.

A decennial table shows that the deaths per 10,000 persons living rose from 4.75 in 1890 to 6.24 in 1899; and that whereas 4.92 out of every 100 deaths were attributable to cancer ten years ago, the proportion had grown to 6.09 last year.

TABLE showing for each of the Ten Years, 1890 to 1899, the Number of Persons registered as having Died from Cancer, the Proportion of Deaths from Cancer per 10,000 Living, and the Percentage of all Deaths attributed to Cancer.
Year.Estimated Mean Population.Deaths from Cancer.Total Deaths all Causes.Deaths from Cancer per 10,000.Percentage of Total Deaths due to Cancer.
1890620,7802955,9944.754.92
1891629,7832956,5184.684.53
1892642,2453076,4594.784.75
1893661,3493326,7675.024.91
1894679,1964086,9186.015.90
1895692,4173836,8635.535.58
1896706,8463896,4325.506.05
1897721,6093956,5955.475.99
1898736,2604717,2446.406.50
1899749,9844687,6806.246.09

To exhibit how cancer affects the different parts of the human body in respect of each sex, the experience of four years (1896–98 and 1899) is shown in a succeeding table. Of any single organ affected, the stomach is the one most liable to be the seat of cancer among males, although with this sex the disease is apparently to about the same extent located in the mouth, lips, tongue, and throat, taking these parts all together. Next to the stomach, the liver is with males the part which is most often attacked, to judge by mortality records, and next in order come the intestines and rectum. Afterwards, but at a considerable distance, follow the kidneys, bladder, and urethra.

Amongst the females, the organs of generation, ovaries, uterus, and vagina, as a group, show by far most cases of mortality from cancer; but, as with the males, the stomach is, of any single organ, the one most affected, the liver coming next, then the breast, and then the intestines and rectum. Females do not contract cancer in the mouth (judging by the returns of deaths), tongue, lips, and throat, to nearly the same extent as prevails among males. Whatever may be the cause, the figures are remarkable, being only 6 out of every 100 deaths from cancer among females, against 31 out of every 100 of males dying from the same cause, or, expressed in numbers, 42 deaths of females occurred against 268 of males, from cancer in the mouth, &c., in a four years' experience of mortality.

DEATHS FROM CANCER, 1896-98 AND 1899

TABLE showing the Number of Deaths of Males and Females from Cancer during the Four Years 1896-98 and 1899, classified according to the part of the Body affected.
Part Affected.1896-98.1899.
Number of Deaths.Proportion of Specified.Number of Deaths.Proportion of Specified.
 Per Cent. Per Cent.
Males.Mouth, lip, tongue, throat, neck, &c.20332.856527.43
Stomach18129.298736.71
Intestines, rectum7211.65208.44
Liver10216.504016.88
Kidneys, bladder, urethra, &c.284.53177.17
Leg, foot, &c.142.2762.53
Lung101.6220.84
Arm, hand, chest, spine, shoulder81.29....
 618100.00237100.00
Not specified60..34..
            Total678..271..
Females.Mouth, tongue, throat, &c.254.89179.71
Breast7013.702011.43
Stomach10620.744022.86
Intestines, rectum5711.16148.00
Kidneys, bladder61.1742.29
Ovary, uterus, vagina14327.985028.57
Liver8216.052514.29
Gall-bladder, spleen, pancreas91.7631.71
Lung, spine, thigh, shoulder132.5521.14
 511100.00175100.00
Not specified66..22..
            Total577..197..

Considering the numbers of persons dying at the different age periods, the following table of ten years' results shows the age of 30 years to be the time of life at which deaths from cancer begin to be numerous (it is really 35 for males and 30 for females). The maximum of deaths is reached at the period 60 to 65 for males, and 55 to 60 for females. These remarks are given without reference to the numbers of persons living at the various ages.

Deaths from cancer, it will be observed, are very rare among children under 5 years, and not frequent in those above that age.

DEATHS FROM CANCER.—DECENNIAL RETURN

TABLE showing the Number of Persons (Males and Females) at Different Ages registered as having Died from Cancer in New Zealand during the Ten Years, 1890 to 1899.
Year.Under 1 Year.Total under 1 Year.1 to 22 to 3.3 to 4.4 to 5.Total under 5 Years.5 to 10.10 to 15.15 to 20.20 to 25.25 to 30.30 to 35.35 to 40.40 to 45.45 to 50.50 to 55.55 to 60.60 to 65.65 to 70.70 to 75.75 to 80.80 and upwards.Ages not specified.Total 5 Years and over.All Ages.
Under 1 Month.1 to 3 Months.3 to 6 Months.6 to 12 Months.
189023461422364647493019134295295
189111111423341522275212404125123291295
1892222123371519275253454021114305307
189321313316922326151573625136329332
189411135111527116473713826247407408
189523161125476164633837196383383
1896222112561421365974674929147387389
189711111321171022114271744935298392395
1898221225581736474777796935309469471
1899113314615214248826487452719467468

The numbers of deaths of persons from cancer in each provincial district are given in another table, according to age groups, but the result merely shows the disease to be one found everywhere throughout the colony. At least there is no sufficient evidence of climatic conditions affecting the mortality to a great extent in any particular part of the country.

TABLE showing the Number of Deaths from Cancer at Various Ages Registered in each Provincial District of the Colony of New Zealand during the Year 1899.
Provincial Districts.Ages.
Under 5.to 20.20 to 25.25 to 30.30 to 35.35 to 40.40 to 45.45 to 50.50 to 55.55 to 60.60 to 65.65 to 70.70 to 75.75 to 80.80 and upwards.Not stated.Total.
Auckland125410521111495289
Taranaki122352512225
Hawke's Bay134314621126
Wellington2134691312954270
Marlborough21216
Nelson218374126
Westland11131121112
Canterbury112231513131215125296
Otago11111524111818271198118
            Totals1614615214248826487452719468

The increase since 1881 is well exhibited in respect of each sex, and in regard to the higher ages, which are the periods at which the most cancer deaths occur, by a proportional statement:—

PROPORTIONS OF DEATHS FROM CANCER PER 10,000 MALES AND FEMALES LIVING AT THREE AGE-PERIODS.
 40 to 50.50 to 60.60 to 70.
Year.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
18815.589.8011.1022.5722.8643.78
18989.0716.5921.6426.0955.2147.44

The death-rates for cancer in respect of each sex are given for each of five years, selected to show the position as from 1886 to 1899:—

DEATHS FROM CANCER IN EVERY 10,000 PERSONS OF EACH SEX LIVING IN NEW ZEALAND.
Year.Males.Females.
18863.693.67
18904.724.79
18946.655.27
18986.775.98
18996.855.56

Here the mortality is higher among the males than among the females, which is the reverse of English experience, where the rate was 6.36 per 10,000 of males and 9.29 of females, for the year 1897. In the United Kingdom, however, the rate of increase is so much higher among males than with females that the Registrar General calculates equilibrium will be reached in about the year 1932, and thereafter the rate among males would exceed the rate among females. The English rate for 1897 is the highest recorded there for each of the two sexes.

The increase in the numbers for the sexes together for England and New Zealand is represented in the proportions below:—

DEATHS FROM CANCER IN EVERY 10,000 PERSONS LIVING.
Year.New Zealand.England.
18812.695.20
18863.685.90
18914.686.92
18965.507.64

The actual number of deaths of persons of either sex and all ages registered in New Zealand during the last ten years was:—

 Males.Females.Totals.
1890156139295
1891154141295
1892173134307
1893188144332
1894240168408
1895208175383
1896205184389
1897210185395
1898263208471
1899271197468
            Totals2,0681,6753,743

MORTALITY FROM DEVELOPMENTAL DISEASES

The total of deaths from developmental diseases was 723, or 9.64 per 10,000 persons living. The mortality from premature birth comprised 261 deaths, and that from atelectasis, cyanosis, and other congenital defects 47 deaths. The proportion of deaths from premature birth varies from 10 to 14 out of every 1,000 births, and that from congenital defects from 2 to 4 per 1,000 births. Particulars for five years exhibit the annual rates:—

NUMBER AND PROPORTIONS PER 1,000 BIRTHS.
 Deaths from Premature Birth.Deaths from Congenital Defects.
Year.NoProportion per 1,000.NoProportion per 1,000.
18951839.87784.21
189623012.36462.47
189721111.26522.78
189825113.24542.85
189926113.86472.50

Stating the result in another way, there was one death from premature birth to every 72 births in 1899, and one death from congenital defect to every 401 births. In England the proportion of deaths from premature birth to every 1,000 births was as high as 18.98 in the year 1895.

OLD AGE

Deaths from old age in 1899 numbered 415, against 343 in 1898.

MORTALITY FROM LOCAL DISEASES

Deaths by diseases of the nervous system were 808, or 10.52 out of every 100 deaths from all causes, and 10.77 out of every 10,000 persons living. Of the 808 deaths, 207 were credited to apoplexy, 155 to convulsions, and 92 to inflammation of the brain and its membranes. Paralysis, including hemiplegia and paralysis of the insane, caused 169 deaths, and locomotor ataxia 13 deaths. Paraplegia, with diseases of the spinal cord, caused 26. Deaths from nervous diseases (excluding convulsions of children) numbered 653, or 8.71 per 10,000 persons living.

Diseases of the circulatory system resulted in 798 deaths, being 10.39 out of every 100 from all causes, and 10.64 per 10,000 persons living. Of the total number in this order, endocarditis and valvular disease of the heart contributed 523 deaths. From angina pectoris there were 25 deaths, from syncope 126, from aneurism, 24; and from other forms of heart disease (hypertrophy, fatty degeneration, and pericarditis) 72.

Diseases of the respiratory system show 987 deaths, of which 758 were attributable to bronchitis and pneumonia. Taken together, these two complaints were the cause of more deaths than was phthisis, and adding 52 from pleurisy, 37 from croup, 22 from laryngitis, and 118 from other respiratory diseases, the mortality in the order is found to be 12.85 per cent. of the total deaths, and 13.16 per 10,000 of the population.

Deaths from diseases of the digestive system also formed a large proportion of the whole (8.45 per cent.), the number being 649. Enteritis was most fatal, showing 196 deaths, and gastritis 61, liver diseases coming next with 94 deaths.

Of 255 deaths from diseases of the urinary system in 1899, the deaths from Bright's disease of the kidneys (albuminous) numbered 139.

VIOLENT DEATHS

Deaths by violence form a large item in the total mortality. In 1899 the proportion per 10,000 of persons living was 7.23, the total number of deaths having been 542.

Of 429 males who died violent deaths, 58 were suicides. The deaths of females by violence were far fewer than those of males, amounting to 113, and out of these only 13 committed suicide. The table on page 137 gives the full list of deaths from external or violent causes for the year 1899.

Accidental deaths numbered 462, males 366 and females 96. Of the total male deaths, 160 resulted from fractures or contusions, and 119 from drowning. Of the female deaths, 22 were due to drowning.

NUMBER OF MEDICAL MEN

At the time of the census, April, 1896, there were in the colony 411 medical men stated to be in practice, against 362 returned in 1891. (The number of medical practitioners registered in the colony is 692, including 60 whose addresses are not known and 146 who have left New Zealand.) Medical students numbered 48. There were 82 persons who are grouped in the detailed tables of the census as irregular medical practitioners, including, among others, 5 Chinese doctors, 31 herbalists and 11 assistants, and 11 medical galvanists.

HOSPITALS, LUNATIC ASYLUMS, BENEVOLENT ASYLUMS, AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS

Hospitals

Prior to the abolition of provinces the hospitals of the colony were supported mainly out of provincial revenues. After that event the expenditure for hospitals was for the most part charged against the revenue of counties and municipal corporations, until October, 1885, when “The Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1885,” came into force.

The portion of the colony included within the three principal islands—the North, Middle, and Stewart Islands—was by the above Act divided into twenty-eight hospital districts, each consisting of one or more counties with the interior boroughs, to be presided over by elective Boards, designated “Hospital and Charitable Aid Boards.”

The revenues of these Boards accrue from the following sources:—

  1. Rents and profits of land and endowments vested in the Board, or set apart for the benefit of particular institutions;

  2. Voluntary contributions;

  3. Grants from contributory local authorities; and

  4. Subsidies from the Consolidated Fund (these being at the rate of 10s. for every £1 of bequests, but in no case exceeding £500 in respect of any one bequest; £1 4s. for every £1 of voluntary contributions; and £1 for every £1 received from any local authority).

The contributory local authorities (being the County and Borough Councils, and Boards of road and town districts where the Counties Act is not in force) are empowered by the Act to raise by special rates the amounts assessed by the Hospital District Boards as their proportionate contributions to the Hospital and Charitable-aid Fund.

The District Boards undertake the general management and control of those hospitals that are not incorporated in terms of the Act, and are required to contribute to the support of the incorporated hospitals. To be incorporated a hospital must have as many as 100 subscribers, contributing not less than £100 annually by amounts of not less than 5s., and must have been declared by the Governor in Council, after receipt by him of a duly signed petition, to be a body politic and corporate, under the government of trustees.

There are 43 hospitals in the colony, of which 22 are incorporated institutions, while 21 are directly managed and controlled by District Boards. In 1899 these hospitals afforded accommodation for 1,133 male and 586 female patients, a total of 1,719. The number of cubic feet of space included within the walls of all the sleepingwards was 2,404,918, which gave an average of 1,399 cubic feet to each bed. 7,409 males and 3,683 females were admitted as patients during the year 1899, and 769 male and 265 female patients were inmates at the end of the year. The total number of indoor patients during the year was 11,986—viz., 8,093 males and 3,893 females.

Outdoor relief was also given to a very large number of persons; but, as in some of the hospitals no records are kept of the outdoor patients, it is impossible to state the number of distinct persons who received such relief.

The total revenues of the various hospitals as at five different annual periods were:—

1888-89.1891-92.1894-95.1897-98.1898-99.
 £      £      £      £      £      
Voluntary contributions and bequests6,5738,2297,91511,52111,991
Payments by patients7,4909,31810,22812,72813,066
From Government34,56430,65936,37338,68741,052
From Hospital Boards and local authorities26,34423,56027,75831,52433,864
Rents and other sources3,6584,1285,5225,4295,523
            Totals78,62975,89487,79699,889105,496

Benevolent Asylums and Charitable Institutions

The various benevolent asylums and charitable institutions are placed on a similar footing to the hospitals. Most of the Boards of hospital districts are also Charitable-aid Boards; but, for the purpose of distributing charitable aid only, some of the hospital districts have been united into larger districts, so that, although there are thirty Boards for hospital purposes, there are only twenty-three for charitable-aid purposes.

Returns were received from nineteen benevolent asylums (not including orphanages), established for the support of indigent, persons. The number of inmates in these institutions at the end of 1899 was 1,119, of whom 634 were males and 485 females. Outdoor relief was given by four of these institutions to 2,180 persons (including 1,142 children) and to 638 families.

Auckland Sailors' Home

There is a Sailors' Home at Auckland for the use of seafaring men resident in or visiting the town. The late Edmund Costley having left a large sum for charitable purposes, it was resolved to employ the bequest in building and endowing an institution where sailors might be received without distinction of race or religious belief, and board, lodging, and refreshments provided for them, together with such instruction and amusements as might tend to promote their social comfort and general welfare.

The Home, built in 1887, has room for 35 inmates, who are charged 15s. a week for board and lodging. It is managed by a council of eight members elected by the subscribers to the institution, with the Primate of New Zealand (the Right Rev. W. G. Cowie), who first originated the scheme, as Life President.

Orphan Asylums

There were in 1899 four orphan asylums in the colony, one maintained by a District Hospital Board, one by the Church of England authorities, and two by clergy of the Roman Catholic Church; three of them receiving, at the charge of the State, orphan, destitute, and other children committed to them by a Stipendiary Magistrate.

Exclusive of the children so committed, 23 male and 33 female orphans were received during the year 1899, and 56 male and 80 female orphans remained as inmates at the end of the year.

Orphanages receiving committed children are, for that purpose, constituted “industrial schools.”

Lunatic Asylums

There are seven public lunatic asylums in the colony, maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private asylum, licensed by the Governor for the reception of lunatics.

The amount of sleeping-accommodation provided in each of the public asylums is shown in tabular form, giving separately the number and cubic contents of the sleeping-rooms intended for one person only, and of the dormitories occupied by several inmates conjointly, together with the number of patients actually in the asylums on the 31st December, 1899:—

Sleeping-rooms for One Person only.Dormitories for more than One Person.
Number.Aggregate Number of Cubic Feet.Inmates (Patients) on 31st December, 1899Number.Aggregate Number of Cubic Feet.Inmates (Patients) on 31st December, 1899
Auckland9484,5089422219,122359
Wellington6760,6636716100,173193
Porirua87,06888259,480357
Nelson3127,467311460,019109
Hokitika2115,05521969,302100
Christchurch8069,6518034227,010422
Soacliff139105,88613942241,272492
            Totals440370,2984401451,176,3782,032

At Ashburn Hall, Waikari, there are 66 rooms, each for one person only, with an aggregate cubic content of 99,718 ft. The number of inmates on the 31st December, 1899, was 43.

At the end of 1899, 1,512 male and 1,045 female patients were under the care of the asylum officers of the colony. Of these, 1,430 males and 958 females were regarded as incurable, 21 males and 21 females were out on trial, and 61 males and 66 females were supposed to be curable. 105 male and 166 female patients were discharged during the year.

The following shows the proportion of insane—or, rather, of inmates of lunatic asylums and those out on trial—to the population (exclusive in each case of Maoris) at the end of the years stated:—

1884, 1 insane person to every 393 of population.
1886,             ″                         ″             370             ″            
1888,             ″                         ″             365             ″            
1890,             ″                         ″             348             ″            
1892,             ″                         ″             339             ″            
1894,             ″                         ″             316             ″            
1896,             ″                         ″             308             ″            
1898,             ″                         ″             300             ″            
1899,             ″                         ″             296             ″            

It must not be overlooked that the proportions are increased by the admission into the asylums of inebriates, idiots, and others, who should not properly be there.

The Inspector of Hospitals and Asylums, in his report for the year 1899, specifies the causes of insanity in 383 cases (males, 209; females, 174) out of a total of 511 (264 males and 247 females) admitted during that year. In 93 of these (47 males, 46 females) the cause is given as “congenital or hereditary,” and in 55 (males, 47; females, 8) as “drink.” The proportion of cases due to drink to the total number of specified causes was therefore 14.36 per cent, against a similar proportion of 12.50 in the year 1898.

The proportion of the insane to population in New Zealand for the year 1896 was found to be lower than that which obtained in Victoria, which is more populous than this colony. But the percentage here exceeded that for the other colonies of the Australasian group, where, with the exception of New South Wales, the population is less than in New Zealand.

The figures for 1896 (Coghlan's accepted) are:—

INSANITY PER 10,000 OF POPULATION IN AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES.
Victoria35.8
New Zealand32.4
Queensland31.0
New South Wales29.6
South Australia25.9
Tasmania21.8
Western Australia (hospitals only)13.4

Comparing certain European countries, Canada, and the United States of America, the rates of insanity show:—

INSANITY PER 10,000 OF POPULATION IN EUROPE AND AMERICA.
England and Wales31.4
Scotland32.7
Ireland45.1
Canada27.4
United States32.3
Germany22.8
Austria21.7
Switzerland11.0

DEAF, DUMB, AND BLIND

Particulars relating to the deaf, dumb, and blind, as ascertained at the census taken in 1896, are referred to in the Year-book of 1899 (pages 134–137).

SUPPLEMENTARY

THE subjoined notes on the declining birth-rate in Australia, also on illegitimacy and ante-nuptial conception in New South Wales, are taken from Mr. Coghlan's “Childbirth in New South Wales: a Study in Statistics” (see p. 114, ante):—

The proportion of fertile marriages is probably becoming smaller in most civilised countries. So far as Australia is concerned the decline can be stated with exactness; for, whereas there were nine fertile marriages in every ten contracted a generation ago, there are but eight at the present time. The decline is common to all but the youngest ages, and is more marked as the age at marriage increases. How far this condition is due to prevention, and how far to natural sterility, is a problem which the statistics do not solve. Three sets of facts are available: the first shows that for all women the proportion of fertile marriages is declining; the second, that amongst fertile women the birth-rate is much reduced as compared with what it was twenty years ago; and the third, that Australian women are less fertile than the European women who have emigrated to these shores. As regards the general question of the decline in fertility, there are many points of illustration. The average birth-rate throughout Australia is now not more than 20 for every hundred women between the ages of 18 and 50 years, while as recently as 1884 the number was 30; so that the decline is equal to one-third. A striking instance of this comes from New South Wales. In 1885 there were 112,546 women of the ages stated; in 1898 there were 165,767; yet the same number of children were born in each year. Looking more closely into the matter, it is found that the birth-rate amongst married women who have not had previous issue has fallen from 33.7 per hundred to only 26.5, whilst for women with previous issue the rate, which was 27.8 in 1887, is now not more than 19. At every stage of child-bearing the reduction in the birth-rate is visible. Taking Australia as a whole, and including New Zealand, the fall in the birth-rate is such that there are 47,000 births less than would have occurred under the rates prevailing as late as ten years ago. So important a development of social life must have far-reaching consequences, although its economic effects are only beginning to be visible.

The couples without children are, in proportion, twice as numerous as they were in the last generation, and the number to a couple has on an average fallen from 5.31 to 4.04—that is, by 127 children to a hundred families. There has been a slight tendency to postpone marriages, the age both of grooms and brides being now somewhat higher than formerly. This, however, does not account for the reduction in the size of families, seeing that the decline is found at every age of marriage. Where the bride's age is 20 the average number of her children was formerly 6.2, now it is 5.3; at age 30, the reduction is from 3.4 to 2.2; at age 39, from 1.1 to 0.5; and so at every age. It must not be supposed, however, that, there are no longer any large families; on the contrary, as many as 29 children have been born to the same father, and 21 to the same mother; but these large families are very much less frequent than was once the case.

The marriages of a generation ago produced an average of 5.31 children. To women of British or Irish birth the number of children to a family was 5.6; to Australian women the average was only 4.7. The number for all classes has now fallen to 4 children per marriage, the reduction affecting both the native born and women of British birth, but more largely the former; and, although the facts are not absolutely conclusive, it would appear that the families of women of Australian birth do not now on an average exceed 3.5. In connection with this extremely important matter there is much room for further investigation. It will probably be found that the women who bear large families can be assigned to one or other of certain distinct classes: those who look upon child-bearing as a condition of the married state to be accepted-cheerfully or not, at the case may be—as amongst the things that are inevitable; those who are influenced in their conduct by considerations of religion; and those who, uninfluenced by motives of prudence or religion, are careless as to the number and fate of their offspring, being ready at any moment to transfer the obligation of their support to the community at large.

The prevalence of births of ante-nuptial conception—a matter hitherto little understood—has now been completely investigated. The number of these births varies with the conditions of every country. In New South Wales, during the past six years, there were 13,366 marriages in respect of which there was ante nuptial conception, and, as the total number of marriages was 49,641, at least 27 marriages in a hundred followed conception. During the same period the illegitimate births numbered 14,779: there were, therefore, 28,145 cases of conception amongst unmarried women; in 13,366 instances marriage preceded the birth of the child, so that the children were legitimatised in rather more than 47 cases out of 100. A study of the figures of births of ante-nuptial conception makes it obvious that in a very large number of instances premarital intercourse is not an anticipation of marriage already arranged, but that the marriages are forced upon the parties, and would not be entered into were it not for the condition of the woman.

Chapter 33. SECTION IV.—REPRESENTATION, AND THE GENERAL ELECTION OF 1899

REPRESENTATION

ON the basis of the results of the census of 1896 the colony is divided in accordance with the Representation Act Amendment Acts, 1887 and 1889, into sixty-two districts for purposes of European representation—fifty-eight rural districts having one member each, and four city electorates three members each. The Act of 1889 directed that in computing for electoral purposes the population of the colony 28 per cent. shall be added to the country population—i.e., all persons living outside towns of 2,000 inhabitants and over. The total population of the colony (other than Maoris), with the addition aforesaid, having been ascertained, is then divided by the number of members (70), and the quotient thus obtained forms the quota. The four city electoral districts (which have three members each) are so defined in extent that the population shall be three times the quota. Inasmuch as it would be impossible to divide the country into a given number of districts all having exactly the precise quota of population, the law permits the Commissioners to make an allowance of 750 persons by way of addition to or deduction from the population of rural districts, and of 100 in case of city electorates, with special provision for districts where the population is partly city and partly rural. Due consideration is given to community of interest, facilities of communication, and topographical features, as far as possible, in forming the districts.

“The Representation Act Amendment Act, 1896,” provides for two permanent Commissions, called the “North” and “Middle” Island Representation Commissions. These sit together as a joint Commission for the purpose of fixing the number of districts for the North and Middle Islands respectively, but afterwards act separately and independently of one another, the duties and functions of each being confined to their respective island.

The North Island with its adjacent islands now includes 30 electoral districts, having 34 members; the Middle and Stewart Islands having 32 districts and 36 members. In 1893 the North Island returned 31 and the Middle Island 39 members. But movement of population between 1891 and 1896 has resulted in the addition of three members to the North, and a corresponding reduction in the Middle Island.

These districts are, as above stated, for purposes of European representation. But the colony is again divided into four districts for purposes of Maori representation, under the electoral law, each district having one Native member elected by the Maoris; so that the House of Representatives consists of 74 members altogether—70 Europeans and 4 Maoris.

THE ELECTORAL ACTS

By the principal Act, which came into force in 1893, the great step was taken of admitting women to the franchise. The Amendment Act of 1896 abolished the non-residential or property qualification, with a saving clause in favour of then-existing registrations in respect of such qualification.

[Electors are enrolled on sending to the Registrar a claim and declaration, according to a prescribed form. There are no fixed periods for making up fresh electoral rolls, but the rolls are revised and printed before a general election, and also for any district in which a bye-election is to take place. Nor are there any fixed periods for the revising and purifying of the rolls. It is the duty of the Registrar of each electoral district to keep the rolls revised and complete.]

THE GENERAL ELECTION OF 1899

For European Representatives
(Polling-day, 6th December, 1899. Number of Polling-places, 1,682.)

Dealing with the population of both sexes, it is found that the total number of persons on the rolls was 373,744, out of a total adult population estimated at 386,146. These results give a proportion of 96.79 per cent. of adults who were registered as electors, as against 95.11 at the previous election in 1896, and 94.98 in 1893. The number of persons who voted was 279,330, or 77.59 per cent. of the number on the rolls, a slightly higher proportion than obtained in 1896, which was 76.13 per cent.

Date of General Election.Estimated Total Adult Persons.Number on Rolls.Proportion of Adult Persons registered as Electors.Number of Persons who voted.Proportion of Persons on Rolls who voted.
1893319,010302,99794.98220,08275.25*
1896356,658339,23095.11258,25476.13
1899386,146373,74496.79279,33077.59*

Dealing with men only, the number on the rolls was 210,529, or only 4,244 short of the full number of adult males in the colony as estimated for the day of the election. The males who voted in 1899 were 159,780, or 79.06 per cent. of those on the rolls, against 75.90 per cent. in 1896.

Date of General Election.Estimated Total Adult Persons.Number on Rolls.Proportion of Adult Persons registered as Electors.Number of Persons who voted.Proportion of Persons on Rolls who voted.

* Excluding figures for three electorates in which there was no contest.

† The number on rolls was in excess of the estimated adult male population at the date of the election.

1893179,539193,536129,79269.61*
1896197,002196,92599.96149,47175.90
1899214,773210,52998.02159,78079.06*

The figures relating to women show that a larger proportion (95.24 per cent.) of adults were registered as electors in 1899 than in 1896 (89.13 per cent.), which would indicate an increasing disposition to use the franchise. But the number of women who voted, 119,550, is 75.70 per cent. of the females on the rolls, while in 1896 there were 108,783 who voted, giving the higher proportion of 76.44 per cent.; so that (assuming the figures to be correct) there is no evidence of a greater willingness now on the part of the females to go to the poll.

Date of General Election.Estimated Total Adult Females.Number on Rolls.Proportion of Adult Females registered as Electors.Number who voted.Proportion of Females on Rolls who voted.
* Excluding figures for three electorates in which there was no contest.
1893139,471109,46178.4890,29085.18*
1896159,656142,30589.13108,78376.44
1899171,373163,21595.24119,55075.70*

The following table shows for the different districts the number of electors of each sex on the rolls, with the voters, and the estimated population:—

District.Number of Members.Population, 1896 (of Districts proclaimed in September of that Year).Electors on Roll.Number of Voters who recorded Votes.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
* Not contested.
Bay of Islands19,8413,7451,7942,6571,280
Marsden19,6613,6861,8552,3971,314
Waitemata19,4043,1601,7162,1341,206
Eden110,4692,8662,6722,3972,109
City of Auckland335,5399,3558,9817,1026,517
Parnell110,7412,8243,2552,1772,355
Manukau110,4442,7472,5912,0661,846
Franklin110,0052,6552,1412,1661,570
Thames110,0793,7562,4802,7291,950
Ohinemuri19,4675,3322,5413,6791,847
Waikato19,8943,1672,1152,5171,835
Bay of Plenty19,4052,8201,9662,3531,609
Waiapu10,4113,8552,2513,2491,828
Hawke's Bay19,5822,9911,878**
Napier111,2752,5242,4072,0521,898
Waipawa18,6233,0541,8522,5821,525
Pahiatua18,5172,7951,7062,3451,402
Masterton19,5043,0772,0952,4231,568
Wairarapa18,5492,8741,8002,3891,478
Egmont19,3913,3561,9692,8541,384
Taranaki110,5863,0302,6492,5842,099
Hawera18,5863,1102,0822,4611,602
Patea18,5373,0371,8102,2841,298
Wanganui110,2073,4062,9952,7552,400
Rangitikei19,4393,5692,0402,5341,182
Palmerston110,1982,9882,3622,2821.801
Manawatu18,6042,7521,7502,1531,163
Otaki18,5302,5211,7132,0681,303
Suburbs of Wellington110,5673,1792,9472,4502,110
City of Wellington335,5169,9168,9288,5337,080
City of Nelson110,7272,5722,7962,2352,286
Motueka19,2122,4691,8171,9001,190
Wairan110,3913,2222,2562,5071,692
Buller19,6063,6372,2253,2091,931
Grey19,8803,5822,1412,8281,706
Westland19,3372,8291,598**
Ashley19,3642,7641,7051,9751,160
Kaiapoi19,7852,5092,2872,1361,879
Avon19,6912,4412,4522,0461,954
City of Christchurch335,5289,97610,7748,0268,294
Lyttelton110,6392,5162,3251,9661,621
Riccarton18,9742,4322,1532,0041,729
Ellesmere19,4462,2851,8361,9661,450
Selwyn19,2702,7831,6972,1071,250
Ashburton110,1873,0792,1492,5411,659
Geraldine19,0032,4381,9052,0491,488
Timaru110,1562,6282,3902,1611,818
Waitaki19,5272,7781,7512,2091,169
Oamaru110,1482,6102,2712,0241,722
Waihemo19,7462,6201,810**
Waikouaiti19,4432,1712,0861,6991,467
City of Dunedin335,0009,64610,4387,7867,775
Caversham111,3513,0013,1502,3022,310
Taieri19,4802,4962,0251,9521,442
Bruce18,7542,6592,0062,0291,539
Tuapeka19,2902,9441,7762,2101,243
Clutha19,8142,8682,0572,2221,504
Mataura19,7673,1012,0852,4161,689
Wakatipu19,4343,0591,7062,3671,254
Wallace19,2703,0071,5712,3561,217
Invercargill110,7572,8442,9602,3582,282
Awarua19,5112,3861,6761,8311,271

Particulars are given for the four city electorates, where the electors have the right of voting for three members. The number of votes exercisable is nearly fourteen thousand in excess of those recorded, so that some of the electors evidently voted for only one or two candidates:—

City.Number of Members returned.Electors on the Rolls.Voters who recorded Votes.Number of Votes recorded.Number of Votes exercisable by Persons who voted.
Men.Women.Total.Men.Women.Total.
Auckland39,3558,98118,3367,1026,51713,61938,67640,857
Wellington39,9468,92818,8748,5337,08015,61343,69446,839
Christchurch39,97610,77420,7508,0268,29416,32043,06248,960
Dunedin39,64610,43820,0847,7867,77515,56143,98046,683
            Total1238,92339,12178,04431,44729,66661,113169,412183,339

A return is added showing the number of votes recorded for each candidate:—

Electoral Districts and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.
For each Candidate.Total.
* Died, 14th March, 1900. J. H. Witheford elected, 27th April, 1900.
Bay of Islands:
      Houston, R. M.2,002 
      McLeod, N. A.1,9353,937
Marsden:
      Thompson, R.2,205 
      Alderton, G. E.891 
      Mackesy, C. E. R.6153,711
Waitemata:
      Monk, R.1,713 
      Ford, E.1,263 
      Newman, C.3643,340
Eden:
      Bollard, J2,255 
      Niccol, M.2,2514,506
City of Auckland:
      Napier, W. J.6,097 
      Fowlds, G5,595 
      Crowther, W.*4,751 
      Holland, J. J.4,657 
      Hobbs, R4,647 
      Baume, F. E.3,792 
      Rosser, A3,511 
      Vaile, S.2,456 
      Regan, J.1,470 
      French, R1,366 
      Quinlan, P33438,676
Parnell:
      Lawry, F.2,263 
      Campbell, H.1,423 
      Allen, J. C.8464,532
Manukau:
      O'Rorke, Sir G. M.1,967 
      Taylor, J. E.936 
      Buckland, W. F.516 
      Hull, F.4933,912
Franklin:
      Massey, W. F.2,458 
      Wilson, W. Findlay1,2783,736
Thames:
      McGowan, J.2,573 
      Greenslade, H. J.1,389 
      Taylor, E. H.7174,679
Ohinemuri:
      Palmer, Jackson1,765 
      Moss, E. G. B.1,470 
      McCullough, W.795 
      Stewart, M. J.762 
      Deeble, W.524 
      Do Bakker, L.206 
      Drumm, E. J.45,526
Waikato:
      Lang, F. W.2,337 
      Hosking, J.2,0154,352
Electoral Districts and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.
For each Candidate.Total.

* Died, 10th December, 1899; W. H. Field elected, 11th January, 1900.

† Not contested.

Bay of Plenty:
      Herries, W. H.2,110 
      Lundon, D1,8523,962
Waiapu:
      Carroll, J.3,153 
      Fitz Roy, C. A.1,824 
      Dunlop, J. C.1005,077
Hawke's Bay:
      Russell, W. R.
Napier:
      Fraser, A. L. D.1,994 
      McLean, R. D. D.1,9563,950
Waipawa:
      Hall, C.2,332 
      Hunter, G.1,7754,107
Pahiatua:
      O'Meara, J2,058 
      Smith, G. H.1,6893,747
Masterton:
      Hogg, A. W.2,591 
      Cockburn-Hood, C. E.1,4003,991
Wairarapa:
      Hornsby, J. T. M.1,974 
      Buchanan, W. C.1,818 
      Phillips, Coleman663,858
Egmont:
      Symes, W.2,253 
      Monkhouse, W.1,9854,238
Taranaki:
      Smith, E. M.2,405 
      Brown, H.2,2784,683
Hawera:
      McGuire, F.1,740 
      Major, G. E.1,685 
      Astbury, D. L. A.6384,063
Patea:
      Hutchison, G.1,853 
      Remington, A. E.1,7293,582
Wanganui:
      Willis, A. D.2,878 
      Carson, G.2,169 
      Murphy, J.1085,155
Rangitikei:
      Lethbridge, F. Y.1,985 
      Bagnall, J. J.1,453 
      Gascoigne, E.2783,716
Palmerston:
      Pirani, F.1,980 
      Wood, W. T.1,465 
      Buick, D.6384,083
Manawatu:
      Stevens, J.1,732 
      Bruce, R. C.1,5843,316
Otaki:
      Field, H. A.*1,838 
      Morrison, C. B.1,5333,371
Suburbs of Wellington:
      Wilford, T. M.2,298 
      Newman, A. K.1,762 
      Kirk, R. G.491 
      Knight, R. G.94,560
City of Wellington:
      Hutcheson, J.7,436 
      Atkinson, A. R.6,703 
      Fisher, G.6,442 
      Macdonald, T. K.6,320 
      Hislop, T. W.6,297 
      Jellicoe, E. G.4,751 
      Luke, C. M.3,812 
      Carmichael, T.1,004 
      Earnshaw, W.851 
      Duncan, D. B.7843,694
City of Nelson:
      Graham, J.2,551 
      Hursthouse, R.1,9704,521
Motueka:
      McKenzie, R.2,078 
      Moffatt, W. J.1,0123,090
Wairau:
      Mills, C. H.2,786 
      Clifford, W. L.1,4134,199
Buller:
      Colvin, J.2,846 
      O'Regan, P. J.2,2945,140
Grey:
      Guinness, A. R.2,660 
      Hannan, M.1,8744,534
Westland:
      Seddon, Rt. Hon. R. J.
Ashley:
      Meredith, R.1,943 
      Caverhill, T. H.1,1923,135
Kaiapoi:
      Buddo, D.2,186 
      Moore, R.1,705 
      Verrall, J. M.1244,015
Avon:
      Tanner, W. W.2,074 
      Rhodes, A. E. G.1,9264,000
Electoral Districts and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.
For each Candidate.Total.
* Not contested.
City of Christchurch:
      Collins, W. W.7,688 
      Lewis, C.6,346 
      Ell, H. G.6,149 
      Taylor, T. E.5,928 
      Smith, G. J.5,413 
      Taylor, C.5,212 
      Donnelly, M.4,427 
      Greig, J.1,89943,062
Lyttelton:
      Laurenson, G.2,700 
      Jacques, W.8873,587
Riccarton:
      Russell, G. W.1,867 
      Rolleston, W.1,8663,733
Ellesmere:
      Rhodes, R. H.1,760 
      Montgomery, W. H.1,6563,416
Selwyn:
      Hardy, C. A. C.1,308 
      Rennie, J1,168 
      Barrett, J.454 
      Wilson, K.4273,357
Ashburton:
      McLachlan, J.2,027 
      Harper, C. J.1,225 
      Maslin, W. S.727 
      MoKeague, J.2214,200
Geraldine:
      Flatman, F. R.2,331 
      McIntosh, C. N.775 
      Fraser, J.4313,537
Timaru:
      Hall-Jones, W.3,091 
      Keith, J. S.816 
      Mahoney, J.723,979
Waitaki:
      Steward, W. J.2,139 
      Campbell, J.712 
      Boreham, S.5273,378
Oamaru:
      Duncan, T. Y.2,500 
      Macpherson, J. A.1,2463,746
Waihemo:
      McKenzie, J.**
Waikouaiti:
      Allen, E. G.1,749 
      White, J.1,4173,166
City of Dunedin:
      Millar, J. A.9,045 
      Arnold, J. F.8,290 
      Barclay, A. R.7,363 
      Mackenzie, M. J. S.6,726 
      Sligo, A.6,415 
      Haynes, C.4,919 
      Chapman, C. R.1,22243,980
Caversham:
      Morrison, A.2,860 
      Warren, W. H.1,7524,612
Taieri:
      Carncross, W. C. F.1,927 
      Begg, A. C.1,4673,394
Bruce:
      Allen, J.1,966 
      Anderson, J. C.1,6023,568
Tuapeka:
      Bennet, J.1,758 
      Rawlins, C. C.1,372 
      Fraser, A.3233,453
Clutha:
      Thomson, J. W.1,809 
      McLeod, F.1,312 
      Malcolm, A. S.6053,726
Mataura:
      McNab, R.2,132 
      Raymond, J. W.1,9734,105
Wakatipu:
      Fraser, W.1,895 
      Kelly, J.1,7263,621
Wallace:
      Gilfedder, M.1,896 
      Carmichael, A. M.1,6773,573
Invercargill:
      Hanan, J. A.2,451 
      Kelly, J. W.2,1894,640
Awarua:
      Ward, J. G.2,417 
      Murray, W. T.6853,102
The Lyttelton poll was taken on the 15th December, 1899, and the Rangitikei poll on the 20th December, 1899.
1899.1896.1893.
* Total number of electors who recorded their votes: 279,330 in 1899,258,254 in 1896, and 220,082 in 1893.
Number of votes recorded for members elected202,324184,929153,663
Number of votes recorded for defeated candidates185,305174,475149,413
            Total votes recorded*387,629359,404303,076
Number of names on rolls in districts uncontested13,726..10,539
Number of names on rolls in districts where elections were contested360,018339,230292,458
            Total number of electors on rolls373,744339,230302,997
Total population at last census703,119703,119626,359

OCCUPATIONS OF MEMBERS OF HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

The occupations of members elected in 1896 and 1899 show a reduction in the number of the representatives of the farmer class. The table, however, shows that farmers or run holders still furnish more members than any other class of occupation. There were twenty of these (besides seven given as “settlers” or “gentlemen”) returned in 1899. There were nine barristers or solicitors, and eight journalists:—

Occupations.1896.1899.
Professional—
            Barrister, solicitor59
            Journalist98
            Mining advocate, interpreter, lecturer, teacher34
Commercial—
            Auctioneer11
            Director of financial company 1
            Native agent 1
            Stationer, bookseller, draper, grocer, butcher36
            Merchant, iron merchant, timber merchant32
            Storekeeper12
            Commission agent, clerk, accountant32
Industrial—
            Tailor, shoemaker22
            Mill-owner, ship-rigger, builder, metallurgical engineer, mine-manager42
            Farmer1113
            Sheep-farmer, run holder, grazier, stock-owner147
Others—
            Settler, gentleman87
            Contractor33

For Maori Representatives
(Polling-day, 19th December, 1899.)

Of a Maori population amounting to 39,854 persons at the census of 1896, 13,628 voted at the general election held in December, 1899, an increase of 620 on the number who voted at the election of 1896. In 1893 the voters numbered 11,269, or 1,739 persons fewer than in 1896, when 13,008 Maoris recorded their votes. As the Native population did not increase between 1891 and 1896, but rather diminished somewhat, it would appear that Maoris are taking more interest as to their representation in Parliament than formerly, or perhaps there is now more convenience for attending to vote, or better knowledge of political affairs. The numbers of voters for the several districts in December, 1899, were:—

Electoral Districts.Population: Census 1896.Number who voted.Per Cent. of Population at all Ages.
Males.Females.Totals.
North Island—
      Northern Maori5,1654,0109,1752,26524.69
      Eastern Maori6,9316,06412,9955,66143.56
      Western Maori8,2476,89315,1405,09633.66
Middle Island—
      Southern Maori1,3301,2142,54460623.82
            Totals21,67318,18139,85413,62834.20

The votes recorded for each candidate were:—

Electoral Districts and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.
For each Candidate.Total.
Northern Maori Electoral District:
      Hone Heke1,453 
      Mutu Kapa367 
      Henry Papa Ururoa (Henry Flavel)225 
      Keritoki te Ahu126 
      Poata Uruamo942,265
Eastern Maori Electoral District:
      Wiremu Pere2,294 
      Mohi te Atabikoia1,387 
      Hurinui Apanui1,316 
      Kereru Numia331 
      Tare Mete207 
      Tamati Haweti1265,661
Western Maori Electoral District:
      Henare Kaihau2,685 
      Te Heuheu Tukino873 
      Te Aohau Nikitini581 
      Waata Hipango440 
      Hone Patene199 
      Takarangi Mete Kingi173 
      Wiremu Ngapaki1455,096
Southern Maori Electoral District:
      Tame Parata387 
      Taituha Hape219606
            Total 13,628

On the succeeding page will be found a tabular statement giving the results of each general election since the year 1853 for purposes of European representation.

GENERAL ELECTIONS FOR EUROPEAN REPRESENTATIVES HELD FROM THE YEAR 1853.
Parliament.Date of General Election.Number of Names on Roll of Electors.Number of Members returned.Number of Members returned unopposed.Number of Votes recorded (or of Voters recording Votes).Population of the Colony at end of Year.Average Number of
Persons to each Member.Persons to each Elector.Electors to each Member.

* Information not obtainable.

1 Including 100, the estimated number in Akaroa District, for which there is no return.

2 Including 800, the estimated number in the electorates of Town of New Plymouth, Grey and Bell, and Omata, for which districts there are no returns.

3 Electors for the Electoral District of “The Otago Goldfields” not included

4 Men and women.

5 Voters recording votes.

First18531 5,93437*      *      30,0008115.1160
Second18552 10,32437*      *      37,1921,0053.6279
Third186113,46653*      *      79,7111,5045.9254
Fourth18663 33,33872*      *      190,6072,6475.7463
Fifth187147,27574*      *      248,4003,3575.3639
Sixth187561,75584*      *      375,8564,4746.1735
Seventh187982,271841443,776463,7295,5215.6979
Eighth1881120,972911169,985500,9105,5054.11,329
Ninth1884137,686911174,672564,3046,2014.11,513
Tenth1887175,410915111,911603,3616,6303.41,928
Eleventh1890183,171706136,337625,5088,9363.42,617
Twelfth18934302,9977034 5220,082672,2659,6042.24,328
Thirteenth18964339,23070..4 5258,254714,16210,2022.14,853
Fourteenth18994373,7447034 5279,330756,50510,8072.05,339

Chapter 34. SECTION V.—IMPORTS: CUSTOMS AND EXCISE REVENUE

IMPORTS

THE quantities and values of imports used in making up the figures given in this portion of the statistical report are obtained from Customs entries, verified where necessary, as with goods subject to an ad valorem duty, by examination. For exports, the “free on board in New Zealand” value is given; but, as regards the main items, the Collector of Customs examines carefully the amounts stated, and compares them with current price-lists, to prevent any over-estimate. Goods transshipped at a foreign port are regarded as imported from the country where they were originally shipped, and exports as destined for the country where it is intended to land them. The countries named, however, may not be those of origin or destination, as no attempt is made to trace the goods beyond the ports disclosed by the documents presented to the Customs. Very little cargo in transit passes through New Zealand.

The total declared values of the imports in 1899 amounted to £8,739,633, being an increase on the corresponding total in 1898 of £509,033. These figures, however, include specie. The value of coin brought into the colony in 1899 was £125,977, against £19,191 in the previous year, and if these amounts are excluded, the increase on the values of all other articles will be found to reach the sum of £402,247.

The value of imports for each of the past twelve years was:—

Year.Imports, inclusive of Specie.Imports, exclusive of Specie.
 £         
18885,941,9005,430,050
18896,308,8635,980,583
18906,260,5055,928,625
18916,503,8496,431,101
18926,943,0566,742,544
18936,911,5156,494,279
18946,788,0205,990,177
18956,400,1296,115,953
18967,137,3207,035,379
18978,055,2237,994,201
18988,230,6008,211,409
18998,739,6338,613,656

It will be seen that the value of imports, exclusive of specie, rose from £5,430,050 in 1888 to £6,742,544 in 1892, then fell to £5,990,177 in 1894, after which there ensued a steady advance year by year to £8,613,656 in 1899. The movement for the period 1894–99 is a rise at the rate of nearly 44 per cent. in money value, or a sum of £2,623,479; for the ten years 1890–99 the increase is no less than £2,685,031, or 45.29 per cent. In quantities of various imports the increases vary, and full particulars of every kind of article imported in 1899 are to be found in detail further on, which may be critically examined with those in similar tables for 1898 and 1897, given in the previous Year-books.

It is desirable to consider not only the total value of the import trade for different years by comparing these figures, but to ascertain the rates per capita of population, to judge whether the imports are relatively greater or less than they have been. The fairest comparisons are from calculations made after deducting specie imported, for in the year 1894, as an instance, no less than £797,843 was brought to the colony in coin.

The figures for each year from 1888 stand thus:—

Years.Imports per head of mean Population, excluding Maoris.
Including Specie.Excluding Specie.
 £s.d.£s.d.
188891648195
188910569156
189010029110
189110661043
18921016310911
189310909165
1894919118165
189594108168
1896101119191
189711331117
189811371131
1899111311198

Using the figures exclusive of the specie, it will be seen that, though comparisons for years since 1888 do not show by any means a steady rise since that year, the position is that whereas the imports proper were only £8 19s. 5d. per head of population in the first period of the table, they had increased by £2 10s. 3d. per head in 1899, and increase is observed in each year's figures since 1894, amounting to £2 13s. 3d. for the last six years.

By means of the accompanying table, in which the articles imported are arranged in groups according to their nature, the increases in value can be traced to their specific heads:—

IMPORTS FOR FIVE YEARS.
Group of Principal Articles imported.1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.
Includes methylated and perfumed spirits, and spirits of wine.
 £      £      £      £      £      
Apparel and slops316,179370,516362,389354,940393,689
Boots and shoes122,462127,985132,203130,912151,593
Cotton piece-goods374,366434,673414,673417,733447,495
Drapery288,995336,839344,539343,820395,696
Haberdashery84,62568,47370,85385,98584,808
Hats and caps54,19358,31063,31066,41668,184
Hosiery62,23782,98483,79675,73690,545
Linen manufactures48,02957,32557,03956,57269,167
Millinery24,59128,86632,24536,07436,932
Silks59,18969,74274,40079,91087,639
Woollens187,782254,580293,449286,911297,387
            Totals1,622,6481,890,2931,928,8961,935,0092,123,135
Agricultural implements4,5996,89411,09517,23417,063
Cutlery15,65817,38419,63622,72219,764
Hardware and ironmongery164,745182,313228,465248,665255,701
Rails and railway bolts, &c.41,30129,59290,48942,77363,557
Iron and steel, pig, wrought, wire, &c.330,514502,725529,204554,124632,182
Machinery131,843251,905368,416422,011405,551
Nails25,96532,30433,27936,79231,363
Railway plant5,6873,06246,08257,22463,807
Sewing-machines22,16624,64121,54230,61830,801
Tools, artificers'39,12444,38657,90370,63159,066
            Totals781,6021,095,2061,406,1111,502,7941,578,855
Sugar389,609422,134373,407425,270354,925
Tea173,343166,860178,350183,717183,691
            Totals562,952588,994551,757608,987538,616
Beer42,67635,12339,61437,84439,166
Spirits*164,166160,648178,344187,020215,685
Tobacco123,843149,905164,889161,836184,173
Wine41,10940,87950,20248,51451,640
            Totals371,794386,555433,049435,214490,664
Paper110,539117,577127,980133,901135,482
Printed books101,958111,344116,485109,961132,260
Stationery77,59586,62892,87198,469100,875
            Totals290,092315,549337,336342,331368,617
Bags and sacks69,93555,961104,401111,116123,596
Coals97,62194,13898,139105,22392,815
Fancy goods71,27389,072100,824103,786110,114
Fruits (including fresh, preserved, bottled, dried)125,250145,016183,133181,447180,590
Oils134,913128,138163,793162,523126,967
Other imports (excluding specie)1,987,8732,246,4572,686,7622,722,9792,879,687
            Total Imports (excluding specie)6,115,9537,035,3797,994,2018,211,4098,613,656
Specie imported284,176101,94161,02219,191125,977
            Total Imports6,400,1297,137,3208,055,2238,230,6008,739,633

Of £8,613,656 the total value of goods imported during 1899, the chief items were as under:—

Articles.Value.Proportion per Cent.
 £       
Clothing, drapery, &c.2,123,13524.65
Metal, machinery, and implements1,578,85518.33
Tea and sugar538,6166.25
Wine, beer, spirits, and tobacco490,6645.70
Paper, books, and stationery368,6174.28
Other imports3,513,76940.79
 8,613,656100.00

The declared value of the clothing, drapery, &c., imported increased from £1,935,009 in 1898 to £2,123,135 in 1899. In 1895 the value of the import was £1,622,648. The iron, machinery, and implements imported in 1899 were valued at £1,578,855, an increase of £797,253 on the corresponding figures for 1895 (£781,602). The value of sugar and tea imported in 1899 shows a falling off, when compared with 1898, of £70,371, nearly the whole of which is due to a lessened import of sugar, the value of tea imported in each year being almost identical. Beer, wine, spirits, and tobacco, on the other hand, show a rise of £55,450, from £435,214 in 1898 to £490,664 in 1899.

To the total value of “Other imports (excluding specie),” in 1899 (£2,879,687), shown in the table above, arms, ammunition, and explosives contributed a sum of £91,118; bicycles, tricycles, and fittings, £112,615; drugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares, £186,598; patent medicines, £34,193; manures, £116,395; musical instruments, £86,405; glass and glassware, £104,524; earthenware, £45,421; floor cloth and oilcloth, £65,215; furniture and upholstery, £48,135; cement, £38,169; leather and leather manufactures, £79,968; seeds, £66,563; and timber, £83,084.

Goods imported by means of the “Parcels Post” system during 1899 were valued at £70,094.

VALUE OF FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS

The values of the imports into New Zealand during the years 1898 and 1899 are given in the next table, classified according to the duties to which they were liable, and arranged so as to show the declared value of goods on which specific or ad valorem duties at various rates are payable, and of those admitted free of duty:—

Duties to which Imports liable.Value of Imports, 1898.Value of Imports, 1899.
 £      £      £      £      
Specific duties2,126,685 2,134,978
Ad valorem duties—
      5 per cent.254,409 234,022 
      10 per cent.131,685 147,998 
      15 per cent.37,684 34,461 
      20 per cent.1,857,460 2,013,422 
      22 1/2 per cent.131,091 153,106 
      25 per cent.775,219 844,925 
      40 per cent.37,219 35,187 
      Various2,284 2,464 
Parcels-post (various)57,627 70,094 
  3,284,678 3,535,679
Duty-free (excluding specie)..2,800,046..2,942,999
Specie imported..19,191..125,977
            Totals..£8,230,600..£8,739,633

The proportions of free and dutiable goods imported during 1897, 1898, and 1899 are compared with similar figures for 1894, the year preceding that in which the altered tariff came into force:—

 1894.1897.1898.1899.
Merchandise—£       £      £      
      Free1,871,7722,675,9312,800,0462,942,999
      Dutiable4,118,4055,318,2705,411,3635,670,657
          Imports (less specie)5,990,1777,994,2018,211,4098,613,656
 £      £      £      £      
            Total net duty received1,572,4671,915,6931,965,4042,046,452
Duty, per cent. of imports—Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
      (a.) On dutiable imports38.1836.0236.3236.09
      (b.) On all merchandise26.2523.9523.9423.76

Sugar

The value of sugar (including glucose, molasses, and treacle) imported in 1899 was £354,925, a decrease of £70,345 on the amount for 1898 (£425,270). The value of this import for the last three years has averaged only £384,534 per annum; but for the three years, 1882, 1883, and 1884, the average, with a much smaller population, was £615,207 for each year. The smaller average amount for the last three years is due, not so much to a reduction in the quantity imported as to the fall in the price of sugar, and partly to the fact that the proportion of refined to raw sugar has vastly decreased.

The following figures, giving the consumption per head of sugar in the Australasian Colonies, are, saving those for New Zealand—and excluding a proportion (30 lb. per head) deducted on account of Maoris—taken from Mr. Coghlan's “Seven Colonies of Australasia, 1898–99.” The figures stating the consumption of tea, given further on, are taken from the same source:—

ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF SUGAR PER HEAD IN THE AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES.
 Lb.
Queensland110.5
Western Australia106.3
New Zealand98.5
South Australia97.9
New South Wales95.9
Victoria92.9
Tasmania82.9

TEA

The quantity of tea entered for consumption in 1899 was 4,798,503 lb. Supposing Maoris to use, on an average, 1 lb. per head per annum, the consumption of tea per head of the population, exclusive of Maoris, would be 6.3 lb. in 1899.

ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF TEA PER HEAD IN THE AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES.
 Lb.
Western Australia9.5
Queensland7.8
New South Wales7.8
South Australia7.7
Victoria7.2
Tasmania6.4
New Zealand6.3

BEER, SPIRITS, AND WINE

During 1899 excise duty was paid on 6,261,200 gallons of beer; and 175,940 gallons of beer, 515,384 gallons of spirits, and 111,049 gallons of wine were entered at the Customs for home consumption.

The actual quantity of beer made and used in the colony has increased from 4,243,760 gallons in 1886 to 6,261,200 gallons in 1899:—

BEER MANUFACTURED IN NEW ZEALAND ON WHICH EXCISE DUTY WAS PAID.
 Gal.      
18864,243,760
18874,264,160
18884,050,560
18894,402,480
18904,676,240
18914,567,920
18924,752,720
18934,873,600
18944,807,360
18954,936,400
18965,382,960
18975,741,200
18986,013,120
18996,261,200

The following table gives the consumption per head of alcoholic liquors by the people, excluding and including Maoris, showing separately the proportions of beer, wine, and spirits from 1883 to 1899. To the amount of beer manufactured in the colony in each year on which excise duty was paid has been added the amount brought into consumption from imports:—

Year.Beer.Spirits.Wine.
Excluding Maoris.Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.Including Maoris.
 Gal.Gal.Gal.Gal.Gal.Gal.
18839.4358.7091.0881.0050.3150.291
18867.8617.3330.8200.7650.2120.198
18897.6247.1360.5980.5600.1760.165
18927.8077.3280.7080.6640.1740.163
18957.4216.9960.6290.5930.1350.127
18988.4277.9950.6680.6340.1460.139
18998.5838.1500.6870.6530.1480.141

A comparison of the annual consumption of beer, spirits, and wine per head in the Australasian Colonies is added:—*

Beer.Spirits.Wine.
 Gal.Gal.Gal.
Queensland12.360.910.60
New South Wales9.140.730.61
Victoria11.430.731.35
South Australia9.130.401.98
Western Australia21.502.211.38
Tasmania7.190.380.09
New Zealand (including Maoris)7.990.630.13

* See “The Seven Colonies of Australasia, 1897–98.

TOBACCO

The tobacco entered for consumption in 1899 was 1,742,812 lb., and the consumption per head of population, including Maoris, 2.21 lb.

AVERAGE ANNUAL CONSUMPTION PER HEAD OF TOBACCO IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
 Lb.
Holland6.92
United States4.40
Turkey4.37
Western Australia4.07
Austria-Hungary3.77
Denmark3.70
Switzerland3.24
Belgium3.15
Germany3.00
Queensland2.96
New South Wales2.57
New Zealand2.21
Victoria2.15
Canada2.11
France2.05
South Australia1.92
Sweden1.87
Tasmania1.80
Spain1.70
United Kingdom1.41
Italy1.34
Russia1.23

IMPORTS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

The imports from the United Kingdom to New Zealand in 1899 were valued at £5,526,645, or an increase of £377,812 on the value of goods imported from the Home country during the previous year. From British colonies and possessions the imports were £2,036,797, an increase of £108,980 on the amount in 1898.

The following are the values of imports from different countries or places in 1899 and 1898, given in the order of the increase or decrease from each:—

Country, Colony, State, &c.1899.1898.Increase.
 £      £      £      
United Kingdom5,526,6455,148,833377,812
New South Wales748,201641,804106,397
Victoria407,078332,42274,656
Holland21,64310,78010,863
Bengal212,654201,84310,811
Pacific Islands52,24943,4508,799
Germany160,605153,1027,503
Greece13,0756,0776,998
Belgium44,56138,0136,548
Singapore19,88416,3033,581
Ceylon116,833113,8133,020
Italy6,8564,5192,337
Asia Minor11,3549,0432,311
West Indies2,3444231,921
Philippine Islands6,6325,2511,381
South Australia30,16528,8021,363
Japan40,54339,4761,067
Switzerland4,4543,756698
Canada55,02154,434587
Burma2,9592,508451
Western Australia668273390
Norway475146329
Sweden6,1995,896303
Egypt518301217
Cape Colony20663143
West Indies (British)141..141
Canary Islands13115116
Portugal2,2382,15484
Sicily79..79
Mexico41..41
Malta40..40
Turkey37..37
Bombay776710
South African Republic523
Argentine Republic2..2
......Decrease.
..£      £      £      
Fiji250,706320,88670,180
United States (East Coast)687,906700,55512,649
United States (West Coast)87,40399,85612,453
British Columbia8,22917,0578,828
Hong Kong18,36326,6158,252
Tasmania31,99135,8213,830
China4,5166,3011,785
France19,48120,6931,212
Queensland118,730119,7431,013
Spain9791,453474
Denmark9191,352433
Austria9461,321375
Norfolk Island569750181
Malden Island13,97314,100127
Newfoundland..9898
Madras31038575
New Brunswick..1919
Russia..1414
Falkland Islands..44
Natal473
Java..11

IMPORTS, BY PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS

The values of imports in each provincial district during 1890 and 1899 were as under:—

 1890.1899.
 £      £      
Auckland1,406,4772,258,584
Taranaki24,57573,998
Hawke's Bay162,097212,875
Wellington1,282,8212,181,582
Marlborough19,54713,440
Nelson151,422155,325
Westland93,42654,929
Canterbury1,269,5721,569,239
Otago1,836,7542,149,537

The value of imports by parcel-post (£13,834 in 1890 and £70,094 in 1899) must be added to the above figures in order to make up the totals (including specie) of £6,260,525 and £8,739,633 for the respective years.

IMPORTS, NORTH AND MIDDLE ISLANDS

Separating the value of the imports for the North Island from that of the Middle Island, it is found that whereas in 1890 the former received imported goods to the value of £2,875,970, against £3,370,721 for the Middle Island, in the year 1899 the North Island imports exceeded those of the other, the values being respectively £4,727,039 and £3,942,500, or an excess for the North Island of £784,539, or 19.90 per cent.

DETAILS OF ALL ARTICLES OF IMPORT

Details of all imports for 1899, giving quantities and values of articles introduced into the colony, with the amounts entered for Home consumption, and the amount of duty received, are next shown:—

GENERAL IMPORTS INTO THE COLONY OF NEW ZEALAND DURING THE YEAR 1899.
(For rates of Duty, see Tariff, pp. 71 to 85.)
Articles.Total Quantities Imported.Value of Total Imports.Entered for Home Consumption on Importation and ex Warehouse.Amount of Duty received.
Acid—£     £s.d.
      Acetic291,275 lb.3,229351,153 lb.2,194136
      Carbolic40,725     ″474..      ..
      Salicylic2,411     ″234..      ..
      Sulphuric344,927     ″2,804..      ..
      Tartaric87,288     ″4,79784,258 lb.35116
      Unenumerated82,620     ″1,577..      ..
Alkali—
      Potash and caustic potash2,856 cwt.3,179..      ..
      Soda ash8,320     ″2,557..      ..
      Soda, carbonate and bicarbonate11,233     ″4,01611,028 cwt.55180
      Soda, caustic9,903     ″5,984..      ..
      Soda, crystals37     ″1537 cwt.3149
      Soda, silicate3,454     ″1,076..      ..
      Unenumerated4,839     ″2,459..      ..
Alum1,949     ″640..      ..
Animals, Living—
      Birds380 No.117..      ..
      Cattle, horned5     ″6585 No.2100
      Cats4     ″20..      ..
      Dogs100     ″1,044..      ..
      Goats2     ″10..      ..
      Horses442     ″13,630432 No.43200
            ″      13     ″820..      ..
      Pigs13     ″61..      ..
      Poultry273     ″479..      ..
      Sheep253     ″3,669..      ..
      Other kinds2     ″52..      ..
Apparel and slops n.o.e...      391,526£384,79696,198180
      ″      ..      1,064..      ..
Apparel made to the order of residents in the colony..      1,092£1,092436160
Ditto..      7..      ..
Arms, ammunition, and explosives—
      Accoutrements..      723..      ..
      Caps, percussion5,079,383 No.867..      ..
      Cartridges, shot, 10- to 24-bore3,174,969     ″10,3513,059,400 No.2,294110
      Cartridges n.o.e.3,336,110     ″2,160£2,154430153
            ″      1,106,500     ″9,207..      ..
      Cartridge-cases296,500     ″463296,100 No.11105
      Detonators for dynamite1,560,000     ″2,091..      ..
      Dynamite75,000 lb.4,913..      ..
      Firearms5,306 No.8,523£8,3941,698172
            ″      3,100     ″7,771..      ..
      Fuse147,628 lb.4,026..      ..
      Lithofracteur and cordite158,350     ″9,713..      ..
      Ordnance stores..      4,454..      ..
      Powder, blasting365,715 lb.8,422..      ..
      Powder, sporting22,306     ″2,61620,432 lb.510162
            ″      6,000     ″294..      ..
      Shot605 cwt.1,318597 cwt.29897
      Swords82 No.81..      ..
      Other explosives200,000 lb.12,588..      ..
      Unenumerated..      537..      ..
Asphalt575 cwt.113..      ..
Bacon and hams2,524 lb.632,539 lb.2132
      ″      3,105     ″94..      ..
Bags and sacks—
      Cornsacks544,210 doz.119,979..      ..
      Unenumerated2,597     ″269£1563125
            ″      212     ″46£466166
            ″      20,861     ″3,302..      ..
Bagging and sacking..      26£263180
      ″      ..      625..      ..
Basket and wickerware..      2,069£2,083416118
Beer191,222 galls.39,166175,953 galls.17,593172
Belting, leather44,928 lb.4,99045,219 lb.7531211
      ″      487 lb.65..      ..
Belting, other than leather..      13,774..      ..
Beverages, non-alcoholic—
      Aerated and mineral waters3,849 doz.805£913182100
      Coffee essence..      8,021£7,9741,594179
            ″      ..      9..      ..
      Lime juice, sweetened4,124 galls.865£755188186
            ”       unsweetened54,466     ″4,311..      ..
      Unenumerated..      477£50912742
Bicycles and tricycles6,829 No.57,506£59,67211,934810
      ″      12     ″110..      ..
      Materials for..      28,253£27,5235,504112
      ″      ..      26,746..      ..
Biscuits—
      Fancy, and other kinds39,909 lb.1,87939,984 lb.33340
      Ships', plain65 cwt.3119 cwt.21711
Blacking..      3,632£3,435687110
Blacklead..      2,991£2,908581106
Blue164,736 lb.4,547200,384 lb.1,669174
Boats13 No.332..      ..
Bones2,095 tons8,524..      ..
Books, printed..      132,260..      ..
Boots and shoes72,883 doz. prs144,717£145,29732,691149
      Nos. 0 to 32,027     ″1,389..      ..
      Gum-boots526     ″5,487..      ..
Borax1,605 cwt.1,843..      ..
Brass—
      Pigs, bars, tubes, and sheets651     ″2,445..      ..
      Tubing and stamped-work in the rough223     ″958..      ..
      Manufactures..      6,258£6,2251,24504
            ″      ..      65..      ..
Bricks—
      Building180 No.6..      ..
      Fire118,932     ″465£4659300
      Other kinds101,773     ″203..      ..
Brushware and brooms—
      Brooms2,403 doz.1,179£1,2343081011
      Brushes (clothes, hair, hat, and toilet)..      4,343£4,3488691611
      Ditto..      11..      ..
      Unenumerated..      5,540£5,4071,351158
      Ditto..      46..      ..
      Materials for..      5,092..      ..
Buckets and tubs—
      Iron2,190 doz.1,253£1,250312115
      Wood100     ″44£448160
Building materials, unenumerated..      667..      ..
Butter60 cwt.273..      ..
Candles1,626,173 lb.25,7691,754,693 lb.14,622810
Canes and rattans..      1,783..      ..
Canvas..      30,866..      ..
Caramel, brewers'13,448 lb.19113,756 lb.171190
Cards, playing56,976 packs1,17959,004 packs1,47520
Carpeting and druggeting..      33,690£33,3906,677185
      ″      ..      440..      ..
Carriages, &c.—
      Carriages94 No.1,853£2,354470153
      Carts, drays, and wagons103     ″920£920183194
      Perambulators and gocarts152     ″260£2605200
      Materials for..      3,485£3,468693139
      Axles, axle-arms, and boxes..      9,995..      ..
      Carriage and cart shafts, spokes, and felloes in the rough..      4,631..      ..
      Carriage- and cart-makers' materials..      10,831..      ..
Casks, empty1,323 No.827£82716580
      ″      112     ″55..      ..
Cement77,252 barrels38,16977,226 barrels7,722120
Chains and chain cables6,078 cwt.5,871..      ..
Charcoal12,872     ″2,273..      ..
Cheese21     ″104£10420160
      ″      149     ″323..      ..
Chicory936 lb.29828 lb.1070
China, porcelain, and parianware..      15,963£15,7433,1481110
      Ditto..      142..      ..
Clocks46,678 No.13,394£13,4222,68460
      ″      10     ″5..      ..
Coals99,655 tons92,815..      ..
Cocoa and chocolate388,373 lb.38,875381,988 lb.4,7741611
Cocoa beans113,266     ″4,177..      ..
Coffee—
      Raw276,287     ″10,033254,252 lb.2,118153
      Roasted3,825     ″1793,067     ″631711
Coke1,218 tons2,885..      ..
Combs..      1,168£1,13622748
Confectionery—
      Chocolate confectionery plain trade packages93,801 lb.4,91996,789 lb.1,209174
      Chocolate confectionery fancy packages..      4,333£4,41788380
      Unenumerated378,400     ″13,302392,911 lb.3,27453
Copper—
      Nails252 cwt.1,144..      ..
      Pig, bar, tube, and sheet3,352     ″13,628..      ..
      Rod and bolt239     ″716..      ..
      Sheathing429     ″1,517..      ..
Copper manufactures..      194£1903800
      ″      ..      83..      ..
Copra669 tons7,077..      ..
Cordage3,984 cwt.10,454£10,1742,0341510
      ″      147     ″369..      ..
      Hawsers of 12 in. and over347     ″531..      ..
      Iron and steel8,178     ″15,826..      ..
Cork, cut..      7,010£7,0091,401147
      ″      ..      226..      ..
Cotton piece-goods—
      Butter- and cheese-cloth..      1,670..      ..
      Calico, white and grey..      125,253..      ..
      Corduroy, moleskin, and beaver-skin..      6,300..      ..
      Leather-cloth..      4,841..      ..
      Shirtings, coloured cotton..      33,797..      ..
            ”       flannelette..      7,787..      ..
            ”       union, of 6d. per yard and under..      3,186..      ..
      Tubular woven cotton cloth..      4,898..      ..
      Waterproof material..      27,827..      ..
      Unenumerated..      113,721£110,28522,0561810
            ″      ..      97..      ..
Cotton—
      Unenumerated..      118,118£112,99611,299117
      Raw5,480 lb.78..      ..
      Waste2,660 cwt.3,563..      ..
      Wick75,903 lb.2,996..      ..
Cutlery..      19,749£19,6143,922171
      ″      ..      15..      ..
Doors, plain1,097 No.5441,101 No.11020
Drapery..      254,845£250,64450,128166
      Lace and laces n.o.e...      37,546£35,9248,98127
      Ribbons and crape..      16,422£15,9953,998125
      Tailors' trimmings..      86,883..      ..
Drugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares—
      Baking powder, yeast preparations, &c...      451£3717440
      Chemicals, unenumerated..      5,996£5,8021,16084
      Cream of tartar704,215 lb.26,693683,148 lb.2,84690
      Drugs, druggists' sundries, and apothecaries' wares..      61,101£60,52312,104120
          Ditto..      5..      ..
      Tinctures and medicinal spirits29,943 lb.1,96227,283 lb.1,364210
           Ditto6,239 lb.4135,97414969
      Anhydrous ammonia..      4,393..      ..
      Arsenic1,568 cwt.1,738..      ..
      Disinfectants..      3,374..      ..
      Food preservative..      4,067..      ..
      Gums..      2,069..      ..
      Insecticides and treewashes..      1,810..      ..
      Maltine..      1,049..      ..
      Medicinal barks, leaves, &c...      1,427..      ..
      Phosphorus..      817..      ..
      Potassium cyanide5,698 cwt.32,717..      ..
      Sheep-dip..      26,370..      ..
      Sheep- and horse-drenches and sheep licks..      95..      ..
      Unenumerated..      10,056..      ..
Dyes..      15,977..      ..
Earthenware..      44,354£44,1988,8391211
      ″      ..      1,067..      ..
Eggs9 doz.7£2080
Engine-packing2,330 cwt.5,960..      ..
Essences, flavouring—
      Spirituous1,320 gals.3,6111,447 gals.1,15752
      Unenumerated..      65£405186
Essential oils—
      Eucalyptus8,455 lb.1,876£1,81736380
      Other kinds31,460     ″5,359..      ..
Fancy goods..      107,342£106,55021,309185
      ″      ..      2,772..      ..
Felt sheathing..      6,373..      ..
Fire engines, including extinguishers126 No.701..      ..
Fire hose and other appliances..      1,409..      ..
Fireworks..      683£67113451
      ″      ..      375..      ..
Fish—
      Anchovies, salted14 cwt.29..      ..
      Dried, pickled, and salted2,476     ″3,9832,421 cwt.1,210101
      Potted and preserved1,208,098 lb.26,9371,196,015 lb.9,9661510
            ″      3,168     ″130..      ..
      Ova..      1..      ..
Fishing tackle—
      Artificial flies..      320£31979170
      Fish-hooks..      520..      ..
      Unenumerated..      2,165£2,20244099
Flock89 cwt.78£787172
Floorcloth and oilcloth..      64,642£64,32012,863195
      ″      ..      573..      ..
Flour2,909 centals1,0552,900 centals144199
Foods, animal—
      Chaff16 tons3911 tons10129
      Unenumerated..      2,309£2,25745178
Foods, farinaceous—
      Arrowroot67,652 lb.839..      ..
      Macaroni and vermicelli108,738     ″1,469..      ..
      Maizena and corn-flour976,661     ″12,2021,006,612 lb.1,048111
      Sago and tapioca14,184 cwt.9,620..      ..
      Unenumerated..      2,407..      ..
Fruits, bottled and preserved30,730 doz. pints8,553£8,3522,087182
Fruits, dried—
      Currants3,067,994 lb.24,6563,022,444 lb.25,18708
      Raisins2,116,481     ″34,9232,016,445     ″16,803142
      Unenumerated728,166     ″12,772735,837     ″6,131196
Fruits, fresh—
      Apples, pears, plums, &c.439,893     ″6,027439,502     ″1,83152
                  ″                         ″            400     ″3..      ..
                  ″                         ″            743,228     ″7,720742,818     ″1,547109
      Currants, raspberries, &c.82,573     ″1,42777,278     ″1601911
      Lemons472,257     ″4,959472,738     ″984175
      Other kinds17,727,086     ″76,831..      ..
      Lemon- and orange-peel, in brine388,725     ″2,132..      ..
      Preserved in sulphurous acid33,797     ″58533,797 lb.140165
      Pulp and partially-preserved fruit192     ″2192     ″140
Fungus76 cwt.111..      ..
Furniture and upholstery..      32,609£32,8008,199190
      ″      ..      74..      ..
      Kapok3,956 cwt.11,636..      ..
      Unenumerated..      3,816..      ..
Furniture-, knife-, and plate-powder and polish..      4,463£4,499899164
Furs..      4,838£4,8331,20839
Gelatine and isinglass67,688 lb.5,388£5,1571,03174
Glass—
      Bottles, empty..      34,439..      ..
      Mirrors and looking-glasses..      5,567£5,5551,388167
      Plate, bevelled..      4,724£4,7281,181183
            ”       other kinds272,177 sup. ft.8,024£8,0181,603118
                  ″                         ″            28     ″13..      ..
      Window3,187,959     ″18,8052,550,650 sup. ft.2,550132
            ″      7,921     ″39..      ..
Glassware..      26,671£26,5135,3021111
      ″      ..      6,242..      ..
Glue and size65,741 lb.1,50866,148 lb.41386
      ″      2,059     ″97..      ..
Gold-leaf..      563..      ..
Grain and pulse—
      Barley56 centals2850 centals507
      Beans and peas536     ″275526     ″19144
      Oats193     ″119193     ″746
      Wheat26     ″1825     ″01811
      Unenumerated3,562     ″2,4843,614     ″135109
            ″      40     ″25..      ..
      Ground, unenumerated5,054 centals4,8815,488 centals27482
      ″      36     ″11..      ..
Grease1,832 cwt.1,568£1,51530306
      ″      20     ″50..      ..
Grindery—
      Heel- and toe-plates..      1,242£1,297291163
      Unenumerated..      19,363..      ..
Haberdashery..      15,111£14,9252,984196
      Buttons, &c...      25,534..      ..
      Sewing-cottons, silks, and threads..      40,031..      ..
      Unenumerated..      4,132..      ..
Hair322 cwt.1,296..      ..
Hardware, hollowware, and ironmongery..      217,101£214,94342,988103
      Ditto..      4,646..      ..
      Coffin furniture..      1,637£1,673334120
Hats and caps73,379 doz.68,175£66,58416,646111
      ″      12     ″9..      ..
Hatters' materials..      7,815..      ..
Hemp101 tons2,724..      ..
Hides3,083 No.2,627..      ..
Honey276 lb.3276 lb.260
Hops129,326     ″5,121135,901     ″3,397109
      ″      4,564     ″137..      ..
Hosiery..      90,544£88,66817,733147
      ″      ..      1..      ..
India rubber and gutta-percha goods..      10£10200
      Ditto..      9,135..      ..
Ink—
      Printing141,630 lb.5,283..      ..
      Writing..      1,450£1,44628920
            ″      ..      206..      ..
Instruments, musical—
      Harmoniums and organs633 No.5,349£5,2971,05983
      Pianofortes3,146     ″69,706£69,91513,98300
      Unenumerated..      11,272£11,4422,288810
            ″      ..      78..      ..
      Materials for..      207£821680
            ″      ..      1,758..      ..
Instruments, other kinds—
      Optical..      2,389..      ..
      Scientific..      4,948..      ..
      Surgical and dental..      18,586..      ..
      Surveying..      718..      ..
      Unenumerated..      191..      ..
Iron and steel—
      Angle392 tons3,762..      ..
      Bar, bolt, and rod13,397     ″123,145..      ..
      Bolts and nuts3,543 cwt.3,230£3,24664957
            ″      5,390     ″6,159..      ..
      Castings for ships20 tons781..      ..
      Galvanised manufactures..      1,257£1,254313113
      Hoop1,477 tons14,697..      ..
      Hoop, galvanised1,845 cwt.1,4431,839 cwt.137183
      Pig5,800 tons24,627..      ..
      Pipes and fittings5,750     ″57,028£56,8582,842180
            ″      40     ″409..      ..
      Rails7,781     ″49,435..      ..
      Railway bolts and fastenings5     ″51£511040
      Ditto1,605 tons14,071..      ..
      Sheet and plate5,146     ″50,466..      ..
      Sheet, galvanised, corrugated220,545 cwt.181,960218,538 cwt.21,8531610
      Sheet, galvanised, plain40,887     ″34,42740,677     ″3,050157
      Staples and standards384 tons4,206£4,214842155
      Tanks2,858 No.8,5782,998 No.1,49900
            ″      816     ″1,525813     ″20350
      Wire, fencing, barbed2,407 tons26,110..      ..
      Wire, fencing, plain6,958     ″63,578..      ..
      Wire, telegraphic and telephonic200     ″3,524..      ..
      Wire-netting..      24,562..      ..
      Wire, unenumerated469 tons6,493..      ..
      Unenumerated227     ″1,099..      ..
Jams, jellies, and preserves399,892 lb.6,444375,354 lb.3,1271811
Jellies, concentrated54,132     ″2,13150,993     ″8491710
Jewellery..      19,094£19,1503,829180
      ″      ..      1,155..      ..
Lamps, lanterns, and lamp wick..      16,247£16,2913,25842
      Ditto..      160..      ..
Lard29 cwt.51£15300
Lead—
      Pigs and bars359 tons5,337..      ..
      Pipe572 cwt.565508 cwt.88193
      Sheet15,176     ″13,56615,180     ″1,13898
            ″      998     ″1,041..      ..
      Manufactures..      233£23346120
      ″      ..      32..      ..
Leather497,547 lb.60,9518,019 lb.133130
73,186     ″914166
173,185     ″1,44343
241,903     ″1,007187
      ″      103,454     ″10,648..      ..
      ”       chamois..      457£4629295
Leather manufactures—
      Boot and shoe vamps, uppers, and laces..      6,447£6,4511,451102
      Unenumerated..      700£71616130
            ″      ..      742£729145160
            ″      ..      23..      ..
Lighthouses, materials for..      745..      ..
Linen piece-goods—
      Forfar, dowlas, and flax sheeting n.o.e...      16,116£1,74734980
      Ditto..      94..      ..
      Forfar, dowlas, &c., cut up under supervision..      ..      £9,662..      ..      ..      
      Unenumerated..      17,538£17,8963,579310
      Hessian and scrim..      35,419..      ..
Linseed2 tons2233 cwt.1136
      ″      1/25..      ..
Liquorice..      2,111£2,11742383
Machinery and machines—
      Agricultural..      27,840£25,5281,27686
            ″      ..      63,940..      ..
      Ploughs and harrows..      17,063..      ..
      Dairying..      3,711£4,190209100
            ”       boilers for75 No.2,213£1,7248640
            ”       engines for22     ″1,032£1,17058100
            ″      ..      11,096..      ..
      Dredging..      9,299£9,299464190
            ”       boilers for1 No.166£166860
      Electric..      16,030£15,7211,57229
            ″      ..      9,710..      ..
      Engines, steam52 No.7,531£6,1961,23940
            ”       gas174     ″14,283..      ..
            ”       boilers for161     ″5,704£5,2771,05570
                  ″                         ″            1     ″500..      ..
      Marine boilers1     ″770£77015400
      Flour-milling..      4,163£4,16120815
      Gas-making..      10,219£10,0121,00133
            ″      ..      4,130..      ..
      Mining..      19,268£19,02495140
            ”       boilers for10 No.2,913£2,913145130
            ”       engines for11     ″1,663£79939190
            ″      ..      19,726..      ..
      Paper-milling..      4,326£4,32621660
            ″      ..      187..      ..
      Portable and traction engines60 No.23,463£23,3941,169148
      Printing..      16,497£16,552827123
            ″      ..      2,499..      ..
      Refrigerating..      32,505£32,1241,60644
      Sewing and knitting9,105 No.30,801..      ..
      Wood-working..      6,238£5,68528456
            ″      ..      1,395..      ..
      Woollen-milling..      8,234£8,28341430
            ″      ..      1,675..      ..
      Unenumerated..      38,445£34,8266,965310
            ″      ..      8,064..      ..
            ″      ..      3,553£3,55335560
            ″      ..      13,463£13,44067200
            ″      ..      398..      ..
      Materials for and parts of..      2,464£1,35127040
£1,27263120
      Materials for and parts of..      6,238..      ..
Malt3,342 bush.1,1543,356 bush.335126
      Rice malt2,022 lb.192,022 lb.886
Manures—
      Bone-dust7,094 tons34,874..      ..
      Guano11,486     ″34,016..      ..
      Unenumerated12,321     ″47,505..      ..
Marble—
      Dressed or polished, and manufactures..      3,997£4,0331,00846
      Hewn, or rough-sawn273 tons1,752..      ..
Matches and vestas—
      Wax27,633 gross5,6208,014 gross2,003100
110     ″13150
2,067     ″1801611
22,512     ″1,31340
      Wooden32,080 gross2,810320 gross3200
23,603     ″1,18030
Mats and matting..      7,207£7,0431,408110
      ″      ..      40..      ..
Meats—
      Potted and preserved47,488 lb.2,069£2,03740772
            ″      5,990     ″102..      ..
Medicines, patent and proprietary..      34,095£35,28214,112196
      Sarsaparilla..      98£7017100
Metal manufactures..      9,503£9,4161,883511
      ″      ..      696..      ..
      Japanned and lacquered metalware..      1,713£1,702425127
      Weighbridges and weighing-machines..      1,987£1,96239273
      Ditto..      486..      ..
      Anchors504 No.581..      ..
      Rivets and washers7,844 cwt.6,693..      ..
      Tacks1,275     ″1,894..      ..
      Type-writers426 No.5,254..      ..
      Unenumerated..      42,075..      ..
Metal sheathing, other than copper720 cwt.2,495..      ..
Milk, preserved765,742 lb.14,576£12,3123,078111
      ″      16,416     ″315..      ..
Millinery—
      Feathers, ornamental..      2,515£2,61065282
      Other kinds..      34,417£33,7198,429130
Mustard221,179 lb.12,280210,042 lb.1,75070
Nails—
      Iron51,210 cwt.31,19750,523 cwt.5,05264
      Unenumerated63     ″16673     ″10185
Naphtha10,637 galls.1,86710,511 galls.262154
Nuts—
      Almonds, in shell18,989 lb.51121,304 lb.177109
      Almonds, shelled34,910     ″1,77636,039     ″45098
      Almonds, Barbary, &c.88,773 lb.3,828..      ..
      Cocoa148,126 No.492..      ..
      Unenumerated33,953 lb.52131,505 lb.262109
Oakum455 cwt.570..      ..
Oars2,099 No.282..      ..
Oils—
      Castor, bulk75,362 galls.8,77874,097 galls.1,85286
            ″      9,784     ″1,182..      ..
      Castor, bottled1,935 doz. pts644£6149232
      Cod liver5,538 galls.1,366..      ..
      Colza14,189     ″1,62713,987 galls.349133
            ″      1,985     ″327..      ..
      Fish, penguin, and seal53,988     ″4,168..      ..
      Linseed189,218     ″18,825191,287 galls.4,78236
            ″      6,575     ″582..      ..
      Mineral, kerosene1,501,317     ″51,3631,676,547 galls.41,913139
      Mineral, other kinds148,720     ″13,616143,803     ″3,59518
            ″      50,653     ″2,333..      ..
      Neatsfoot3,939     ″3883,936 galls.9880
      Olive, bulk11,380     ″1,8449,503     ″237114
      Olive, bottled3,530     ″,486£1,457218104
      Whale1,794     ″120..      ..
      Unenumerated, bulk143,485     ″12,758139,137 galls.3,47887
            ″      7,626     ″765..      ..
      Unenumerated, bottled5,635 doz. pts2,162£2,227333196
      Unenumerated61,491 galls.2,633..      ..
Oilmen's stores..      5,417£5,1221,024911
Onions5,942 cwt.2,6986,225 cwt.31154
Opium2,198 lb.3,4993,070 lb.6,13944
Paints and colours—
      Ground in oil29,396 cwt.35,13429,299 cwt.3,66278
            ″      728     ″768..      ..
      Mixed, ready for use4,083     ″8,9703,892 cwt.97301
      Unenumerated10,460     ″10,708..      ..
Paper—
      Bags, coarse216     ″21138 cwt.14810
      Bags, other kinds2,024     ″3,881£3,680919182
      Butter-paper2,866     ″5,579..      ..
      Hangings899,127 pieces21,832£21,9073,28608
      Printing84,699 cwt.78,908..      ..
      Wrapping4,529     ″5,1214,241 cwt.1,060210
            ″      208     ″232..      ..
      Writing9,974     ″18,131..      ..
      Unenumerated1,175     ″1,587..      ..
Pearl barley290     ″169291 cwt.14110
Peas, split1,029     ″530989     ″98185
Peel, candied and dried16,733 lb.37916,704 lb.208160
Perfumery—
      Perfumed spirits1,577 gals.6,0321,392 gals.2,087195
      Toilet preparations..      6,295£6,4391,609140
      Unenumerated..      1,465£1,482370100
            ″      ..      52..      ..
Photographic goods (including chemicals)..      3,985£3,999799140
      Copper, glass, and zinc plates for photo-lithographic work..      861..      ..
      Photographic cameras and lenses..      5,048..      ..
      Sensitised surfaces..      12,856..      ..
Pickles5,901 gals.1,3875,335 gals.80050
Pictures, paintings drawings, engravings and photographs..      3,796£3,81676339
      Ditto..      185..      ..
      Family portraits..      24..      ..
      For museums..      505..      ..
Picture-frames and mounts..      2,057£2,04640950
Pitch668 cwt.316..      ..
Plants, shrubs, &c...      2,687..      ..
Plaster of Paris4,947 cwt.1,208..      ..
Plate and plated ware..      31,883£30,7116,14246
      ″      ..      20..      ..
Portmanteaux and travelling bags..      4,314£4,3111,0771610
      Leather bags and leather-cloth bags..      206£2114240
Potatoes1 ton5£5100
      ″      2 tons40..      ..
Printing materials—
      Stereotypes and matrices..      84£802000
            ″      ..      757..      ..
Type and materials, n.o.e...      11,803..      ..
Provisions n.o.e...      5,810£5,6551,13114
      ″      ..      27..      ..
Pumps..      4,117£2,82056405
      ″      ..      120..      ..
Putty3,824 cwt.1,6553,827 cwt.382140
Quicksilver6,736 lb.751..      ..
Rags148 tons595..      ..
Railway plant—
      Locomotives1 No.420..      ..
            ″      11     ″30,962..      ..
      Unenumerated..      1,550£3476980
            ″      ..      30,875..      ..
Resin11,583 cwt.3,262..      ..
Rice68,559     ″41,18953,157 cwt.15,94747
8,624     ″86281
Rugs, all kinds..      11,216£11,2132,242131
      ″      ..      21..      ..
Saccharine6,952 oz.6596,765 oz.50776
Saddlery and harness (including whips)..      23,831£23,6614,73228
      Ditto..      1,266..      ..
      Collar-check..      4,779..      ..
      Harness-oil, composition, and leather-dressing..      3,205£3,153630106
      Ditto..      854..      ..
Saddlers' ironmongery..      18,233..      ..
Salt12,664 tons29,87612,637 tons6,3181310
Rock1,098     ″2,293..      ..
Saltpetre90     ″1,647..      ..
Sauces10,816 gals.7,53410,460 gals.2,09208
Sausage-skins125,018 lb.6,251144,910 lb.1,81177
      ″      397     ″18..      ..
Seeds—
      Grass and clover23,672 cwt.45,271..      ..
      Unenumerated..      21,292..      ..
Shale471 tons1,493..      ..
Shells259     ″518..      ..
Ship-chandlery, n.o.e..      3,790..      ..
Silks, &c...      87,639£88,69822,174118
      For flour-dressing..      154..      ..
Silver388 oz.62..      ..
Skins and pelts—
      Fur skins5,365 No.201..      ..
      Kangaroo and wallabi skins26,175     ″1,035..      ..
      Unenumerated7,129     ″466..      ..
Slates, roofing244,080     ″1,934..      ..
Soap—
      Common2 cwt.22 cwt.0100
      Powder, extract of soap, &c...      4,567£4,630925180
      Ditto..      26..      ..
      Unenumerated924,259 lb.20,762£20,0485,011183
            ″      850     ″20..      ..
Specie—
      Copper..      1,482..      ..
      Gold..      116,175..      ..
      Silver..      8,320..      ..
Specimens illustrative of natural science..      326..      ..
Spices—
      Ground17,156 lb.74818,638 lb.310128
      Unground387,300     ″11,532393,991     ″3,28352
Spirits—
      Bitters, cordials, and liqueurs2,832 gals.2,8132,942 gals.2,353186
      Brandy74,413     ″31,52268,739     ″54,991911
      Geneva and gin, unsweetened68,939     ″16,29454,154     ″43,3231110
      Methylated283     ″41676     ″33169
      Rum15,109     ″2,84616,668     ″13,334117
      Sweetened5,946     ″1,7226,752     ″5,401144
      Whiskey434,876     ″150,743360,728     ″288,58283
      Unenumerated2,247 gals.1,4092,483 gals.1,98698
Spirits of wine32,361     ″2,2531,469     ″1,17598
      ″      50             ″            10..      ..
      Methylated, in bond..      ..      26,006             ″            650211
Sponges1,545 lb.288£3066127
Starch869,462             ″            9,783832,815 lb.6,94026
Stationery—
      Manufactured..      35,847£34,3698,592211
            ″      ..      3,213..      ..
      Ditto, unenumerated..      34,343£35,0887,017105
            ″      ..      4,357..      ..
      Apparatus and appliances for teaching purposes..      4,432..      ..
      Bookbinders' materials..      5,502..      ..
      Materials for cardboard-boxes..      8,792..      ..
      Unenumerated..      4,389..      ..
Stearine224,880 lb.4,041220,199 lb.1,376411
Stone—
      Building256 tons558..      ..
      Flagging1             ″            4..      ..
      Granite, and other stone, dressed or polished..      1,738£1,76944250
      Grind-, mill-, oil-, and whet-stones..      2,101..      ..
Sugar—
      Raw434,220 cwt.217,110..      ..
      Refined178,011             ″            133,13175,060,134 lb.156,37557
      Glucose2,876             ″            1,542441,437             ″            1,83965
      Molasses and treacle8,026             ″            3,1422,195,178             ″            4,57359
      Molasses and treacle, mixed with bone-black..      ..      3,062 cwt...      ..      ..      
Sulphur1,313 cwt.596..      ..
Tallow2 3/10 tons71..      ..
Tanning materials, crude—
      Bark4,196 tons34,628..      ..
      Other kinds..      5,362..      ..
Tarpaulins and tents..      745£74014800
Tar..      920..      ..
Tea4,771,139 lb.183,6914,798,503 lb.79,97511
Textile piece-goods other than silk, cotton, linen, or woollen..      14,005£13,6792,735160
      Articles made up from, other than apparel..      15,705£15,3933,848411
Timber—
      Laths and shingles424,503 No.450427,800 No.42158
      Logs1,263     ″4,743..      ..
      Logs, hewn2,970,815 sup. ft.33,541..      ..
      Palings406,841 No.2,383406,880 No.4061610
      Posts7,750     ″2917,750     ″3100
      Rails3,000 No.743,000 No.600
      Sawn, undressed4,104,921 sup. ft.29,7694,104,875 sup. ft.4,104173
            ″      783,678     ″7,746..      ..
      Sawn, dressed128,077     ″1,827127,370     ″2541410
      Unenumerated..      2,260..      ..
Tin—
      Block2,253 cwt.14,085..      ..
      Foil14,612 lb.683..      ..
      Sheet37,752 cwt.27,579..      ..
Tinware..      9,112£9,3062,326113
Tinsmiths' furnishings and fittings..      1,029..      ..
Tobacco—
      Unmanufactured41,592 lb.2,09340,491 lb.4,04920
      Manufactured1,496,759     ″116,8691,480,046     ″259,00810
      Cigars82,900     ″27,99578,566     ″27,497191
      Cigarettes156,316     ″37,02456,633,600 No.49,55486
4,559 oz.113197
      Snuff1,780     ″1921,840 lb.64400
Tobacco-pipes and cases..      19,903£19,7974,94931
Tools and implements—
      Axes and hatchets..      7,000..      ..
      Engineers' machine tools..      11,595..      ..
      Scythes..      1,561..      ..
      Sheep-shears..      3,657..      ..
      Spades, shovels, and forks..      10,141..      ..
      Unenumerated..      59,066..      ..
Tramway plant..      228£22845120
Turpentine, driers, and terebine58,803 gals.7,337..      ..
Twine—
      Binder2,788 cwt.4,705..      ..
      Nets and netting..      763£758151117
      Unenumerated419,545 lb.12,743£12,4782,495116
            ″      285     ″11..      ..
            ″      ..      187..      ..
Umbrellas and parasols..      17,026£16,6183,323127
      Materials for..      2,143..      ..
Varnish and gold size29,751 gals.14,42130,799 gals.3,079188
      ″      1     ″1..      ..
Vegetables, fresh, dried, and preserved..      811£690137180
Vinegar64,199     ″6,00764,899 gals.1,62290
Watches40,377 No.24,717£24,6894,937162
Watchmakers' materials..      802..      ..
Wax—
      Paraffin978,854 lb.9,9891,137,413 lb.7,108167
      Beeswax167 cwt.931..      ..
Whiting and chalk11,625     ″1,39711,512 cwt.575125
Wine—
      Australian49,503 gals.16,70546,429 gals.11,607511
      Sparkling7,676     ″14,3107,011     ″3,1541711
      Other kinds59,483 gals.20,62557,611 gals.17,28374
Woodenware..      9,899£9,8981,979132
      ″      ..      1,556..      ..
      ″      ..      8,200£8,3331,249198
      ″      ..      5,814..      ..
Wool—
      Greasy4,869 lb.97..      ..
      Scoured5,237     ″359..      ..
Woollen piece goods..      268,881£267,06353,412148
      Blankets27,159 pairs10,571£10,5872,11796
Woolpacks42,139 doz.40,436..      ..
Wool-pockets565     ″274..      ..
Yarns..      6,698£6,8831,376122
      Coir, flax, and hemp..      6,810..      ..
Zinc—
      Perforated sheet411 cwt.925..      ..
      Plain sheet5,756     ″8,779..      ..
      Spelter3,349     ″4,676..      ..
Zinc manufactures—
      Tiles, ridging..      31£387120
      Unenumerated..      13£8200
Minor articles required in the making-up of apparel..      6,234..      ..
Articles and materials suited only for and to be used solely in the fabrication of goods in the colony..      18,072..      ..
Goods, miscellaneous—
      Manufactured..      9,832..      ..
      Unmanufactured..      8,308..      ..
Parcels Post..      70,094..      14,368311
      EXCISE DUTIES.
Tobacco, manufactured..      ..      46,457 lb.2,322170
Cigars and cigarettes..      ..      1,220     ″9196
Pharmacopoeia tinctures, essences, extracts, and medicinal spirits containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit..      ..      49,745     ″1,865811
Pharmacopoeia tinctures, &c., containing less than 50 per cent. of proof spirit..      ..      800     ″1001
Culinary and flavouring essences..      ..      248 gals.148184
Perfumed spirits..      ..      11     ″1100

CUSTOMS REVENUE

The Customs and excise duties received during the last five years are shown in detail, also the rate of revenue per head of mean population, inclusive and exclusive of Maoris, for each year:—

1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.

* Including £89 excise duty on culinary and flavouring essences

† Including £149 excise duty on culinary and flavouring essences, and £11 on perfumed spirits.

            CUSTOMS DUTIES.£      £      £      £      £      
Spirits340,972362,923384,218395,513414,395
Wine27,10228,84630,51831,13832,045
Ale, Beer, &c.17,12018,20819,03519,15817,594
Cigars, Cigarettes, and Snuff49,57458,78865,34771,43077,810
Tobacco233,770239,988244,669257,516263,057
Tea94,71673,85876,08178,67679,975
Coffee, Cocoa, &c.5,6775,4955,7225,4636,968
Sugar and Molasses137,493141,933148,748154,355162,787
Opium5,9695,4095,6255,5016,139
Other Goods by Weight160,482172,733187,498187,758192,987
      ”       ad valorem447,749562,961634,043637,506682,722
Other Duties93,88486,841102,025105,98791,155
Parcels Post5,4627,0908,63211,72514,368
            Totals, Customs Duties1,619,9701,765,0731,912,1611,961,7262,042,002
            EXCISE DUTIES.
Tinctures—New Zealand53200983*1,244†2,036
Cigars, Cigarettes, and Snuff—New-Zealand-manufactured87991619115291
Tobacco—New - Zealand - manufactured1,4311,6632,3582,2822,323
Beer—New Zealand61,70567,28771,76575,16478,265
            Totals, Excise Duties64,06870,06675,29778,84282,715
 18951896189718981899
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Revenue from Customs Duties per head of mean population (excluding Maoris)2692911213021332145
Ditto (including Maoris)242273210321062118
Revenue from Excise Duties per head of mean population (excluding Maoris)0110.20111.8021.0021.7022.5
Ditto (including Maoris)018.90110.50111.7020.4021.1

The Customs revenue for the year 1899 amounted to £2,042,002, and the excise duties to £82,715. The revenue from Customs was £2 14s. 5d. per head of population excluding Maoris, and £2 11s. 8d. if they be included. In 1888 the Customs revenue was £2 6s. 2d. per head of European population, and from that time the proportion increased slowly year by year until 1892, when it reached £2 11s. 6d. per head. During the next two years there was a falling-off; but 1895 and following years show increases, the proportion for 1899 being higher than in any year since 1883. Details for ten years are given:—

CUSTOMS REVENUE PER HEAD OF EUROPEAN POPULATION.
 £s.d.
1890293
1891297
18922116
18932104
1894264
1895269
18962911
18972130
18982133
18992145

Dating from 1890, the taxation by way of Customs and excise duties together increased from £2 11s. 2d. in that year to £2 11s. 11d. in 1896, to £2 15s. 1d. in 1897, to £2 15s. 5d. in 1898, and to £2 16s. 8d. in 1899.

There was an alteration of tariff in 1895 in certain items, but the amount of duty paid in 1899 does not bear a higher proportion to the total value of imports (less specie) for that year than the duty paid in 1894, prior to the new tariff, to the imports of that year.

Under these circumstances a rise in revenue from Customs taxation would seem to indicate a greater import of taxable articles, and show that purchasing power had increased. It is at least certain that the value of imports rose from £5,990,177 (excluding specie), in 1891, to £8,613,656 in 1899, notwithstanding the change of tariff.

The tariff has been given in full in this book (see page 71). The rates of duty levied include 16s. per gallon on spirits; 30s. per gallon on perfumed spirits; 7s. per pound on cigars and snuff; 17s. 6d. per 1,000 of 2 1/2lb. and under, and 6d. per ounce weight over 2 1/2lb. per 1,000, on cigarettes; 3s. 6d. per pound on manufactured and 2s. on unmanufactured tobacco. Sparkling wine is charged 9s. a gallon; Australian, 5s.; other kinds, 6s.; ale and beer, 2s. The duty on tea is 4d. the pound; on cocoa, chocolate, and chicory, 3d.; raw coffee, 2d.; roasted, 5d. Sugar, molasses, and treacle pay 1/2d., and glucose 1d. per pound. Opium is charged 40s. per pound. The remainder of the Customs revenue, with small exception, is made up of charges on goods by weight, ad valorem duties, ranging from 5 to 40 per cent., and receipts from the foreign parcels post. There is also an excise duty of 1s. per pound on tobacco; 1s. 6d. per pound on cigars, cigarettes, and snuff; 3d. per gallon on beer; 9d. per pound on tinctures, &c., manufactured in the colony, containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, and 3d. per pound when less than 50 per cent.

By “The Tobacco Excise Duties Act, 1896,” the excise duty on cigarettes made in the colony is now (from the 31st December, 1896) 2s. 6d. per pound on machine-made and 1s. per pound on hand-made cigarettes.

“The Tobacco Act Amendment Act, 1896,” enacts that all packages of manufactured tobacco shall be labelled before leaving the manufactory, and provides for the issue of warrants to use cutting-machines for cutting duty-paid manufactured tobacco for sale (or to be used in the manufacture of cigarettes by hand), and to manufacture cigarettes by hand, under certain conditions.

Chapter 35. SECTION VI.—EXPORTS AND TOTAL TRADE.

THE value of all the exports in 1899, exclusive of horses and forage sent to South Africa with the New Zealand Contingent, was £11,938,335; the value of New Zealand produce exported, £11,799,740: an average of £15 14s. 8d. per head of population, against £14 0s. 6d. for the previous year. The increase in the value of exports of New Zealand produce for 1899 over that for 1898 amounts to £1,474,752, a substantial advance of 14.28 per cent. This is a considerably higher rate of increase than the results for the year 1898 showed over those of 1897, when the amount was £728,721, and the percentage 7.59.

The value of merchandise imported in 1899 was, as previously shown, £8,613,656, so that the value of New Zealand produce exported during the year (£11,799,740) shows an excess of £3,186,084 over the imports; and it is worthy of note that the amount paid for interest and sinking fund of the public debt for the year ended 31st March, 1899, was £1,767,468. The value of New Zealand produce exported is thus proved to have exceeded the value of goods imported by a sum nearly double the charges of the public debt. It is evident, therefore, that in addition to the quantity required for home consumption, the colony was able to produce not only sufficient to pay for all goods imported, but also to meet the interest and other charges on moneys borrowed by the General Government, still leaving a substantial surplus—a position which, when associated with rising imports, must be considered as showing a very satisfactory aspect. The interest and sinking fund on so much of the debt of the local bodies as was raised outside the colony was less than £400,000 for the year ended 31st March, 1899.

A comparative statement of exports according to value for the two years is given, showing the amounts for various principal articles, being the produce or manufacture of the colony, classified according to their nature into groups:—

 Year 1899.Year 1898.Increase in 1899.Decrease in 1899.
THE MINE.££££
Coal83,08550,38132,704..
Gold1,513,1801,080,691432,489..
Silver, and minerals47,83643,4714,365..
                Total1,644,1011,174,543469,558..
THE FISHERIES.££££
Fish21,26515,6095,656..
Oysters2,1284,373..2,245
Other815358457..
                Total24,20820,3403,868..
THE FOREST.    
Fungus10,5937,0933,500..
Kauri-gum607,919586,76721,152..
Timber—
      Sawn and hewn196,749164,72232,026..
      Other2,4822,787..305
                Total817,743761,37056,373..
ANIMALS AND PRODUCE.    
Bacon and hams14,3648,2116,153..
Beef (salted)7,8316,3791,452..
Butter571,799403,690168,109..
Cheese141,818135,7766,042..
Hides36,09527,2328,863..
Live-stock22,68919,7082,981..
Preserved meats90,91097,171..6,261
Frozen meat2,088,8561,698,750390,106..
Rabbit-skins81,11851,60729,511..
Sausage-skins42,82345,539..2,716
Sheepskins and pelts268,230244,57923,651..
Tallow311,649302,1419,508..
Wool4,324,6274,645,804..321,177
Other6,9277,493..566
                Total8,009,7367,694,080315,656..
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.    
Bran and sharps19,7363,69016,046..
Chaff1093376..
Flour10,2995,9464,353..
Grain—
      Barley17,81645617,360..
      Beans and peas12,8356,9335,902..
      Maize25,02412,47612,548..
      Malt41,25325,86815,385..
      Oats286,10287,924198,178..
      Wheat338,4762,463336,013..
Hops29,0456,25222,793..
Oatmeal16,96817,001..33
Potatoes39,618141,077..101,459
Seeds (grass and clover)61,97478,519..16,545
Other14,42322,039..7,616
                Total913,678410,677503,001..
MANUFACTURES.    
Apparel3,3282,331997..
Leather98,319103,838..5,519
Phormium (New Zealand hemp)184,41174,556109,855..
Woollen manufactures11,0149,6341,380..
Other manufactures80,99463,44617,548..
                Total378,066253,805124,261..
Miscellaneous12,20810,1732,035..
Total exports (colonial produce and manufactures)11,799,74010,324,9881,474,752..
Specie14,91368,117..53,204
Other exports (British and foreign)123,682124,850..1,168
                Total exports£11,938,33510,517,9551,420,380..

The class designated “Animals and Produce” shows by far the greatest value, the sum being for 1899 £8,009,736, which includes £4,324,627 for wool and £2,088,856 for frozen meat. Notwithstanding a decrease in the wool export, the total value of exports in this class increased during the year by £315,656, on a total of £7,694,080 in 1898.

“The Mine” takes second place among the classes for total value, with an export of coal, gold, silver, and other minerals amounting to £1,644,101 for 1899, being an increase of no less than £469,558 on £1,174,543, the export for the previous year.

“Agricultural Products,” principally grain, potatoes, and seeds, take third place, and show an advance of £503,001 on the value exported in 1898, every item composing the group, with the exception of potatoes, meal, and grass-seed, having largely increased.

“The Forest” shows the export for last year to be £817,743, which, on account of the development of the kauri-gum and timber industries, gives an increase of £56,373 since 1898.

“Manufactures" are set down at £378,066 in 1899, being £124,261 more than in the previous year. Phormium shows an excellent advance on the operations for 1898, with an increase of no less than £109,855 on the export of £74,556 in 1898. Woollen manufactures sent abroad increased slightly; but leather receded from £103,838 in 1898 to £98,319.

The smallest group in respect to value is “The Fisheries,” which, however, shows an advance in the export of fish, but a decrease in oysters. The total for the group was £24,208 last year.

The exports of New Zealand produce or manufacture for the two last years have also to be considered in relation to quantity, and the articles are again grouped in the next table according to the same classification as that used for purposes of comparing the values.

QUANTITIES OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE EXPORTED.
Items.Year 1899.Year 1898.Increase in 1899.Decrease in 1899.
* At 20 lb. to the bushel.
The Mine:—
      Coal Tons89,48056,33233,148..
      Gold Oz.389,570280,175109,395..
      Silver      ”349,338293,85155,487..
      Minerals Tons1,4443,532..2,088
The Fisheries:—
      Fish Cwt.12,4248,7943,630..
      Oysters Doz.254,810787,240..532,430
      Whalebone Lb.2,5761,5681,008..
The Forest:—
      Fungus Cwt.7,0124,5262,486..
      Gum (kauri) Tons11,1169,9051,211..
      Timber (sawn and hewn) Ft.50,425,74140,721,6329,704,109..
Animals and Produce:—
      Bacon and hams Cwt.4,3762,3722,004..
      Beef (salted)      ”7,2066,223983..
      Butter      ”136,08696,80139,285..
      Cheese      ”09,44068,711729..
      Hides No.41,03632,8978,139..
      Live-stock      ”5,3617,240..1,879
      Meats (preserved) Cwt.48,05355,766..7,713
      ” (frozen)      ”1,865,8271,551,773314,054..
      Sausage-skins      ”8,8069,865..1,059
      Skins (rabbit) No.7,891,6486,607,9341,283,714..
      ” (sheep) and pelts      ”4,960,0544,995,325..35,271
      Tallow Cwt.338,620347,160..8,540
      Wool Lb.147,169,497149,385,815..2,216,318
Agricultural Products:—
      Bran and sharps Tons7,1879226,265..
      Chaff      ”44836..
      Flour      ”1,643655988..
      Grain, barley Bush.125,5492,665122,884..
      ” beans and peas      ”71,40428,18843,216..
      ” maize      ”187,93291,07996,853..
      ” malt      ”175,85397,74878,105..
      ” oats      ”3,520,734816,2102,704,524..
      ” wheat      ”2,901,67610,0902,891,586..
      Hops Cwt.6,2289155,313..
      Oatmeal Tons2,1881,568620..
      Potatoes      ”25,39622,5072,889..
      Seeds(grass and clover) Bush*214,575274,557..59,982
Manufactures:—
      Ale and beer Gals.16,32317,225..902
      Cordage Cwt.976329647..
      Leather Cwt.17,36519,992..2,627
      Phormium (New Zealand hemp) Tons10,3714,8505,521..
      Soap Cwt.3,7093,400309..

The numerical increases in such articles as frozen meat, butter, hides, rabbit-skins, grain, hops, potatoes, gold, coal, timber, kaurigum, and phormium are all most satisfactory, and in some cases (notably grain and phormium) very striking; while, on the other hand, the wool export, as also that of sheepskins and pelts, and a few other items, declined in 1899. The quantities of increase and decrease are all exhibited in the table. The percentages of increases in export of grain are, on account of the very small export in 1898, of course, exceedingly high, but, to show the degree of progress in respect of certain other important items, the proportions per cent. have been calculated:—

INCREASES.
Export ofRate of Increase per Cent. in 1899 over Quantity in 1898.
Hops Cwt.580.66
Flour Tons150.83
Phormium Tons113.84
Bacon and hams Cwt.84.49
Coal Tons58.84
Fungus Cwt.54.93
Butter Cwt.40.58
Oatmeal Tons39.54
Gold Oz.39.05
Hides No.24.74
Timber Ft.23.83
Frozen meat Cwt.20.24
Rabbit-skins No.19.43
Silver Oz.18.88
Beef (salted) Cwt.15.80
Potatoes Tons12.83
Kauri gum Tons12.23
Soap Cwt.9.09
DECREASES.
Export ofRate of Decrease per Cent. in 1899 over Quantity in 1898.
Oysters Doz.67.63
Live-stock No.25.95
Seeds (grass and clover) Bush21.85
Preserved meats Cwt.13.83
Leather Cwt.13.14
Sausage-skins Cwt.10.73
Ale and beer Gals5.24
Tallow Cwt2.46
Wool Lb.1.48
Sheepskins and pelts No.0.71

The position as to value in respect of a period of twelve years, 1888 to 1899 inclusive, is presented in a table giving the domestic exports for each. The most important items of export given under the heading “Other New Zealand Produce” are coal, silver, minerals, fish, oysters, fungus, kauri-gum, timber, bacon and hams, salted and preserved meats, tallow, sheep- and rabbit-skins, hides, sausage-skins, and live-stock. The aggregate value of these in 1899 was £1,845,284.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE.
Calendar Year.Wool.Gold.Frozen Meat.Butter and Cheese.Agricultural Produce.ManufacturesOther N.Z. Produce.Total.
 ££££££££
18883,115,098914,309628,800197,170905,907233,3831,260,4617,255,128
18893,976,375785,490783,374213,9451,424,297569,8801,288,6479,042,008
18904,150,599751,3601,087,617207,6871,289,864547,9471,393,6879,428,761
18914,129,6861,007,1721,194,724236,933894,467420,3571,516,7559,400,094
18924,313,307951,9631,033,377318,2041,035,637367,6771,345,7039,365,868
18933,774,738915,9211,085,167354,271716,546345,6361,365,1648,557,443
18944,827,016887,8651,194,545366,483317,655224,9581,266,6269,085,148
18953,662,1311,162,1811,262,711378,510326,029188,7021,409,8898,390,153
18964,391,8481,041,4281,251,993411,882572,355198,0811,309,7499,177,336
18974,443,144980,2041,566,286553,122495,175197,6011,360,7359,596,267
18984,645,8041,080,6911,698,750539,466410,677253,8051,695,79510,324,988
18994,324,6271,513,1802,088,856713,617913,678378,0661,867,71611,799,740

The above table shows that the value of the exports of New Zealand produce fell from £9,428,761 in 1890 to £8,390,153 in 1895, rose in 1896 to £9,177,336, in 1897 to £9,596,267, in 1898 to £10,324,988, and in 1899 to £11,799,740.

Thus there was an increase of exports since 1895, or in the four years 1896, 1897, 1898, and 1899, to the value of £3,409,587, all New Zealand produce, and more than a complete recovery to the figures for 1890 and 1891, after which followed a decrease in values. With the amount of increase in money must be considered the state of prices of the various kinds of produce.

The export of wool, measured by quantity, rose from 102,817,077 lb. in 1890 to 147,169,497 lb. in 1899, or at the rate of 43.14 per cent., and that of frozen meat from 898,894 cwt. to 1,865,827 cwt.

Gold, too, which was exported to the quantity of 187,641 oz. in 1890, increased to 389,570 oz. in 1899, the rate of increase being upwards of 107 per cent.

Re-exports.

The re-export trade of the colony would seem from the subjoined figures to have been almost stationary for the last ten years, the figures for 1890 and 1899 only differing by a sum of £16,873. The re-exports of merchandise in 1899 were valued at £123,682, or only a little more than 1 per cent. of the total exports, excluding specie.

EXPORTS OF BRITISH, FOREIGN, AND OTHER COLONIAL PRODUCE (EXCLUDING SPECIE).
 £
1890140,555
1891160,765
1892125,052
1893123,402
1894136,402
1895127,966
1896122,571
1897144,955
1898124,850
1899123,682

With these sums may be contrasted the re-export trade of New South Wales—a colony having less than double the population of New Zealand—which, exclusive of specie, amounted in 1898 to £4,707,200, or no less than 22.76 per cent. of the value of all goods exported.

Exports from the North and Middle Islands.

The exports from the North and Middle Islands respectively, excluding “Parcels post,” during the last two years were as under:—

Year.North Island. £Middle Island. £Proportion to North Island.Total Export. Middle Island.
18985,811,1324,697,57855.3044.70
18996,011,2395,916,29050.4049.60

The North Island exported in 1899 rather more than half of the total for the two islands.

Wool exported and produced.

The quantity of wool exported in 1899, as previously shown, was 147,169,497 lb., valued at £4,324,627, a decrease of 2,216,318 lb., or 1.48 per cent. on the quantity exported in the previous year, and of £321,177, or 6.91 per cent., on the value. This falling off in the wool export is due not only to the lesser number of sheep in 1899—19,348,506, against 19,673,725 in 1898—but to the dry and unfavourable weather experienced during the year causing shortage of feed, to lower price obtainable, and to disposition on the part of pastoralists to breed sheep for the frozen-meat industry rather than for wool. The annual production is best estimated by taking the exports for the twelve months immediately preceding the commencement of shearing, and adding thereto the quantity used in the colony for manufacturing purposes.

The following shows the produce for each of the last twelve years ending on the 30th September:—

Year ending 30th September.Quantity exported.Quantity purchased by Local Mills.Total Annual Produce.
 Lb.Lb.Lb.
188889,276,2684,079,56393,355,831
188995,618,5073,556,00499,174,511
1890102,522,1852,979,293105,501,478
1891108,619,4732,918,073111,537,546
1892110,860,0503,388,954114,249,004
1893119,643,8742,629,855122,273,729
1894128,480,4572,476,155130,956,612
1895129,333,7693,299,132132,632,901
1896128,309,6733,989,934132,299,607
1897134,410,9553,298,469137,709,424
1898150,401,3993,763,831154,165,230
1899143,644,2034,258,505147,902,708

From these figures it appears that, notwithstanding the decrease for the last year, the wool-clip has increased by over 58 per cent. during the last twelve years.

To arrive at a perfectly correct estimate of the increase in wool production it would be necessary to take into consideration the proportion of greasy, scoured (and sliped), and washed wool exported each year, the washing process of course greatly reducing the weight. The percentages of greasy, scoured, and washed wool to the total quantities exported during the last three years are:—

Years.Greasy. Per Cent.Scoured and Slipped. Per Cent.Washed. Per Cent.
189778.8719.961.17
189878.6220.361.02
189977.5421.640.82

The increase in the wool-production is, of course, mainly due to the greater number of sheep—namely, 19,348,506 in April, 1899, against 15,122,133 in May, 1888. A comparative statement for several years is supplied, showing the number of flocks in groups of sizes:—

NUMBER OF FLOCKS, 1890 TO 1899.
Size of Flocks.1890.1892.1894.1896.1898.1889.

* From 1,000 to 2,500, 1,798 flocks; from 2,500 to 5,000, 614 flocks.

† From 1,000 to 2,500, 1,880 flocks; from 2,500 to 5,000, 639 flocks.

Under 5007,6628,82210,31412,02812,88612,719
500 and under 1,0001,5282,0332,4272,6052,7082,656
1,000 and under 2,0008541,1931,4091,4602,412*2,519
2,000 and under 5,0005867619338922,412*2,519
5,000 and under 10,000283314345340341363
10,000 and under 20,000236231230231231204
20,000 and upwards160176179147144138
                Total11,30913,53015,83717,70318,72218,599

It will be apparent that the tendency of increase is generally towards the multiplication of the smaller flocks, whose owners are better able to cope with the rabbit difficulty than the large run holders.

Export of Rabbit-skins.

Prior to 1878 rabbit-skins were a very small item in the exports, but in that year the number sent out of the colony amounted to 3,951,209. Ten years after (1888) the export had risen to 11,809,407, from which it increased to 17,041,106 in 1893, the greatest number as yet exported in a year. From 1895 the fall was rapid, and the export for 1898 only reached 6,607,934 skins, but in 1899 there was an upward tendency, the number exported being 7,891,648.

The figures for the years in which there has been decline are quoted:—

Year.Number of Rabbit-skins exported.
189317,041,106
189414,267,385
189515,229,314
189610,828,612
18978,099,334
18986,607,934
18997,891,648

From the above it will be seen that the importance of the export has until last year very much diminished. The fall, represented in money value, has been:—

Year.Value of Rabbit-skins exported.
£
1893138,952
189487,993
189585,022
189665,599
189747,472
189851,607
189981,118

While the amount of money received for this produce of the colony shows less profit than formerly, it may be a satisfactory result, as seemingly indicating some abatement of the rabbit pest. Large quantities of frozen rabbits are now exported, and are alluded to in the remarks on the frozen meat industry on the next page.

Export of Sheepskins and Pelts.

These form a more important article of export at the present time than the rabbit-skins, though in the year 1888 the position was the reverse as regards value in money. In 1888 the number of sheepskins and pelts sent away from New Zealand was 1,646,401, against 4,960,054 in 1899, a rise of 201.27 per cent. for the period between those years. The value increased from £83,574 to £268,230, or 220.95 per cent. Figures for the last six years are quoted:—

Year.Export of Sheepskins and Pelts. No.
18942,681,552
18953,230,539
18963,001,791
18973,688,051
18984,995,325
18994,960,054

Export of Tallow.

Besides wool and meat, tallow is largely exported, and since the year 1888, when 136,460 cwt. were sent away, the export increased to 347,160cwt. in 1898, falling in quantity to 338,620 cwt. in 1899, the value, however, being greater, as will be seen from the figures given below. In value this export considerably exceeds that of either sheepskins or rabbit-skins, and the money is indeed not much below the total for those two articles taken together. The six latest years show the following results:—

TALLOW EXPORTED.
Years.Cwt.£
1894199,400204,499
1895263,560260,999
1896222,540208,821
1897310,200259,964
1898347,160302,141
1899338,620311,649

Frozen Meat exported.

Frozen meat now takes second place among the exports of New Zealand produce. In 1899, 1,865,827 cwt., valued at £2,088,856, were shipped in the colony. An account of the development of the industry was given in a special article in the Year-book, 1894. The total export for each year since the commencement of the trade has been:—

Year.Lb.
18821,707,328
18839,853,200
188428,445,228
188533,204,976
188638,758,160
188745,035,984
188861,857,376
188973,564,064
1890100,934,756
1891110,199,082
189297,636,557
1893100,262,453
1894114,827,216
1895127,018,864
1896123,576,544
1897157,687,152
1898173,798,576
1899208,972,624

The above figures for 1898 include 112,635 cwt., or 4,251,596, of frozen rabbits and hares in the skin; and those for 1899 include 48,137 (1,948 cwt.) of hares, and 4,832,357 rabbits, weighing 127,361 cwt., valued at £111,664, so that these animals can hardly now be looked upon as wholly a nuisance.

To ascertain the total value of the meat export in 1899 it is necessary to take into consideration, with the amount of £2,088,856, value of frozen meat before stated, £12,973 for frozen fish; also the value of preserved meats, £90,910; of salted beef and pork, £7,831; and of bacon and hams, £14,364.

Gold exported.

The amount of gold exported in 1899 was 389,570 oz., an increase of 109,395 oz. on the quantity exported in 1898.

The total quantity of gold entered for duty to the 31st December, 1899, which may be reckoned as approximately the amount obtained in the colony, was 14,235,285 oz., of the value of £55,966,498. For fuller information see Section XIV., “Mining.”

Grain exported.

The value of the grain exported in 1899 was £721,824. The grain exports were made up as under:—

 Bushels.£
Wheat2,901,676338,476
Oats3,520,734286,102
Barley125,54917,816
Malt175,85341,253
Maize187,93225,024
Peas and beans71,40612,836
Rye and unenumerated2,865317
                Total quantity and value6,986,015£721,824

Compared with the previous year the quantity and value of grain exported in 1899 show vast increase; the total for 1898 having been only 1,045,980 bushels of all kinds, valued at £136,120.

Until last year the decline in the export of wheat had been very great, as will be seen by the following figures:—

Year.Wheat exported. Bushels.
18904,467,026
18922,460,774
1894228,904
1896453,123
189810,090
18992,901,676

The imports of wheat during 1898 exceeded the exports by upwards of 50,000 bushels, but in 1899 the imports were practically nil, the small quantity introduced into the colony being for seeding purposes only.

In oats, also, the very large increase in quantity exported in 1899 is noteworthy:—

Year.Export of Oats. Bushels.
18914,052,414
18923,830,444
18941,963,288
18962,247,053
1898816,210
18993,520,734

Similarly, with barley, the export rose from 2,665 bushels in 1898 to 125,549 bushels in 1899; beans and peas show 71,406 bushels exported in 1899, against 28,188 bushels in the previous year; maize, 187,932 bushels against 91,079 bushels. The export of malt also increased, the quantities having been 175,853 bushels in 1899, and 97,748 in 1898.

A further increase in the exports of grain may be confidently looked for in 1900, the reports of a good harvest being general throughout the colony, although the acreage under cereals has considerably decreased:—

 1898–99. Acres.1899–1900. Acres.
Land in wheat (for threshing)399,034269,749
“ oats      ”417,320398,243
“ barley      ”45,67148,003

Butter and Cheese exported.

The total quantity of butter and cheese exported in the past twelve years, and the amount of either commodity sent to the United Kingdom is tabulated:—

Year.Total Export of ButterButter Exported to the United Kingdom.Total Export of Cheese.Cheese Exported to the United Kingdom.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
188829,99511,46036,68225,436¼
188937,95521,09926,5587,633
189034,81626,57940,45131,043
189139,43028,98939,77029,565
189253,93041,50941,49330,000
189358,14952,36346,20141,567
189460,77158,84555,65554,540
189557,96455,19476,74373,369
189671,35360,09271,37258,692
189799,00279,84977,68367,681
189896,80180,81468,71141,412
1899136,086121,50269,44040,901

Of the butter exported in 1899, 121,502 cwt., valued at £508,978, were shipped to the United Kingdom; 6,938 cwt., value £29,651, to New South Wales; 2,871 cwt., value £11,907, to Victoria; 2,343 cwt., value £10,283, to Tasmania; 1,191 cwt., value £5,162, to Western Australia; 356 cwt., value £1,450, to Fiji; 74 cwt., value £335, to Cape Colony and Natal; and 694 cwt., value £3,521, to the South Seas.

Of the cheese exported, 40,901 cwt., valued at £81,951, were sent to the United Kingdom; 21,315 cwt., value £43,825, to New South Wales; 1,770 cwt., value £3,984, to Victoria; 3,418 cwt., value £7,516, to Western Australia; and 1,243 cwt., value £2,660, to the other Australasian Colonies. While the quantity of butter exported in 1899, 136,086 cwt., shows an increase of 354 per cent. on the quantity exported in 1888, the increase in the export of cheese during the twelve years has been at the rate of 89 per cent.—69,440 cwt. in 1899, as against 36,682 cwt. in 1888.

Phormium exported.

Phormium, of which 10,371 tons (excluding 304 tons of tow), valued at £184,411, were exported in 1899, shows vast improvement in the export on comparing the figures for last year with those for 1898, when the quantity sent away was only 4,850 tons. Outside of the question of prices, a large permanent development of this industry depends on the cultivation and careful selection of the plants used, and on improvements in the method of preparing the fibre.

Kauri-gum exported.

The advance in this item to 11,116 tons exported in 1899 is again a substantial one. The value was £607,919, or an average of £54 13s. 9d. per ton. Full information as to the uses of this resin and the kauri-gum industry generally is given in a special article in Part III., embracing interesting matter from the report of the Royal Commission which investigated the whole subject in 1898.

Exports from different Ports, &c.

The following table gives the values of the exports from each port in New Zealand for the last two years, arranged in order of magnitude for 1899:—

 1899.1898.
 ££
Lyttelton2,311,2931,934,636
Wellington1,896,2911,888,075
Auckland1,860,6041,676,152
Dunedin1,316,385886,689
Napier988,4661,113,242
Invercargill and Bluff751,881629,670
Timaru726,476512,379
Wanganui382,625308,120
New Plymouth336,965241,790
Greymouth314,342234,754
Poverty Bay283,906353,155
Oamaru205,609207,106
Wairau and Picton149,549137,113
Kaipara136,21998,664
Waitara77,39190,584
Nelson75,73643,589
Patea48,73741,350
Westport33,55243,233
Hokitika31,46768,409
Tauranga35..

Although Auckland, as was seen previously, had the largest import trade for the year 1899, Lyttelton and Wellington take first and second places respectively in exports.

The increase in value of exports during 1899 was £429,696 at Dunedin, £376,657 at Lyttelton, £184,452 at Auckland, £122,211 at Invercargill, and only £8,216 at Wellington. Napier shows a decrease of £124,776.

DETAILS OF ALL EXPORTS, 1899.
Articles exported.Quantities.Value in Sterling.
Produce and Manufactures of the Colony.British, Foreign, and other Colonial Produce and Manufactures.Produce and Manufactures of the Colony.British, Foreign, and other Colonial Produce and Manufactures.Total.
   £££
Acid, acetic         lb...3,796..5656
Acid, carbolic         ”..20..11
Agricultural implements        ......1,1951431,338
Alkali—
Soda silicate         cwt...300..150150
Potash, and caustic potash         ”..40..6565
Ambergris         lb.5..100..100
Animals, living—
Birds         No.9..3..3
Cattle (horned)         ”597..4,318..4,318
Dogs         ”22..328..328
Goats         ”6..3..3
Horses         ”2191116,6652,21512,880
Lions         ”..2..200200
Pigs         ”183..343..343
Poultry         ”2,806..392..392
Sheep         ”4,362..6,637..6,637
Apparel and slops        ......3,3282,8396,167
Arms, ammunition, and explosives—
Cartridges No.3,50010,700122335
Cartridge-cases         ”10,0002,500111425
Detonators for dynamite, &c.         ”..41,500..5656
Dynamite         lb...200..1717
Firearms         No...25..144144
Fuse         coils..2,275..6262
Ordnance stores        ........5555
Powder, sporting         lb...1,775..168168
Shot         cwt...7..1212
Bacon and hams—
Bacon         cwt.1,888..5,392..5,392
Hams         ”2,488..8,972..8,972
Bags and sacks—
Cornsacks         doz...2,933..680680
Unenumerated         ”7141,758107261368
Basketware and wickerware....111223
Beer galls.16,3238,0181,5451,7663,311
Belting, leather         lb...100..1010
Belting, other than leather......3131
Beverages, non-alcoholic—
Aerated and mineral waters,         doz.2,652124284432
Lime juice, unsweetened         galls...16,989..733733
Bicycles and tricycles         No.4174551,6921,747
Materials for        ......1131,1171,230
Biscuits—
Fancy and other kinds         lb.3,017..61..61
Ship's plain         cwt.3,006..2,257..2,257
Blacking......6565
Blue         lb...324..66
Boats         No.72272250522
Bones         tons36..137..137
Books, &c., printed        ......1,6292,1873,816
Boots and shoes         doz.912343698081,177
Bran         tons5,679..14,426..14,426
Brass—
Pigs, bars, tubes, or sheets         cwt...26..5151
Manufactures        ......12219231
Bricks, Fire         No.1,200..12..12
Brushware and brooms....91726
Building materials—
Unenumerated......8282
Butter         cwt.136,086..571,799..571,799
Candles         lb...525..1616
Canvas......3030
Cards, playing         packs..96..22
Carpeting and druggeting......490490
Carriages, &c.—
Carriages         No.13231119330
Carts, drays, and wagons         ”34..341..341
Perambulators         ”2..6..6
Casks, empty         No.1,3561,6765317711,302
Cement         barrels2046114253
Chaff         tons44..109..109
Chains         cwt...2..22
Cheese         ”69,440..141,818..141,818
Chinaware......426426
Coals         tons89,4804,36383,0853,63886,723
Cocoa and chocolate         lb...5,298..243243
Coffee—
Raw         ”..9,052..280280
Roasted         ”458512293463
Coke         tons18..9..9
Confectionery, unenumerated         lb.7,7762,568192141333
Copper manufactures......100100
Copra         tons..273..3,0833,083
Cordage         cwt.9761241,9193142,233
        ” iron and steel   ”..20..4848
Cork, cut......2424
Cotton piece-goods, namely,—
Calico, white and grey......1,6161,616
Cheese-cloth......55
Shirtings......195195
Tubular-woven cotton-cloth......9797
Waterproof material......1111
Unenumerated......7,3637,363
Cotton—
Raw         lb...6,473..9797
Waste         cwt.½611213
Cutlery......274274
Doors         No.373....269269
Drapery....1421,5141,656
Drugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares—
Chemicals n.o.e.        ......3471,2471,594
Drugs, druggists' sundries, and apothecaries' wares....187227414
Medicinal barks, leaves, &c.....51217
Disinfectants......4545
Sheep-dip....264302566
Earthenware....2722,0892,361
Eggs         doz.1,685..75..75
Engine-packing         cwt.¼134
Essential Oils—
Other kinds         lb...5..77
Fancy goods and toys....9801,4482,428
Curiosities....26239301
Fireworks......33
Fish—
Dried, pickled and salted         cwt.2934233882420
Potted and preserved         lb.278,71959,9807,9541,3599,313
Frozen         cwt.9,642..12,973..12,973
Ova....170..170
Fishing-tackle......1010
Flour         tons.1,643..10,299..10,299
Foods, animal—
Unenumerated....87289
Foods, farinaceous—
Arrowroot         lb...450..55
Maizena and cornflour         ”3362,40072734
Unenumerated....105..105
Fruits—
Bottled and preserved         doz.31514212045165
Dried: Currants         lb...9,962..129129
Raisins         ”..31,967..657657
Unenumerated         ”19011,5626254260
Fresh: Lemons         ”..950..66
Other kinds         ”145,93068,4301,2002621,462
Fruit-pulp and partially-preserved fruit         lb.25,898..336..336
Fungus         cwt.7,012..10,593..10,593
Furniture and upholstery....561294855
Furniture, knife, and plate powder and polish......3737
Furs....30..30
Glass bottles, empty....40371411
Glassware....93396489
Glue and size         cwt.554..338..338
Glycerine         ”418..552..552
Gold         oz.389,570161,513,180651,513,245
Grain and pulse—
Barley bush.125,549..17,816..17,816
Beans and peas      ”71,404212,835112,836
Maize      ”187,932..25,024..25,024
Oats      ”3,520,734..286,102..286,102
Rye      ”2,741..267..267
Wheat      ”2,901,676..338,476..338,476
Unenumerated      ”1101444650
Grease cwt.163198320103
Grindery......3838
Gum, kauri tons11,116607,91968607,987
Haberdashery......375375
Sewing - cottons, silks, and threads....452166
Hair cwt.538..3,181..3,181
Hardware, hollowware, and iron-mongery....6493,3423,991
Hats and caps doz.436246137183
Hay and straw tons527..1,583..1,583
Hemp      ”..5..250250
Hides No.41,036..36,095..36,095
Honey lb.25,480..359..359
Hops cwt.6,2287329,04514629,191
Horns and hoofs tons51..856..856
Hosiery....6995391,238
India rubber and gutta-percha goods......648648
Ink, printing lb...320..1111
“ writing......1010
Instruments, musical—
Pianofortes No...16..539539
Unenumerated......203203
Instruments, optical......2222
“ scientific....10208218
“ surgical and dental......207207
“ surveying......163163
Iron and steel—
Bar, bolt, and rod tons12½98189287
Bolts and nuts cwt.....22
Galvanised manufactures....89147236
Hoop tons..2 3/20..2222
Pipes and fittings tons..14..138138
Sheet and plate..7..9393
Sheet, galvanise'd corrugated cwt..1,989..2,0702,070
Staples and standards ton..1/10..22
Tanks, each 400 galls. No...115..401401
Wire, fencing, barbed tons..4..5656
Wire, fencing, plain      ”..20..200200
Wire netting......5353
Unenumerated tons..124..259259
Jams, jellies, and preserves lb.25,2609,178523163686
Jellies, concentrated      ”..347..1111
Jewellery....3746501,024
Lamps, lanterns, and lamp wick......5060
Lard cwt.186..381..381
Lead, pigs and bars tons..1..1111
Leather cwt.17,36520½98,31918498,503
Leather manufactures—
Boot and shoe vamps, uppers, and laces......5050
Unenumerated......6262
Lime bush.766..39..39
Linseed centals1,126..514..514
Machinery and machines—
Agricultural....4,6381,7466,384
Dairying....121,0531,065
Electric....5882887
Engines, gas No...2..164164
Flour-milling......8484
Gas-making......211211
Mining....16,0971,83017,927
Portable and traction engines No...1..250250
Printing......584584
Refrigerating....22665687
Sewing and knitting No...126..357357
Wood-working......653653
Woollen-milling....152136
Unenumerated....3252,2302,555
Materials for, and parts of......232232
Malt bush.175,853..41,253..41,253
Manures—
Bonedust tons5022250126376
Guano      ”..10..2525
Unenumerated      ”45..222..222
Marble, dressed or polished, and manufactures....35237
Matches and vestas—
Wax gross1558496372
Wooden gross..2,096..203203
Mats and matting....56016576
Meal, oaten centals43,755..16,968..16,968
Meats—
Beef, fresh cwt.14..15..15
“ frozen      ”172,345..197,009..197,009
“ salted      ”7,141..7,709..7,709
Kidneys, frozen      ”5,910..8,523..8,523
Lamb “ carcases1,272,525..594,157..594,157
= cwt.416,896..594,157..594,157
Mutton, frozen (whole carcases) carcases2,102,533..1,120,649..1,120,649
= cwt.1,090,522..1,120,649..1,120,649
Mutton (joints), frozen cwt.50,021..53,749..53,749
Pork, salted      ”65..122..122
Veal, frozen      ”153..198..198
Other kinds, frozen      ”671..1,139..1,139
Rabbits, frozen in the skin No.4,828,397..111,610..111,610
= cwt.127,276..111,610..111,610
Rabbits, frozen (skinned) No.3,960..54..54
= cwt.85..54..54
Hares, frozen in the skin No.48,137..1,768..1,768
= cwt.1,948..1,768..1,768
Potted and preserved      ”48,053390,910990,919
Extract of meat, Bovril lb.3,954..522..522
Unenumerated cwt.127..296..296
Medicines, patent and proprietary....6633501,013
Metal, Manufactures of....6822,7243,406
Anchors No...13..1414
Typewriters      ”..7..116116
Metal, old cwt.2,4332,1701,1702,0823,252
Milk, preserved lb.643,55935,77212,01276312,775
Millinery—
Feathers, ornamental....130..130
Other kinds......2929
Minerals—
Sulphur tons1,227..3,483..3,483
Manganese      ”135..407..407
Platinum oz.7..23..23
Quartz, auriferous tons5 1/10..153..153
Scheelite ore      ”31½..2,788..2,788
Unenumerated      ”45¼114420164
Mustard lb...528..2929
Nails cwt...339..317317
Nuts—
Almonds in shell lb...687..1515
Barbary      ”..553..3030
Unenumerated      ”337..7..7
Oakum cwt...10..2020
Oars No...72..2222
Oil—
Castor, bulk galls...393..4747
Colza      ”..1,370..182182
Coconut      ”6,780..652..652
Fish, penguin, and seal      ”..19,790..1,3331,333
Linseed      ”..3,403..453453
Mineral, kerosene      ”..85,976..3,9543,954
Olive, bulk      ”..848..120120
Unenumerated, bulk      ”..4,632..339339
Oilmen's stores....4779711,448
Onions cwt.51,144..8,089..8,089
Oysters doz254,810..2,128..2,128
Paints and colours—
Ground in oil cwt...201..285285
Mixed ready for use      ”..189..683683
Unenumerated      ”9020½492675
Paper—
Bags cwt.490..420..420
Printing      ”..110..162162
Hangings pieces..240..33
Wrapping cwt.673209579254833
Writing      ”..8..2828
Unenumerated      ”..5..2222
Pearl barley      ”39473½19148239
Peas, split      ”..1..11
Perfumery—
Perfumed spirits galls...21½..3333
Unenumerated....13637
Phormium tons10,371..184,411..184,411
Tow      ”304..1,150..1,150
Photographic goods....76284360
Pickles galls.41533896104
Pictures, paintings, drawings, engravings, and photographs....1,1074481,555
Picture-frames and mounts....1..1
Pitch cwt.352..71..71
Plants, shrubs, &c.....42850478
Plateware....82,1282,136
Pollard and sharps tons1,508..5,310..5,310
Potatoes      ”25,396..39,618..39,618
Printing materials......191191
Provisions n.o.e.....8531961,049
Pumps....272128400
Quicksilver lb...1,500..166166
Rags cwt.721..602..602
Rice      ”..727..557557
Rugs....2,574582,632
Saddlery and harness....1,0851761,261
Harness oil, composition, and leather-dressing......1010
Saddlers' ironmongery and materials....7..7
Salt tons..6..2020
Sashes, window pairs459..225..225
Sauces galls...155..8585
Sausage-skins cwt.8,80634942,8231,63544,458
Seeds—
Grass and clover      ”38,3173861,9748362,057
Unenumerated....1,2664181,684
Shells, pearl cwt...206..680680
Ship-chandlery, n.o.e.....5345911,125
Silk piece-goods......343343
Silver oz.349,338..40,838..40,838
Skins—
Calf and other No.9,161..1,163..1,163
Rabbit No.7,891,648..81,118..81,118
= lb.1,112,076..81,118..81,118
Sheep, with wool No.284,536..39,332..39,332
= lb.1,913,120..39,332..39,332
Sheep, without wool No.4,675,518..228,898..228,898
= lb.9,044,232..228,898..228,898
Soap—
Common cwt.3,684332,438332,471
Powder, extract of soap, &c.....16..16
Unenumerated lb.2,80011,58747347394
Specie—
Gold......5,3495,349
Silver......9,5649,564
Specimens, illustrative of natural science....790100890
Spices, ungrounded lb...12,327..5,3795,379
Spirits—
Bitters, cordials, and liqueurs galls...89..8181
Brandy      ”..1,547..743743
Geneva and gin      ”..940..236236
Methylated      ”10..2..2
Rum      ”..473..101101
Whiskey      ”..9,426..3,9713,971
Starch lb...642..99
Stationery....1,2635891,852
Stone—
Building tons49..44..44
Pumice      ”820..2,230..2,230
Unwrought tons63..167..167
Sugar—
Refined lb.454,361146,7423,8761,1124,988
Glucose      ”..4,964..3636
Tallow tons15,779..282,899..282,899
Mutton stock, and oleomargarine tons1,125..28,329..28,329
Oil      ”27..421..421
Tarpaulins and tents....11..11
Tanning materials—
Bark tons347131,9301192,049
Other kinds......3535
Tar....9918
Tea lb...108,896..4,4914,491
Textile piece-goods, other than silk, cotton, linen, or woollen....15512527
Articles made up from, other than apparel......1010
Timber—
Logs, hewn sup. ft.1,322,096..4,067..4,067
Sawn, undressed sup. ft.44,568,398..166,876..166,876
“ dressed      ”4,535,247..25,806..25,806
Staves No.5,656..34..34
Unenumerated....518..518
Tin, sheet cwt...10..8686
Tinware....369125494
Tobacco—
Manufactured lb...40,623..3,0053,005
Cigars      ”..2,764..797797
Cigarettes      ”..3,004..968968
Tobacco-pipes and cases......44
Tools and implements—
Sheepshears......7575
Spades, shovels, and forks......6464
Unenumerated....45131176
Turpentine gals...894..145145
Twine....41570485
Binder cwt.1,791..3,524..3,524
Umbrellas and parasols....21697313
Varnish and gold size gals...571..188188
Vegetables, fresh, dried, or preserved....26048308
Vinegar gals.608718
Watches No...54..102102
Wax, beeswax cwt.2..14..14
Whalebone      ”23½54515560
Wine—
Australian gals...258..125125
Sparkling gals...267..474474
Other kinds      ”..757..428428
Woodenware....1,5071,7963,303
Wool—
Greasy lb.114,118,871..3,074,050..3,074,050
Scoured      ”16,676,246..705,908..705,908
Slipped      ”15,174,070..503,341..503,341
Washed      ”1,200,310..41,328..41,328
Woollen piece-goods....7,3551,0348,389
“ blankets pairs915901,085431,128
Woolpacks doz...40..5050
Yarns......6262
Zinc—
Plain sheet cwt...212..197197
Spelter      ”2951,9492751,3531,628
Goods, miscellaneous—
Manufactured....99127226
Unmanufactured....1,4026112,013
Parcels Post....10,806..10,806

Total Value of Trade.

The value of the total trade of New Zealand advanced from £13,431,804 in the year 1886 to £20,677,968 in 1899. But of these amounts some portion was coin. Excluding the specie, the figures for 1886 are £12,853,736, and for 1899, £20,537,078.

Year.Total Trade.Imports.Exports.Imports (excluding Specie).Exports (excluding Specie).Excess of Exports over Imports (excluding Specie).
 ££££££
188613,431,8046,759,0136,672,7916,319,2236,534,513215,290
188713,111,6846,245,5156,866,1696,064,2816,680,772616,491
188813,709,2255,941,9007,767,3255,430,0507,403,2061,972,156
188915,650,7276,308,8639,341,8645,980,5839,183,9543,203,371
189016,072,2456,260,5259,811,7205,928,8959,569,3163,640,421
189116,070,2466,503,8499,566,3976,431,1019,560,8593,129,758
189216,477,9076,943,0569,534,8516,742,5449,490,9202,748,376
189315,6,8796,911,5158,985,3646,494,2798,680,8452,186,566
189416,019,0676,788,0209,231,0475,990,1779,221,5503,231,373
189514,950,3536,400,1298,550,2246,115,9538,518,1192,402,166
189616,458,4257,137,3209,321,1057,035,3799,299,9072,264,528
189718,072,2168,055,22310,016,9937,994,2019,741,2221,747,021
189818,748,5558,230,60010,517,9558,211,40910,449,8382,238,429
189920,677,9688,739,63311,938,3358,613,65611,923,4223,309,766

The trade for these years has been selected for exhibition in tabular form because during each of the series there was an excess of exports over imports, whereas previously the reverse obtained, and the colony was purchasing to an extent not covered by the value of the export. During the last fourteen years the excess of exports over imports, excluding money sent to and from the colony, amounted to a total sum of £32,905,712.

How different the foregoing conditions were from those previously obtaining will be seen by observing the balance of trade for the years 1881 to 1885 inclusive:—

Year.Excess of Imports over Exports.
 £
18811,406,898
18821,948,485
1883761,938
1884235,981
1885539,239

The gradually declining excess of imports turned in 1886 and 1887 to a small excess of exports, but subsequently the excess of exports was very great, and attained the sum of £3,640,421 in the year 1890.

Again considering the results for the fourteen years, 1886–99, during which the balance was in favour of the exports, the external trade is shown for each year per head of population, the calculations being made exclusive as well as inclusive of specie, for the purpose of arriving at exact conclusions as regard trade in goods. In the year 1894 the imported money amounted to a sum of £797,843, making a substantial difference in the rates.

Excluding specie, the trade per head of population increased from £22 1s. 7d., in 1886, to £27 7s. 8d. in 1899: imports from £10 17s. 1d. to £11 9s. 8d., and exports from £11 4s. 6d. to £15 18s.

Year.Including Specie.Excluding Specie.
Total Trade per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).Imports per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).Exports per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).Total Trade per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).Imports per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).Exports per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
188623151112211932217101711146
188721198109511103217510341141
1888221211916412167214081951247
188925911105615452415991561503
18902513101002151382419491101584
1891251041066153102571010431537
1892251321016314161125561091114157
1893240910901311922181191651326
1894231199191113111022711816513116
189521111094101270212881681260
18962358101111339232291911331
18972501111331317824117111713100
189825931137145825611113114310
18992711511131151842778119815180

The highest record of trade (excluding specie) was that for 1874, when the rate per head was £41 4s. 5d., the imports, in consequence of the large expenditure of borrowed money, amounting at that time to £24 17s. per head, against £11 9s. 8d. in 1899.

It has been customary to leave out the Maoris in estimating the sum per head, for their industries and necessities swell the volume of trade in comparatively so slight a measure that the amount per head of European population can be more truly ascertained by omitting them altogether.

Trade with different Countries or Colonies.

The trade with the United Kingdom in 1899 amounted to £14,954,160, comprising 72.32 per cent. of the total.

With the Australian Colonies and Tasmania, trade was done during 1899 to the value of £3,044,864; of which New South Wales claimed £1,866,900, and Victoria £819,900, made up as follows:—

EXPORTS FROM NEW ZEALAND.
 £
To New South Wales, 18991,118,699
“ Victoria, 1899412,822
EXPORTS TO NEW ZEALAND.
 £
From New South Wales, 1899748,201
“ Victoria, 1899407,078

The latter amounts, in each case, represent the declared values of the imports into New Zealand from the colonies mentioned, not their export value as given in the New South Wales and Victorian returns.

Included in the exports to New Zealand from New South Wales is coal to the quantity of 98,786 tons, valued at £92,142.

The trade with Fiji and the other Pacific Islands (including Norfolk Island) decreased from £487,501 in 1898 to £451,393 in 1899.

Both imports from and exports to the United States in 1899 show a falling off when compared with the previous year's figures.

Of the exports to the United States in 1899 the values of the principal New Zealand products were: Coal, £2,572; kaurigum, £337,073; hides, £9,223; sheepskins, £15,173; rabbit-skins, £8,390; sausage-skins, £22,119; wool, £7,750; and phormium, £15,553.

The table on the following page shows the value of the total trade with the United States for each of the past ten years, 1890 to 1899 inclusive, during which period the trade has increased considerably.

TRADE WITH THE UNITED STATES.
Year.Imports fromExports toTotal Trade.
Atlantic Ports.Pacific Ports.Atlantic Ports.Pacific Ports.
 £££££
1890321,04734,348364,332218,802938,529
1891317,91343,882395,386119,822877,003
1892344,79936,828459,31461,483902,424
1893345,74333,635430,84265,706875,926
1894359,19635,495230,82956,367681,887
1895351,82342,410298,53618,103710,872
1896419,68973,151263,56463,025819,429
1897521,939106,105252,013123,0831,003,140
1898700,55599,856337,059286,0741,423,544
1899687,90687,403387,61445,8851,208,808

The development in the decennial period is at the rate of 28.80 per cent., or an increase in value of £270,279.

The trade with India and Ceylon reached a total of £336,110, against £322,122 in 1898. The imports—tea, rice, castor-oil, woolpacks, &c.—were reckoned at £332,833, leaving a balance of only £3,277 for exports.

Trade of the Australasian Colonies.

The following table gives the value of the imports and exports of the Australasian Colonies for the year 1898:—

Colony.Total Value ofExcess of Exports over Imports.Excess of Imports over Exports.
Imports.Exports.
 ££££
Queensland6,007,26610,856,1274,848,861..
New South Wales24,453,56027,648,1173,194,557..
Victoria16,768,90415,872,246..896,658
South Australia6,184,8056,795,774610,969..
Ditto, Northern Territory113,960182,59668,636..
Western Australia5,241,9654,960,006..281,95
Tasmania1,650,0181,803,369153,351..
New Zealand8,230,60010,517,9552,287,355..

In the preceding table is given the total trade inwards and outwards of each colony, counting twice over the value of goods produced in one colony and carried thence into another, and reckoning the same goods three times where they are imported from without into one colony and re-exported thence in the same year into another colony. But, in order to form a just idea of the trade of the Australasian Colonies as a whole, it is necessary to eliminate the inter colonial traffic altogether. From the following table the value of imports and exports exchanged between the various colonies has accordingly been excluded:—

EXTERNAL TRADE OF AUSTRALASIA.
Year.Total Trade.Imports.Exports.Excess of Imports.Excess of Exports.
 £££££
188572,220,44441,136,03831,084,40610,051,632..
189075,143,81838,451,16036,692,6581,758,502..
189184,565,77841,325,03343,240,745..1,915,712
189275,325,93334,529,50140,796,432..6,266,931
189367,788,73827,925,99039,862,748..11,936,758
189465,192,20226,063,63039,128,572..13,064,942
189567,624,31727,425,72540,198,592..12,772,867
189674,511,26234,420,59640,090,666..5,670,070
189783,569,56837,862,74145,706,827..7,844,086
189885,600,44237,310,58348,289,859..10,979,276

It will be observed that in the year 1885 the excess of imports over exports for Australasia amounted to no less a sum than £10,051,632, and that five years later the excess of imports had fallen to £1,758,502. In 1891 the position was completely reversed, the exports exceeding the imports by £1,915,712. This excess increased to £6,266,931 in the following year (1892), and to £13,064,942 in 1894, but decreased to £12,772,867 in 1895, to £5,670,070 in 1896, and was £7,844,086 in 1897, and £10,979,276 in 1898.

The trade per head of the population in each of the colonies in 1898 was:—

TRADE PER HEAD OF THE POPULATION IN 1898.
Colony.Mean Population.Imports.Exports.Total Trade.
  £s.d.£s.d.£.s.d.
Queensland492,6021231122093448
New South Wales1,334,8501865201433908
Victoria1,172,952145111310827107
South Australia358,0351756181973651
Ditto, Northern Territory4,904234937486095
Western Australia169,2713019429616055
Tasmania174,530991106819159
New Zealand736,260113714582593

But the values of the exports of the Australian Colonies, more especially New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, are largely increased by the inclusion of articles the produce or manufacture of other colonies and countries.

The value of home productions or manufactures exported from each colony in 1898, and the rate per head of mean population, were as follow:—

Colony.Home Produce exported.Per Head of Population.
 ££s.d.
Queensland10,482,6682157
New South Wales17,727,0671357
Victoria11,778,88310010
South Australia2,487,00961811
Ditto, Northern Territory179,82336134
Western Australia4,820,4202897
Tasmania1,720,6979172
New Zealand10,324,9881406

The next table sets forth the amount of the trade of each of the above-named colonies with the United Kingdom in 1898:—

Colony.Imports from the United Kingdom.Exports to the United Kingdom.Total Trade with the United Kingdom.
 £££
Queensland2,559,2444,352,0676,911,311
New South Wales7,744,4187,734,88015,479,298
Victoria6,195,1346,740,42012,935,554
South Australia1,974,8182,306,2024,281,020
Ditto, Northern Territory11,82227,57439,396
Western Australia2,051,8722,293,6524,345,524
Tasmania465,544431,518897,062
New Zealand5,148,8338,265,49913,414,332

The statement appended shows the relative importance of the Australasian Colonies as a market for the productions of the United Kingdom:—

EXPORTS OF HOME PRODUCTIONS FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM, IN 1898, TO
 £
British India and Ceylon30,906,727
Germany22,525,987
Australasia21,105,728
United States14,716,489
France13,706,246
Cape of Good Hope and Natal12,119,810
Russia9,227,968
Belgium8,802,075
Holland8,618,719

The exports to other countries did not amount to £7,000,000 in any one case.

The Australasian Colonies as a whole, with a population of about 4,500,000, thus take the third place in importance as consumers of British produce, the exports thereto being more than two-thirds the value of similar exports to British India, with its 290,000,000 inhabitants.

Chapter 36. SECTION VII.—MANUFACTORIES AND WORKS.

INFORMATION respecting manufactories and works is only collected once in every five years, at the time of the census. The figures which have been published relating to the year 1896 will be found fully detailed in the Year-book of 1897, and more shortly in that for 1899, but, owing to changed conditions and recent developments, it is not considered advisable to republish them. Another census will be taken in March, 1901, when fresh information will be obtained showing the full magnitude of the industries of the colony, both as to number and value of production.

Chapter 37. SECTION VIII.—EDUCATION.

THE replies given by householders to the inquiry on the census schedules for 1896 showed that in every 100 persons living (excluding Chinese), 80.60 per cent. could read and write, 2.89 could read only, and 16.51 were unable to read. The proportion per cent. unable to read fell from 23.72 in 1878 to 21.19 in 1886, and further to 16.51 in 1896. Of those who could read only, the proportion diminished from 6.76 in 1878 till in 1896 it stood at 2.89 per cent.

The following shows the percentages at each census period:—

 Read and Write.Read only.Cannot read.
 Persons.M.F.Persons.M.F.Persons.M.F.
187869.5272.1166.336.765.917.8023.7221.9825.87
188171.3273.3168.945.635.016.3923.0521.6824.67
188674.0175.4072.414.804.365.3121.1920.2422.28
189177.2777.9776.483.973.744.2418.7618.2919.28
189680.6081.0680.092.892.713.0816.5116.2316.83

Besides the improvement in the degree of education shown above, which is observed in respect of females as well as males, it will be noticed that whereas the difference in the percentage able to read and write is very considerably in favour of the male sex for the year 1878, the proportions approximate more closely at each successive census year, until in 1896 there are found to have been 80.09 per cent. of the female sex who could read and write, against 81.06 of males. Doubtless when the results of the next census are known, the education of the females, taking as a standard the knowledge of reading and writing, will be equal to that of the males. But with a system of free and compulsory education this would be expected in time, and the census results have no longer the degree of importance or interest they had years ago.

In considering the proportions of the population at different age-periods the improvement in education is even more clearly proved. It is found that in 1896, of persons at the age-period 10–15 years, 98.73 per cent. were able to read and write, while 0.65 per cent. could merely read, and 0.62 per cent. were unable to read. The proportion who could not read increased slowly with each succeeding quinquennial period of age until at 50–55 years it stood at 4.04 per cent. At 75–80 years the proportion was 7.05, and at 80 and upwards it advanced to 8.07. Similarly, the proportion of persons who could read only increased from 0.65 at 10–15 years to 3.66 at the period 50–55 years, and again to 9.74 at 80 and upwards. The better education of the people at the earlier ages is thus exhibited.

Further evidences of improved education will be found in the portion of this work relating to marriages, where it is shown that the proportion of persons in every 1,000 married who signed by mark has fallen very greatly since 1881. The figures for the sexes in the year 1881 were 32.04 males and 57.94 females, against 6.19 males and 7.02 females in 1896.

SCHOOLS.

It has been found impossible to collect the full statistics relating to schooling for the year 1899 in time for this work, and the figures for the previous year are accordingly given.

The number of schools, teachers, and scholars, as in December, 1898, is shown in the following summary:—

Description of Schools.Number of Schools.Teachers.Scholars.
EUROPEAN.   
Public (Government) schools (scholars other than Maoris and half-castes)1,6243,664129,266
Public (Government) schools (half-castes living among Europeans)1,6243,664129,992
Colleges, grammar, and high schools (aided or endowed)251462,706
Private and denominational schools (excluding Maori scholars)29477914,782
Industrial schools and orphanages3..718
Native village schools, European children attending....280
Private Native boarding - schools, European children attending....24
School for Deaf mutes1550
Jubilee Institute for Blind1227
                Totals—European1,9534,596148,845
Description of SchoolsNumber of Schools.Teachers.Scholars.
NATIVE.   
Native village schools supported by Government (excluding European children stated above)801442,692
Private Native boarding-schools (maintenance of scholars paid by Government)41479
Private Native boarding-schools (maintenance of scholars paid from endowments)414132
Private Native day-schools3569
Public (Government) schools, Maoris attending....1,164
Public (Government) schools, half-castes living as Maoris attending....199
Private and denominational schools for Europeans, Maoris attending....75
                Totals—Native871634,410

Thus at the end of 1898 there were 2,040 schools of all classes at which members of the European and Maori races were being educated. This was an increase of 62 on the number in 1897. The public primary schools numbered 1,624 in 1898, against 1,585 in 1897. The number of aided or endowed colleges, grammar, and high schools was 25, one more than in the previous year. The number of private schools from which returns were received by the Registrar-General was 294, an increase of 16. There were also 8 industrial schools and orphanages, public and private, as well as a school for deaf-mutes subsidised by Government, and a school for the blind.

The number of schools established for the education of the Native or Maori race was 87, six more than in 1897.

Education at the public schools is free (except that, at such as are also district high schools, fees are charged for the teaching of the higher branches) and purely secular. The attendance of all children between the ages of 7 and 13 is compulsory, except when special exemptions are granted, or a child is being otherwise sufficiently educated.

The subjects of instruction at the primary schools are required by the Education Act to be the following: Reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar and composition, geography, history, elementary science and drawing, object-lessons, vocal music, and (in the case of girls) sewing and needlework, and the principles of domestic economy. Provision must also be made for the instruction in military drill of all boys in these schools.

Public (Government) Schools.

Compared with 1897 there was in 1898 a falling-off in the number of pupils belonging to the public schools at the end of the year, as well as in the average attendance, a fact thus commented upon in the report of the Minister of Education:—

The capitation grants depend (for the time being) on the “working average,” which is found for each school by omitting from the calculation all the attendances on those half-days on which less than half the pupils on the roll are present. The working average for the year 1898 was estimated at 113,800; but the returns show that it actually was 111,636—less by 692 than the corresponding number for 1897.

The “strict average” is based upon the attendances on all the half days at which any pupils are present. The “strict average” for 1898 was 110,256, showing a decrease for the year, as compared with the previous year, of 737.

The average of the weekly roll-numbers taken throughout the year 1898 was 133,782, or 179 less than for 1897. As the strict average attendance was 110,256, we have 82.4 per cent. as the figure representing the regularity of attendance for 1898. In the previous year the average attendance was 82.9 per cent. of the average weekly roll.

SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AND YEARLY INCREASE FROM 1877 TO 1898.
YearSchool Attendance.Yearly Increase on
Number belonging at Beginning of Year.Number belonging at End of Year.Average Attendance.Average Attendance expressed as Percentage of Roll number.Number belonging at Beginning of Year.Number belonging at End of Year.Average Attendance.
Fourth Quarter.Whole Year.Fourth Quarter.Whole Year.
1877...55,688.....................
187850,84965,04049,43545,521......9,352......
187959,70775,56657,30153,06773.88,85810,5267,8667,546
188068,12482,40162,94660,62574.68,4176,8355,6457,558
188174,35983,56063,00961,82274.26,2351,159631,197
188276,30987,17966,42663,70973.61,9503,6193,4171,887
188379,41692,47670,07767,37374.03,1075,2973,6513,664
188484,88397,23874,65072,65775.15,4674,7624,5735,284
188590,670102,40780,18378,32776.65,7875,1695,5335,670
188695,377106,32883,36180,73776.14,7073,9213,1782,410
188799,206110,91987,38685,63777.03,8294,5914,0254,900
1888103,534112,68590,84990,10879.34,3281,7663,4634,471
1889104,919115,45694,30893,37480.31,3852,7713,4593,266
1890108,158117,91296,67094,63279.93,2392,4562,3621,258
1891110,665119,52396,26497,05880.32,5071,611[—406]2,426
1892112,279122,620100,91799,07080.61,6143,0974,6532,012
1893114,305124,68699,87298,61578.52,0262,066[—1,045][—455]
1894116,819127,300106,151103,49080.62,5142,6146,2794,875
1895119,900129,856107,222106,62281.43,0812,5561,0713,132
1896122,425131,037109,253108,97682.12,5251,1812,0312,354
1897123,533132,197110,523110,99382.91,1081,1601,2702,017
1898123,892131,621107,904110,25682.4359[—576][—2,619][—737]

Reference to above table shows that there has been only one other year—viz., 1893—in which the total average attendance has fallen below that of the previous year. It is significant that in both years the colony was visited by an epidemic of measles. In 1893 the attendance fell from 80.6 to 78.5 of the average roll—that is, apparently about 2,640 children were absent each day throughout the year; but the epidemic lasted for only part of the year, and each child would be away from school, say, five or six weeks. We might say, roughly, therefore, that about 20,000 school-children were affected. In 1898 the percentage of attendance fell from 82.9 to 82.4, or there was an apparent falling-off in the average attendance of about 670; the epidemic was much slighter, and the absences from school were, as a matter of fact, shorter in duration, although on medical grounds apparently no difference in the length of absence from school should be made whether the outbreak assumes, in any particular case, a mild or a malignant form. We are probably not far from the truth if we estimate that in 1898 about 7,000 school children were affected. Quite apart from considerations of health, it appears not improbable, therefore, that by the enforcement of stricter concerted measures of quarantine, Boards and Committees might considerably lessen the interruptions to school work, and thus increase the efficiency of the work; while they might, at the same time, guard themselves against the serious loss of revenue consequent upon the prolonged prevalence of an epidemic affecting school children.

It is worthy of remark that the average daily attendance for the fourth quarter was only 107,904, or 2,619 less than that for the fourth quarter of 1897. The totals of the average daily attendance for the first three quarters of 1898 and 1897 respectively were 111,040 and 111,150, which show a much smaller decrease for 1898 than appears from a comparison of the fourth quarter.

Even if we make allowance for the sickness that affected the attendance of school-children, by adding 670 to the average attendance for the year, we still find that it is less than that of the year before.

Technical Education.

“The Manual and Technical Elementary Instruction Act, 1895,” provides for the granting of subsidies to classes established for instruction in such branches of science and art as are encouraged by the Science and Art Department (South Kensington) and the City and Guilds of London Institute, and also to workshops connected with public schools; and the same Act allows part of the ordinary school-time to be given to elementary manual instruction. During 1898, subsidy was paid on classes in drawing and painting, clay-modelling, carpentry and other woodwork, plumbers' work, painters' work, ironwork, mechanical engineering, mechanics, physics, chemistry, agricultural analysis, laundry work, dressmaking and millinery, cookery, mathematics and geometry, shorthand, and bookkeeping. In several of the high schools manual and technical instruction is given as part of the school course.

There are four fully-equipped Schools of Art, the classes in which during 1898 were attended by about 1,400 students.

In connection with the Canterbury College there is an endowed School of Engineering and Technical Science, the students in which work for the university degree of B.Sc. in Engineering. Eighty-nine students attended in 1898.

The Canterbury Agricultural College has an endowment of over 60,000 acres of land, and possesses extensive buildings, and an experimental farm of a very complete character. The students work for the university degree of B.Sc. in Agriculture. There were 41 students in 1898.

There are two Government Schools of Mines located in districts in which mining is actively carried on, and the Otago University maintains a professorial chair of mining and metallurgy, to which the Government makes an annual grant of £500. The number of students in mining in 1898 was over 250, forty-seven of whom were at the Otago University.

As stated, the Act makes it lawful for any Education Board to order that manual instruction be given in any public school under its control as if manual instruction had been included in the list of subjects prescribed in the Education Act.

With the view of encouraging attendance at technical schools and classes, arrangements have been made with the Railway Department by which teachers of classes registered with the Minister of Education may give certificates to their pupils which will enable them to obtain railway tickets at special rates.

During the year examinations were held upon papers supplied by the Science and Art Department (South Kensington), and the City and Guilds of London Institute.

The following table shows the results of examinations conducted in the colony on behalf of the Science and Art Department, London, and of the City and Guilds of London Institute:—

LONDON TECHNICAL AND ART EXAMINATIONS, 1898.
[“C” represents candidates; “P” passes.]
Subjects of Examination.Auckland.WanganuiWellington.Wellington Sub-centres.*Nelson.Christchurch.Timaru.Dunedin.Invercargill.

Total of papers, 1,067; total of passes, 812.

* Pahiatua, Masterton, Otaki, and Westport.

† Wellington also obtained three prizes for works.

SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT.CPCPCPCPCPCPCPCPCP
Art.                  
Drawing in light and shade (elementary)9512927221.........66432316......
Drawing in light and shade (advanced)73661412......4477......1210......
Perspective (elementary)......1111101...1...1111111714......
Model drawing (elementary)10911115250119......2119854742......
“ (advanced)8532119......4387......1312......
Freehand drawing of ornament (elementary)161334284641106......2621986552......
Freehand drawing of ornament (advanced)121113111514......4388......1313......
Geometrical drawing (art)33......11......43......221412......
Design (elementary)............43............75..................
“ (advanced)............1.......................................
Painting from still life......6444............65......53......
Drawing from the life............74............21......2.........
Drawing from the antique............2...............55......31......
Painting ornament in monochrome3332..............................11......
Principles of ornament (elementary)......1111............11..................
Students works......1133719......16...............2814......
Science.                  
Practical plane and solid geometry......3354......1155......1310......
Mathematics, stages 1, 2, 332....................................2.........
Magnetism and electricity..........................................11......
Machine construction and drawing178......95........................136......
Building construction9711108............66......1110......
Steam............11....................................
Human physiology............11....................................
Inorganic chemistry (theory)..........................................11......
Agriculture..................55..............................
Applied mechanics..........................................32......
CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE.                  
Telegraphy and telephony............11....................................
Electric lighting (preliminary)............11....................................
“ (ordinary)............11....................................
Metal-plate work..........................................11......
Carpentry and joinery (preliminary)11................................................
“ (ordinary)11......66........................22......
Woodwork..............................2017............44
Bookbinding..........................................22......
Photography..........................................11......
Cookery..............................1312..................
Mechanical engineering73......1...........................42......
Plumbing (preliminary)82......21....................................
“ (written)52......145........................44......
“ (practical)4.........113....................................
Totals123781058229622728203414152136241930123244

The twenty-second annual report of the Minister of Education gives the following remarks on manual training and technical instruction:—

The past year (1898) has been marked by a largely increased degree of interest in the question of manual and technical education, and, apart from the direct benefits derived from the aid rendered to classes for manual training and technical instruction, the Act of 1895 is bearing fruit by educating public opinion, and by preparing the way for larger and more comprehensive measures. What has been done in Great Britain, in America, and on the Continent of Europe has become more widely known through the medium of public journals and magazines, and the recent publication of Mr. A. D. Riley's report on “Manual and Technical Instruction” (E.–5B, 1898) has undoubtedly stimulated the minds of people throughout the colony, and tended to remove misconceptions as to the aims and methods of the new movement in education.

In many primary schools in different parts of the colony an increasing amount of attention is being paid to kindergarten occupations in the infant classes, and to manual exercises intended as a continuation of them in some of the standard classes. Several of the secondary schools provide a certain amount of manual instruction; but it is doubtful how far either this work or the work done in the primary schools has been co-ordinated with the other subjects of instruction, or has become an organic part of the education given in the schools. We are, perhaps, in danger of forgetting that manual training—the specific training of the hand and eye in conjunction with the brain—involves not so much the introduction of a new subject as a change of method i.e. treatment of nearly all the subjects included in the school course; that it not only develops powers that would often otherwise remain dormant, but provides, amidst the complexity of the demands of modern educational systems, the key to a true co-ordination so long sought for by Herbart and other earnest teachers. If our pupils are taught by direct observation of things, and if at the same time their constructive and creative activities are called into play, the different parts of their education are truly co-ordinated, because the various subjects of instruction are all, in a real sense, co-ordinated with nature. All other co-ordinations are more or less artificial. The principle of natural co-ordination is in reality an extension of the ideas of Froebel as exemplified in the best kindergartens. The same principle can be applied throughout all education—not only in the infant classes, but also in the higher stages of primary education, in secondary, and even in university education. Some of our best teachers already recognise this fact, and herein consists our best hope not merely for manual and technical education, but for a general advance in the intellectual training of the nation.

We must come to realise the fact that, unless we assign to eye and hand and ear their proper place in each subject, the path of progress is closed to us. This is quite obvious in regard to skill in the industries, technical or agricultural, and, on careful thought, in regard also to commercial or professional knowledge; hence the demand for technical education, which is a projecting, out of the realm of general education into that of special education, of the principles already enunciated.

It has been said that “manual training includes all processes that train the muscles and the mind to work in harmony.” At the same time that the hand is being practised in movements of dexterity, there are stimulated in the mind the observation of form and the appreciation of beauty, which are the elements of artistic taste. The first step towards actually realising this would be the improvement of drawing in the schools, so that it might become truly a mode of expression rather than a mere slavish imitation of drawing-book copies. This, on the side of the arts, would give rise to original design; while the constructive instinct would concentrate the ideas of measurement, the perception of the relations of form, and of the properties of matter, into creative effort.

One of the healthiest effects of manual training, and a sufficient justification for its inclusion in a scheme of general education, is that it trains the judgment to deal with practical life; it thus fosters the constructive instinct, and counteracts the tendency of a too exclusively bookish school system towards sedentary occupations and town life; while, by opening out new avenues for the natural activities, it enables the teacher or the parent to discover more easily the natural bent of a boy or girl. The same ideas that prompt manual training will lead to making concrete teaching the basis of all mathematical instruction; to the greater use of open-air teaching in geography and the natural sciences in preference to the use of books; to work in physical and chemical science that is experimental and based on individual effort; to teaching in history that does not separate it from the political and social life of the present; possibly also to methods of language-teaching in which emphasis is laid not on the dry bones of grammar, but on the actual use of a language for speaking, reading, and writing. Fallacies die hard; were it not so, it would never be contended that these new methods give an intellectual training inferior to that given by the old bookish methods. On the contrary, we have lost the full value even of books, because they deal so much with what are to us abstractions; if the things they treat of were actually known to us, how many books would live that now are nothing but words! Slavery to formal examination tests has perhaps been one of the greatest obstacles to progress, and should accordingly be guarded against in the future.

In short, in order that the introduction of manual training into our primary and secondary schools may have its full beneficial effect, this training should be an organic part of the education of the schools; and, that being so, it should be given within the school-hours, and as far as possible by the ordinary teacher, who should be trained for that purpose. Unless co-ordinated naturally with the other “subjects,” and therefore inevitably influencing the methods generally throughout the school, manual instruction must more or less fail. Technical education, which is specialisation in the direction of a trade after a certain stage in intellectual development has been reached,—probably even technical education will partially fail if altogether dissociated from a continued advance in general education, although the want of that has very little influence on mere manual dexterity.

The larger and more comprehensive measures referred to above should therefore include provision for manual instruction in primary and secondary schools; for domestic instruction; for the better teaching of drawing and science; for technical education in special classes, industrial, mechanical, or agricultural in character; for continuation classes; for workshops and art schools; for commercial education; for technology in university colleges; for the training of teachers; with further provision for scholarships, and for the proper direction and inspection of the whole system. Moreover, the plea for manual training and technical instruction, and, in general, for the greater use of concrete methods in teaching, has a peculiar force in reference to our Native schools, and they should therefore have a share in the benefits of any scheme that may be inaugurated. Due attention should be given also to local needs, and to the effective use of existing agencies. Altogether, the problem is not a simple one, and it would not be difficult to waste large sums of public money in attempting its solution. But, if we proceed with care, the experience of Great Britain and other countries ought to show us how to avoid many of the mistakes into which they have fallen. It seems, at all events, impossible to go back now; and the time appears to have come for a decided advance.

The figures given in the succeeding table speak for themselves: they show the administration of the resources afforded by the Act of 1895; the capitation paid to Education Boards, technical classes associations, and private adventure classes for certain subjects or groups of subjects; and the amounts of special grants in certain cases.

MANUAL AND TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION, 1898.
School or Instructor.Subjects of Instruction (grouped), and Average Attendance.Payments.
Freehand (from Flat and Round) and Shading.Drawing from Nature, Painting, and Modelling.Mechanical Drawing and Engineering, and Machine Construction.Geometry and Perspective.Design and Ornament.Architecture, and Building Construction.Mathematics.Natural and Experimental Science (Botany, Chemistry, and Physics).Woodwork.Plumbing (Theory and Practice).Domestic Instruction.English, and Commercial Subjects.Singing.Capitation.Special Grants.
              £s.d.£s.d.
Technical Classes Association, Auckland121765..10....167167..541210000
“Elam" School of Art, Auckland18....54..................5869..
Robinson, Mr. W. I., Auckland....149....................4287..
Education Board, Auckland—
Devonport Public School................22........10197..
Remuera Public School................9........5197..
Education Board, Wanganui—
Technical School, Wanganui45601319105..1712..812..1108110000
Technical classes, Palmerston North13....27..................2379..
Education Board, Wellington—
Technical School, Wellington15011153108202433..2334..21713701791,50000
Paraparaumu Public School................13........264..
Cross Creek Public School................12........266..
Mauriceville Public School................13........9183..
Technical School, Masterton19............9....21836..10858..
Philosophical Institute, Napier..............28..........1150..
Hardie and Manning, Misses, Napier......................18..2975..
Technical Classes Association, Gisborne......................22..831..
Education Board, Marlborough—
Blenheim Public School......................40..1548..
Renwick Public School......................19..742..
Technical Classes Association, Westport....4....................170..
Education Board, Grey—
Greymouth Public School................19........16185..
Education Board, Westland—
Kumara Public School................10........23110..
Canterbury School of Art, Christchurch192199..8610110..............16690..
School of Domestic Instruction, Christ'ch....................99....72457000
Education Board, North Canterbury—
Normal School................96........47150..
Amberley Public School....................38....733..
Leeston Public School................8........463..
Young Men's Christian Assn., Christ'ch......................12..2904..
Carr, Miss A. M., Christchurch......................93..15800..
Digby, Mr. H. W. L., Christchurch......................84..5650..
Gilby, Mr. C. H., Christchurch......................48..126185..
Technical Classes Association, Ashburton..............26..........14711700
Technical Classes Association, Dunedin....19........45113656134..6630910137
Technical Classes Association, Balclutha................3..316..2154..
Technical Classes Association, Warepa............11......665..4194..
Technical Classes Association, Waiwera S................8........2100..
Technical Classes Association, Romohapa....................712..3113..
Technical Classes Association, Invercargill..............936..912..111763000
Technical Classes Association, Te Oneroa............3............12169..
Education Board, Otago—
School of Art, Dunedin1501813118943..............198137..
Balclutha Public School................26........9124..
Tokomairiro Public School..............1517........81810..
Kidson Hunter, Mr. A. G., Dunedin............24............11170..
 599405257417140924717335477520591711,9181212,717137

The incidental expenditure is as follows:—

 £s.d.
Examinations of Science and Art Department57128
Examinations of City and Guilds of London Institute2022
Railway fares of students76118
Railway fares of instructors5116
Freight on loan collection of works from South Kensington21110
Publications0168
                Total£208166

New Zealand University.

The introduction of university education into New Zealand was effected by the Superintendent and Provincial Council of Otago, who in 1869 passed an Ordinance under which the University of Otago was established. Following closely on the founding of this institution was the establishment of the University of New Zealand under an Act of the General Assembly, “The New Zealand University Act, 1870.” This University subsequently received a Royal charter, whereby the degrees which it confers are declared entitled to “rank, precedence, and consideration” throughout the British Empire “as fully as if the said degrees had been conferred by any university of the United Kingdom.” It was apparently contemplated by Parliament (vide section 19 of the Act last quoted) that the New Zealand University and the Otago University should be amalgamated; but the negotiations for this purpose having failed the two institutions remained for some time distinct bodies. In the year 1874, however, the University of Otago surrendered or put in abeyance its power of conferring degrees, and became affiliated to the University of New Zealand, and at the same time it was stipulated that the University of New Zealand should not directly exercise functions of teaching.

In the year 1873 the Superintendent and Provincial Council of Canterbury passed an Ordinance for founding “The Canterbury College,” and the college was accordingly established with the same standard of university education as that of the University of Otago, but without the power of conferring degrees.

In December, 1878, a Royal Commission on University and Secondary Education was appointed by the Governor, which met in July, 1879, and reported that two colleges, with an income of £4,000 each, ought to be established in Auckland and Wellington, and that suitable buildings, at a cost of £12,500 each, should be erected in those cities. In the following year the Royal Commission repeated these recommendations.

“The Auckland University College Act, 1882,” which became law on the 13th September in that year, definitely established the college, and endowed it with a statutory grant of £4,000 per annum. By “The Auckland University College Reserves Act, 1885,” three blocks of land, containing about 10,000 acres each, and a block containing about 354 acres, which had been devoted to the purpose of promoting higher education in the Province of Auckland, became vested in the Council of University College.

The Auckland University College was affiliated to the University of New Zealand by the Senate of the university on the 6th March, 1883, and on the 21st May in the same year the college was opened by the Governor.

Nothing was done for Wellington until the year 1894, when an Act was passed entitled “The Middle District of New Zealand University College Act, 1894,” which said “There shall be established in the City of Wellington a college to be connected with the University of New Zealand,” and provision was made for a governing body to be called the Council, but no provision was made for any pecuniary grant nor any endowment, and, though certain members of the Council were appointed, nothing could be done for want of funds.

Not until 1897 were the needs of Wellington actually attended to. In the session of Parliament that year the Right Hon. Mr. Seddon, P.C., Premier of the colony, introduced the Victoria College Act: an Act, as stated in the preamble, “to promote Higher Education by the establishment of a College at Wellington in commemoration of the sixtieth year of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria,” the college being intended to embrace in its work the Provincial Districts of Wellington, Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Nelson, Marlborough, and Westland. The Act was passed on the 22nd December, 1897, and the Council was formed as provided in the Act, and the work of organization was begun. The Act provides for the payment out of the Consolidated Fund of a grant of £4,000 a year, and also requires the Council to give six scholarships each year, called “Queen's Scholarships,” to persons of either sex under the age of fourteen years, upon the results of an examination under such conditions as the Council may provide. The Act further sets apart a parcel of land 4,000 acres in extent in the Nukumaru Survey District (Wellington Provincial District) as an endowment for the college.

The Council of the college has established four chairs: classics, English, mathematics and mathematical physics, and chemistry and physics; and lectureships in French, German, mental science, jurisprudence and constitutional history, general history, and political economy and law. It is intended as funds allow to add other subjects.

The New Zealand University is not a teaching body, as above explained, undergraduates hitherto for the most part keeping their terms at one or other of the affiliated institutions: the Auckland University College, the Victoria College, the Canterbury College, and the University of Otago, each of which has now a staff of professors and lecturers. On the 1st June, 1899, the number of graduates who had obtained direct degrees was 641.

The number of undergraduates on the roll of the University at that date was 2,205 (exclusive of such as had not performed any academical act for a period of ten years), but only 869 were keeping terms (not including undergraduates who had not, in the last two years, entered at a college or come up for any college or university examination), of whom 602 were males and 267 females. Eighty-six of the males and nineteen of the females were medical students. The numbers of students attending lectures at the affiliated institutions during the year 1898–99 were as follow: At the Auckland University College, 97 matriculated and 114 non-matriculated; at Canterbury College, 131 matriculated and 56 non-matriculated; at the Otago University, 234 matriculated and 35 non-matriculated. The Victoria College, before-mentioned, affords further facilities for university students, and in June, 1899, had a total of 103 students on the roll.

Private and Denominational Schools.

There were 294 private schools in the colony at the end of 1898, an increase of 16 on the number in 1897: 32 were for boys, 49 for girls, and 213 for children of both sexes. The number of pupils attending them was 14,782—namely, 6,043 boys and 8,739 girls, not counting Maoris, 49 boys and 26 girls. The number of European pupils at these schools was more than in 1897 by 335. Of the private schools, 124 were Roman Catholic, with an attendance of 10,175 pupils.

The following gives, for the past ten years, the number of private schools and of Europeans attending them, the number of Roman Catholic schools and pupils being also shown separately:—

Year.Number of Private Schools.Pupils.Included in Previous Numbers.
Boys.Girls.Totals.Roman Catholic SchoolsPupils at Roman Catholic Schools.
18892935,7787,68013,458959,024
18902985,7597,86713,6261089,474
18912816,2347,90814,14211010,144
18922746,3218,13514,45010510,111
18932996,4318,49114,92211110,263
18943026,1178,51014,6271179,953
18952986,1878,47214,65911410,458
18962835,8458,10213,9471159,590
18972785,9748,47314,4471209,642
18982946,0438,73914,78212410,175

The total number of children of European descent (including such half-castes as live among Europeans) known to be receiving education at school at the end of 1898 was 148,845; of these, 140,890 were from 5 to 15 years of age. The census showed also 6,352 children receiving tuition at home in 1896, against 8,178 in 1891. No doubt increased school accommodation in country places does away with the need for tutors and governesses to a certain extent.

The distribution of the private schools in the various provincial districts of the colony is shown in the two following tables:—

PRIVATK AND DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS, 1898.—SUMMARY BY PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS.
Provincial DistrictsNumber of Schools.Number of Teachers.Number of Scholars.Daily Average Attendance.
Boys.Girls.Mixed.Total.Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.

*Exclusive of 75 Maoris (49 boys, 26 girls).

NOTE.—Denominational schools, such as Roman Catholic and Anglican, are included in the above as private schools. Particulars for the Roman Catholic schools in December. 1898, are as under:—

Auckland5105974261381641,3602,0743,4341,1791,8383,017
Taranaki11101212627157300457120241361
Hawke's Bay4491793645410452862352369721
Wellington7133959491371861,2221,8153,0371,1111,6142,725
Marlborough1146 121213716730495133228
Nelson33101693241365507872321451772
Westland1...91022022282282564218254472
Canterbury7104259151381531,1701,7062,8769881,4372,425
Otago373141131161299401,4362,3767931,2842,077
        Totals32492132941246557796,0438,73914,782*5,1777,62112,798
SUMMARY OF ROMAN CATHOLIC SCHOOLS.
Provincial DistrictsNumber of Schools.Number of Teachers.Number of Scholars.Daily Average Attendance.
Boys.Girls.Mixed.Total.Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.
Auckland471930965748331,2442,0776981,0781,776
Taranaki...134...141410919930880159239
Hawke's Bay224862531305363668255290545
Wellington3412192258807821,0811,8697179641,681
Marlborough1124...991271322598598183
Nelson1258...2121222381603189335524
Westland1...8921921269267536208242450
Canterbury3413201059698781,1532,0317369781,714
Otago3316221163748121,0181,8306989191,617
        Totals182482124603333934,3375,83810,1753,6665,0638,729

Schools for Natives.

The number of Native village schools at the end of 1898 either supported or subsidised by the Government was 80, or six more than at the end of the previous year. In addition, there were four boarding-schools for Native children, the cost of whose maintenance was partly paid either by the Government or from endowments, and three private Native day-schools. The number of Maori children attending schools during the fourth quarter of 1898 was 4,410—namely, 2,571 males and 1,839 females. These included 295 half-castes at the Native village schools who were living as members of Maori tribes, and 199 at public European schools.

The numbers at the several schools in 1897 and 1898 were as follow:—

Schools.Maori Children attending Schools.
Boys.Girls.Total of both Sexes.
1897.1898.1897.1898.1897.1898.
At public European schools7468345125291,2581,363
At Native village schools1,4241,5311,1441,1612,5682,692
At subsidised or endowed boarding-schools103106103105206211
At private European or Native schools681008644154144
                Totals2,3412,5711,8451,8394,1864,410

There was thus, in 1898, an increase of 230 in the number of Maori boys, and a decrease of six in the number of Maori girls attending school.

Sixty-two out of the eighty Native village schools in operation on 31st December, 1898, were under the charge of masters, and eighteen under mistresses; there were besides sixty-three assistants, and ten sewing-mistresses. The salaries paid to the head-teachers range from £100 to £248, and those for assistants and sewing-mistresses from £7 to £50.

The expenditure on Native schools for 1898 was as follows: Teachers' salaries and allowances, £13,192 11s. 4d.; books and school requisites, £560 17s. 1d.; repairs and small works, £406 19s. 7d.; inspection, £855 13s. 11d.; boarding-schools and scholarships, £1,822 11s. 5d.; buildings, fencing, furniture, &c., £5,584 15s. 5d.; sundries, £167 17s. 1d.: total, £22,591 5s. 10d.

Income and Expenditure of Education Boards.

The total income of the various Education Boards for the year 1898 was £509,413. The grants by Government amounted to £463,405, an increase of £11,366 on the grants in 1897. These grants consist of (a) a statutory allowance of £3 15s. per child in daily average attendance, (b) a further capitation allowance of 1s. 6d. for scholarships, (c) a varying sum for school buildings, and (d grants for technical education. The income from reserves amounted to £38,024, and that from local receipts, interest, and miscellaneous sources to £7,984.

The total expenditure in 1898 amounted to £498,715, of which the sum of £412,374 was laid out on the maintenance of the schools, £12,649 used to meet expenses of the Boards, £13,077 spent on inspection of schools and examination of pupil-teachers, £52,720 on school buildings, £6,113 for manual and technical instruction, and £1,782 on miscellaneous services, including salaries of truant officers.

The receipts and expenditure of the Education Boards, numbering thirteen altogether, are tabulated below, with further particulars:—

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE OF EDUCATION BOARDS.

Receipts£s.d.
To Balance, 1st January, 189814,317173
Government grants—
Maintenance396,114611
Buildings64,73326
Technical2,557138
Reserves revenues38,023154
Local receipts—
Fees, donations, &c6,312181
Rents, sales, &c.1,308185
Interest9674
Refunds, deposits, &c.26622
 £523,73118
By Boards' administration12,64906
Inspection and examination13,0761611
Teachers' salaries and allowances, and training366,20755
Incidental expenses of schools38,057110
Scholarships8,10988
Manual and technical instruction6,112109
Interest2711010
Buildings, sites, plans, &c.52,719184
Refunds and sundries1,510174
Balances25,016111
 £523,73118

Particulars of the scholarships and the expenditure of the Boards thereon in 1898 are given in detail. The only institutions for the training of teachers are in North Canterbury and Otago. These two institutions have received grants-in-aid of £300 each.

SCHOLARSHIPS.

Education Districts.Number held in Dec., 1898.Boys.Girls.Period of Tenure.Boards' Expenditure on Scholarships in 1898.Annual Value, &c.
    Years.£s.d. 
Auckland80522831,5011343 at £30, 19 at £25, 21 at £20, and 37 at £15.
Taraualu9362232176£10.
Wanganui1486Varies55210710 at £40, 1 at £20, 3 at £15
Wellington4124172823185 at £35, 5at £30, 31 at £15.
Hawke's Bay27141324673108 at £30 4s., 19 at £10 4s.
Marlborough431216000£40.
Nelson6332368010£52 12s.
Grey8623100004 at £35, 4 at £10.
Westland106421091001 each at £23 and £12, 8 at £8.
North Canterbury37251221,35281017 at £40, 20 at £20.
South Canterbury23111224151364 at £34, 4 at £28, 1 each at £17, £12, £9, £8, £6, 10 at £4.
Otago533518Varies1,3651218 at £40, 8 at £35, 3 at £24, 18 at £20, 1 at £17, 15 at £15.
Southland20155Varies600161111 at £35, 9 at £20.
        Totals, 1898332205127...8,10988 
        Totals, 1807319199120...7,76955 

Income and Expenditure of Secondary or Superior Schools.

A summary of the accounts of income and expenditure for the year 1898, as furnished by the governing bodies of the secondary or superior schools in the colony, shows the total receipts to have been £58,122 18s. 2d. To this total, rents and sales of reserves contributed £24,307 9s. 8d.; interest on investments, and other receipts from endowments, £4,276 7s. 9d.; fees, £28,906 3s. 7d.; and miscellaneous, £632 17s. 2d.

The total expenditure amounted to £59,337 16s. 1d., of which sum office management and expenses absorbed £2,133 0s. 4d.; teachers' salaries, £32,358 11s. 9d.; scholarships and prizes, £2,725 18s. 7d.; buildings, furniture, insurance, rates, and rent, &c., £11,659 2s. 7d.; and other expenditure, £10,461 2s. 10d.

A summary of the accounts for the year 1898, exhibiting further details, is given below:—

SECONDARY OR SUPERIOR SCHOOLS, 1898.

Receipts.£s.d.
To Credit balances on 1st January, 189821,124114
Endowment reserves sold1,482910
Rents of reserves22,8241910
Interest on investments1,954116
Reserves Commissioners2,321163
School fees24,344157
Boarding-school fees4,50180
Books, &c., sold, and refunds9032
Sundries not classified434182
Interest on current account1071510
Debit balances, 31st December, 18983,549183
 £82,79779
By Liabilities on 1st January, 18984,1471811
Office management and expenses2,13104
Teachers' salaries32,358119
Boarding-school accounts3,962211
Examination fees and expenses5501411
Scholarships and prizes2,725187
Printing, stationery, and advertising1,53739
Cleaning, fuel, light, &c1,428106
Buildings, furniture, rent, insurance, rates, &c.11,65927
Interest1,5891910
Sundries not classified1,3861011
Credit balances, 31st December, 189819,311129
 £82,79779

Industrial Schools.

The cost of the Government schools and the amount recovered (from Charitable Aid Boards, from parents, from sale of farm produce, &c.) are next shown:—

COST OF GOVERNMENT INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, 1898.

SchoolGross Cost of School.Cost of Boarding out (Included in preceding column).Salaries of School Staff. (Included in first column.)Recoveries.Net Cost.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Auckland1,3724655419111601523241321,047116
Burnham6,1801052,5931399713102,174634,00642
Caversham8,024033,2841910852533,7177114,306124
        Totals15,5761526,4331361,984436,216729,36080
Salary and expenses of Visiting Officer      414710
Contingencies            21134
 Total         9,79692

The Government expenditure on the private industrial schools shows a net expenditure of £88 more than the corresponding amount for the preceding year.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON PRIVATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, 1898.

School.Payments.Recoveries.Net Expenditure by Government.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
St. Mary's, Ponsonby (Auckland)781304713673396
St. Joseph's, Wellington49187431044877
St. Mary's, Nelson2,0953624513101,84998
                Totals3,367151336843,03169

The total number of inmates of the two kinds of industrial schools is given for the years 1897 and 1898, and the variations in the numbers boarded out, in residence, or at service:—

INMATES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, 1897 AND 1898.

Boarded out.In ResidenceAt Service, &c.Totals.
Dec., 1897Increase.Decrease.Dec., 1898.Dec., 1897.Increase.Decrease.Dec., 1898.Dec., 1897.Increase.Decrease.Dec., 1898.Dec., 1897.Increase.Decrease.Dec., 1898.
Government Schools—
Auckland3011..4111....1137..1027781..79
Burnham1656..171100..892264..31233529..33496
Caversham1901..19188..1078214..7207492..16476
Private Schools—
St. Mary's, Auckland..2..26216..7817..2157916..95
St. Joseph's, Wellington4..13622..64129..217810..88
St. Mary's, Nelson7..16258..1324567..364332..17315
St. Vincent de Paul's, South Dunedin..........5..5..........5..5
        Totals39620241458123315736119535671,58832661,554

The inmates discharged from industrial schools during the year 1898 numbered 244, and the new inmates 210, so that the decrease in the number on the books is 34.

In the Government schools the policy is to board out all children of suitable age and character. The authorities of the private schools do not adopt the boarding-out system.

Foster-homes.

The following extract from the annual report of the Minister of Education, presented to Parliament during the session of 1899, respecting foster-homes for very young children, is given:—

As the industrial school system has grown up it has become more and more possible to pay an increased amount of attention to the classification of children committed under the Industrial Schools Act. Speaking generally, 210 difficulty has been found in providing suitable foster-homes for all very young children, and for most of the other children under twelve years of age; of the latter, some (for whom, though not actually vicious, a firmer control seems, for a time at least, desirable) are received into the schools. The schools also contain some children from twelve to fourteen, for whom foster-homes are not so easily found. Burnham and Caversham have day-schools attached to them, where the children receive instruction similar to that given in the ordinary public schools, and are examined by the Inspectors of the Education Boards. On passing the Fourth Standard, or at the age of fourteen, “inmates" are placed at service as soon as suitable situations can be found for them. The resident inmates of service age who are waiting for employment are instructed in garden, or farm, or domestic work. Boarded-out children generally remain with their foster-parents until they can be placed at service. The State, through the Managers of the schools and the Official Visitors, exercises a parent's care in guarding the interests of those placed out at service; and in many cases of boarded-out children it is gratifying to note that great assistance is tendered by the foster-parents-indeed, not infrequently the latter have shown themselves ready to pay for the services of the children they have in a certain sense adopted rather than break the home tie that has been formed. Even when circumstances have not made this course possible, evidence is not wanting that the children boarded-out for some years with foster-parents often come to regard them as real fathers and mothers, and that the moral influence of the foster-home has been that of a true home for the orphans of the State.

Both foster-homes and service-homes are inspected from time to time by the Managers, by the Visiting Officer, and by the Official Correspondents; and are under the constant supervision of ladies who voluntarily undertake the work of visiting in different districts, to whom, therefore, the thanks of the community are due for their unselfish labours.

The really difficult cases are comparatively few in number. When it is undesirable that individuals should be received into the industrial schools, special arrangements have to be made for them at corrective institutions or elsewhere. In the schools there is separation of the sexes, and the explanation already given shows that in the main there is classification as to character also.

It is to be feared that there are some of both sexes who, being above the age of committal fixed by the Industrial Schools Act, escape control altogether. For them, and for the more difficult cases already mentioned, it may be necessary at an early date to establish reformatories.

Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Institutions.

The children at the deaf-and-dumb institution at Sumner, near Christchurch, were 50 in December, 1898. The institution is under Government control. The expenditure for the year 1898 was £3,135. The children are taught to speak with the mouth, and to read articulate speech by observing the movement of the lips. The census of 1896 showed a total number of 115 deaf-and-dumb persons under 20 years of age residing in the colony, so that nearly one-half of the full number would appear to be living at the institution.

The blind pupils formerly sent to Melbourne or Sydney are now provided for in the Jubilee Institution for the Blind at Auckland. The number at the end of the year was 27. In cases where necessity has been shown, the Education. Department pays at the rate of £25 a year for each pupil, recovering what is possible from parents. The number of blind persons under 20 years of age returned at the census of 1896 as living in the colony was 57.

Sunday-schools.

As to attendance at Sunday-schools, figures can only be given for years when the census was taken. For these, a comparison can be made if the teachers be included with the scholars. Proceeding on these lines, a large development is found since 1878:—

ATTENDING SUNDAY-SCHOOLS (INCLUDING TEACHERS).

Census Year.Totals.Males.Females
187862,27330,70731,566
188699,88448,50951,375
1896116,04554,06361,982

The excess of females over males would seem as time goes on to grow greater, both numerically and in proportion to the numbers attending Sunday-school.

The number of scholars at the Sunday-schools in 1896 was 104,934, of whom 50,096 were boys and 54,838 girls. The teachers were 11,111 of both sexes, 3,967 being males and 7,144 females.

PLACES OF WORSHIP.

The total number of buildings returned as used for public worship in 1896 was 1,987, of which 1,431 were churches or chapels. These last increased by 234, or 19 per cent, on the number returned in 1891. The schoolhouses used for worship in 1896 and 1891 were 366 and 241 for the respective years; 190 dwelling-houses were used as churches or chapels at last census. Sitting accommodation was found for 334,509 persons in all buildings utilised for public worship; and the numbers attending services amounted in the aggregate to 209,731. These numbers show increase at the rate of 20.28 and 18.46 per cent. respectively since 1891, while the increase of population during the interval between the two censuses was at the rate of 12.24 per cent.

The number of buildings, in each provincial district of the colony, used for public worship in 1896 was:—

Provincial Districts.Churches and ChapelsSchool-houses used for Public Worship.Dwellings or Public Buildings used for Public Worship.Number of Persons.
For whom Accommodation.Attending Services.
Auckland329986178,10445,270
Taranaki6251613,1737,378
Hawke's Bay83201317,52611,485
Wellington209222649,32031,973
Marlborough28124,8093,361
Nelson93341117,96310,521
Westland42327,9555,001
Canterbury277611562,88442,615
Otago3081224482,77552,127
        Totals, 18961,431366190334,509209,731
        Totals, 18911,197241161278,114177,055

The number of persons belonging to each denomination in the colony was stated under the head of “Religion" on page 107 of the Year-book, 1898.

The following gives the buildings in use for purposes of public worship by the various denominations, as returned at the census of April, 1896:—

Denominations.Churches and Chapels.School-houses used for Public WorshipDwellings or Public Buildings used for Public WorshipNumber of Persons.
For whom Accommodation.Attending Services.
*Includes United Free Methodists and Bible Christians, which bodies amalgamated with the Wesleyan Methodist Church on 13th April, 1896.
Church of England4141053376,81148,117
Roman Catholics2128752,26736,080
Catholic Apostolic Church1....10050
Presbyterians3011524575,88148,751
Methodists—
        Wesleyan Methodists*249602755,77235,445
        Independent Wesleyans11..259180
        Primitive Methodists45949,3255,436
        Scandinavian Methodists1....8050
Other Denominations—
        Baptists34118,6305,652
        Congregational Independents20516,7003,475
        Lutherans151..1,510806
        Society of Friends1....6025
        Brethren27..95,3092,049
        Christian Disciples2..1262222
        Church of Christ15154,7652,738
        Christadelphians3..4395138
        New Church (Swedenborgian)1....10040
        Seventh-day Adventists5....700254
        Students of Truth1....1,200500
        New and Latter House of Israel1....5013
        Salvation Army61103024,17815,777
Non-denominational1513239,2653,503
Hebrews5....810380
Confucians1....8050
Buildings open to more than one denomination (included in the above)[15][22][9][3,855][2,062]
                Totals, 18961,431366190334,509209,731
                Totals, 18911,197241161278,114177,055

PUBLIC LIBRARIES, LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS.

Although the number of these institutions only increased from 298 to 304 between the years 1891 and 1896, according to the census returns, it will be found that the membership increased from 14,489 to 17,638, or at the rate of 21.73 per cent. There was also a large increase of books (23.83 per cent.), which numbered 330,770 in 1891, and 409,604, in 1896. In considering these facts it must be borne in mind that the population increased 12.24 per cent. in the quinquennium.

The details for all provincial districts are given, which shows that Auckland and Otago had 75 institutes each, and Canterbury 73. In membership Otago stands highest, and Auckland second; but according to number of books Auckland takes first place, Canterbury next, and Otago third.

Provincial Districts.Number of Institutions.Number of Members.Number of Books.
Auckland753,741106,577
Taranaki63787,700
Hawke's Bay171,51322,955
Wellington213,02949,712
Marlborough52347,783
Nelson2567927,363
Westland73556,602
Canterbury733,64793,981
Otago754,06286,931
        Totals, 189630417,638409,604
        Totals, 189129814,489330,770
        Totals, 188630313,684292,108
        Totals, 188122512,868198,520
        Totals, 187818712,092173,021

Chapter 38. SECTION IX.—LAW AND CRIME.

CIVIL CASES.

SITTINGS of the Supreme Court are held for trial of civil cases at Auckland, Gisborne, New Plymouth, Napier, Wellington, and Wanganui, in the North Island; and at Blenheim, Nelson, Hokitika, Christchurch, Timaru, Oamaru, Dunedin, and Invercargill, in the Middle Island.

The number of writs of summons issued in the Supreme Court in 1898 was 426, against 460 in 1897, 529 in 1896, 511 in 1895, and 664 in 1894. The number of civil cases tried decreased from 157 in 1897 to 131 in 1898. Of these last, 13 were tried before common juries, 22 by special jury, and 96 by Judge without jury. The total of amounts for which judgments were recorded in 1898 was £30,749. There were 54 writs of execution issued during the year.

Seventy-three cases were commenced at seventeen District Courts in 1898. Twelve of these cases were tried before juries, and 40 before a Judge only, making a total of 52 cases tried. Seventeen cases lapsed or were discontinued, and four remained pending. The total of amounts sued for was £10,893, and judgments were recorded for £3,226. Before the Magistrates' Courts 22,752 cases were tried, against 20,249 in 1897; the aggregate sum sued for being £296,810, and the total for which judgment was given £169,787.

COURT OF APPEAL.

Two Crown (criminal) cases were reserved from the superior Courts and brought before the Court of Appeal in 1898. In both cases the convictions were affirmed. There were appeals from 22 civil cases, of which 9 were allowed and 13 dismissed. Judgments were given on 8 other cases removed to the Court of Appeal.

BANKRUPTCY.

The petitions in bankruptcy during 1898 numbered 407, of which 362 were made by debtors and 45 by creditors. This number is 8 fewer than the number of petitions for the preceding year.

Of the bankruptcies in 1898: in 13 cases the liabilities were under £50; in 75, from £50 to £100; in 137, from £100 to £250; in 66, from £250 to £500; in 60, from £500 to £1,000; in 29, from £1,000 to £2,000; in 14, from £2,000 to £5,000; in 2, £5,000 and upwards; and in 11 cases no statements were filed.

The following gives the number of petitions, the total amount of the unsecured assets, the amount of debts proved, and the amount paid, in dividends and preferential claims for the years 1890, 1893, 1896, 1897, and 1898:—

Year.No. of Petitions in Bankruptcy.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realised by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
1890652262,733112,951381,124122,276
1893484111,48368,843464,27337,721
1896412115,45571,712256,87037,492
189741573,46640,942133,34445,015
189840790,06845,474285,15430,994

A special article on the present bankruptcy law of New Zealand was printed in the Year-book of 1894. Reference is made in it to a mode of private assignment which has come into such frequent use as to prevent conclusions being drawn from a comparison of the figures above given.

DIVORCE.

In 1898 the Legislature of New Zealand passed a Divorce Act, and the signification of Her Majesty's assent thereto was duly notified by His Excellency the Governor in a Proclamation dated the 1st April, 1899. (Gazette No. 32, of 13th April, 1899.)

The new Act places persons of either sex practically on an equality as regards petitions for dissolution of marriage; the same grounds, in substance, for a decree of divorce applying to man or woman.

Besides this important alteration of the law, the grounds for divorce are extended as under:—

  1. Adultery, on either side.

  2. Wilful desertion continuously during five years or more.

  3. Habitual drunkenness on the part of husband, along with failing to support wife; or drunkenness and neglect, with unfitness to discharge household duties on the part of the wife.

  4. Conviction, with sentence of imprisonment or penal servitude for seven years or upwards, for attempting to take life of petitioner.

Every decree for dissolution of marriage is in the first instance to be a decree nisi, not to be made absolute till after the expiration of such time, being not less than three months from the pronouncing thereof, as the Court shall by order from time to time direct.

The petitioner need not necessarily move to make absolute any decree nisi that may be pronounced.

A decree for a judicial separation may be obtained either by the husband or wife on the ground of adultery, or of cruelty, or of desertion without cause for a period of two years.

The petitions in 1898 under “The Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1867,” were 64 in number, being 6 in excess of those for 1897: 51 were for dissolution of marriage, and 13 for judicial separation; 32 decrees for dissolution of marriage were granted. The proceedings under the Act for the years 1893, 1896, 1897, and 1898 were as follows:—

Year.Petitions forDecrees for
Dissolution of Marriage.Judicial Separation.Dissolution of Marriage.Judicial Separation.
1893349251
1896556362
18974810331
18985113322

The proportion of petitions and decrees for dissolution of marriage to the number of marriages has hitherto been higher in New Zealand than in England and Wales, but lower than in New South Wales or Victoria. The effect of the operation of the new law in New Zealand will, however, have to be experienced.

As early as 1889 an Act was passed in Victoria to allow of divorces being granted for wilful desertion, habitual drunkenness with cruelty or neglect, imprisonment under certain circumstances of either party, and adultery on the part of the husband. This multiplication of the causes for divorce has largely increased the proportion of decrees in that colony.

An Act of a similar tenor was passed in New South Wales in 1891, and brought into working in August of the following year, under which, in addition to adultery since marriage on the part of the wife, and adultery and cruelty on the part of the husband, petitions for divorce can now be granted in that colony on any of the following grounds:—

Husband v. wife: Desertion for not less than three years; habitual drunkenness for a similar period; being imprisoned under a sentence of three years or upwards; attempt to murder or inflict grievous bodily harm, or repeated assaults on him within one year previously.

Wife v. husband: Adultery, provided that at the time of the institution of the suit the husband is domiciled in New South Wales; desertion for not less than three years; habitual drunkenness for the same period; being imprisoned for three years or upwards, or having within five years undergone various sentences amounting in all to not less than three years; attempt to murder, or assault with intent to inflict grievous bodily harm, or repeated assaults within one year previously.

To entitle either party to seek relief on these grounds, he or she must have been domiciled in the colony at the time of instituting the suit for three years or upwards, and should not have resorted to the colony for the purpose of the suit. When a wife seeks for a decree on the ground of three years' desertion, if she was domiciled in New South Wales when the desertion commenced, she shall not be deemed to have lost her domicile by reason of her husband having thereafter acquired a foreign domicile.

Figures will be found in the Year-Book of 1898 showing operations under the divorce law for the three colonies compared for late years.

CRIMINAL CASES.

Charges before Magistrates.

The number of charges heard before the Magistrates' Courts in 1898 was 22,752. Repeated charges against the same person are counted as distinct. Of the charges in 1898, 518 were against persons of the aboriginal native race, a decrease of 118 on the number for the previous year.

If the Maoris be excluded, the number of charges in 1898 is found to have been 22,234, an increase of 2,285 upon the number for 1897; and the proportion per 1,000 of population was 30.19, against 27.65 in 1897.

The figures, both numerical and proportional, covering a period of seventeen years are subjoined:—

CHARGES BEFORE MAGISTRATES.
Year.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Mean Population.
188222,10843.41
188522,70939.61
188818,82930.88
189117,18927.29
189417,35325.55
189719,94927.65
189822,23430.19

The general results shown in the next table are borne out in a most satisfactory manner by the statistics relating to prisoners in gaol (see post), which also show a marked decrease in crime during the above period.

Summary Convictions, and Convictions in Superior Courts.

The summary convictions in 1898 numbered 16,991, including 349 Maoris. 712 persons, 71 of whom were Maoris, were committed for trial at the Supreme and District Courts, an increase of 131 on the number committed in 1897.

“The Justices of the Peace Act, 1882,” provides that sundry indictable offences may with the consent of the accused be summarily dealt with by Magistrates. The increasing use of this provision may have affected the number of convictions in the higher Courts shown in the table on the next page.

A comparison of the number of persons in New Zealand summarily convicted during the years 1888, 1891, 1894, and 1898 shows a slight decrease in the proportion of these convictions per 1,000 of the population on the total, and also in regard to offences against the person. Offences against property show a slight rise. Dealing with the convictions in the superior Courts for all offences, the proportion per 1,000 of population is a very little higher for 1898 than that for 1888, and similarly for offences against property. For offences against the person the proportion is the same, and for other offences there is a fall in the proportion. The figures given exclude the Maoris:—

 SUMMARY CONVICTIONS.CONVICTIONS IN SUPERIOR COURTS.
Years.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Mean Population
1888—
        Offences against the person7151.18420.07
        Offences against property1,2462.061780.29
        Other offences12,29820.31350.06
                Totals14,25923.552550.42
1891—
        Offences against the person7511.19310.05
        Offences against property1,3122.081410.23
        Other offences10,98817.45420.07
                Totals13,05120.722140.35
1894—
        Offences against the person7241.07360.05
        Offences against property1,2841.891990.29
        Other offences10,60515.61650.10
                Totals12,61318.573000.44
1898—
        Offences against the person6900.94530.07
        Offences against property1,5652.132840.39
        Other offences14,38719.54140.02
                Totals16,64222.613510.48

Including 35 Maoris, the convictions in the superior Courts numbered 386 (persons). Particulars of sentences for these higher Courts, and of the punishments consequent on summary convictions in the lower Courts, are appended in two tables:—

TABLE showing the Sentences of Criminals Tried and Convicted in the Supreme and District Courts during Five Years.
Punishments.1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.

* Including 24 Maoris.

† Including 15 Maoris.

‡ Including 19 Maoris.

§ Including 12 Maoris.

|| Including 35 Maoris.

Death..2..23
Imprisonment with or without hard labour256275253235286
Fined8..1319
Imprisonment with whipping32....2
Released under “The First Offenders' Probation Act, 1886”3958436350
Held to bail, or awaiting pleasure of Court1722131221
Sent to lunatic asylum....113
Sent to industrial school1......2
                Totals*324359311§316||386
TABLE showing the Punishments inflicted consequent on Summary Convictions during Five Years.
Punishments.1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.
N.B.—Maoris have been excluded from this table.
Fine5,8246,2606,4256,8218,149
Fine and imprisonment2....5..
Fine and order made228....
Fine and recognisance6164....
Imprisonment in lieu of fine1,6341,5541,5521,4091,410
Imprisonment and order made12......
Imprisonment and recognisance4........
Imprisonment and whipping31..1..
Peremptory imprisonment1,5261,5571,5341,5791,616
Recognisance119119..123111
Recognisance and order made91......
Whipping402172818
Other3,4433,5344,6194,9095,338
                Totals12,61313,06714,14914,87516,642

Drunkenness.

During the five years, 1894 to 1898 inclusive, the consumption of beer in the colony per inhabitant would seem to have increased, the proportion having been 6.9 gallons in the earlier year, against 7.9 gallons in the later one. Excluding the Maoris, the same result is found to obtain, the figures being 7.4 for the year 1894 and 8.4 for 1898. Wine and spirits show a very small increase in the consumption per head of population. The following calculations are made to show the results, including and excluding Maoris:—

CONSUMPTION OF BEER, WINE, AND SPIRITS PER HEAD OF POPULATION (INCLUDING AND EXCLUDING MAORIS).
 Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
 Beer.
Gal.
Wine.
Gal.
Spirits.
Gal.
Beer.
Gal.
Wine.
Gal.
Spirits.
Gal.
18946.9610.1360.6117.3910.1440.648
18956.9960.1270.5937.4210.1350.629
18967.4530.1330.6057.8730.1410.639
18977.7900.1380.6288.2200.1460.663
18987.9950.1390.6348.4270.1460.668

The actual quantities of beer, wine, and spirits used in the colony were, for the five years:—

 Beer for
Consumption. Gals.
Wine for
Consumption. Gals.
Spirits for
Consumption. Gals.
18945,019,97397,934440,305
18955,138,17093,138435,431
18965,565,04099,473451,679
18975,931,550105,060478,136
18986,204,700107,595491,846

A comparison of the convictions for drunkenness shows that excessive drinking was not so prevalent in 1898 as it was nine years previously. The proportions per 1,000 of population were 8.39 convictions in the year 1889 and 9.14 in 1890, diminishing to 6.60 in 1895, 6.82 in 1896, and 7.41 in 1898. And among the New-Zealand-born population of European descent there is evidence of less drunkenness than among persons who have come to the colony from abroad. At the census of 1896, out of the total population of New Zealand over 15 years of age, not less than 43.71 per cent. were found to have been born here; while the proportion of the convictions for drunkenness of New-Zealand-born Europeans to the total convictions was in that year less than 15 per cent.

The prison statistics show for several years back the number of distinct prisoners received into gaol after being convicted of drunkenness. The figures for the years 1885–98 are as follow (readmissions of the same person not counted):—

DISTINCT PRISONERS CONVICTED OF DRUNKENNESS RECEIVED INTO GAOL.
Year.Number.
18851,200
18871,038
1889802
1891694
1893619
1895469
1897486
1898520

Here the decrease proceeds rapidly and uniformly from year to year until the year 1895, after which the figures rise somewhat, but not nearly sufficiently to bring up the number to those obtaining in 1885 and 1887, or even in 1893. The option of a fine is generally given to a person convicted of drunkenness, but there is nothing to show that the proportion of fines for this offence has increased of late, so that a fall in the number of distinct persons imprisoned may fairly be accepted as corroborative evidence of growing sobriety among the people.

In New South Wales and Victoria the consumption per head of alcoholic liquors is greater than it is here. The figures for 1896, according to Mr. Coghlan, as given in the “Seven Colonies of Australasia,” are:—

 Beer.
Gal.
Wine.
Gal.
Spirits.
Gal.
Victoria11.431.350.73
New South Wales9.140.610.73

In each of these colonies, as also in Queensland, charges for drunkenness are, in proportion to population, far more numerous than in New Zealand. The order of the colonies for the year 1898 in this respect is, to quote from Mr. Coghlan's “Wealth and Progress of New South Wales,” as under:—

CHARGES OF DRUNKENNESS IN PROPORTION TO POPULATION.
New South Wales14.5 per 1,000
Victoria11.6      ”
Queensland14.4      ”
New Zealand7.6      ”

“The Inebriates Institutions Act, 1898.”

Under this law, the Governor in Council may direct that any building or establishment which is the property of the Crown shall be an institution for inebriates; and he may appoint superintendents, with other officers.

Power is also given to make regulations for the management, supervision, and inspection of these institutions, any of which may be separated into two divisions, with different scales of accommodation, and fees to be paid by patients.

An inebriate may himself make application to a Judge or Magistrate for an order committing him to an institution. Or, if the husband, wife, or any relation or friend of any inebriate applies, the Judge or Magistrate may summon the inebriate to show cause why he should not be committed; when, if necessary, he may be compulsorily dealt with.

There are penalties for improper treatment of patients, and a patient is also liable if misconducting himself. It is also enacted that, during the continuance of an order, an escaped inebriate may be retaken.

Crime amongst Maoris.

The Native population of the colony may be regarded as stationary, and comparisons of the numbers of summary convictions by the higher and lower Courts are given. Compared with the convictions in 1887 and 1888, the figures for the lower Courts are now showing a rising tendency, but the number for 1897 is swelled by 108 persons convicted of trespass, and those relating to the convictions by the superior Courts are small and fluctuating, the proportionately large increase in 1898 being caused by the inclusion of sixteen convicted of conspiring to prevent collection of taxes.

SUMMARY CONVICTIONS OF MAORIS.
Year.Number.
1887279
1888213
1891298
1892293
1895316
1896332
1897450
1898349
CONVICTIONS OF MAORIS IN SUPERIOR COURTS.
Year.Convictions.Number of Persons convicted.
18871113
18881010
189177
18921615
18951715
18961919
18971612
18982135

Prisoners in Gaol.

The total number of prisoners received in the different gaols of the colony during the year 1898 was 3,462, including persons awaiting trial but not convicted within the year, and counting as distinct persons repeated admissions of the same person, as well as transfers from gaol to gaol of convicts undergoing sentence. In 1897 the number received was 3,616, so that the figures for 1898 show a decrease of 154. Of 3,462 admissions for 1898, 45 were for debt, and 57 on account of lunacy; while 134 were Maoris imprisoned for various offences. If the debtors, lunatics, and Maoris be excluded, the number of persons received into gaol is reduced to 3,226, against 3,158 in 1897. In 1881, when the mean population was only 493,482 persons, the corresponding number of admissions was 4,207.

The number of persons in gaol (including Maoris) at the end of the year 1898 was not equal to that for 1888, notwithstanding the increase of population:—

PRISONERS IN GAOL (31ST DECEMBER).
Year.Undergoing Sentence.Debtors and Lunatics.On Remand and awaiting Trial.Total.
1888605234641
1898533..62595

Of the prisoners previously convicted received in 1898, 334 men and 41 women had been convicted once; 207 men and 24 women twice; 808 men and 365 women three or more times: making a total of 1,359 men and 430 women.

Besides the returns from the Prisons Department, a separate card for each admission is furnished for every gaol. Such cards as show convictions are arranged alphabetically according to name of prisoner, and where several are found referring to the same person, all are thrown out but one; then the number of cards retained equals the actual number of distinct convicted prisoners received in the various gaols during the year. In 1898 this number (excluding Maoris) was 1,982, an increase of 98 on the number in 1897. These figures do not include children committed to the industrial schools simply on the ground that they are neglected or destitute.

The following table shows the number of distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) received into gaol after conviction during 1898, classified according to nature of offence, religion, birthplace, and age:—

DISTINCT CONVICTED PRISONERS RECEIVED INTO GAOL, 1898.
[NOTE.—In this table a prisoner convicted of more than one offence during the year is reckoned once only, under the heading of the principal offence—e.g., a prisoner convicted three times of drunkenness, twice of vagrancy, and once of theft, is counted only once, under the heading “Theft.” Debtors and lunatics received into gaol, and children committed to the industrial schools not convicted of any crime, are omitted.]
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Miscellaneous.Totals.
Convicted on Indictment.Summarily convicted.Theft and Deceit.Mischief.Vagrancy.Drunkenness.Other Offences.
Religions—
 M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
        Church of England1925712619828744160401586750104
        Roman Catholic10...492132181526442154491152539115
        Presbyterian2114375562416681155126129
        Wesleyan2...512912...5410214...678
        Others3...15...2312...16126...22...1072
                Totals3631407520343362139741810236491,724258
Birthplaces—
        England and Wales101321122351651912722111347250
        Scotland3...1214166220561833...17622
        Ireland5133...6698153341144358433792
        New Zealand121364207141013926552294145369
        Australian Colonies1...8...4121111620521110315
        Other British possessions......217.........12716...234
        China1.........6...2...4.........1...14...
        Other countries4...17...30...1...20534140...1466
                Totals3631407520343362139741810236491,724258
Ages—
        Under 10 years................................................
        10 and under 12 years............1...........................1...
        12 and under 15 years............5...4.....................9...
        15 and under 20 years212...7921...652...13...1058
        20 and under 25 years8...25...8754...121328775...23925
        25 and under 30 years313638251127929556123425
        30 and under 40 years8141211587248261073789541581
        40 and under 50 years7...2127687356221233377236770
        50 and under 60 years5...7...5638...3721821636123141
        60 years and over3...8...1931...27147418...1238
                Totals3631407520343362139741810236491,724258
                Totals, 18973721277515403641828437611035681,629255

The number of distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) imprisoned after conviction, in the past ten years, counting one offence only when the same person was imprisoned more than once, with the proportion per 10,000 persons living, is added:—

Distinct Persons imprisoned after Conviction.

Year.Prisoners.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
18892,39939.00
18902,39738.61
18912,11333.55
18922,16433.69
18932,11131.92
18941,95528.78
18951,93027.87
18961,93627.11
18971,88425.84
18981,98226.92

There has been since 1889 a decrease of 17 per cent. in the number of distinct convicted prisoners, and a reduction of 12 per 10,000 in the proportion to population. In New South Wales the proportion for 1898 was 66 per 10,000 persons.

It must be understood that the actual number of imprisonments was much in excess of the figures given, as many persons were several times imprisoned, either for offences differing in kind or for repetitions of the same offence. Thus, persons returned as imprisoned for larceny underwent other imprisonments for drunkenness, &c. Some returned as convicted of drunkenness were several times in gaol during the year for the same offence, or for another, such as assault, riotous or indecent conduct, &c. Often there were several charges preferred against the same person at the one time, of which the most serious followed by conviction has been selected.

The proportions in every 100 distinct convicted prisoners belonging to each of the four principal religious denominations, with proportions of prisoners at each age-period, and particulars as to birthplaces, will be found in the Statistical Volume for 1898, on pages 451 and 452.

Cost of Prisoners.

The prisoners in gaols during the year 1898 were maintained at a net cost to the State of £27 18s. 10d. per head, against £33 9s. 8d. in 1897.

Crime amongst the New-Zealand-born.

While the New-Zealand-born formed at the last census 63 per cent. of the whole population of the colony, they contributed in 1896 not more than 25 per cent. of the prisoners received in gaol. Of the New-Zealand-born population, however, a large number are under 15 years of age, a period of life at which there are very few prisoners; and, therefore, another comparison is necessary. It is found that the New-Zealand-born over 15 years formed 44 per cent. of the total population; but, as before stated, New-Zealanders constituted less than 25 per cent. of the total number received in gaols.

The total number of New-Zealand-born distinct prisoners (excluding Maoris) received for the year 1898—522 persons—is found to be 57 in excess of the number for 1897. Of those received in 1898, 104 were under twenty years of age. As before stated, the plan adopted in preparing the foregoing tables is to count each prisoner only once, and to exclude all who are not convicted prisoners, besides dealing only with the number received during the year, instead of with the full number in gaol, which would, of course, include those brought forward from the previous year. The comparative results for a series of years given by this method are held to be more valuable than those brought out by one which includes prisoners merely awaiting trial, and continual repetitions of the same individuals.

First Offenders' Probation Act.

Ninety-one persons were placed on probation in the year 1898, the same number as in 1897. Of these, 31 were discharged after satisfactorily carrying out the conditions of their licenses, 3 were rearrested, 1 was transferred to a lunatic asylum, and 56 remained under the supervision of Probation Officers.

Of the 1,005 persons placed on probation since the introduction of the Act in October, 1886, no less than 830 had, by the end of the year 1898, been discharged after satisfactorily carrying out the conditions of their licenses, 61 were rearrested and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment, 1 committed suicide, 2 died, 23 absconded, 1 sent to lunatic asylum, and 87 remained fulfilling the conditions of their terms of probation. The Inspector of Prisons remarks:—

“The above-quoted results prove beyond doubt that the First Offenders' Probation Act, which was placed on the statute-book of the colony to put first offenders under a term of surveillance that is calculated to give them an extra incentive to good behaviour, and to check predilections that might end in a career of crime, is satisfactorily attaining that end. A probationer has ever before his mind the inevitable consequence which will ensue should he deviate from strictest rectitude of conduct during his probation, while he is not in a position to be contaminated by the evil associations which are almost inseparable from a prison life. The State is relieved of the expense of his support, and there is much more inducement to return to the paths of honesty and industry than there would be were he under bars and bolts inside the walls of a felon's cell; and, lastly, he is not branded as a ‘gaol-bird.’”

Inquests.

The number of bodies on which inquests were held in 1898 was 955, including 29 Maoris. In 723 cases the bodies were of males, and in 232 of females.

The inquests on suicidal deaths in 1898 show an increase on the number for five previous years:—

 Inquests on Suicides.
Year.Males.Females.Total.
1893401564
1894581775
1895661076
1896581270
1897421153
189869877

The verdicts given at the inquests held in 1898 may be classified as under:—

Nature of Verdict.Inquests on Persons.
 Males.Females.Total.
Accident31258370
Disease and natural causes306155461
Intemperance819
Homicide426
Suicide69877
Execution3 3
Not classed21829
 723232955

Of the accidental deaths, drowning is still the most fatal form. The verdicts show that 121 bodies were found drowned, giving a percentage of 32.70 on the accidental deaths from all causes.

Fire Inquests.

The inquests on fires held during 1898 numbered 43. In eleven cases the verdict was incendiarism; in two, accident; in twenty-nine no evidence was forthcoming; and in one case insufficient evidence.

Chapter 39. SECTION X.—GOVERNMENT VALUATION OF LAND AND ITS IMPROVEMENTS.

RESULTS OF THE GENERAL VALUATION MADE FOR MARCH, 1898.

IN the year 1896 an Act intituled the Government Valuation of Land Act was passed, providing for the appointment of a Valuer-General, and for the periodical valuation of all land in the colony. The Valuer-General is the Commissioner of Taxes for the time being. The valuations on the general roll are used for the assessment of land-tax, stamp duties, and duties on deceased persons' estates; for local rates, except in places where these are levied on the annual value; also, for the purposes of advances and investments on mortgage of land by the Post Office, Government Insurance Department, Public Trust Office, Government Advances to Settlers Office, and the Commissioners of the Public Debts Sinking Funds. The valuation is also used for the guidance of the Government in transactions under “The Land for Settlements Act, 1894,” and “The Public Works Act, 1894.”

The term “land" means and includes all lands, tenements, buildings, and hereditaments, whether corporeal or incorporeal, and also includes all chattel interests in land.

A certified copy of any entry in the general valuation-roll is supplied by the department on payment of the prescribed fee.

The general valuation-roll continues in force until a fresh roll is made, but whilst in force it may be altered and amended from time to time. The rolls for rating purposes are supplied to local bodies by the Valuer-General on the request of the local authority. The aim is to insure a standard valuation for taxation, local rating, and loan purposes.

Owners and occupiers dissatisfied with their valuations have the right of objection, the procedure being that laid down by “The Rating Act, 1894,” and the regulations under “The Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896.”

The cost of making the valuation is divided proportionally between the departments mostly using it and the local authorities, while separate fees are provided for by regulation for supplying individual valuations to persons requiring them.

The general valuation-roll shows the capital value of the property, of improvements, and the unimproved value of the land.

The surface-value only of gold mines is included, and the value of the Government railways has been excluded.

All land is included, whether occupied or unoccupied, whether owned by private individuals, by the Crown, by Natives, by local authorities, Education Boards, School Commissioners, Churches, corporations, companies, or societies of all kinds, and whether subject to or exempt from taxation or rates.

The work of valuing all the lands in the colony is very great, and the Valuer-General points out that some idea of its magnitude may be gathered from the fact that 231,965 separate valuations were needed, of which 119,258 were in the North Island, and 112,707 in the South.

The result of the valuation of land as in March, 1898, is given in the report of the Valuer-General, presented to both Houses of Parliament. Comparative figures are here given for 1888 and 1898 of the results of the assessments made in those years, and the increase, stating separately the unimproved value and the value of improvements; and it is noteworthy that, whereas between 1888 and 1898 the unimproved value of land has risen only by 11.79 per cent., the value of improvements is greater by no less than 52.05 per cent.

COMPARISON OF CAPITAL VALUES, 1888 AND 1898.
   Increase, 1888 to 1898.
 1888.
£
1898.
£
Amount.Rate per cent.
Unimproved value75,497,37984,401,2448,903,86511.79
Value of improvements35,640,33554,190,10318,549,76852.05
                Total111,137,714138,591,34727,453,63324.70

In the figures for the North and South Islands the relative degree of increase is exhibited, and the rapid rate of progress in the North Island shows in strong contrast to that of the other Island. There has been great spread of settlement in the Wellington and Taranaki Districts.

CAPITAL VALUES
 1888.
£
1898.
£
Increase.
£
North Island49,607,87371,680,95222,073,079
South Island61,529,84166,910,3955,380,554
                Totals111,137,714138,591,34727,453,633

The increase for the North Island of £22,073,079 represents an advance of 44.50 per cent. on the value in 1888, and that of £5,380,554, for the South Island, 8.74 per cent. The increase for the whole colony, as shown previously, was £27,453,633, or 24.70 per cent.

The statement on the next page gives the capital value of land and improvements in counties and boroughs as at the assessments of 1891 and 1898.

CAPITAL VALUE OF LAND IN COUNTIES AND BOROUGHS.
 1891,
£
1898.
£
Counties85,818,16795,710,266
Boroughs36,406,86242,881,081
Totals122,225,029138,591,347

The increase in the capital value of land, with improvements, in counties for the seven years is £9,892,099, or 11.53 per cent., while that for boroughs is £6,474,219, or 17.78 per cent.; but the value of property in boroughs was added to between 1891 and 1898 by the constitution of ten new boroughs, and that of the counties correspondingly reduced, so that the actual rate of increase in the value of country lands is higher than indicated by the above figures, and in urban lands considerably less.

The results of the assessment of 1898 are given in detail in the tables which follow. For still fuller information, including particulars of road and town districts, besides ridings of counties, reference must be made to the statistical volume of 1898, which also gives comparisons in respect of counties and boroughs separately.

COUNTIES, 1898.
County.Capital Value.Unimproved Value.Value of Improvements.
 £££
Mongonui213,214148,05165,163
Whangaroa77,10748,62228,485
Bay of Islands354,354223,210131,144
Hokianga411,808341,49370,315
Whangarei554,905328,973225,932
Hobson374,443241,653132,790
Otamatea303,113186,903116,210
Rodney305,677150,675155,002
Waitemata644,552363,628280,924
Eden2,249,5751,153,1341,096,441
Manukau1,513,178800,861712,317
Islands (Great and Little Barrier, &c., Waiheke)149,01179,63469,377
Waikato624,102284,829339,273
Raglan437,962300,417137,545
Waipa493,786256,782237,004
Kawhia383,131334,67848,453
Coromandel380,232256,725123,507
Thames364,135241,087123,048
Ohinemuri512,330298,665213,665
Tauranga335,864231,206104,658
Piako713,963371,973341,990
Rotorua468,015387,99680,019
Whakatane733,027603,103129,924
East Taupo252,681241,89110,790
West Taupo237,482214,32323,159
Islands (Mayor and Motiti)5,7803,6962,084
Waiapu732,232402,194330,038
Cook2,569,4001,560,0731,009,327
Wairoa1,040,618759,735280,883
Hawke's Bay3,541,6022,397,0601,144,542
Waipawa2,594,1871,470,6341,123,553
Patangata1,837,5981,131,077706,521
Clifton624,295507,856116,439
Taranaki1,534,634893,622641,012
Stratford992,931574,883418,048
Hawera1,888,624940,906947,718
Patea1,081,957700,322381,635
Waitotara914,206620,967293,239
Wanganui1,704,2261,237,185467,041
Rangitikei1,960,7071,146,725813,982
Kiwitea756,059396,791359,268
Pohangina397,194238,465158,729
Manawatu950,957593,758357,199
Oroua1,908,3381,080,844827,494
Horowhenua1,147,850678,049469,801
Islands (Kapiti and Mana)10,4849,3781,106
Pahiatua902,481481,734420,747
Wairarapa North2,631,7301,416,6061,215,124
Wairarapa South2,348,8041,401,296947,508
Hutt1,272,436612,129660,307
Collingwood360,119192,224167,895
Waimea1,338,280806,879531,401
Sounds276,735169,387107,348
Marlborough1,814,2851,304,020510,265
Buller673,391474,842198,549
Inangahua946,174595,295350,879
Grey817,957579,498238,459
Westland792,307668,688123,619
Kaikoura368,045277,67290,373
Cheviot573,324486,79586,529
Amuri688,106508,777179,329
Ashley3,853,0943,050,303802,791
Selwyn7,312,3085,194,1252,118,183
Akaroa1,190,101881,158308,943
Ashburton4,006,2923,061,970944,322
Geraldine1,839,4741,397,601441,873
Levels1,493,1351,098,928394,207
Mackenzie799,755646,091153,664
Waimate2,403,8221,906,579497,243
Waitaki2,540,3802,006,026534,354
Maniototo553,766374,584179,182
Waihemo409,062274,698134,364
Waikouaiti587,814320,442267,372
Peninsula417,251243,754173,497
Taieri1,282,724925,259357,465
Tuapeka833,968539,371294,597
Bruce944,163639,669304,494
Clutha1,175,618814,022361,596
Vincent437,987282,458155,529
Lake318,564234,32884,236
Fiord143,584137,2096,375
Wallace1,656,8641,177,764479,100
Southland4,251,2752,967,3501,283,925
Stewart Island159,690134,37825,312
Islands (Antipodes, Auckland, and Campbell)13,87513,875 
                Totals95,710,26663,732,51631,977,750
BOROUGHS, 1898.
Boroughs.Capital Value.Unimproved Value.Value of Improvements.
 £££
Whangarei90,00032,35757,643
Birkenhead94,18546,61147,574
Devonport471,867199,325272,542
Auckland5,676,6952,980,8602,695,835
Parnell399,480185,278214,202
Newmarket175,65782,37493,283
Newton262,946144,553118,393
Onehunga267,123130,359136,764
Hamilton118,26750,41067,857
Cambridge79,51926,26853,251
Thames294,695114,703179,992
Tauranga87,30129,37957,922
Te Aroha56,92525,52031,405
Gisborne305,763132,139173,624
Napier1,263,227585,854677,373
Hastings497,862279,997217,865
Dannevirke147,33978,60568,734
Woodville98,47444,08154,393
New Plymouth572,216325,391246,825
Hawera220,11598,863121,252
Patea63,62622,66740,959
Wanganui813,205461,743351,462
Marton112,07542,40669,669
Feilding233,367104,788128,579
Palmerston North631,796309,019322,777
Foxton100,05142,41257,639
Onslow202,971107,28695,685
Karori161,936110,05351,883
Wellington8,052,5124,814,6773,237,835
Melrose314,002205,224108,778
Pahiatua112,23950,46261,777
Masterton472,291207,845264,446
Carterton111,10646,73564,371
Greytown130,03648,45681,580
Lower Hutt269,821166,969102,852
Petone283,285140,593142,692
Richmond85,38045,15340,227
Nelson833,562342,029491,533
Picton74,83327,27147,562
Blenheim334,990127,635207,355
Westport189,91676,756113,160
Greymouth335,88987,144248,745
Brunner69,66111,52958,132
Kumara36,7215,46131,260
Hokitika150,09155,58094,511
Ross29,4428,87120,571
Rangiora175,29273,011102,281
Kaiapoi154,28148,200106,081
St. Albans611,154271,805339,349
Christchurch3,364,9211,605,1371,759,784
Sydenham770,059284,718485,341
Linwood445,210169,582275,628
Woolston193,42594,79898,627
New Brighton94,71945,99748,722
Sumner114,14363,11751,026
Lyttelton841,719238,274603,445
Akaroa50,96817,70533,263
Ashburton244,02794,217149,810
Timaru539,659188,212351,447
Waimate93,69927,29766,402
Oamaru437,089156,348280,741
Hampden15,7216,0299,692
Naseby30,0753,97526,100
Palmerston43,74710,72933,018
Hawksbury47,35420,43626,918
Port Chalmers220,29159,828160,463
West Harbour133,26961,83971,430
North-East Valley256,458104,230152,228
Maori Hill173,02773,97099,057
Roslyn481,554218,093263,461
Mornington301,107109,150191,957
Dunedin4,339,7442,071,5482,268,196
Caversham466,845186,911279,934
South Dunedin296,61991,964204,655
St. Kilda130,57372,18658,387
Green Island39,15412,22926,925
Mosgiel119,46646,87572,591
Roxburgh26,8363,28123,555
Lawrence89,24522,12567,120
Tapanui16,4632,51413,949
Milton109,27328,69180,582
Balclutha70,28724,25746,030
Kaitangata59,95827,93332,025
Arrowtown26,5474,72221,825
Queenstown66,26112,22754,034
Cromwell34,81810,78224,036
Alexandra31,0899,28721,802
Gore172,93264,239108,693
Mataura83,48128,62454,857
Winton29,33110,73918,592
Gladstone34,05715,99118,066
Avenal23,4888,40115,087
North Invercargill40,99017,22123,769
East Invercargill52,48717,38035,107
Invercargill982,482430,704551,778
South Invercargill97,24937,91959,330
Riverton58,56615,16143,405
Campbelltown165,41286,42978,983
                Total of boroughs42,881,08120,668,72822,212,353

Chapter 40. SECTION XI.—LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.

COUNTIES, BOROUGHS, ETC.

FOR purposes of local government New Zealand is divided into counties and boroughs. Although the boroughs, of which there were 99 in March, 1899, lie geographically within the counties, yet by the law they are not considered as part of them. On the 31st March, 1899, the counties numbered 83. The number is increased from time to time as need is found for further division, and in November, 1898, two new counties, Akitio and Eketahuna, were constituted, being cut out of Wairarapa North County. By an Act passed in 1899, it is provided that in respect of these two new counties, Akitio and Eketahuna, and another named Levels, every road district existing in their territory at the time of their constitution shall be deemed to have been abolished and merged in such counties. In the year 1878 there were only 63 counties. Interior to the counties are the road and town districts, but much of the country is outlying, many road districts having been merged, especially on gold-fields territory. There were, however, 238 road districts (4 without Boards) in existence in March, 1899, and 38 town districts. One of these latter is the special Town District of Rotorua, constituted under “The Thermal-Springs Districts Act, 1881.” Besides the above there were 27 river protective districts (excluding Inch Clutha, in Bruce County, which is also a road district), 1 drainage district (Christchurch), 2 water-supply districts, and 12 land drainage districts under the Land Drainage Act of 1893. The Harbour Boards numbered 26.

These bodies levied rates in the financial year 1898–99 to the amount of £685,769, of which £467,106 consisted of general rates, and £218,663 special and separate rates. The sum of £76,008 was raised by licenses, and £20,754 by other taxes, making £782,531 altogether, which sum is equivalent to £1 1s. 2d. per head of the mean European population. In the year 1897–98 the local taxation was £1 0s. 5d. per head, or 9d. less than in 1898–99.

It will be seen from the table on the next page that since 1881 revenue derived from rates has considerably more than doubled, having increased from £249,087 in 1880–81 to £685,769 in 1898–99. Revenue from Government and other sources has, on the other hand, decreased in the same period—nineteen years. Receipts which cannot be classed as “revenue” were £889,705 in 1880–81, against only £385,368 in 1898–99; but these figures vary from year to year according to circumstances, such as large operations by way of construction of works, for which money has to be specially raised.

The receipts (distinguishing revenue from other sources of income) and expenditure of the various local bodies, with the amount of rates collected, and the amount of indebtedness on account of loans for each of the past nineteen years, are shown in the following table:—

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—RATES, RECEIPTS, EXPENDITURE, AND LOANS, 1881 TO 1899.*
Year ended 31st March.Receipts of Local Bodies.Expenditure of Local Bodies.Outstanding Loans of Local Bodies (excluding Government Loans, for which see the following Columns).Government Loans to Local Bodies.
Revenue from.Receipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.Outstanding Debentures under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882.”Net Indebtedness in February of each Year under “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886” (including Debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, converted). 
Rates.Licences, Tolls, Rents, and other Sources.Government.Total Revenue.

* The figures for the Christchurch Drainage Board and Harbour Boards included are for the calendar years ended three months previous to the financial years.

† Not including balances, deposits, or amounts paid to sinking funds and for redemption of debentures.

‡ On the 30th June.

 ££££££££££
1881249,087461,602352,5401,063,229889,7051,952,9341,871,7523,039,807....
1882297,328476,473218,179991,980419,6081,411,5881,637,3373,277,584....
1883327,129466,885133,565927,579311,4661,239,0451,397,8633,540,046....
1884398,659502,969241,5581,143,186331,9941,475,1801,499,1173,962,33077,439..
1885401,393477,813364,0821,243,288430,5611,673,8491,653,7064,313,223123,086..
1886410,639504,807377,8111,293,257514,7281,807,9851,644,7064,943,270134,534..
1887434,237447,631342,4321,224,300992,6332,216,9331,885,0015,620,747113,072..
1888433,832460,210334,8571,228,899511,5941,740,4931,819,7875,812,80318,635191,687
1889445,929535,140141,2881,122,357316,1391,438,4961,560,6055,892,05010,495273,289
1890460,303568,405139,3201,168,028206,6881,374,7161,476,5405,978,0599,676319,603
1891463,581518,757144,0081,126,346236,9021,363,2481,381,3206,042,6934,317367,715
1892488,824584,574109,0221,182,120214,1241,396,2441,400,4676,081,9344,245449,532
1893508,157573,161136,5151,217,833340,5381,558,3711,482,5486,203,8693,465525,173
1894551,412547,560134,2711,233,243623,0381,856,2811,589,1246,614,8242,685547,679
1895581,868545,629138,2281,265,725328,7981,594,5231,584,5186,685,5102,015621,903
1896592,903581,966156,1801,331,049269,1451,600,1941,627,0796,737,5781,442667,451
1897598,526586,599178,4481,363,573246,9191,610,4921,636,7166,793,3981,077709,282
1898644,552608,436182,1661,435,154304,6451,739,7991,733,0166,834,361712742,530
1899685,769642,289178,4381,506,496385,3681,891,8641,778,5746,963,254347789,618

The indebtedness of local governing bodies on account of outstanding loans has increased by nearly 129 per cent., from £3,039,807 to £6,963,254, exclusive of moneys borrowed from Government under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882,” and “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886,” which represented a further indebtedness of £789,965 at the end of March, 1899.

TAXATION BY LOCAL BODIES.

TABLE showing the Revenue of Local Governing Bodies derived from Rates, Licenses, and other Taxes during the Year 1898–99.
Local Bodies.Rates.Licenses.Other Taxes.Total.
General.Special and Separate.

* For year ended 31st March, 1899.

† For year ended 31st December, 1898.

‡ Wharfage dues, charges, fees, tolls, rents, &c., amounting to £317,186 8s. 4d., have not been classed as taxation.

§ Equal to £1 1s. 2d. per head of the mean European population of the colony for the financial year 1898–99.

 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Counties*176,4581832,97313918,9997711,61504240,04634
Boroughs*136,910711167,04921150,909927,19204362,06104
Town Boards*3,7440102531084,105742401908,3431710
Road Boards*87,3490413,4821201,994301,705120104,53174
River Boards*6,322441,85042............8,17286
Land - drainage Boards*1,7341871,23349............2,96834
Harbour Boards36,696910..................36,696910
Christchurch Drainage Board17,890132..................17,890132
Waimakariri - Ashley Water-supply Board*......1,82140............1,82140
            Totals467,105168218,66312376,0087120,753118782,53178§

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE, 1898–99.

A summary of all the transactions for the year 1898–99 is given on pages 265,266. The total revenue of the local bodies for the financial year was £1,506,496, and they further received a sum of £385,368 which could not properly be termed “revenue,” making altogether a grand total of receipts amounting to £1,891,864. The rates formed 45 per cent. of the revenue proper. Licenses, rents, and other sources yielded 43 per cent., and 12 per cent. was granted by the General Government.

While the revenue proper of the counties amounted to £369,997, of which these bodies raised £209,431 by way of rates, the Road Boards' revenue was only £160,925, out of which £100,831 represented the result of their rating. The boroughs had the far larger revenue of £529,142, including £303,959 of rates, and their receipts under the heading of licenses, rents, and other sources amounted to the considerable sum of £209,479. In the matter of receipts from Government, of which a table is printed on the next page, the counties received the bulk of the money.

The financial operations of the County Councils for the year under review were much larger than those of the Road Boards, and the amount raised by rates more than double.

The details of amounts received, representing Government support to the various bodies, are stated in the following table:—

LOCAL, GOVERNING BODIES.—RECEIPTS FROM GOVERNMENT, 1893–99.
Counties.Boroughs.Town Boards.Road Boards.River Boards (excluding Inch-Clutha, also Road Board).Land Drainage Boards.Harbour Boards.Waimakariri Water-supply Board.Totals.
£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Rates on Crown and Native lands1083105666..43111........207123
One-third receipts from land sold on deferred payment and from perpetual lease17,526911..149210,086134........27,627125
One-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs2,624 43....237104........2,861147
Goldfields revenue and gold duty41,552641,1071572168110140....33922..43,112149
Subsidies under the Local Bodies' Finance and Powers Act45,747141012,5692176014520,5181211........79,59643
Fees and fines under the Financial Arrangements Act4831304262591081415........93376
Other receipts8,6251631,543120540087,296173..90006,002132..24,098194
            Total Revenue Account116,6688515,7021871,32711738,307112..90006,341154..178,43851
Loans under Government Loans to Local Bodies Act31,29819118,29511103000019,386541,000002,85900....63,139171
Grants for special works, &c.58,051903,4071011..........5637662,02275
            Total receipts from Government206,01817427,406141,62711757,6931661,000002,949006,34115456376303,60097
LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—RECEIPTS, EXPENDITURE, AND LOANS, 1898–99.
 Financial Year ended 31st March 1899.
Counties.Boroughs.Town Boards.Road Boards.River Boards (excluding Inch-Clutha, also Road Board).Land Drainage Boards.Waimakariri Water-supply Board.Totals.
£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.

* For amounts under various heads see preceding table; also for specification of loans under Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, and special grants, which are here included with “Receipts not revenue.”

† For rates of interest see page 268.

‡ Not including loans, amounting to £789,965, repayable by instalments under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882,” and “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886.”

NOTE.—The return of receipts and expenditure in this summary represents the net receipts and expenditure of the year, exclusive of credit and debit balances, bank overdrafts, deposits, amounts paid to sinking funds, and for redemption of debentures.

    Receipts:—
Revenue from—£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
        Rates209,431155303,95910103,997116100,8311248,172862,968341,82140631,182511
        Licenses, rents, and other sources43,89784209,4791786,8627412,8531403,932161024771135021277,623142
        Government*116,6688515,7021871,32711738,307112..9000..172,09699
        County....208378,93241......9,14078
            Total revenue369,997122529,1427112,395140160,9251712,105543,3051132,171611,090,042176
        Receipts not revenue119,643711128,0593108611522,971855,6181262,95317102,577176282,68595
            Total receipts489,64101657,201101113,256155183,89610017,72317106,259914,749371,372,728611
Expenditure:—
        Public works341,48687219,797298,220169113,1751466,886454,7141534,362711698,643100
        Charitable aid and hospitals37,4022927,43432348909,558171......74,743120
        Management46,5009654,1541152,1222616,0921311,2367102641611319126120,690139
        Other expenditure67,85259286,6831992,20819927,1591826,702571,100251,17339392,880152
            Total expenditure493,24167558,06917112,90080165,98721014,82417106,0791475,855421,286,958111
Liabilities (including loans)717,218493,196,7801756,008119471,383151061,6841225,19410022,1661004,500,4301011
Loans 10,500002,881,56700580002,9000042,32000..21,200002,959,06700
Financial Year ended 31st December, 1898.Totals—all Local Bodies.
Harbour Boards.Drainage Board.
* † See notes to table on previous page.
Receipts:—
    Revenue from—£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
        Rates36,69691017,890132685,769811
        Licenses. rents, and other sources354,524501,000142633,148134
        Government*6,341154..178,43851
        County....9,14078
            Total revenue397,56210218,891741,506,496150
Receipts not revenue102,68251..385,367146
        Total receipts500,24415318,891741,891,86496
Expenditure:—
        Public works159,11114103,459168861,21518
        Charitable aid and hospitals....74,743120
        Management13,189118941111134,821166
        Other expenditure299,2752415,637186707,793160
            Total expenditure471,57681020,039631,778,57462
Liabilities (including loans)3,945,19298206,1471638,651,7701610
Loans†3,804,18700200,000006,963,25400

The expenditure of the local bodies amounted to £1,778,574. In the counties the cost of management, including salaries, travelling-expenses, rent, printing and advertising, collection of rates or tolls, legal expenses, and sundries, was £46,500. The Borough Councils expended in the same way £54,154, and the Road Boards £16,092. The percentages borne by the cost of management to the total receipts and total expenditure were:—

Cost of Management per Cent. ofTotal Receipts.Total Expenditure.
Counties9.59.4
Boroughs8.29.7
Road Boards8.89.7

LOANS OF LOCAL BODIES.

The outstanding loans of local governing bodies form the subject-matter dealt with in the two next tables. From them it will be seen that the total amount owing was, on the 31st March, 1899, £6,963,254. But against this accrued sinking funds to the value of £649,131 were held, leaving a net debt of £6,314,123, exclusive of moneys borrowed from the General Government and repaid by annual instalments.

The total annual charge (excluding exchange and commission) stood at £395,107, of which £363,915 were for interest, and the remainder, £31,192, contributions to sinking fund accounts.

Of the total indebtedness in 1898–99 the debt of the Harbour Boards, £3,804,187, formed the largest item, while the Borough Councils owed £2,881,567.

In the second table (page 268) will be found a summary of the amounts raised by loan, classified according to the rates of interest paid, distinguishing loans raised in the colony from those raised abroad. It will be noticed that the amount raised abroad (£5,485,100) is nearly four times as great as that raised in New Zealand (£1,478,154). The lowest rate of interest paid was 3 per cent., but the large sum of £2,736,978 was raised at 5 per cent., and £2,647,004 at 6 per cent., while £170,100 bore interest as high as 7 per cent.

LOANS OF LOCAL BODIES, MARCH, 1899.—NET INDEBTEDNESS AND ANNUAL CHARGE.
Amount of Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Amount of Accrued Sinking Fund.Net Indebtedness.Annual Charge (excluding Exchange and Commission).
Interest.Sinking Fund.Total.

* Repayable by annual instalments of £51,590, representing 5 per cent. per annum on £1,031,799, the amount inscribed to 1st February, 1899. Payments for 26 years of 5 per cent. per annum on the amount inscribed (£1,031,799, including £89,878 debentures under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882,” exchanged) would be £1,341,339. The actual repayments to date are £314,836, leaving £1,026,503 to be paid by way of interest and sinking fund on a present indebtedness of £789,618.

£ Amount for 1898–99.

 ££££££
Counties10,5001,0079,493624150774
Boroughs2,881,567334,6842,546,883156,53911,265167,804
Town Boards58048532351550
Road Boards2,900..2,900150..150
River Boards42,3208,06334,2572,2195002,719
Water-supply Board21,20026820,9321,0082001,208
Harbour Boards3,804,187276,9603,527,227191,34017,062208,402
Drainage Board200,00028,101171,89912,0002,00014,000
            Totals6,963,254649,1316,314,123363,91531,192395,107
Inscribed debt of local bodies under “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886” (including inscribed stock exchanged for debentures under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882”)789,618..789,618*....51,590
Outstanding debentures under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882”347..347....365†
            Totals7,753,219649,1317,104,088....447,062
LOANS OF LOCAL BODIES, RAISED WITHIN AND WITHOUT THE COLONY.
TABLE showing the Amount of Indebtedness of Counties, Boroughs, Town, Road, River, and Water-supply Boards, as on the 31st March, 1899, and of Harbour and Drainage Boards as on the 31st December, 1898, classified according to the Rates of Interest paid, distinguishing Loans raised in the Colony from those raised elsewhere. (See note ‡)
Loans raised in the Colony.
Local BodiesNo Interest.3 %4 %4½ %5 %5¼ %5½ %5¾ %6 %6½ %7 %Total.

* Including £500 at 4⅜ per cent.

† Including £2,000 at 5.7 per cent.

‡ Not including loans, amounting to £789,965, repayable by annual instalments under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882,” and “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886.”

 ££££££££££££
Counties........4,100......2,900..3,50010,500
Boroughs25,000..78,59059,525*102,62818,00064,9005,000227,2242,60099,900683,367
            Town Boards................580....580
Road Boards........2,400......500....2,900
River Boards......5,0001,850..3,320..6,150....16,320
Water-supply Board......11,20010,000............21,200
Harbour Boards..14,538581,55017,00091,000..32,000..3,4503,549200743,287
            Total raised in colony25,00014,538660,14092,725211,97818,000100,2205,000240,8046,149103,6001,478,154
Loans raised outside the Colony.
Boroughs....33,000254,400800,200......1,044,100..66,5002,198,200
River Boards........21,000......5,000....26,000
Harbour Boards....100,000100,0001,703,800......1,157,100....3,060,900
Drainage Board................200,000....200,000
            Total raised outside colony....133,000354,4002,525,000......2,406,200..66,5005,485,100
Total Loans raised.
Counties........4,100......2,900..3,50010,500
Boroughs25,000..111,590313,925*902,82818,00064,9005,0001,271,3242,600166,4002,881,567
Town Boards................580....580
Road Boards........2,400......500....2,900
River Boards......5,00022,850..3,320..11,150....42,320
Water-supply Board......11,20010,000............21,200
Harbour Boards..14,538681,550117,0001,794,800..32,000..1,160,5503,5492003,804,187
Drainage Board................200,000....200,000
            Total loans raised‡25,00014,538793,140447,125*2,736,97818,000100,2205,0002,647,0046,149170,1006,963,254

Referring once more to the comparative table on page 262, and to the great advance in local bodies' debts, it will be found that between 1885–86 and 1895–96 the gross indebtedness increased from £4,943,270 to £6,737,578, an addition of £1,794,308 for the period, or 36.30 per cent. Between the same (census) years population advanced from 578,482 to 703,360, the increase having been 124,878 persons, or 21.59 per cent. The wealth of the colony was estimated at about £170,000,000 in 1886 and £215,000,000 in 1896, an accretion of £45,000,000 during the ten year Thus, while the population of New Zealand increased by 21.59 per cent. in ten years, and wealth by 26.47 per cent., the debt of the local governing bodies advanced at the higher ratio of 36.30 per cent. during the same period.

The aggregate interest-charge for the year under review was £363,915, and £296,545 of this was payable on loans raised outside the colony. The average rate of interest payable to bondholders was rather more than £5 4s. 9d. per cent., as shown hereunder:—

Loans raised by Local Bodies.Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Interest-charge.Average Rate of Interest.
* The £25,000 on which no interest is paid has not been taken into account in computing the average rate of interest.
 ££%
In the colony25,000Nil. 
1,453,15467,3704.636
Outside the colony5,485,100296,5455.406
    Total (excluding loans from Government)6,963,254*363,9155.245*

While the average rate of interest on the above-mentioned debt is found to be nearly 5¼ per cent., nearly two millions and three quarters were raised at 5 per cent., and more than two and a half millions at 6 per cent.

“THE GOVERNMENT LOANS TO LOCAL BODIES ACT AMENDMENT ACT, 1899.”

In view of the general lowering of rates of interest, this new Act modifies the terms of the principal Act by providing, in respect of the debentures of any future loan, instead of interest payable at 5 per cent. for a term of twenty-six years, one or other of the following alternatives:—

Four and a half per cent. per annum for a term of twenty-six years;

Four per cent. per annum for thirty-two years; or

Three and a half per cent. per annum for forty-one years.

The loans in existence at the passing of the Act may be readjusted so as to come under one or other of the alternatives under the new amendment as quoted above.

The rate of 1½ per cent. per annum, which under the Act of 1892 forms the basis for calculating the amount payable to the sinking fund, is now reduced to £1 per cent. per annum, if the currency of the loan is thirty-two years, and 10s. per cent. if the currency is for forty years.

RATEABLE VALUE OF PROPERTY IN COUNTIES AND BOROUGHS.

The aggregate value of rateable property in all boroughs, road, town, and outlying districts in the colony on the 31st March, 1898, was:—

Local Bodies.Rateable Property.Total.
 ££

* By “The Rating Act, 1894,” “the ‘rateable value’ of any property means the rent at which such property would let from year to year, deducting therefrom 20 per centum in case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and 10 per centum in case of land and other hereditaments, but shall in no case be less than 5 per centum on the value of the fee-simple thereof.” The values stated in the tables are taken from returns rendered by the local bodies.

† Exclusive of property in Counties of Rotorua, East Taupo, West Taupo, Kawhia, and Sounds, where there are no local bodies raising revenue.

Boroughs4,247,099 
Boroughs (annual value, £2,184,174,* capitalised at 6 per cent.)36,402,900 
  40,649,999
Counties—  
    Road districts38,599,042 
    Town districts879,126 
    Town districts (annual value, £29,611,* capitalised at 6 per cent.)493,516 
    Outlying35,335,454 
  75,307,138†
Total rateable value of property £115,957,137

Here the total value of rateable property in counties amounts to £75,307,138, and that in boroughs to £40,649,999.

The total value of rateable property in the colony, therefore, according to returns furnished by the local bodies, amounted, in March, 1898, to £115,957,137, exclusive of five counties where there are no local bodies raising revenue.

Some of the boroughs and town districts rate on a capital value, but most of them upon an annual value of property. In the foregoing statement the annual value has, where necessary, been capitalised at 6 per cent.

In case of the boroughs, the Act under which the valuation is made provides for a reduction from the renting-value of 20 per cent. on houses and buildings, and 10 per cent. on land. The actual annual value of the properties will, therefore, be greater than the rating value by from 11 to 25 per cent.

The figures given above are taken from returns furnished by local bodies containing information obtained prior to the general valuation of land and improvements by the Commissioner of Taxes, which has been described in the previous section.

“THE MUNICIPAL FRANCHISE REFORM ACT, 1898.”

This is a law extending and amending the franchise in the case of boroughs, and provides that, in addition to the persons who are already entitled to be enrolled, every person shall be so entitled who possesses the freehold or residential qualifications stated in the Act.

The possession of the freehold qualification is defined as being the beneficial owner of a freehold estate in land of the capital value of not less than £25, situated in the borough, notwithstanding that the person may be already enrolled, or entitled so to be, as a ratepayer of the borough.

Every person is deemed to possess a residential qualification within a borough if he is, and for at least three months last past has been, a residential occupant within such borough.

No person may be entered in the burgess lists in respect of more qualifications than one; but (except in the case of a ratepayer) any person who has more than one qualification may select the one in respect of which he wishes to be entered.

In the case of husband and wife, any qualification possessed by one of them is deemed to be possessed by each.

No person enrolled on a burgess roll has more than one vote, and no person enrolled by virtue of the residential qualification can vote on any proposal relating to loans or rates.

RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUE.

“The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896,” gives power to local governing bodies to levy rates upon the unimproved instead of upon the capital (or annual) value of real property, provided that the proposal to do so has been demanded by the required proportion of ratepayers, submitted to the ratepayers' vote, and declared carried by a majority of the valid votes recorded by at least one-third of the ratepayers on the roll.

Rates made and levied under this Act must be so adjusted as to equal as nearly as may be, but not exceed in their producing capacity, rates made and levied on the capital (or annual) value under “The Rating Act, 1894,” see special article in Part III.

Up to the end of March, 1900, fifteen local governing bodies (six boroughs, five counties, one town district, and three road districts) had notified in the New Zealand Gazette that the proposal to levy rates on the unimproved value of land had been carried, while in eleven cases (six boroughs and five counties) the proposal had been rejected.

The amount of rates levied by the various Borough Councils, County Councils, Town Boards, and Road Boards, with other particulars, as returned by these bodies for the 31st March, 1899, will be found on the following pages:—

BOROUGHS, 1898–99.
Name of Borough.Estimated Area (including Town Belt) in Acres.Population.Number ofAmount of Rate levied in the Pound.Estimated Annual (or renting) Value of Rateable Property in March, 1899.Capital Value of Rateable Property, March, 1899.Unimproved Value of Rateable Property, March, 1899.
Dwellings.Ratepayers.Rateable Properties.General.Separate.Special.Water.Library.

* No later return than 1897–98.

† No return.

(1) Maximum under “Municipal Corporations Act, 1886.”

(2) 1/2d. on capital value, £304,653, for charitable purposes.

(3) Special, 1/3d.; Christchurch drainage rate, 3/4d.; South Waimakariri River Board, 5/64d.

(4) A charge of £1 per house per annum for water supplied, and by meter.

(5) Maximum under “Municipal Corporations Act, 1886.”

(6) Under £12 10s., 10s.; under £300, 5 per cent.; over £300, 4 per cent.; buildings not supplied, half of above rates; stores, &c., 2½ per cent.

(7) 7, 6, 3½, and 2½ per cent. on rateable value.

(8) 6d. where water is laid on, and 3d. where not.

      s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.£££
Whangarei1,8251,5003502803800........ 85,000..
Birkenhead*2,803750 1852101300....6,000....
Devonport6403,4006606131,07510..096d., or 2½ per cent...24,731....
Auckland1,77238,1007,6505,3008,2001002102½ per cent.0319,200....
Grey Lynn9002,700608586784100044 to 6 per cent...18,592....
Newmarket1502,10040028535313..074 to 6 per cent...11,686....
Parnell4804,35088257483413..094 per cent...28,406....
Onehunga1,2002,91364057795509....4 per cent...16,024....
Te Aroha20060013920120109........5,364....
Thames2,5605,000 8711,5631204 2½ per cent.0130,759....
Hamilton1,6001,25041038064010........7,780....
Cambridge1,08388025021568810........4,746....
Tauranga1,0001,05037541562010..13....4,416....
Gisborne1,2602,50049043075013..06....26,484....
New Plymouth8504,2007607971,12213..0102½ to 5 per cent...32,100....
Stratford1,9201,70034042154600 15/16;..019/32......119,015..
Hawera5002,30046041060013........14,200....
Patea1,4208002301885621304⅜..0..4,730....
Wanganui1,0006,4001,3829581,531010..13....49,000....
Marton1,4231,20023025540011..10..019,956....
Feilding3,5002,15043044180613..10..0116,282....
Palmerston N.4,5936,2001,2521,1092,53801⅝..0(1)......301,041
Foxton†..1,140......................
Hastings5,7403,3007727411,29313..09....40,000....
Napier8799,3991,8189102,50606..17....81,404....
Dannevirke1,2221,7003753861,20613..8d. & 4d.2½ to 3¾ per cent...13,040....
Woodville1,2401,15033746246203⅝............40,608
Pahiatua7501,20028538044802 1/3201/4d., 1⅜d., & 1¼d.........50,736
Masterton4,3113,8007376261,12011..  0130,626....
Carterton1,8801,30027024030400/11; 5/6..........105,015..
Greytown3,9071,12024022036310.... 018,485....
Lower Hutt3,2551,550318256399000 3/16........263,946..
Petone9523,2506385331,39610..09....20,672....
Onslow2,8701,45028033037000 15/1600 1/600⅜......201,440..
Wellington1,10042,5127,8584,8179,527130011¼09 3/50415,970....
Karori5,1271,06020419931000 15/16..0 0⅜......152.230..
Melrose4,3002,27545564573901 43/10000 1/6..........202,750
Picton560870160266980000⅕..1d. and 1/2d.....61,832..
Blenheim1,5713,2007265901,450100....23.782....
Nelson4,8007,0641,3961,1692,27211..012 to 3½ per cent...51,421....
Richmond2,3006101261321410....4 per cent.....83,120..
Westport7133,2007288181,1201206......20,100....
Greymouth2,0003,345754545964040(2)..........78,833
Brunner5,7001,20028022229213..14....4,965....
Kumara8421,15026024839100........24,371..
Hokitika1,2802,10063057066500 15/160 1⅜0......105,000..
Ross4,19675030035441400........16,052..
Rangiora1,0401,8713953475410..........162,662..
Kaiapoi1,0201,88046035960413........9,949....
Christchurch1,24918,0853,617..4,66910100....206,826....
Linwood6596,5531,3801,1541,38800 15/169/64d., 3/16d.(3)......452,603..
St. Albans1,5006,0501,3201,1421,48300 11/1600 5/1600 13/16......629,000..
Sydenham1,19010,9872,2471,9042,25000⅞3/4d., 5/64d., 7/48d.........729,656..
Woolston1,2762,10046348059000 15/1600 5/32........192,707..
Sumner4,87659218325137810..072½ per cent. (4)..6,780....
New Brighton1,500900214560709100209....6,400....
Lyttelton2,0144,05378053378313........22,777....
Akaroa22163013513919100 15/16..........45,680..
Ashburton6802,100500512 10........19,950....
Timaru1,1006,0001,1399501,35710..102½ to 5 per cent...46,750  
Waimate6491,50055031652010........7,326....
Oamaru1,1115,4001,0821,1201,52613..16(5)..30,760....
Hampden640320801121120..........12,000..
Palmerston S.8007751772483600..........38,806 
Hawksbury2,7007301402404400..........45,644 
Port Chalmers3352,10049146256510..06(5)..11,836....
North-east Valley3,9803,5767531,0971,127100206....17,738....
Maori Hill3,7001,5003193123581s. and 1s. 3d.........10,192....
West Harbour1,6701,56029445063210..10....8,904....
Dunedin1,80022,8154,8482,9304,40213..09(6)..235,024....
Roslyn2,0004,2008199391,0391001......28,800....
Mornington6543,70080281088313030....21,897....
Caversham1,0734,9009727731,0501303035 per cent...30,256....
St. Kilda4631,2902613961,33610..06....9,068....
South Dunedin4135,3501,0708551,0511303066 per cent...21,208....
Green Island10370014818417010........2,861....
Mosgiel9671,50031032249410........8,126....
Milton2651,50025022030010........6,462....
Kaitangata1,1581,4002992745411006......6,192....
Balclutha5681,00024024329010......015,131....
Lawrence6401,05023527528010....6d. and 3d...7,515....
Roxburgh4005001057011910........1,528....
Tapanui12645013015715713........1,950....
Naseby11255015014016510....(7)..2,317....
Cromwell64058016013522113..0100..3,416....
Alexandra84060011510617513........3,698....
Arrowtown39040013010617910...10..2,084....
Queenstown92375027117571410..06(8)..4,795....
Gore1,1502,8005206101,31710........15,868....
Mataura1,53095022018848513........4,171....
Winton1624008813416013........2,589....
Invercargill1,0006,3501,2001,0921,750100310(3)..56,858....
North Invercargill32695019424431913..18....3,912....
South Invercargill4,0001,95037060591113..111....5,988....
East Invercargill12198518021521513..09....3,986....
Avenal8035050668010........1,879  
Gladstone24038066  10..06....2,693....
Campbelltown2,0001,20030031258913........7,799....
Riverton7181,00024522343413........4,270....
            Totals....................2,259,4503,525,779673,968
COUNTIES, 1898–99.
[NOTE.—For value of land and improvements see preceding section.]
Counties.Area in Square Miles (including Boroughs).Population, Census April, 1896 (excluding Boroughs).Rates struck by County on Capital Rateable Value.
General.Other.

* No later return.

† County, 1/6 0/4d.; Whareama outlying district, 3/4d.; Alfredton outlying district, 3/4d.

* Outlying, 3/4d.; road districts, 3/8d.

† No later return.

Mongonui (1898)*9341,8893/4d. 
Whangaroa1609691d. 
Hokianga9721,9091d. 
Bay of Islands8262,7231d. 
Hobson6883,7501½d. 
Whangarei9286,8473/4d.3/4d. separate.
Otamatea3642,4833/4d.1/2d. on part, 3/4d. on part.
Rodney5663,4643/4d.3/4d. Hoteo Riding, 1/4d. hospital and charitable aid.
Waitemata6136,7623/4d.1/2d. separate in four ridings; 3/4d. separate in four ridings.
Eden4315,940.. 
Manukau79112,185.. 
Coromandel4034,9871½d.3/4d. on Native lands.
Thames4944,5151½d. 
Ohinemuri4784,7615/8d. 
Piako1,0952,7063/4d.Separate 1/2d., Te Aroha Riding; special, 1/2d. Te Aroha Riding, 1/10d. Patetere, 1/24d. Taotaoroa.
Waikato5912,8141/4d. 
Waipa2823,5843/4d., 1/2d.Separate 3/4d. Mangapiko, Hamilton, Alexandra outlying districts.
Raglan8241,5451/8d., 3/4d.1/8d. hospital and charitable aid; 1/2d. Karioi loan; 3/20d. Waingaro loan.
Kawhia1,515598.. 
West Taupo1,594156.. 
East Taupo2,581232.. 
Rotorua984840.. 
Tauranga5771,6223/4d.Special 1/4d.; special 1/8d. Waimapu, 1/6d. Maketu, 1/13d. Katikati Ridings.
Whakatane3,1561,9883/4d. 
Waiapu1,1214473/4d.3/4d. special Tokomaru-Tuakau
Cook1,9505,2873/4d.Various.
Clifton1,4461,4501d.1/2d. separate for loan.
Taranaki5839,9702/3d.1⅛ 9/3d. special on part for loan.
Stratford7685,1411/4d., 1/2d., 3/4d.Separate, 1/4d. East, 1/2d. South, and West Ridings; special, various.
Hawera4386,9341/4d., 3/4d.Separate, 1/4d. Hawera and Mangatoki outlying districts.
Patea6913,0843/4d.11/7d. Kapara loan, 17/16d. Omuoa loan.
Waitotara3432,7371 1/16d.7/33d. 1 1/d., 3 1/5d. special on special rating districts.
Wanganui1,9423,0951/4d., 3/4d.1/8d., 3/8d. special, Long Acre; 7/16d. Denlair, 10/16d. Waikupa Subdivisions.
Rangitikei8526,0303/4d.Special, various, in special rating districts; separate, various.
Kiwitea3362,4283/4d.Special and separates rates, various.
Oroua3976,450.. 
Pohangina2951,3513/4d.Separate, 1/2d., 1/2d., 3/4d.; special, various.
Manawatu2672,7093/8d.Separate, 1/2d., Awahou, 7/16d. Sandon, 3/8d., Waitohi and Campbell, 1/4d., Mount Stewart, Carnarvon, and Kawakawa Ridings.
Horowhenua5913,7925/8d., 3/4d.Special, various.
Wairoa1,8871,4903/4d.Special, 1/36d. whole county, and 5/16d., 5/32d., and 1/64d. on part.
Hawke's Bay3,2326,8941/2 4/0d. 
Waipawa1,1548,8661d., 1¼d.5/12d., 5/32., 1d., and 0.6539d. for interest on loans.
Patangata7472,3741⅛d. 
Pahiatua3023,2081d.Forty-two special rates, various.
Akitio1,4437,2091/6 0/4d., 3/4d., 3/4d.†Seven separate ridings, rates average 6/16d.; thirty-two special, various.
Wairarapa North
Eketahuna
Wairarapa South1,2815,409 1/8d. hospitals and charitable aid.
Hutt5905,7503/4d., 1/4d.Separate, 1/2d.; special, 5/8d., 5/16d., 1/3d., 1/6d.
Sounds573747.. 
Marlborough3,8126,330.. 
Kaikoura6731,5753/4d. 
Collingwood1,0292,5091/4d.1/4d. special.
Waimea1,6628,5913/4d.1/5d. hospitals and charitable aid; special for loans.
Buller1,8184,8331½d.Separate, 1/2d. hospitals and charitable aid; special, 3¾d.
Inangahua2,2564,2541d. 1½d.,Special, 1/2d., 5/16d. Reefton Town, 2¼d. Boatman's irrigation district.
Grey1,4524,5921½d.3/8d. H. and C.A.
Westland4,4204,7231½d. 
Amuri2,3629161/2d.Separate and special, various.
Cheviot3221,0421/2d.3/16d. special.
Ashley1,62711,913... 
Selwyn2,59730,090.1/8d. H. and C.A.
Akaroa3533,8863/8d.1/4d. special.
Ashburton2,54210,8201/4d.1/5d. special.
Geraldine9497,4991/4d. 
Levels2737,7231d.1/4d. separate.
Mackenzie2,5371,5145/8d. 
Waimate1,3434,7771/1 1/6d.1/4d., 5/8d., 3/4d., 1d., separate.
Waitaki2,3338,8761/2d.Separate, 1/16d. Waiareka, 3/16d. Moeraki and Otepopo Ridings.
Waihemo3362,1485/8d. 
Waikouaiti3184,3893/4d. 
Peninsula372,645.. 
Taieri9306,9503/4d.Special, 3/4d. Henley Drainage District, hospitals and charitable aid 1/4d., over whole county.
Bruce5034,8283/8d., 3/4d.*3/16d. H. and C.A., 3/8d. Matau Riding; special, various.
Clutha (1898)†9466,5643/4d.3/16d. H. and C.A.; special, 1/6d. Richardson Riding; 1⅕d. S. Molyneux; 3/10d. Clinton; 1/2d. Catlin's Riding.
Tuapeka1,3656,4773/4d. 
Maniototo1,2393,7423/4d. 
Vincent2,6844,0901d.1½d., 2½d., special.
Lake3,7122,6631d. 
Southland3,85221,6033/4d.1/6d. H. and C.A.; 1/4d. special in special rating districts.
Wallace3,4046,6573/4d.1/8d. H. and C.A.; 3/8d. separate in three ridings; 1/20d. special, part Waiau Riding.
Fiord3,040151.. 
Stewart Island6512441/2d.1/4d. H. and C.A.
TOWN DISTRICTS, 1898–99.
NOTE.—For value of land and improvements see Statistical Volume for 1898, pp. 460–65.
Town Districts.Estimated Population, 31st March, 1899.Number ofAmount of Rate levied in the Pound on the Capital (or Annual) Value of Property.
Dwellings.Ratepayers.Rateable Properties.

(1) Special town district under “The Thermal-Springs Districts Act, 1881.”

(2) Special rate, 1/6d.

(3) Constituted a borough, 1st August, 1898.

(4) Special, various.

(5) Special, 1/4d.; separate, 1/16d.

(6) Special, 1/7d.

(7) Special, 3/8d.

(8) Special, 1/4d.

(9) Water-rate, 7 per cent. where supplied.

* On the annual value.

† On the unimproved value.

     s.d.
Kamo 65821080
Helensville 10910012704
Papakura274731542020
Te Awamutu3508070700
Kihikihi20755981370
Ngaruawahia300601401460
Rotorua(1)      
Opotiki7002402382710
Waitara (Raleigh)7601602534600
Opunake4301051645390
Inglewood7971801533860(2)
Normanby4008010610605†
Stratford(3)1,5003003707120(4)
Manaia400701513410
Waverley4451041071070
Lethbridge (Turakina)26853476508*
Bull's53512011917510*
Halcombe4009816073010*
Clyde (Wairoa)5801201582920
Taradale 1521381900
Ormondville73019614321506*
Waipawa76415713219703 †
Kaikora North3006210113510*
Featherston7171151501900(5)
Johnsonville56096991670
Havelock280969614801
Amberley44092831300
Southbridge200125240..0(6)
Hampstead1,2002002683140
Tinwald538 5721100⅝
Geraldine9501901973080
Temuka7501601586200(7)
Arowhenua800220222..0(8)
Greytown (Allanton) 10587920
Outram5009469690(9)
Clinton (1898)4749012313510*
Wyndham40410435435410*
Otautau325941191560
ROAD DISTRICTS, 1898–99.
NOTE.—For value of land and improvements see Statistical Volume for 1898, pp. 460–465.
County and District.Population, Census, 1896.Number ofAmount of Rate levied in the Pound on the Capital Value.
Dwellings.Ratepayers.Rateable Properties.

(1) On annual value.

(2) 5/8d. special.

(3) 3/8d. special.

(4) No rate struck.

(5) 1/2d. and 3/16d. special.

(6) 1/6d. special.

(7) 1/3d. and 1/2d. special.

(8) 1/4d. special.

(1) No rate struck.

(2) 3/4d. special.

(3) 3/8d. and 3/4d special

(4) Special, various.

(5) 3/16d. special

(1) No rate struck.

(2) 1/2d. special.

(3) 5/8d. special.

(4) 1/2d. and 1/8d., special.

(5) 1/8d. special.

(6) Special, various.

(7) 5/8d., 1d., 2⅞d., special.

(8) 1/5d. special.

(1) Special, various.

(2) 5/16d. and 6/6 2/4d. special.

(3) No rate struck.

(1) 1/20d. special.

(2) Thirty special rates.

(3) 5/16d., 13/16d., 2⅛d. special.

(4) Special, various.

(5) Special, various, for loans.

(6) 1/4d. special.

(7) 1d. special.

(8) 3/8d. special.

(1) On the annual value; special, various.

(2) No rate struck.

(3) 1/7d. and 5/64d. special.

(4) 1/7d. separate.

(5) 7/16d. special.

(1) Various.

(2) 7/16d. in Wards Nos. 1/ and 5, 9/32d. in Ward No. 3, and 17/32d. in Wards Nos. 2 and 4.

(3) 3/8d. separate on part of district.

(4) 3/8d. river rate.

     d.
Mongonui—     
    Oruru (1898)534108....1/2
Whangaroa (No road districts.)     
Bay of Islands (No road districts.)     
Hokianga (No road districts.)     
Hobson (No road districts.)     
Whangarei—     
    Hikurangi354120901303/4
    Kaurihohore2123255613/4
    Kensington3241727313/4
    Maungakaramea227561021023/4
    Maunu5571401501503/4
    Otonga2075257593/4
    Otonga East24668811093/4
    Parua Bay2991552052553/4
    Ruarangi1172169703/4
    Waikiekie180322272653/4
    Waipu North2094685933/4
    Whareora1016378803/4
Otamatea—     
    Mangawai2725490..3/4
    Matakohe328741682273/4
    Whakapirau (no Board)     
Rodney—     
    Albertland North611145453/4
    Albertland South347782292343/4
    Ahuroa361245553/4
    Komokoriki791439453/4
    Mahurangi East1353474741/2
    Mahurangi Upper8331762704083/4
    Mainene541234443/4
    Matakana East1091522221/4
    Matakana West19461701483/4
    Omaha337861561983/4
    Puhoi465821181463/4
    Tauhoa4096991..3/4
    Wharehine1012034353/4
Waitemata—     
    Kaukapakapa5771001903123/4
    Pukeatua6502122692713/4
    Whangaparaoa1072236423/4
Eden—     
    Avondale (1898)901200268322 
    Arch Hill1,5573562855721s.(1)
    Eden Terrace1,6044052934383/4(2)
    Epsom6601301231343/4
    Mount Albert1,6682854405253/4
    Mount Eden3,6779308501,0433/4(3)
    Mount Roskill495911602381/2
    Mount Wellington8761732205763/4
    One-tree Hill9751621662381/2
    Panmure Township3237072901/2
    Point Chevalier5913136441/2
    Remuera2,0344203744853/4
    Tamaki West382881041215/8
Manukau—     
    Awhitu3721011181471/2
    Howick Town220701151303/4
    Hunua230301351503/4
    Karaka189......3/4
    Mangare8541631551991/2
    Manurewa21356821221/2
    Maraetai96232634(4)
    Mauku423901402081/2(5)
    Maungatawhiri2934562951/2
    Mercer Township2154265733/4
    Opaheke46280111..3/4
    Opaheke North367961622113/4
    Otahuhu9423062673423/4
    Pakuranga3466670943/4
    Papakura39370971003/4
    Paparata407841121623/4
    Paparoa1073969923/4
    Papatoitoi1763737531/2
    Pokeno40574971403/4(6)
    Pollok Settlement1332037461/2
    Pukekohe East8842002392393/4
    Pukekohe West1,1042022242323/4
    Tamaki East6681131171383/4
    Turanga2094166753/4(7)
    Waipipi8271702002303/4(8)
    Wairoa8592002003003/4
    Waiuku4541802102203/4
Coromandel (No road districts.)     
Thames (No road districts.)     
Ohinemuri (No road districts.)     
Piako—     
    Matamata2314457761/2
    Waitoa9792802233391/2
Waikato—     
    Cambridge5389093931/2
    Kirikiriroa8231502512511/2
    Tamahere2022238383/4
    Whangamarino407771984221/2d. & 3/4d.
    Huntly8443002302693/4
Waipa—     
    Newcastle393871561333/4
    Pukekura8021853703801/2
    Rangiaohia5491001301305/8
    Tuhikaramea892052523/4
Raglan—     
    Karamu (no Board)74    
    Onewhero170485968(1)
    Te Akau (no Board)51    
Kawhia (No road districts.)     
West Taupo (No road districts.)     
East Taupo (No road districts.)     
Rotorua (No road districts.)     
Tauranga—     
    Katikati397701373003/4
    Te Puke397941251613/4
    Te Puna16530135140(1)
Whakatane—     
    Opotiki584120201..1/2
    Whakatane4672002812813/4(2)
Waiapu. (No road districts.)     
Cook—     
    Aroha 577(1)
    Kaiti5651101562163/4(3)
    Ngatapa4341018295(1)
    Ormond4611041041241/2
    Patutahi582871122661/4
    Pouawa554575110(4)
    Poverty Bay1,0871302032031/2(5)
    Taruheru 455353(1)
    Te Arai28578551881/8(2)
    Titirangi (constituted in March, 1899)     
    Waikohu139303085(1)
    Waimata2594747501/2
    Waipaoa 9716(1)
    Whataupoko9361702422803/4(2)
Clifton. (No road districts.)     
Taranaki—     
    Barrett37289891161/2
    Carrington2325374741/2(3)
    Egmont667981541541/2(4)
    Elliot2153749553/4
    Frankley2785265651/2
    Henui39174911151/2
    Hurford, Upper691617171/2
    Mangorei2465161619/16
    Moa2,4514505005502/3(5)
    Oakura32052126..1/4
    Okato30660781251/4
    Omata2916154781/2
    Parihaka1,1872513367651/4(6)
    Tataraimaka1262536361/4
    Waitara West8511641723155/8
    Waiwakaiho393731011833/4
Stratford—     
    Manganui1,4783303446793/4(6)
Hawera—     
    Waimate2,2294504986883/4(7)
Patea—     
    Kohi1953230303/4
    Motoroa371619193/4
    Okotuku1442429331/4
    Patea East3846583855(1)
    Patea West799175183630(8)
    Wairoa982230303/4
    Waitotara-Momohaki4921141253573/4
    Whenuakura-Waitotara3344042421/4
Waitotara. (No road districts).     
Wanganui—     
    Kaukatea16150461083/4
    Kaitoke537981101743/4
    Mangawhero7152704004701/2
    Purua8391501441823/4
    Wangaehu Upper450901033083/4(1)
Rangitikei. (No road districts.)     
Oroua—     
    Fitzherbert5641322783733/4
    Manawatu2,1634204867183/4
    Manchester3,3477456622,0205/8(1)
Pohangina (No road districts.)     
Kiwitea (No road districts.)     
Manawatu (No road districts.)     
Horowhenua—     
    Otaki1,1982562741,0355/8(1)
    Te Horo4051111363481/2(2)
    Wirokino 8757001,0211/2(1)
Wairoa (No road districts.)     
Hawke's Bay (No road districts.)     
Waipawa—     
    Kumeroa4041001202381/2d. & 3/4d.
    Maungaatua24946541911
    Norsewood1,043181257270
    Ruataniwha North58111284951/4
    Takapau5238564927/8
    Waipawa3275867783/4
    Waipukurau816110149..3/4
    Woodville1,0011602303001⅛
Patangata—     
    Oero1983546463/4
    Patangata3394552991/4
    Porangahau47450741413/4
    Taumumu2281818185/16
    Wallingford2442023551/2
    Wanstead1215454..(3)
    Weber469801251581/2
Pahiatua. (No road districts.)     
Wairarapa North—     
    Castlepoint65784811181/2(1)
    Masterton2,0623803504387/16, 5/16, 3/8(2)
    Mauriceville1,0862642593581/3 3/2
    Taueru Upper2114649495/16(3)
Akitio—     
    Akitio4532003563801/2
Eketahuna—     
    Eketahuna2,159..5901,1521/4(4)
Wairarapa South—     
    Featherston2,2044504006003/4
    Taratahi-Carterton2,4945504736321d. & 5/16 (5)
Hutt—     
    Makara2783842591/2(6)
    Seatoun17590961263/4(7)
    Plimmerton. (In first year.)     
Sounds. (No road districts.)     
Marlborough—     
    Awatere4327551823/4
    Omaka1,6172503634385/8
    Pelorus1,4072802802403/4(8)
    Picton8661821592515/8
    Spring Creek7691201831831/2
    Wairau8741461282001/2
Kaikoura. (No road districts.)     
Collingwood—     
    Collingwood1,0193103035293/4
    Takaka1,4053253107643/4
Waimea—     
    Dovedale (1898)3274872721/4
    Motueka976........
    Moutere Upper409100......
    Riwaka624........
    Stoke1,244....210..
    Suburban North593115......
    Waimea West422847474..
Buller (No road districts.)     
Inangahua (No road districts.)     
Grey (No road districts.)     
Westland (No road districts.)     
Amuri (No road districts.)     
Cheviot (no Board).    d.
Ashley—     
    Ashley6861501722501/2
    Cust7711571372153/8
    Eyreton1,7263202742745/8
    Eyreton West3978577771/4
    Kowai1,967....7291/2
    Mandeville and Rangiora2,4885224285931/2
    Oxford2,2134604716801/2
    Waipara1,2272922704831/2
Selwyn—     
    Avon4,53211018141,0681s.(1)
    Courtenay2,4914144626153/8
    Ellesmere3,841 5868473/8
    Halswell1,1792202002403/4
    Heathcote2,36947470275029/40(1)
    Lake Coleridge141303484(2)
    Lincoln1,3223682483173/8, 9/16(3)
    Malvern7071681592971/2
    Malvern East6281321672831/4
    Malvern South483822053331/4
    Rakaia8891841963331/4
    Riccarton5,2069401,0041,2709/16
    Spreydon1,2782653053465/8(4)
    Springs1,9844504044951/2
    Taitapu3768063703/4
    Templeton2,0484465026441/2
    Waimakariri Upper122211341(2)
Akaroa—     
    Akaroa and Wainui1,4162202423565/8
    Le Bon's Bay2715782821/2(5)
    Little River8202501561461/2
    Okain's Bay567 1021211/2
    Pigeon Bay3525851593/4
    Port Levy1323245531/2
    Port Victoria3286064803/4
Ashburton—     
    Anama (1898)691417201/2
    Ashburton Upper1,811360490664(1)
    Coldstream3656070883/8
    Longbeach1,400..227314Various(2)
    Mount Hutt1,1572602733801/4
    Mount Somers9181852272275/8
    Rangitata7031602432901/4
    South Rakaia1,5583163404861/4
    Wakanui1,0871872302711/4
Geraldine—     
    Geraldine2,4244705096101/2
    Mount Peel51792881031/4
    Temuka2,2684155086425/8
Levels (No road districts.)     
Mackenzie (No road districts.)     
Waimate (No road districts.)     
Waitaki (No road districts.)     
Waihemo (No road districts.)     
Waikouaiti (No road districts.)     
Peninsula—     
    Otago Heads30646631231/4
    Peninsula1,2942193333933/4
    Portobello877..3353563/4
    Tomahawk1682333443/4
Taieri. (No road districts.)     
Bruce—     
    Balmoral370546584(3)
    Inch-Clutha (Road and River)4206774743/4(4)
    Mount Stuart7081141141241/2
Clutha (No road districts.)     
Tuapeka (No road districts.)     
Maniototo (No road districts.)     
Vincent (No road districts.)     
Lake (No road districts.)     
Southland—     
    Invercargill (no Board)1,382........
    Knapdale1,3912902923535/8
    Oteramika1,8943654664663/4
    Tuturau732991051451/2
Wallace (No road districts.)     
Fiord (No road districts.)     
Stewart Island (No road districts.)     

Chapter 41. SECTION XII.—LICENSES AND LICENSED HOUSES, ETC.

LICENSES AND LICENSED HOUSES.

DURING the year ended the 31st March, 1899, 2,386 licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors were granted. Of these, 1,524 were publicans' and accommodation licenses, 7 New Zealand wine, 56 packet, 131 wholesale, and 668 conditional licenses. The fees paid amounted to £53,549, and formed part of the revenue of the local governing bodies of the districts in which the licenses were issued. Particulars are given in the following table:—

NUMBER OF LICENSES GRANTED DURING THE YEAR 1898–99, AND THE AMOUNT OF FEES PAID TO LOCAL BODIES THEREFOR.
Licenses.In Counties.In Boroughs.Total.
Publicans' licenses6246771,301
Accommodation licenses223..223
                Total licensed houses8476771,524
New Zealand wine licenses..77
Packet licenses134356
Wholesale licenses10121131
Conditional licenses478190668
                Total licenses granted1,3481,0382,386
Amount of license-fees paid to local bodies£20,221£33,328£53,549

The average number of persons to each licensed house in counties and boroughs respectively, for 1898–99, is next shown:—

 Number of Licensed Houses.*Estimated Population.Average Number of Persons to each Licensed House.

* I.e., houses holding publicans' or accommodation licenses.

† Excluding persons on shipboard and adjacent islands.

Counties847400,792473
Boroughs677341,550505
                Totals1,524742,342†487

In 1897–98 the number of licensed houses in counties was 849, and those in boroughs 677, giving a total of 1,526 houses, or 2 more than in 1898–99. The average number of persons to a house increased from 469 in 1897–98 to 473 in 1898–99 in counties, and in boroughs the average increased from 487 to 505.

The annual fees paid for licenses are—

* Between the hours of six in the morning and ten at night. For an eleven o'clock license an additional £5 must be paid.
 £
(1.) For a publicans' license 
            (a.) Within the limits of a borough or town district40*
            (b.) Outside the aforesaid limits25
(2.) For a New Zealand wine license1
(3.) For an accommodation license, a sum to be determined by the Licensing Committee, not exceeding20
(4.) For a packet license—
            (a.) For a vessel exceeding 50 tons register10
            (b.) For a vessel not exceeding 50 tons register5
(5.) For a wholesale license20
(6.) For a conditional license, according to duration of license, a sum not exceeding30

The approximate capital value of the licensed houses in the counties was stated at £736,257, and the same for certain of the boroughs at £193,229. There was, besides, an annual value of £111,583 for other licensed houses in the boroughs, which, capitalised at 6 per cent., would represent £1,859,716. The capital value of all licensed houses would therefore be about £2,789,202.

The total number of persons engaged in or connected with the sale or manufacture of wine, spirits, beer, cordials, &c., was returned at the census of 1896 as under:—

 Males.Females.Persons.
Hotelkeeper1,3342041,538
            Relative assisting157348505
            Manager, clerk671178
Hotel, club, &c., servant1,1362,0753,211
Manager, secretary, steward of club-house32335
Barman, barmaid196210406
Wine, spirit, ale merchant43..43
            Assistant516
            Clerk, book-keeper, accountant, traveller, store man44..44
            Cordial, &c., merchant, salesman5..5
Brewer, bottler2344233
              Manager, clerk, traveller53..53
            Relative assisting, apprentice18..18
            Cellarman, assistant, carter, &c.1511152
Maltster and assistants118..118
Distiller, bottler2..2
Wine-maker, -bottler9..9
Cordial, &c., maker2936299
            Clerk, book-keeper, traveller6..6
            Totals3,9032,8636,766

Remarks on the high rate of mortality ruling amongst men connected with the liquor trade in respect of various diseases, as compared with the death-rate of males engaged in other occupations, will be found on page 140, in Section III., dealing with vital statistics.

LOCAL OPTION POLL.

Under “The Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act, 1893,” each electoral district constituted for the election of a member of the House of Representatives is a licensing district, and electors for the House of Representatives are also electors under the Licensing Acts.

Under the Amendment Act of 1895 the licensing poll is taken at the same time as the general election of members of the House of Representatives. The questions for the decision of the voters are,—

  1. Whether the number of licenses existing in the district shall continue?

  2. Whether the number shall be reduced?

  3. Whether any licenses whatever shall be granted?

The voter may vote for one or two of these proposals, but no more.

The method of determining the result of the poll in each district by the Returning Officer is as follows:—

  1. If the number of votes recorded in favour of the continuance of existing licenses is an absolute majority of all the voters whose votes were recorded, the proposal is to be deemed to be carried, and the licenses continue until the next poll, subject to certain provisions in special cases.

  2. If the number of votes recorded in favour of a reduction in the number of licenses is an absolute majority of all the voters whose votes were recorded, the proposal is deemed to be carried, and supersedes the proposal for continuance of licenses. The Licensing Committee then reduces publicans' licenses by not less than 5 per cent. or more than 25 per cent. of the total number existing, excluding forfeitures. Provision is made that when a reduction vote is carried the licenses shall be reduced by one at least when the total, number does not exceed ten, two when not over twenty, and three at least when the licenses exceed thirty.

  3. If the number of votes recorded in favour of the proposal that no license shall be granted is not less than three-fifths of all the voters whose votes were recorded, the proposal is declared to be carried, and supersedes the proposal for reduction and for continuance, and no licenses can be granted.

  4. If none of the proposals respecting licenses are carried by the prescribed majority the licenses continue as they are until next poll, subject to certain provisions in special cases.

The result of the poll taken on 6th December, 1899, for each licensing district is as follows:—

RESULT OF LICENSING POLL, 1899.
District.Number on Roll.For Continuance.For Reduction.For No License.Total Number of Persons who voted at Poll.Informal Votes.Result of Poll.
Men.Women.Total.

* Approximate.

* Poll declared void on petition.

† Since declared no election.

Bay of Islands5,5392,3819921,1952,6521,2763,92841Continuance carried.
Marsden5,5412,0291,2271,5172,3981,3133,711..
Waitemata4,8761,9431,0181,1842,1161,1883,30463
Eden5,5382,2782,0271,9192,4212,1344,555160
City of Auckland18,3366,9166,2635,8697,1876,51913,706400
Parnell6,0792,3721,9031,7242,1982,3764,574107
Manukau5,3381,9521,7111,4922,0821,8533,935..No proposal carried.
Franklin4,7961,6621,5351,6352,1771,5813,758167
Thames6,2362,1532,0562,3742,7641,9864,750144
Ohinemuri7,8732,2892,1753,1273,7311,8985,629141
Waikato5,2822,7371,2341,4452,5331,8504,383164Continuance carried.
Bay of Plenty4,7862,2941,0991,4032,3711,6263,997236
Waiapu6,1062,4171,9412,5623,2221,7995,021..No proposal carried.
Hawke's Bay4,8699653962937638476018Poll invalid.
Napier4,9311,9331,7981,6852,0841,9294,013211No proposal carried.
Waipawa4,9062,1471,3631,7412,6061,5484,154217Continuance carried.
Pahiatua4,5011,9091,3051,7132,3681,4253,7938
Masterton5,1721,8531,6762,0012,3491,5313,880..No proposal carried.
Wairarapa4,6742,0211,2861,5582,4111,5093,920..Continuance carried.
Egmont5,3252,1351,6701,9772,8801,4094,289136No proposal carried.
Taranaki5,6792,6241,6961,8722,6232,1374,76063Continuance carried.
Hawera5,1921,9811,5731,8742,4941,6354,129212No proposal carried.
Patea4,8471,9321,0911,4622,3051,3183,623..Continuance carried.
Wanganui6,4012,7951,7312,1622,7812,4265,207152
Rangitikei5,6091,9111,0471,6212,5641,2113,775155
Palmerston5,3502,1391,3211,5822,2681,7874,055166
Manawatu4,5021,6701,1611,4482,1941,2043,398164
Otaki4,2341,9039429872,0681,3033,371..
Suburbs of Wellington6,1261,9391,8602,1203,1792,9476,126246No proposal carried.
City of Wellington18,8747,5786,4476,1948,4897,07915,568837Continuance carried.
City of Nelson5,3682,5941,6631,3482,2222,2914,513109
Motueka4,2861,9456818641,852*1,142*2,994148
Wairau5,4782,5531,2641,3562,5291,7134,242..Continuance carried.
Buller5,8622,7981,7941,9483,2261,9475,173271
Grey5,7232,7711,4001,4482,8551,7184,573..
Westland4,4271,1604324971,1266931,819..Poll invalid.
Ashley4,4691,7159951,2871,9831,1713,15475Continuance carried.
Kaiapoi4,7961,7171,9492,2352,1661,9084,07481No proposal carried.
Avon4,8932,1881,5041,5922,0621,9684,030126Continuance carried.
City of Christchurch20,7508,8896,3836,5387,6987,95515,653..
Lyttelton4,8412,0321,2921,4441,9931,6493,64274
Riccarton4,5851,9731,3041,3472,0171,7423,759..
Ellesmere4,1211,7611,2681,5021,9661,4523,418..
Selwyn4,4801,6841,2621,4642,1331,2753,40851
Ashburton5,2281,9011,7262,0222,5641,6814,24545No proposal carried.
Geraldine4,3431,8821,1141,4902,1071,5453,652115Continuance carried.
Timaru5,0181,9851,8691,9212,1581,8253,983..No proposal carried.
Waitaki4,5291,7991,1961,5192,1561,2023,358..Continuance carried.
Oamaru4,8811,7681,8981,9752,1041,8033,907..Reduction carried.*
Waihemo4,430847988855244791,00323Poll invalid.
Waikouaiti4,2571,4541,2941,4951,6991,4673,16652No proposal carried.
City of Dunedin20,0846,8646,9446,7747,7867,77515,561..
Caversham6,1512,3511,9741,9862,3302,3384,66856Continuance carried.
Taieri4,5211,6031,5601,6061,9791,4663,445142No proposal carried.
Bruce4,665..............Legal proceedings pending.†
Tuapeka4,7201,8251,1431,3312,1751,1643,339144Continuance carried.
Clutha4,9251,3931,8892,1702,2351,5173,752144No license carried.
Mataura5,1861,7751,8592,1922,4781,6954,173101No proposal carried.
Wakatipu4,7652,0921,0521,2022,3871,2743,661..
Wallace4,5782,0521,0811,3052,3561,2173,573118Continuance carried.
Invercargill5,8042,2282,1722,3002,3352,3034,638120No proposal carried.
Awarua4,0621,6181,3041,4601,8671,3073,17486Continuance carried.
 373,744142,443107,751118,575160,959120,863281,822.. 

It will thus be seen that 142,443 votes were recorded in favour of continuance of existing licenses, 107,751 for reduction, and 118,575 for no license. In thirty-seven districts the majority of voters were in favour of continuance; in nineteen districts none of the proposals were carried; in three, the poll was declared invalid; in one, reduction was carried, but on petition the poll was declared void; in one, legal proceedings were pending at the date the foregoing return was made up, but since then “no election” has been declared as the result of the poll; and in one (Clutha) a sufficient majority of voters polled for no license. In twelve of the districts, excluding Hawke's Bay and Waihemo, where the poll was invalid—namely, Thames, Ohinemuri, Waiapu, Masterton, Suburbs of Wellington, Kaiapoi, Ashburton, Oamaru, Waikouaiti, Taieri, Mataura, and Invercargill—a majority of those who polled voted for prohibition, but not the necessary three-fifths required to carry that issue.

Of the total number of persons (281,822) who voted at the poll, 160,959, or 57.11 per cent., were men, and 120,863, or 42.89 per cent., women.

FIRE BRIGADES.

On the 31st December, 1899, there were eighty-eight fire brigades in the colony, with a total strength of 1,593 (241 officers and 1,352 men). Compared with the numbers in 1898, these figures show an increase of four brigades, but a decrease of 3 officers and 38 men. There is also a salvage corps in Auckland, consisting of one captain and six men, not included in the figures given above, which works in conjunction with the city and suburban fire brigades.

Chapter 42. SECTION XIII.—ACCUMULATION: PRICES AND WAGES.

BANKS OF ISSUE.

IN December, 1899, five banks of issue were doing business in New Zealand, the Bank of New Zealand and the Colonial Bank having amalgamated in 1895. Two of the five banks, the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand (Limited), were wholly New Zealand institutions, with a paid-up capital of £1,250,000, besides which the Bank of New Zealand has £2,000,000 of 4 per cent, guaranteed stock. The Government hold shares to the value of £500,000 in the Bank of New Zealand. The total average liabilities of all five banks for the year 1899 in respect of New Zealand transactions were £15,834,858, and the average assets £17,190,433. The average amount on deposit during the year was £14,591,223, of which sum £790,319 belonged to the General Government. Excluding those belonging to Government, deposits to the value of £7,867,843 were bearing interest, and £5,933,061 at call. The value of the notes in circulation of these banks was £1,163,759.

The development of banking in New Zealand since the year 1857 has been very great. Taking for each year the average of the four quarters' returns made by the banks of issue, the figures for 1857, 1868, 1879, 1889, and 1899 are:—

Year.Deposits.Assets.Liabilities.
 £££
1857343,316419,860432,494
18683,102,7275,734,7453,838,220
18798,021,07316,054,2959,057,463
188911,528,42417,652,91512,486,717
189914,591,22317,190,43315,834,858

In 1879 the deposits of these banks were £17.90 per head of the mean population. In 1889 they were £18.15 per head; and in 1899, £19.46. The ratio of advances to deposits, which was 167.22 per cent. in 1879, reached its maximum in 1883, when it stood at 173.35 per cent. The proportion since that year fell, till in 1897 it was only 76.21 per cent. In 1898, however, the ratio had advanced to 80.52 per cent., and in 1899 still further, to £80.92 per cent.

The following figures, which are taken from the published returns for the December quarter of each year, show that the value of the coin and bullion held by all the banks of issue doing business in New Zealand rose steadily from 1891 to 1895, in which year the value stood at £3,333,272. Since that date, however, the value has gradually decreased year by year to £2,636,177 in December quarter, 1899:—

Quarter ended 31st December.Coin.Gold and Silver in Bullion or Bars.Total Coin and Bullion.
 £££
18902,421,530169,6592,591,189
18912,231,242126,3462,357,588
18922,381,319141,4062,522,725
18932,480,453121,4962,601,949
18943,103,355118,1213,221,476
18953,199,889133,3833,333,272
18963,171,702122,9013,294,603
18972,848,183107,6352,955,818
18982,625,896126,3492,752,245
18992,511,102125,0752,636,177

The figures shown for each quarter of the year 1899 are:—

 Coin.Bullion.
 ££
March quarter, 18992,603,271116,227
June                  ”2,540,310151,432
September;         ”2,503,976150,052
December;         ”2,511,102125,075

In 1886 the average amount of advances made by the banks was £15,853,420, equal to £27.23 per head of the mean population. The advances gradually declined in amount and proportion to population until 1891, when they were in value £11,549,145, or £18.34 per head. During the years 1892 and 1893, however, there was a rise, but in 1894 a fall to £12,031,537 (£17.71 per head), and in 1897 to £10,892,111, or £15.09 per head, which is the lowest average since the year 1872. In 1898, however, an increase both in the average amount of advances and in the rate per head of population (£11,387,321 and £15.47 respectively) was observed, and in 1899 there was a further increase to £11,806,859, or £15.74 per head. The discounts in 1899 were less in amount and in rate per head than in any year since 1872. The largest amount of discounts in any year was £6.061,959 in 1879, a rate of £13.53 per head. From 1879 there was a fall year by year until 1896, when the sum was £1,756,791, or £2.49 per head. In 1897 they totalled £1,768,845, but, with a comparatively larger population, the rate per head was only £2.45. In 1898 the amount fell to £1,719,715, and the rate per head to £2.34. In 1899 there was a further decline in the amount to £1,692,201, and in the rate per head to £2.26.

The deposits, as stated in the returns for the March quarters of the years 1900 and 1899, were:—

 £
Deposits not bearing interest, March quarter, 19006,689,583
        ”        ”        ”                March quarter, 18995,769,555
                    An increase of£920,028

in the amount held at call. This vast increase indicates a different-condition of affairs from that which obtained twelve months previously, when the returns showed a decrease of deposits not bearing interest for the March quarter of 1899, when compared with the same quarter of 1898.

The fixed deposits show a reverse movement, but of less magnitude:—

 £
Deposits bearing interest, March quarter, 19007,801,601
        ”        ”        ”          March quarter, 18997,837,265
                    A decrease of£35,664

Besides the above, the Government had with the Bank of New Zealand £874,258 on deposit in March, 1900, as against £935,463 in March, 1899.

Special Banking Legislation.

An Act was passed in 1893 intituled “The Banks and Bankers Act Amendment Act,” under which, notwithstanding anything in previous legislation, the shareholders or proprietors of any bank may, from time to time, by extraordinary resolution, authorise its capital to be increased to such an amount and upon such terms as are deemed by them to be expedient. The holders of shares in such increased capital may be granted special privileges notwithstanding anything contained in the charter of the bank.

Any increased capital may be raised by the issue of new shares of such amount as is determined on by extraordinary resolution of the shareholders or proprietors.

The Bank-note Issue Act of the same year provides that notes issued or circulated in the colony by any bank shall, to the amount of the authorised issue, be a first charge on all the assets and property (including the paid-up capital, uncalled capital, and reserve fund—” Banking Act, 1894”) of such bank, and that the notes shall be payable in gold only at the office of the bank at the place of issue of the said notes.

The assets and property of a bank are defined as assets for the payment of debts or other obligations contracted or entered upon or due and payable in the colony.

The other clauses (Part II.) of the same Act were originally passed for twelve months only, but their operation was extended in 1894 for another twelve months—viz., till September, 1895. As amended by subsequent enactments, they run as follows: The Governor may declare by Proclamation the notes of any bank named to be a legal tender of money to the amount therein expressed to be payable. The period of time is to be limited by the Proclamation, and no such Proclamation is to be made unless the Governor in Council is satisfied that, as between the bank and its creditors, its assets in the colony exceed its liabilities in the colony. The bank must further pay all such notes in gold on presentation, after expiry of the time limited, at the office of the bank at the place of issue At any time within six months after the period limited by the Proclamation, the Colonial Treasurer, on being satisfied that a bank-note covered by the Proclamation has been presented and not paid, shall pay the same in gold to any bonâ fide holder.

On the 29th June, 1894, the Colonial Treasurer introduced in the House of Representatives three Bills relating to banking, which were thereupon passed through all stages and became law forthwith.

The most important of these, intituled “An Act to guarantee out of the Consolidated Fund a Special Issue of Shares by the Bank of New Zealand to the Amount of Two Million Pounds Steeling,” provided for the increase of the capital by the issue of shares* to an amount not exceeding two million pounds sterling, in guaranteed shares of ten pounds each, without further liability. These shares are preferential in respect of both capital and dividend, and the liability of the holders of ordinary shares is to secure payment of the guaranteed shares and the dividends thereon. The directors can refuse to register the transfer of ordinary shares. The guaranteed shares are to be called in at the end of ten years, and cancelled on payment of the principal sum with accrued dividend. The rate of dividend on preferential shares is not to exceed 4 per cent, per annum, and is to be paid by the bank. The guaranteed or preferential shares and dividends thereon are to be a charge upon and, in case of default by the bank, payable out of the Consolidated Fund of the colony; but if at any time any money shall be payable under the guarantee, the assets and property of the bank are to be security for the repayment of money so advanced; if the money be not repaid, the Colonial Treasurer may appoint a Receiver.

One-half of the sum of two million pounds authorised by the Act to be raised is to be at the disposal of the bank for use in its ordinary business, and the remainder is to be invested as the Colonial Treasurer may approve, or as may be specially provided by law. Until the guaranteed shares are called in and cancelled, no dividend is to be paid to ordinary shareholders without the consent of the Colonial Treasurer, who is empowered to satisfy himself that any proposed dividend will not unduly affect the security of the colony in respect of the guarantee.

By section 5 of the Act, the Colonial Treasurer might require the directors to call up £500,000, being one-third of the reserve capital, within twelve months, and this has accordingly been done.

As provided by the Act, the head office of the bank was removed to Wellington, and a new Board of directors elected. The Governor in Council appointed a President (office since abolished under Act of 1898, see post), and an Auditor of the business outside the United Kingdom. An Auditor of the business within the United Kingdom was appointed by the Agent-General.

The shares held in the Bank of New Zealand Estates Company (Limited) by the bank are, pending the completion of liquidation, to be treated in valuing as at par.

“The Bank Shareholders Act, 1894,” provided that the directors of any bank may decline to register any transfer of shares upon which there is any liability made by a shareholder to any person of whose responsibility they may not be satisfied. “The Bank Directors and Shares Transfer Act, 1894,” gave authority to directors to refuse approval, without assigning reasons, to any transfer of shares on which there is liability. It limited the number of directors to not less than five or more than seven. (See subsequent legislation in 1898 as to directory.)

“THE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND AND BANKING ACT, 1895,” AND ITS AMENDMENT ACT.

This Act was passed on the 4th of September, 1895. It provided for writing off the paid-up capital of the Bank of New Zealand (£900,000), together with the proceeds (estimated at £450,000) of the first call of £3 6s. 8d. on the reserve liability of £10 per share.

A sum of £500,000 new capital is raised by preferred shares, and issued to the colony in exchange for Government securities. The preferred shares bear interest at 3 1/2 per cent. The bank may within six years repurchase them at par. Further share capital is created by a second call of one-third of the reserve liability (£3 6s. 8d. per share) in four instalments, and the final third may be called up at any time after the 31st December, 1898. The sum of one million pounds, required by the Share Guarantee Act of 1894 to be invested as the Colonial Treasurer might approve, is released for employment by the bank in its ordinary business. So long as the colony remains liable under the Act, one of the directors of the bank is to be appointed by the Governor, and one of the present directors is to resign to make way for the Government appointee. (See subsequent legislation in 1898 as to directory.)

*By further Amendment Act these shares were to be issued in the form of negotiable stock certificates or warrants to bearer, of such amounts as the directors may determine. The certificates with warrants or coupons are transferable by delivery. The holders of stock certificates or warrants may exchange these for registered stock, which is made transferable in such amounts as directors may sanction. Shares or stock may be held by any person without limit as to number, provided that the total value does not exceed two millions sterling.

An Assets Realisation Board is established to purchase all the assets of the Estates Company, and of the Auckland Agricultural Company, for the sum of £2,731,700, being the estimated value of the properties on the 31st of March, 1895, subject, however, to an adjustment of station accounts, the purchase-money to be paid in debentures issued by the Assets Board, having a nine years' currency and bearing interest at 3 1/2 per cent. per annum from the 31st March, 1895, any deficiency to be guaranteed by the Government as a charge upon the Consolidated Fund of the colony.

Provision is made for securing the Government against loss on account of this guarantee, and the Colonial Treasurer may, in the event of any deficiency, appoint a Receiver in respect of the securities with the powers of a liquidator appointed by the Supreme Court. The Assets Realisation Board is a body corporate, consisting of three members, two appointed by the Governor and one chosen by the directors of the bank.

Section 3 of “The Banking Act, 1894,” is repealed, and power is given to the Bank of New Zealand to purchase the business and assets of any other bank doing business in the colony, excepting such assets as are found to be bad, doubtful, or valueless. Any such purchase is conditional on ratification by the shareholders of the selling bank and the approval of Parliament. [The business of the Colonial Bank of New Zealand has since been purchased under the authority given, the contract being approved under the Amendment Act of 1895, section 3, and subsequently ratified by the shareholders of the selling bank.]

So long as the colony remains in any measure liable under the Act, or the Share Guarantee Act of 1894, the proprietors of the bank may not take any steps towards winding up or dissolving the bank.

The Assets Board are to draw up a balance-sheet every six months, and lay the same before Parliament.

“THE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND AND BANKING ACT, 1898.”

Consequent on the report of a Committee of the House of Representatives appointed to make inquiries respecting the affairs of the Bank of New Zealand, a statute was passed in 1898 bearing the above title.

It provides for a Board of Directors consisting of six persons, instead of five, of whom four are appointed by the Governor in Council and two elected by the shareholders of the bank.

The office of President is abolished, with its power of veto; while the old constitution of the Board, under which the President and one director only were appointed by the Governor in Council, and three by the shareholders, gives way to the new one.

Of the four members in the new Board who are appointed by the Governor in Council, two retire on the 31st March, 1901, the retiring directors being decided by lot amongst the four. On the 31st March, 1902, and on the same day in each subsequent year, the two members who have been longest in office retire. The ordinary time of office of the four members is thus two years.

The two directors elected by the shareholders of the bank hold office for an ordinary term of two years, subject to the provision that one is to retire on the 31st March, 1901, it being decided by lot between the two which is to retire.

On the above-named day in 1902, and the same day in each subsequent year, the member who has been longest in office retires.

Provision was made for offering the retiring President of the old Board a sum of £4,500 by way of compensation, leaving it open to him to decline, with power of instituting proceedings to recover damages for wrongful removal from office. [The President has since retired, and is now one of the directors elected by the shareholders.]

The remuneration of the new Chairman and directors is £2,000 per annum, which they divide amongst themselves, in shares fixed by resolution of the Board.

There are sundry provisions as to the voting at meetings, and a carefully limited power of veto in respect of resolutions passed by shareholders, under certain circumstances, is given.

Amongst other various matters provided for, it may be mentioned that the Governor in Council may appoint an Assistant Auditor. The Chief Auditor is given the right to attend meetings of the Board, and empowered to suspend the operation of any act or proceedings until the Board has had an opportunity of considering the same at a future meeting.

SAVINGS BANKS.

The number of post-offices open for the transaction of savings-bank business at the end of 1899 was 426.

There were 41,362 new accounts opened in the year, and 28,284 accounts were closed. The total number of open accounts at the end of 1899 was 183,046.

The deposits received during the year amounted to £3,644,980 9s. 10d., and the withdrawals to £3,417,298 19s. 8d., the excess of deposits over withdrawals having thus been £227,681 10s. 2d. The total sum standing at credit of all accounts on the 31st December, 1899, was £5,320,370 14s. 10d., which gave an average of £29 1s. 4d. to the credit of each open account.

The following were the securities, &c., standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post-Office Savings-Bank Fund on the 31st December, 1899:—

Description of Securities, &c.Nominal Value.Value at Cost Price.
 £          s.          d£          s.          d
“Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1896,” Debentures at 3 1/2 per cent.250,000          0          0250,000          0          0
“Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1899,” Debentures at 3 1/2 per cent.125,000          0          0125,000          0          0
“Consolidated Loan Act, 1867,” Debentures, 4 per cent.13,000          0          012,480          0          0
“Consolidated Stock Act, 1884,' Debentures, 3 1/2 per cent.54,300          0          054,300          0          0
“Defence and other Purposes Loan Act, 1870,” Debentures, 4 per cent.75,000          0          072,000          0          0
“Defence and other Purposes Loan Act, 1870,” Debentures, 4 1/2 per cent.8,100          0          08,100          0          0
District Railways Purchasing Acts, 1885-86, Debentures, 4 per cent.42,000          0          036,076          17          8
District Railways Purchasing Acts, 1885-86, Scrip, 4 per cent.34,100          0          034,100          0          0
Dunedin Garrison Hall Debentures, 5 per cent.6,000          0          06,000          0          0
“General Purposes Loan Act, 1873,” Debentures, 4 per cent.5,200          0          04,342          0          0
“Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886,” Debentures, 3 1/2 per cent.312,500          0          0312,500          0          0
Greymouth Harbour Board Debentures, 4 per cent.100,000          0          0100,000          0          0
Hamilton Borough Debentures, 5 1/2 per cent.3,000          0          03,000          0          0
Hokitika Harbour Board Debentures, 5 per cent.10,000          0          010,000          0          0
“Immigration and Public Works Loan Act, 1870,” Debentures, 4 per cent.174,200          0          0167,272          0          0
“Immigration and Public Works Loan Act, 1870,” Debentures, 4 1/2 per cent.20,900          0          020,527          10          0
“Immigration and Public Works Loan Act, 1870,” Debentures, 4 per cent. (Imperial guaranteed)400,000          0          0400,000          0          0
Inscribed Stock, 3 per cent.1,704,940          0          01,764,140          0          0
Land for Settlements Acts, 1894, 1897, 1899, Debentures, 3 1/2 per cent.763,066          0          0763,066          0          0
“Lands Improvement and Native Lands Acquisition Act, 1894,” Debentures, 4 per cent.264,000          0          0264,000          0          0
“Lands Improvement and Native Lands Acquisition Act, 1894,” Debentures, 3 1/2 per cent.35,000          0          035,000          0          0
North Rakaia River Board Debentures, 5 per cent.1,000          0          01,000          0          0
Oamaru Borough Consolidated Loan 1893 Debentures, 5 per cent.13,800          0          013,800          0          0
Oamaru Harbour Bonds, 5 1/2 per cent.32,000          0          032,000          0          0
Patea Harbour Board Debentures, 4 1/2 per cent.13,000          0          013,000          0          0
Thames Borough Debentures, 6 per cent.6,500          0          06,500          0          0
Thames Harbour Board Debentures, 4 per cent.10,000          0          010,000          0          0
“Public Revenues Act, 1893” (Treasury Bills), 3 1/2 per cent.379,200          0          0379,200          0          0
Westport Harbour Board Debentures, 4 per cent.439,500          0          0439,500          0          0
                Totals5,355,306          0          05,336,904          7          8

There are six* savings-banks in the colony not connected with the Post Office. The total amount deposited in them in 1899 was £547,253 3s. 11d., of which the deposits by Maoris comprised £53. The withdrawals reached the sum of £545,586 2s. 8d., or less than the total deposits by £1,667 1s. 3d. The total amount to the credit of the depositors at the end of the year was £807,926 13s. 8d., of which sum £86 6s. 10d. belonged to Maoris.

SUMMARY OF ALL DEPOSITS.

If the total deposits at the end of the year be assumed to be equal to the average for the last quarter, then it may be affirmed that, exclusive of Government moneys, the deposits in the several banks of issue and in the two classes of savings-banks amounted at the end of 1899 to £19,929,116. In addition, there are the deposits with building societies, which in 1898 were £209,489, and it is known that there were also deposits with financial companies, of which no particulars have been supplied to the department. The known deposits reach an average of £26 17s. per head of the population, exclusive of Maoris.

* One in liquidation since 16th August, 1899.

BUILDING SOCIETIES.

There were 70 registered building societies in operation in the colony at the end of 1898. Of these, 31 were terminable societies, the rest were permanent.

The total receipts by these societies during their financial year were £581,070, of which deposits comprised £194,426.

The assets at the end of the year were valued at £993,051. The liabilities ware: To shareholders, reserve fund, &c., £770,102; to depositors, £209,489; and to bankers and other creditors, £13,461.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.

During the year ended 31st December, 1899, 260 joint-stock companies, with a total nominal capital of £2,666,442, were registered under the provisions of “The Companies Act, 1882.”

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

The Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns for the year 1898 from 410 lodges, courts, tents, &c., of various friendly societies throughout the colony. The number of members at the end of 1898 was 35,501.

The total value of the assets of these societies was £678,746, equivalent to £19 2s. 4d. per member. Of the total assets, the value of the sick and funeral benefit funds was £625,474.

The receipts during the year on account of the sick and funeral funds amounted to £81,105, and the expenditure to £58,626, of which the sick-pay to members reached the sum of £38,553. In addition to the sick-pay, the sum of £32,544 was paid out of the medical and management expenses fund for attendance given and medicine supplied to the members and their families.

MORTGAGES.

In a return to an order of the House of Representatives last session it is stated that, during the year ended 31st March, 1899, mortgages to the value of £6,710,427 were registered in the several land registration districts of the colony, while the monetary value of those paid off amounted to £5,273,338. Compared with a similar return for the year 1897-98, the mortgages registered show an increase of £8,346, the total amount for the earlier year having been £6,702,081.

The total amounts represented in the mortgages registered and paid off in each registration district during 1897-98 and 1898-99 were:—

 1897-98.1898-99.
District.Mortgages
Registered.
Mortgages
Paid off.
Mortgages
Registered.
Mortgages
Paid-off.
 ££££
Auckland845,674718,152845,011473,837
Gisborne388,530182,902127,115149,909
Taranaki486,852306,974518,066341,032
Hawke's Bay634,842503,076621,703737,268
Wellington1,768,2071,094,2341,880,2811,056,188
Marlborough67,12949,882127,277105,137
Nelson181,564124,004216,626261,708
Westland20,5708,04521,06716,970
Canterbury1,359,1401,615,6411,455,5431,308,961
Otago519,641648,310598,928540,207
Southland429,932265,378298,810282,121
                Totals£6,702,081£5,516,598£6,710,427£5,273,338

Classified according to the various rates of interest, the amounts in the mortgage deeds registered during the two years were:—

Year 1897-98.1898-99.Rate of Interest.

(a.) Including £1,250 at 4 4/5 per cent.

(b.) Including £13,210 at 5 1/4 per cent., £1,800 at 5 1/3 per cent., and £1,715 at 5 3/4 per cent.

(c.) Including £483 at 6 1/4 per cent., £900 at 6 1/3 per cent., £150 at 6 2/3 per cent., £900 at 6 3/5 per cent., and £15,775 at 6 3/4 per cent.

(d.) Including £6,000 at 7 1/4 per cent.

(e.) Including £15,550 at 4 1/4 per cent.

(f.) Including £13,500 at 4 5/3 and £500 at 4 1/3 per cent.

(g.) Including £3,400 at 5 1/5, £41,016 at 5 1/4, £1,800 at 5 1/3, and £550 at 5 3/4 per cent.

(h.) Including £12,650 at 6 1/4, and £9,340 at 6 3/4 per cent.

(i.) Including £1,000 at 7 1/4 per cent.

££ 
43,34157,005at 4 per cent or under.
994,7031,493,913 eat 4 1/2 per cent.
179,294 a127,491 fat 4 3/4 per cent.
2,029,5062,258,400at 5 per cent.
451,525 b395,879 gat 5 1/2 per cent.
823,930832,308at 6 per cent.
237,126 c147,906 hat 6 1/2 per cent.
363,854261,485at 7 per cent.
33,866 d20,839 iat 7 1/2 per cent.
214,669173,114at 8 per cent.
75,75085,178at 8 1/2 per cent, and over.
1,254,517856,909at rates not specified.
£6,702,081£6,710,427 

Comparison of the foregoing with the amounts at the various rates of interest in the mortgages registered during 1895-96 shows the lowering of the rates that has taken place:—

Year 1895-96 
£ 
26,285in small sums at less than 5 per cent.
833,226at from 5 per cent. to 5 1/4 per cent.
732,764at 5 1/2 per cent.
116,600at 5 3/4 per cent.
1,372,261at from 6 per cent. to 6 1/4 per cent.
371,896at from 6 1/2 per cent. to 6 3/4 per cent.
599,542at from 7 per cent. to 7 1/4 per cent.
111,651at 7 1/2 per cent.
382,348at 8 per cent.
173,416in small sums, at rates above 8 per cent.
853,801at rates which are not specified.
£5,573,790 

The total amount shown in deeds as secured by mortgage under the Land Transfer Act on 31st March, 1899, was £33,035,337, as against £32,152,288 in March, 1898, and 31,112,921 in March, 1897; but in respect of some transactions the same money may be included more than once.

LIFE INSURANCE.

There were existing in the colony at the close of the year 1898 as many as 80,326 life insurance policies, an average of 109 in every 1,000 persons living. The gross amount represented by these policies was £20,706,439, an average of £257 15s. 7d. for each policy, and of £27 17s. 1d. for every European inhabitant of the colony at the end of the year.

The distribution of these policies shows that nearly one-half are held in the Government Life Insurance Department:—

Name of OfficeNumber of Years of Business in the ColonyNew Zealand Business only.
Number of existing Policies at End of Year 1898.Gross Amount insured by Policies at End of Year 1898.
   £
Australian Mutual Provident Society3724,3766,855,531
Australian Widows' Fund Life Assurance Society (Limited)127788,931
Citizens' Life Assurance Company (Limited)51,783288,375
Colonial Mutual Life Assurance Society (Limited)154,3271,138,427
Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States14730310,106
Mutual Life Association of Austral Asia224,5521,186,270
National Mutual Life Association of Australasia (Limited)196,2471,463,713
New York Life Insurance Company1214757,295
Scottish Metropolitan Life Assurance Company23913,050
Life Insurance Department of the New Zealand Government2937,8489,304,741
                    Totals, December, 1898..80,326£20,706,439
                    Totals, December, 1897..75,692£19,723,970

The rate at which life insurance increased is evidenced by the difference between the amounts insured at the end of each of the two years 1897 and 1898, being a sum of £982,469, or 4.98 per cent. for a period in which the population increased by 1.98 per cent. only.

INDUSTRIAL LIFE ASSURANCE.

In addition to the ordinary life insurance transactions alluded to above, there were in 1898 two industrial life assurance offices doing business in New Zealand. The number of policies in existence and the gross amount insured by such policies at the end of the year were:—

Name of Office.Number of Years of Business in the Colony.New Zealand Business only.
Number of existing Policies at End of Year 1898.Gross Amount insured by Policies at End of Year 1898.
   £
The Citizens' Life Assurance Company (Limited)512,923313,466
The Provident and Industrial Insurance Company of New Zealand97,951201,666
                    Totals, December, 1898..20,874£515,132
                    Totals, December, 1897..20,708£513,907

Here a rise of only £1,225, or 0.24 per cent., is shown to have taken place in twelve months.

“THE NEW ZEALAND ACCIDENT INSURANCE ACT, 1899.”

By this statute the Commissioner of Life Insurance is given power to insure persons from accident, and specially employers against liability for accident to any person employed, besides generally doing the business of an insurer against accident.

The Act provides for capital for the accident insurance business by empowering the Governor in Council to raise by debentures or scrip, or by issue of inscribed stock, sums of money not exceeding £25,000 altogether. To redeem at maturity the securities issued in respect of capital raised there are provisions for a sinking fund.

The funds, assets, and liabilities of the Government Life Insurance Department belonging to its accident insurance branch are to be kept separately and distinct from the main life insurance business, and powers are vested in the Governor to make regulations in regard to tables fixing rates of premiums, and other details, for the conduct of accident insurance.

THE PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE.

This institution is described in the Year-book for 1898. The number of estates in it increased from 1,678 in 1890 to 2,667 in 1900, while the total value rose from £1,240,097 to £2,192,594 during the same period.

Classifying the business as on the 31st March, 1900, the results are:—

 Number of Estates.Value of Estates.
  £
Wills and trusts (including sinking funds accounts)576933,567
Intestate estates903136,697
Real estates758,313
Lunatic estates555113,525
Native reserves110363,076
West Coast Settlement Reserves293622,604
Unclaimed lands15514,812
                    Total2,667£2,192,594

The capital funds of the Public Trust Office invested amounted, on the 31st March, 1900, to £1,028,987. The investments are as follow:—

 £
New Zealand Government securities137,778
Local bodies' debentures19,439
Mortgages of freehold property871,770
                    Total£1,028,987

PRIVATE WEALTH.

The number and value of estates of deceased persons finally certified, on which duty was paid during the years 1897, 1898, and 1899 are shown, classified according to amount:—

Value of Estates.1897.1898.1899.
Number of Estates.Aggregate Value on which Duty was Paid.Number of Estates.Aggregate Value on which Duty was Paid.Number of Estates.Aggregate Value on which Duty was Paid.
£ £ £ £ £
Under 500672126,146714147,280794150,091
500 to 1,000171120,438219157,709224161,220
1,000 ” 2,000108153,708151214,650126180,909
2,000 ” 3,0003995,90476186,74957138,204
3,000 ” 4,00039132,79331106,09730105,077
4,000 ” 5,0001985,78124107,1171881,967
5,000 ” 7,50032197,39620121,25334209,185
7,500 ” 10,00013114,47712101,26413110,765
10,000 ” 15,00013156,02021254,75610126,661
15,000 ” 20,00012199,6866100,3959155,058
20,000 and over10598,39213784,11612601,338
                Totals1,1281,980,7411,2872,281,3861,3272,020,475

The number of estates admitted to probate, and the number of adult deaths in each year, 1895 to 1899, are given, and it will be seen that no less than 28 out of every 100 adults who died during the year 1899 left property subject to estate duty.

Year.Number of Estates.Number of Adult Deaths.Proportion per Cent. of Adults who died leaving Property on which Duty paid.
18957674,03319.02
18968553,94421.68
18971,1284,25826.49
18981,2874,69627.41
18991,3274,71928.12

On these data an attempt has been made to compute roughly the total value of private property in the colony. This method of estimating the private wealth of a people by means of the probate returns may not be strictly accurate, and is indeed strongly objected to by some statisticians, but it was nevertheless selected by the late Professor Mainwaring Brown as the best and most trustworthy plan.

Calculations of the wealth of the living on the proportional basis of amounts left by the dead have not been considered satisfactory in some of the Australian colonies, but in New Zealand, where wealth is more evenly distributed, the results have proved fairly comparable year by year, and the method can be used with a greater degree of confidence. Dividing the aggregate amount admitted to probate during a series of years by the number of deaths occurring within the same period, the average value of property left by each person dying is obtained. On the assumption that the average wealth owned by each person living is equal to that left by each person dying, the total aggregate private wealth may readily be found. For a calculation of this kind it is necessary to take the average results for a series of years, as any inference drawn from the figures of a single year would be untrustworthy; for an increase in the death-rate must necessarily give a corresponding decrease in the estimated wealth, unless the value of estates admitted to probate maintains year by year the same ratio to the number of deaths. An epidemic among young children who have no property to leave would unduly lower the average; while, on the other hand, the deaths of a few wealthy persons would raise it abnormally. It must also be remembered, when using these figures for comparative purposes, that the lowness of the death-rate in New Zealand is in great measure due to the small mortality among infants. By putting the figures for several years together, and taking the average for the term, results may be arrived at, thus:—

Years, inclusive.Amount sworn to.Total Number of Deaths.Average Amount left by each Person.Average Number of Persons living.Average Total Wealth for each Year of the Period.
 £ £        s.        d. £
1895-9910,013,26434,814287        12        5721,423207,497,126

It is manifest, however, that this average does not exhibit with sufficient accuracy the actual present amount of wealth. If the average amount per head were the same at the end of the year 1899 as for the period 1895-99—viz., £287.622—then the total wealth possessed by the 756,505 persons in the colony on the 31st December of that year would be £217,587,481.

These figures, however, fall short of the full amount of private wealth, as the values sworn to do not include those estates on which no stamp duty is payable—viz., land and goods passing to the husband or wife of the deceased, and a great number of properties under £100. The aggregate value of such estates must be considerable, and should give a substantial increase to the average amount per head, and therefore to the total wealth. But, on the other hand, only 38 per cent, of the deaths in 1899 were of persons under twenty years of age, and the census of 1896 showed that 48 per cent. of the population living at that time were under twenty: so that, in assuming the average wealth per head of the living to be the same as the average left by each one dying, the aggregate is somewhat unduly swelled, because, as a rule, persons under twenty have little or no property.

The estimated private wealth for each of ten years is shown by the following figures:—

YearAmount.Average per Head.
* N.B.—A test has been applied to these figures with a view of ascertaining their reliability. The Valuer-General returned £138,591,347 sterling as the value of all land and improvements in the colony, not including Government railways in 1898. From this amount, deducting £22,934,779 and £4,551,327 on account of public property, as per table on next page, besides £7,007,522 for Native lands with improvements, leaves, say, £104,000,000 sterling for land and improvements privately owned. Take this sum (£104,000,000) from the £217,000,000 of private wealth as here shown, and there remains £113,000,000 sterling for personal estate, the actual amount as returned by the Property-tax Commissioner for the year 1888 having been £85,000,000.
 ££
1890142,631,461228
1891145,780,502230
1892152,065,087236
1893156,058,273232
1894154,715,821225
1895152,918,021219
1896170,007,843238
1897183,781,780252
1898201,154,323271
1899217,587,481*288

The Government Statistician of New South Wales estimated the private wealth of the seven colonies of Australasia for the year 1890 at £1,169,434,000.

An attempt to arrive at the value of the public property in the colony led to the following particulars being ascertained:—

* Of the value of public property other than that enumerated above there is no account available.
PUBLIC PROPERTY, 1898.
  £
Public property - i.e., land and improvements not owned by individuals, exclusive of Government railways (figures supplied by the Valuer-General):—
Crown lands£12,986,848 
Local authorities' lands4,704,442 
Educational lands2,969,438 
Church and other lands2,274,051 
  22,934,779
Government railways, open and under construction (figures from Public Works Department) 16,762,455
Other public works - viz., telegraphs, lighthouses, harbours, and water-supply on goldfields 4,551,327
                    Total public property* £44,248,561

This amount of £44,248,561, with the sum of £217,587,481 (see note (*) to table) previously shown as the private wealth, estimated from probate returns, gives a total of £261,836,042. If to this be added £7,007,522, the value of Native lands with their improvements (as stated by the Valuer-General), a final total of £268,843,564 is reached.

So much of this sum as represents private wealth may be considered as net wealth, because stamp duty is paid after subtracting liabilities on estates. But the debt of the General Government and that of the local bodies (so far as raised abroad) must be deducted. These amounts were, in the year 1899, £43,115,089 and £5,485,100 respectively. Allowing for these, it is found that the colony had in 1899 at least £220,243,375 value of public and private wealth. No doubt there is more, but information as to public wealth other than property owned by the Government is not procurable.

EARNINGS AND INCOME.

The amount of the aggregate annual earnings of the people of New Zealand is given in the Year-book of 1897 (p. 283). To arrive at this estimate the method adopted was to allot to each person the probable income earned in respect of the occupation set down against his or her name in the household schedules collected at the census of 12th April, 1896. Exception may no doubt be taken to the plan of basing a calculation on a series of arbitrary assumptions, but there is precedent for such a course. The results of the calculation were given without any guarantee of accuracy, similar figures having been called for in the past. Indeed it is important to make clear that the figures must only be considered as put forward with the greatest diffidence, and rather of necessity than otherwise. They may indeed give a fair idea of the facts, but the responsibility of using them for any particular purpose is not accepted by the Registrar-General.

WAGES.

The aggregate of wages paid in the colony for the year 1896, as given in the Year-book of 1897 (p. 284), was arrived at by assigning to each wage-earner the probable annual income each would derive from the profession or occupation followed. As in the case of income, the calculations made were put forward merely by way of an attempt to get as closely as possible to the facts, and because asked for; but no assurance whatever can be given as to the exactness of the conclusions stated, and the Registrar-General does not accept any responsibility in regard to their use.

COST OF LIVING.

An estimate was made in 1894 of the cost of living in New Zealand, including, besides what was spent on necessaries, the additional outlay on what may be termed luxuries, and on things of occasional necessity. The rate arrived at per head of population was £35 6s. 1d. per annum for that year. Fuller particulars are given in former issues of the Year-book.

The average income per head previously referred to was believed to be from £37 12s. to £44 per annum.

Mr. Mulhall, in his “Dictionary of Statistics,” gives the average expenditure per head of population for various countries specified as follows:—

Country.Average Annual Expenditure per Head.
 £          s.          d.
United Kingdom29          14          9
France23          19          4
Germany20          3          4
Russia10          1          11
Austria14          4          9
Italy11          11          0
Spain15          12          6
Portugal11          5          6
Sweden20          8          4
Norway19          0          0
Denmark28          11          5
Holland20          17          4
Belgium25          8          2
Switzerland18          0          0
United States32          16          2
Canada23          6          2
Australia33          10          3
Argentina27          9          1

The estimate for Australasia, as made in 1894 by Mr. Coghlan, then Government Statistician of New South Wales, was as high as £43 12s. 10d. per head.

ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF FOOD, STIMULANTS, ETC.

The quantities used per head of population in New Zealand of some of the main articles of consumption will be found in the Year-book for 1898. The figures are averages for five years.

PRICES AND WAGES.

The average prices of produce, live-stock, provisions, &c., in each provincial district are given for the year 1899 in tabular form on pages 311 and 312. While the variations for the different districts are such as to render it in most cases inadvisable to show averages for the colony, this has nevertheless been done for the staples of food, i.e., bread, meat, and milk, also for tea and sugar, which may almost be called necessaries. Averages for the colony, taken out for the years 1878, 1898, 1898, and 1899, indicate generally a decline in prices with the advance of time. In striking these, prices on the goldfields have not been taken into account:—

1878.1888.1898.1899.
 s.          d.s.          d.s.          d.s.          d.
Bread per lb.0          20          1 3/40          1 1/20          1 1/4
Beef per lb.0          5 1/20          3 3/40          3 3/40          4
Mutton per lb.0          3 3/40          3 1/40          30          3 1/4
Sugar per lb.0          50          3 1/40          2 3/40          2 3/4
Tea per lb.2          92          3 1/21          101          11
Butter (fresh) per lb.1          40          9 1/40          9 3/40          10
Cheese (colonial) per lb.0          100          60          5 1/20          5 1/2
Milk per quart.0          4 1/20          3 1/40          30

RATES OF WAGES.

The average rates of wages paid in 1899 in each provincial district for agricultural, pastoral, artisan, and servants' labour are given on pages 313 to 316.

AVERAGE PRICES OF PRODUCE, LIVE-STOCK, PROVISIONS, ETC., IN EACH PROVINCIAL DISTRICT OF NEW ZEALAND DURING THE YEAR 1899.
Produce, &c.Auckland.Taranaki.Hawke's Bay.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland (Goldfield).Canterbury.Otago (Part Goldfield).
          I. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE.         
Wheat per bushel (60lb.)2/8 to 4/3/33/32/4 to 2/92/2/73/2/62/3 to 3/6
Barley per bushel (47lb.)2/3 to 3/3/2/92/3 to 3/2/102/43/3/2/3 to 2/9
Oats per bushel (40lb.)2/ to 2/82/62/62/ to 2/92/31/82/61/101/9 to 2/9
Maize per bushel (56lb.)2/9 to 3/33/63/32/6 to 3/9 2/84/4/2/6 to 3/3
Bran per bushel (20lb.)8d. to 1/61/1/9d. to 1/1/10d.10d.10d.9d.
Hay per ton£3 to £3/10£4£4£2/10 to £5£3£2/10 £3/6£3 to £4
          II. FLOUR AND BREAD.         
Flour, wholesale per ton of 2,000lb.£7/10 to £8/10£7/16/6£8£7/10 to £8£7£7/10£7/10£7130/ to 250/
Flour, retail per bag of 50lb.4/3 to 4/95/64/94/3 to 5/4/4/64/63/10 1/24/ to 7/6
Bread per 4lb. loaf5d. to 6d5 1/2d.6d.4d. to 6d.6d.5d.6d.4 1/2d.4d. to 7d.
          III. LIVE-STOCK AND MEAT.         
Horses, draught per head£22 to £35£25 to £30£15 to £50£27/10 to £45£25 to £30£26£35£25£30 to £45
Horses, saddle and harness per head£7 to £15£12 to £20£5 to £15£7/10 to £20£10 to £15£14£15 to £30£10£7 to £20
Cattle, fat per head£5/10 to £7/10£4/17/6£8£5/10 to £7£5 to £7£4/10£9/10£7£7 to £8
Cattle, milch cows per head£4 to £7£4£7£4 to £6£6 to £7£5£6£5 to £10£4/10 to £8
Sheep, fat per head9/ to 10/17/7/10/ to 14/10/9/16/14/12/ to 18/
Lambs, fat per head6/6 to 10/13/6/8/ to 8/69/8/12/610/10/ to 11/
Butchers' meat:—
        Beef per lb.3 1/2d. to 5d.4d.4d.2 1/2d. to 4d.4d.4d.5d.3d.3d. to 6d.
        Mutton per lb.3 1/2d. to 4 1/2d.4d.3d.2d. to 3d.3d.3 1/2d.5d.2d.3d. to 4d.
        Veal per lb.4d. to 5d.3 1/2d.4d.3d. to 4d.5d.4d.6d.2 1/2d.4d. to 5d.
        Pork per lb.5d.5d.6d.4d. to 6d.5d.5d.6d.4d.5d. to 6d.
        Lamb per lb.4d. to 5d.3/6 per qr.4 1/2d.5d. to 6d.3 1/2d.5d.6d.4d.3d. to 6d.
          IV. DAIRY PRODUCE.         
Butter, fresh per lb.10d. to 1/1/1/9d. to 1/1/8d.1/9d.7d. to 1/
Butter, salt per lb.5d. to 9d.10d.7d.6d. to 9d.9d.6d.11d.7d.6d. to 1/
Cheese, colonial per lb.4d. to 6d.6d.7d.5d. to 6d.7d.7d.7d.4d.4 1/2d. to 8d.
Cheese, imported per lb.8d. to 1/91/610d.6d. to 8d.9d.1/31/10d.1/6-
Milk per quart2d. to 4d.3d.4d.2d. to 4d.4d.4d.5d.3d.2d. to 4d.
          V. FARM-YARD PRODUCE.         
Geese per pair5/ to 8/6/66/5/ to 8/6/6/7/6/65/ to 6/
Ducks per pair3/ to 5/3/95/64/ to 4/95/5/65/4/64/ to 4/6
Fowls per pair3/ to 5/3/4/3/ to 3/92/63/63/63/63/ to 3/6
Turkeys per head5/ to 7/5/7/5/ to 7/64/66/10/6/7/ to 10/
Bacon per lb.5 1/2d. to 9d.8 1/2d.8d.6d. to 10d.8 1/2d.6 1/2d.8d.6d.6d. to 9d.
Ham per lb.6 1/2d. to 1/9 1/2d.9d.7d. to 1/9d.7 1/2d.9d.8d.7d. to 11d.
Eggs per doz.8d. to 1/11d.10d.10d. to 1/1/10d.1/39d.9d. to 1/6
          VI. GARDEN PRODUCE.         
Potatoes, wholesale per ton£3 to £6/10£2/5£4/10£1 to £310/£4£107/6£1 to £10
Potatoes, retail per cwt.3/6 to 8/2/95/62/ to 6/ 4/12/1/62/6 to 11/
Onions per lb.1d. to 3d.3d.2d.1d. to 1 1/2d.1 1/2d.2d.3d.1d.1d. to 3d.
Carrots per doz. bnchs.1/ to 1/61/31/610d. to 1/62/2/3/1/8d. to 2/
Turnips per doz. bnchs.1/ to 1/61/31/610d. to 1/62/2/3/9d.8d. to 2/6
Cabbages per doz.1/6 to 2/1/62/1/6 to 2/2/2/3/9d.8d. to 3/
          VII. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.         
Tea per lb.1/4 to 2/42/ to 2/42/2/ to 2/32/61/102/2/1/3 to 2/6
Coffee per lb.1/8 to 2/12/2/1/6 to 2/2/1/82/1/81/8 to 2/
Sugar per lb.2 1/4d. to 3d.3d.3d.2 1/2d. to 3d.3d.2 1/2d.3d.2 1/2d.2 1/2d. to 3d.
Rice per lb.3d.3d.3d.3d.4 1/2d.3d.3d.2 1/2d.2 1/2d. to 3d.
Salt per lb.3/4d.1d.1d.1d.3/4d.1d.1d.1d.3/4d. to 2d.
Soap per cwt.16/ to 25/27/616/10/ to 21/12/18/18/8/11/ to 24/
Candles per lb.6d. to 8d.7 1/2d.9d.6d. to 8d.7d.8d.8d.6d.5d. to 9d.
Tobacco per lb.5/2 to 6/66/6/5/ to 5/65/65/65/65/4/10 to 6/
Coal per ton15/ to 30/30/ to 40/36/26/ to 40/38/34/19/36/16/ to 25/
Firewood per cord14/ to 36/20/30/14/ to 36/27/25/26/43/15/ to 30/
          VIII. BEER, WINE, SPIRITS.         
Beer, colonial per hhd.£4 to £4/10£5£4£4 to £5£4/4£4/5£4/5£3/15£3/15 to £4/10
Beer, English, bottled per doz. qts.13/ to 14/616/14/613/ to 15/14/15/18/18/12/ to 18/
Brandy per gallon21/ to 30/35/30/26/ to 30/27/25/25/25/21/ to 28/
Rum per gallon25/ to 30/30/24/20/ to 27/27/22/25/25/20/6 to 24/
Whisky per gallon25/6 to 30/30/30/26/ to 30/30/26/30/24/622/ to 27/
Gin per gallon20/3 to 30/25/22/20/ to 26/20/24/22/622/620/ to 24/
Wine, Australian per gallon13/ to 18/18/14/14/ to 18/15/15/17/21/14/ to 18/
Wine, European per gallon16/ to 30/20/22/17/ to 25/17/618/19/26/14/ to 20/
AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES IN EACH PROVINCIAL DISTRICT OF NEW ZEALAND DURING THE YEAR 1899.
Description of Labour.Auckland.Taranaki.Hawke's Bay.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland (Goldfield).Canterbury.Otago (Part Goldfield)

* Co-operative labourers average about 6s. 6d. per day.

* 6s. per day with board, or 5s. per acre.

1. AGRICULTURAL LABOUR.         
Farm-labourers:         
With board, per week15/ to 20/15/ to 25/25/20/ to 25/25/20/20/15/ to 17/612/6 to 20/
Without board, per day5/ to 7/6/6..7/..6/8/5/ to 6/3/
Ploughmen:         
With board, per week15/ to 30/25/25/20/ to 25/25/20/20/17/6 to 20/12/6 to 30/
Without board, per day6/ to 7/7/6..7/....8/5/9/
Harvesters:         
With board, per week20/ to 35/40/ to 45/25/25/ to 30/..*..30/ to 40/30/ to 40/
Without board, per day5/ to 8/9/..8/..*..8/ to 10/10/
Men-cooks on farms:         
With board, per week20/ to 30/20/ to 25/25/20/ to 25/20/20/..20/ to 25/20/ to 30/
Female farm-servants:         
With board, per week8/ to 12/10/ to 15/12/ to 15/10/ to 15/10/9/10/8/ to 13/8/ to 14/
2. PASTORAL LABOUR.         
Shepherds, with board, per annum£50 to £65£78£65£52 to £7522/6 per week£60..£50 to £65£50 to £65
Stockkeepers, with board, per annum£52£50 to £80£65£52 to £6022/6 per week£5020/per wk£52 to £65£52 to £65
Station-labourers, with board, per week15/ to 20/£52 to £60 per ann.£65 per ann.20/20/£45 per ann.20/£45 to £55 per ann.15/ to 20/
Shearers, with board, per 100 sheep shorn16/8 to 20/20/17/617/6 to 20/18/617/620/15/ to 16/815/ to 20/
Men-cooks on stations, with board, per week20/ to 35/20/ to 25/£65 per ann.20/ to 25/20/20/..20/ to 25/20/ to 40/
3. ARTISAN LABOUR (per day, without board).         
Masons8/6 to 12/9/ to 11/10/10/ to 12/10/12/12/9/ to 11/9/ to 12/
Plasterers8/6 to 12/11/10/10/ to 12/9/12/12/9/ to 10/610/ to 12/
Bricklayers8/6 to 12/10/12/9/ to 12/8/12/12/10/ to 12/10/ to 12/
Carpenters8/6 to 10/7/ to 10/9/9/4 to 10/10/9/611/8/ to 10/68/ to 12/
Smiths8/ to 10/7/ to 10/10/8/ to 10/8/9/11/8/ to 9/7/ to 10/
Wheelwrights8/6 to 10/8/ to 10/10/10/9/8/11/8/ to 10/67/ to 10/
Shipwrights7/ to 9/9/ to 10/12/10/ to 12/..10/..8/ to 11/9/ to 12/
Plumbers8/ to 10/8/ to 9/10/8/ to 11/10/9/ to 10/10/8/ to 10/8/ to 12/
Painters6/6 to 8/6/ to 8/8/8/ to 10/9/9/9/8/ to 9/7/ to 12/
Saddlers7/ to 8/6/ to 8/10/8/ to 10/8/50/per week.10/8/ to 9/6/6 to 10/
Shoemakers6/ to 8/6/ to 8/8/6/ to 8/8/40/ to 50/10/7/ to 8/8/ to 10/
Coopers6/67/ to 9/9/8/ to 10/12/10/12/8/ to 10/7/ to 10/
Watchmakers7/6 to 9/7/ to 9/10/7/ to 12/8/10/10/9/ to 12/9/ to 10/
          4. SERVANTS.         
Married couples without family, with board, per annum£60 to £90£78 to £100£80£70 to £75£75£75£70£65 to £70£65 to £80
Married couples with family, with board, per annum£56 to £80..£80£50 to £60..£70..£52 to £60£60 to £70
Grooms, with board, per week10/ to 20/15/ to 20/£50 per annum20/20/22/620/20/ to 25/15/ to 30/
Gardeners:         
With board, per week13/ to 20/17/6 to 25/35/20/ to 25/20/30/..22/6 to 25/20/ to 30/
Without board, per day5/ to 8/7/6 to 9/..7/..7/10/6/6 to 7/6/ to 8/
Cooks, with board, per week15/ to 25/15/ to 25/12/15/ to 21/15/15/15/12/6 to 15/12/ to 35/
Laundresses, with board, per week12/ to 20/12/6 to 18/10/15/ to 20/10/4s. per day20/12/6 to 15/12/ to 20/
General house servants, with board, per week8/ to 12/8/ to 20/12/10/ to 15/5/6/ to 12/12/10/ to 12/68/ to 15/
Housemaids, with board, per week10/ to 14/15/ to 20/10/10/ to 15/5/10/12/8/ to 10/8/ to 15/
Nursemaids, with board, per week5/ to 8/5/ to 10/5/5/ to 10/4/4/ to 6/8/8/ to 10/5/ to 10/
Needlewomen:
With board, per week10/ to 15/..20/20/......10/ to 15/18/ to 30/
Without board, per day (lunch always provided)3/3/3/2/6 to 3/5/5/3/63/ to 5/2/6 to 6/
          5. MISCELLANEOUS...................
General labourers, without board, per day6/ to 8/6/ to 8/7/ to 8/7/ to 8/7/*6/9/5/ to 7/65/6 to 9/
Stone breakers without board, per cubic yard2/3 to 3/63/33/3/..1/6 to 3/6..3/ to 3/62/ to 4/
Seamen, with board, per mont£4 to £7£5 to £6£7/10£4 to £4/10£10£7£6£4 to £5/10£5 to £8/10
Miners, without board per day8/ to 9/8/....10/8/10/9/ to 12/69/ to 13/
Engine-drivers, without board, per day7/ to 9/7/6 to 10/11/10/ to 12/10/6/13/10/6 to 12/69/ to 12/
Tailors, ” per day..7/ to 10/9/9/ to 10/7/....8/ to 10/5/ to 10/
          ”          ”           per week35/........48/50/....
Tailoresses, ” per day..5/ to 7/4/..5/....4/ to 5/3/6 to 6/
          ”          ”           per week14/ to 25/....17/6 to 25/..20/20/....
Dressmakers, ” per day..2/6 to 5/3/..5/....4/ to 5/..
          ”          ”           per week13/ to 30/....17/6 to 20/..15/ to 30/20/..12/ to 40/
Milliners, ” per day..2/6 to 5/5/..6/....5/ to 6/..
          ”          ”           per week16/ to 30/....25/ to 50/..20/20/..20/ to 30/
Machinists, without board, per day..3/ to 4/5/..5/....4/ to 5/..
          ”          ”           per week13/ to 25/....15/ to 30/..20/15/..20/ to 40/
Storekeepers, ” per day..............6/ to 8/..
          ”          ”           per week50/45/50/ to 60/42/ to 60/42/......20/ to 70/
“ assistants, ” per day..............5/ to 6/..
          ”          ”           ” per week30/ to 36/35/20/ to 40/30/ to 35/25/45/....20/ to 40/
Drapers' assistants, ” per day..............6/ to 7/..
          ”          ”           per week15/ to 50/30/ to 45/40/ to 80/40/ to 60/42/50/50/..44/ to 70/
Grocers' assistants, ” per day..............6/ to 7/..
          ”          ”           per week15/ to 36/30/ to 40/20/ to 40/35/ to 42/25/40/50/..25/ to 50/
Butchers, ” per day..5/ to 7/..........6/ to 7/..
          ”          ”           per week40/ to 50/..45/35/ to 50/30/40/40/..25/ to 50/
Bakers, ” per day..5/ to 8/..........6/ to 8/..
          ”          ”           per week40/ to 60/..45/ to 60/25/ to 65/42/40/ to 50/50/..40/ to 50/
Storemen, ” per day..............6/ to 8/..
          ”          ”           per week35/ to 40/30/ to 40/40/ to 50/40/ to 50/40/45/55/..40/ to 60/
Compositors, ” per day....10/........9/ to 10/6..
          ”          ”           per week30/ to 60/30/ to 45/..30/ to 60/50/55/50/..35/ to 60/

LABOUR LEGISLATION.

The legislation passed by the General Assembly of New Zealand, and termed the “Labour Laws,” comprises the undermentioned statutes and regulations made under various Acts:—

Bankruptcy: Sections 112 and 120 of Act of 1892.

“The Companies Acts Amendment Act, 1893”: Sections 8 and 9.

“The Conspiracy Law Amendment Act, 1894.”

“The Contractors' and Workmen's Lien Act, 1892.”

“The Deaths by Accident Compensation Act, 1880,” sections 2 and 4 to 10.

“The Employers' Liability Act, 1882,” with amendments of 1891 and 1892.

“The Factories Act, 1894,” and Amendment Act, 1896.

“The Employment of Boys or Girls without Payment Prevention Act, 1899” (read as part of “The Factories Act, 1894”).

“The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1894,” with amendments, 1895, 1896, and 1898.

The Inspection of Machinery Acts, 1882, 1883, and Amendment Acts of 1894 and 1896.

“The Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1898,” and Amendment Act, 1899.

“The Labour Day Act, 1899.”

Labour in Coal-mines: Extract from “The Coal-mines Act, 1891.”

Labour in Coal-mines: Regulations for the management and administration of funds and moneys under section 69 of “The Coal-mines Act, 1891.”

“The Licensing Act, 1881,” section 13.

“The Master and Apprentice Act, 1865.” Master and Apprentice: Extract from “The Criminal Code Act, 1893,” sections 150 and 213.

“The Mining Act, 1898,” and Amendment Act, 1899.

“The Servants' Registry Offices Act, 1895.”

“The Shearers' Accommodation Act, 1898.”

“The Shipping and Seamen's Act, 1877,” with Amendment Acts of 1885, 1890, 1894, 1895, 1896, and 1899.

“The Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1894,” with Amendment Acts of 1895 and 1896.

“The Sunday Labour in Mines Prevention Act, 1897.”

“The Trade-Union Act, 1878,” and Amendment Act, 1896.

“The Truck Act, 1891.”

“The Wages Protection Act, 1899” (forming part of and to be read with “The Truck Act, 1891”).

“The Wages Attachment Act, 1895.”

“The Workmen's Wages Act, 1893.”

These Acts and regulations are published in pamphlet form by the Department of Labour, with general remarks by the Secretary, which are quoted as important:—

The labour laws have been passed in the effort to regulate certain conditions affecting employer and employed. Their scope embraces many difficult positions into which the exigencies of modern industrial life have forced those engaged in trades and handicrafts. The general tendency of these laws is to ameliorate the position of the worker by preventing social oppression through undue influences, or through unsatisfactory conditions of sanitation. It will undoubtedly be found that, with the advance of time, these laws are capable of improvement and amendment; but they have already done much to make the lives of operatives of fuller and more healthy growth, and their aim is to prevent the installation of abuses before such abuses attain formidable dimensions.

The manufacturing population in New Zealand differs from that in some other of the Australasian Colonies by its wide dispersion. The capital city has hitherto been unable to draw to itself the industrial ability of the other provincial centres; and not only do Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin vie with Wellington as centres of population, but also as nuclei of commercial activity. In the second-class towns, such as Nelson, Napier, Invercargill, &c., many important works are being carried on, while even in the villages and rural districts the progress of new settlement necessitates the manufacture of articles which in older communities are produced in specialised localities. Men scattered widely at the numerous occupations of colonial country life, shearing, harvesting, bush-felling, road-making, or sailing coastal vessels, &c., require legal protection against the dangers and disabilities to which their callings expose them. This general dispersion of industry necessitates not only a wide system of supervision, but legislative measures of a peculiar character, at once sufficiently elastic to comprehend many varieties of function, and yet rigid to crush any apparent abuse.

The most important of these laws, in its general significance, is that dealing with compulsory arbitration in labour disputes. “The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1894” (with its amending Act of 1895), exists for the purpose of encouraging industrial association, and to facilitate the settlement of trade difficulties. Societies consisting of five or more employers, or of seven or more workers, may be registered and become subject to the jurisdiction of the Board and Court appointed by the Act. Any such society may bring a disputed case before the Board of Conciliation appointed for that district, and, if the Board fails to effect a settlement, the dispute may be referred to the Court of Arbitration, whose award may be enforced in the same manner as an award of the Supreme Court. The amount, however, for which such an award may be enforced against an association is limited to £500. [There are also Amendment Acts of 1896 and 1898.]

“The Factories Act, 1894,” is a consolidation of previous legislation, with some important additions. New Zealand has been divided into factory districts under the charge of a Chief Inspector and 150 local Inspectors. As a “factory” or “work-room” includes any place in which two or more persons are engaged in working for hire or reward in any handicraft, there are few operatives who do not come within the scope of the Act. Children under fourteen years of age are not allowed to be employed, and the hours of labour, holidays, &c., of women and youths under sixteen are strictly regulated. Good ventilation, sanitary accommodation, and general cleanliness of buildings are points dwelt upon; while machinery has to be properly guarded, fire-escapes provided, and dangerous occupations especially classified. In order to assist the system of free general education which prevails in the colony, young persons are not allowed to work in factories till they have passed the Fourth Standard of the State schools, or an equivalent examination. To prevent the introduction of “sweating” into our commercial centres, articles made, or partly made, in private dwellings, or unregistered workshops, have to be labelled when offered for sale, so that goods so manufactured (often in unsanitary premises) may not be placed in the market in competition with work done in properly inspected factories. Any person removing such labels is liable to a heavy fine. The Factory Inspectors also exercise supervision over the sleeping accommodation provided for shearers in country districts. As the sheep-runs and farms are widely scattered, sometimes in the rough and remote back-country, this part of the work of inspection is no easy task. A woman Inspector of Factories also gives her assistance to the duties of the department, travelling from place to place, and particularly looking into the condition of the operative women and girls. [There is also an Amendment Act of 1896.]

The duration of the hours of business in shops is limited by “The Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1894,” and “The Shops and Shop-assistants Act Amendment Act, 1895.” These provide for the closing of all shops in towns and boroughs for one afternoon half-holiday in each week. A few shops, such as those of chemists, fruiterers, eating-house keepers, &c., are exempted from the general closing on account of their convenience to the public; but assistants in such establishments, in the bars of hotels, and in country stores, must have a half-holiday on some day of the week. Very small shops carried on by Europeans without paid assistants are also exempt from closing on the general half-holiday, but must close on one afternoon in each week. The hours of work for women and young persons are defined; sitting accommodation must be provided, and precautions as to the necessary time for meals, sanitary accommodation, &c., are enforced; the Act also enumerates the working-hours, holidays, &c., of clerks employed in banks, mercantile offices, &c. [There is also an Amendment Act of 1896.]

“The Employers' Liability Act, 1882,” added to and amended in 1891 and 1892, is designed to protect workmen from negligence on the part of employers, by defining under what circumstances compensation for injury or death may be recoverable. The Act covers all employments except that of domestic servant, and does not allow of any “contracting out” by agreement on the part of employer and employed. Another Act of this character has regard to the payment of workmen's wages, and states that if a workman shall demand payment of wages twenty-four hours or more after they are due, and the contractor does not pay such wages, the workman may legally attach all moneys due to the contractor by the employer until such wages are paid. “The Truck Act, 1891,” requires that payment of wages shall not be made in goods or “truck,” but in money, any contra account notwithstanding; but there are a few exemptions, such as for advances for food, tools, &c., to men engaged in felling bush. In order to minimise the number of cases wherein fraudulent or unfortunate contractors victimised their labourers, “The Contractors' and Workmen's Lien Act 1892,” was brought into existence. This entities a person who has done work upon any land, building, or chattel to a lien upon such property. The lien is only to be exercised under certain restrictions, and for a limited amount, but it gives priority of claim for wages against other service, and enables legal proceedings for recovery to be taken before the attached property can be disposed of or alienated.

“The Servants' Registry Offices Act, 1895,” regulates the licensing of registry offices for domestic or farm servants. It prevents friendless or uneducated people from becoming the prey of unscrupulous persons, who formerly collected fees by duping the applicants for situations. The registry-office keepers have to pay a licensing fee to the Government, and to present a certificate of good character when applying for a license. Proper ledgers and books open to inspection must be provided, and the lending or hiring of licenses is not permitted. Registry-office keepers are not allowed to keep lodging-houses for servants, or have any interest in such houses.

There are sundry Acts for the supervision of shipping, and the protection of sailors and passengers. They relate to the appointment of pilots and ships' officers; the engagement and discharge of sailors; the sanitation, ventilation, and overloading of vessels; and the number of duly rated hands engaged in proportion to tonnage. They endeavour to prevent injustice to the sailor as to advance-notes, or payments in foreign money, and also specify penalties to be inflicted for desertion, disobedience, &c.

Combinations or associations of persons for regulating the relations between masters and masters, or masters and workmen, or workmen and workmen, are directed by “The Trade Union Act, 1878.” In this Act the different statutes which do not apply to trade-unions (such as the Joint Stock Act, the Friendly Societies Act, &c.) are enumerated, and the manner in which such societies may register, hold property, &c., is set out, together with the necessary provisions as to returns, penalties, &c. [An Amendment Act was passed in 1896, altering the age of membership.] “The Conspiracy Law Amendment Act, 1894,” permits any combination of persons in furtherance of a trade dispute, provided that any act performed by such combination or society would not be unlawful if done by one person. Such action must not include riot, sedition, or crime against the State.

“The Wages Attachment Act, 1895,” prevents wages below £2 a week being attached for debt. It does not interfere with any workman being sued for debt in the ordinary course, but prevents a grasping creditor from stepping in before others and seizing wages in advance before they are earned. [There is also “The Wages Protection Act, 1899,” which has to be read with “The Truck Act, 1891,” previously alluded to.]

“The Master and Apprentice Act, 1865,” applies mainly to the indenturing of apprentices by the State, such apprentices being children of destitute parents. In other respects the law of England is held to be the law governing the relations between masters and apprentices in this colony; but special sections of the Act apply to the punishment of apprentices for absenting themselves from duty, and to the fine on a master for neglecting or ill-using his apprentice.

“The Mining Act, 1898,” consolidates and repeals all statutes of a similar nature, and includes various amendments suggested by the Conference of Wardens of goldfields, and by mining associations. The mining legislation refers to labour in any kind of mine, and deals with the position of tributers and wagesmen, the examination for certificates for mine-managers, &c., provision for ventilation, precautions against accident by blasting, &c. [There is an Amendment Act of 1899.]

In or about coal-mines women and boys are not allowed to be engaged. There is provision for the appointment of inspectors, mine-managers, engine-drivers, &c., and rules are furnished as to the ages and working-hours of those employed in attending engines, machinery, winding-gear, &c. The ventilation of mines is provided for, and the necessary safeguards imposed as to blasting operations, working in foul air, protecting lights, &c. There are regulations for the management and administration of funds and moneys, which relate chiefly to the withdrawal of moneys from the Sick and Accident Fund, and returns demanded from trustees of the fund.

There is also “The Deaths by Accident Compensation Act, 1880.”

CO-OPERATIVE PUBLIC WORKS.

Remarks on the co-operative system of constructing public works were given in a special article in the Year-book of 1894. The numbers of workmen employed in this manner under Government departments during the financial year 1899–1900 were:—

 Lands and Survey Department.Public Works Department.State Farm, Levin.Total.

(a) Also nine families

(b) also ten families.

April,          18991,4581,18424(a)2,666
May,            ”1,5461,30723(b)2,876
June,            ”1,8511,33323(b)3,207
July,            ”1,9791,16218(a)3,159
August,        ”2,1441,17714(a)3,335
September,        ”2,1731,16114(b)3,348
October,        ”2,0481,17715(b)3,240
November,        ”1,9611,26515(b)3,241
December,        ”1,8471,32016(b)3,183
January,          19001,8081,26718(b)3,093
February,          ”1,6271,32515(a)2,967
March,          ”1,4641,24515(a)2,724

The average number of men employed in each year was as follows:—

Year.Lands and Survey Department.Public Works Department.Total.
1891–92261527788
1892–932808421,122
1893–949331,0151,948
1894–951,1039622,065
1895–961,5727642,336
1896–971,4598542,313
1897–981,5528902,442
1898–991,6131,1942,807
1899–19001,8251,2433,068
                Gross totals10,5988,29118,889
                Average1,1789212,099

LABOUR DEPARTMENT.

The total number of men for whom employment has been found by the Department of Labour up to the end of March, 1900, is given below. The statement also exhibits the number of persons dependent upon the men assisted:—

 Men.Dependents.
June, 1891, to 31st March, 18922,5934,729
1st April, 1892, to 31st March, 18933,8747,802
1st April, 1893, to 31st March, 18943,3718,002
1st April, 1894, to 31st March, 18953,0308,883
1st April, 1895, to 31st March, 18962,8718,424
1st April, 1896, to 31st March, 18971,7184,719
1st April, 1897, to 31st March, 18982,0354,928
1st April, 1898, to 31st March, 18992,1154,759
1st April, 1899, to 31st March, 19002,1474,471
 23,75456,717

SUPPLEMENTAL.
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES (see page 301).

THE Registrar of Friendly Societies has supplied particulars of the number of members of friendly societies, the amount of their accumulated capital, and the average capital per member in each of the Australasian Colonies, according to the latest published statistics, arranged in order of membership:—

Colony.Date of Return.Number of Lodges.Number of Members.Amount of Funds.Capital per Member.
    ££        s.        d.
Victoria31st Dec., 18981,08888,7261,220,27613        15        1
New South Wales      ”      189781769,124596,4638        12        7
South Australia      ”      189548742,703475,65411        2        9
New Zealand      ”      189841035,501678,74619        2        4
Queensland      ”      189832027,135201,8307        8        9
Tasmania      ”      169812011,87195,2028        0        5
Western Australia      ”      1898684,54335,4097        15        11

New Zealand shows by far the highest average of capital per member, Victoria following next, but not closely. The South Australian average is not quite two-thirds, and those of New South Wales, Queensland, Western Australia, and Tasmania less than half the sum shown for this colony.

Chapter 43. SECTION XIV.—MINING

THE natural mineral resources of New Zealand are very great, and have exercised in the past a most important influence on the development and progress of the colony. Gold to the value of £55,966,498 was obtained prior to the 31st December, 1899; the value of the produce for the year 1899 having been £1,513,173. In the earliest years the gold was obtained from alluvial diggings, but at the present time much is taken from gold-bearing quartz, which is distributed widely through several parts of the colony, and thus there is a much better prospect of the permanency of this industry than alluvial diggings could give. The greater portion of the gold obtained is, however, still got from alluvial workings.

The yield of silver to the end of 1899 amounted to £276,669 in value, the quantity mined in 1899 having been 349,338 oz., valued at £40,838.

Of other minerals, the value of the product to the same date amounts to £17,158,667, of which kauri-gum yielded £9,707,538, and coal, with coke, £7,193,428.

The quantities and values of precious metals and minerals obtained during the year 1899, and the total value of all mining produce since 1853, are:—

 1899.Total Value since 1853.
 Oz.    £      £      
Gold389,5581,513,17355,966,498
Silver349,33840,838276,669
 738,8961,554,01156,243,167
 Tons.  
Copper-ore..    ..    17,938
Chrome-ore..    ..    37,367
Antimony-ore..    ..    52,361
Manganese-ore13540759,644
Haematite-ore..    ..    226
Mixed minerals..    6,59190,165
Coal975,234487,6177,168,624
Coke (exported)18924,804
Kauri-gum11,116607,9199,707,538
  £2,656,554£73,401,834

Of the gold entered for exportation during the year ended the 31st March, 1900—viz., 392,663 oz., representing a value of £1,526,344—over 59 per cent. came out of quartz-mines; but, if the total yield of gold obtained in the colony be taken, the value of which to 31st March, 1900, is £56,339,718, about 25 per cent. came from quartz-mines, and 75 per cent. from alluvial workings.

MINERAL PRODUCTION (VALUE) OF AUSTRALASIA TO END OF 1898

The total value of mineral production in the Australasian Colonies to the end of the year 1898 is shown in the following table. The figures, except those for New Zealand, are taken from Mr. Coghlan's “Statistics of the Seven Colonies of Australasia, 1861 to 1898”:—

Colony.Gold.Silver and Silver lead.Copper.Tin.Coal.Other Minerals.Total.
* Including kauri-gum valued at £9,099,619.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      £      
New S'th Wales45,794,19825,812,3404,624,0296,292,05634,321,2053,010,101119,853,929
Victoria250,738,820845,689206, 395695,100680,046218,244253,384,294
Queensland44,499,955697,4182,022,9274,448,8002,282,692239,49654,191,288
South Australia2,133,746105,64321,529,74626,142…      430,28124,225,558
W'st'n Australia10,659,716250172,11576,2271,625369,94411,279,877
Tasmania3,954,6471,547,790874,5166,612,442368,29510,77713,368,467
New Zealand54,453,325235,83117,938…      6,705,8029,332,384*70,745,280
      Australasia412,234,40729,244,96122,447,66618,150,76744,359,66513,611,227547,048,693

GOLD-MINING

The history of the finding of gold in this colony was briefly sketched in the Year-books for 1893 and 1894, and need not, therefore, be repeated here, but a word may be said on recent developments in mining. Great changes have taken place since the early days, when a man wanted but a pick and shovel, tin dish and cradle, to enable him to earn a livelihood on the diggings. The rich shallow gravels have been to all appearances worked out, the ground is getting deeper, the inroads of water more troublesome, and greatly-improved appliances are needed in order to pump the water or wash away the masses of drift that overlie the gold-bearing layers on the bottom.

The difficulty for many years experienced in working the beds of the larger rivers has been at last overcome by the use of dredging machinery. Dredging has not only been adopted for working riverbeds, but has also been applied to great advantage on river flats, which cannot be profitably worked by any other means. So successful, indeed, has this method proved, that it seems to be developing into a very considerable branch of the mining industry.

So numerous are rapid streams and rivers in New Zealand that water is easily available for supplying direct motive-power for all kinds of mining machinery, as well as for the generation and transmission of electric energy where the water-supply is distant from the scene of operations. It has been used at Skipper's for years to generate electricity by means of dynamos, the current being transmitted a distance of several miles over a high range for the purpose of driving a crushing battery. Great improvements have been made in the appliances since the method was first adopted, and at present some 67 per cent. of the power required to generate electricity is obtained in this way.

Skipper's was the first place in New Zealand, if not in the world, where electricity was used to drive a crushing battery; and it is now used at the Premier Mine, Macetown, on the Arrow River, for mine haulage. Electricity has been adopted with equal success at the Brunner coal-mines, near Greymouth, for working the haulage and pumping machinery. It is also used for mining purposes at the Westport Coal Company's Denniston mines.

The total number of gold-miners employed in 1899–1900 was 13,291 as against 14,198 for the previous year. In some places, more especially in Otago, Nelson, and the West Coast, many of the miners do not depend entirely on mining, but employ a part of their time in farming and other pursuits.

The total quantity of gold entered for export during the years ending 31st March, 1899, and 31st March, 1900, for the several districts, and the total quantity and value of the gold exported from the colony from the 1st January, 1857, to the 31st March, 1900, are shown hereunder; but this does not necessarily include the whole of the gold produced, as no doubt much has been taken out of the colony from time to time by people who have evaded the duty, and a good deal has been used for making jewellery and ornaments:—

TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY AND VALUE OF GOLD ENTERED FOR EXPORTATION FROM NEW ZEALAND FOR THE YEARS ENDED THE 31ST MARCH, 1899 AND 1900, AND THE TOTAL QUANTITY AND VALUE FROM JANUARY, 1857, TO 31ST MARCH, 1900.
District.Year ending 31st March, 1899.Year ending 31st March, 1900.Increase for Year ending 31st March, 1900.Total Quantity and Value from January, 1857, to 31st March, 1900.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
* Decrease.
 Oz.      £      Oz.      £      Oz.      Oz.      £      
Auckland148,183545,463168,836625,20720,6532,484,3949,340,936
Wellington..      ..      ..      ..      ..      188706
Marlborough6212,4063441,382*27786,575337,220
Nelson1,7206,8822,58910,251869258,0291,019,139
West Coast74,700298,82494,081376,07619,3815,913,25123,506,068
Canterbury124922871082328
Otago78,289315,306126,791513,34148,5025,588,68922,135,321
            Totals303,5251,168,930392,6631,526,34489,13814,331,20856,339,718

It will be seen from the above table that there was last year an increase in the yield of gold of 89,138 oz., or 29.37 per cent. on the figures for the preceding twelve months. Each gold-mining district, excepting Marlborough, showed an increased output, the Otago fields in particular yielding no less than 48,502 oz. more than in the previous year.

Of the total quantity of gold entered for exportation last year Auckland contributed 43.00 per cent.; Marlborough, 0.09 per cent.; Nelson, 0.66 per cent.: West Coast, 23.96 per cent.; and Otago, 32.29 per cent.

Production of Australasian Goldfields

The gold yield of the Australasian Colonies for 1896, 1897, and 1898 was as under:—

 1896.1897.1898.
* From preceding information it will be observed that the gold produce for New
Zealand increased since 1898 to 389,558 oz. in 1899.
 Oz.    Oz.    Oz.    
Queensland640,385796,885920,048
New South Wales296,072292,217340,493
Victoria805,087812,765837,257
South Australia29,00410,32231,961
Western Australia281,265675,0821,050,184
Tasmania62,59160,73574,233
New Zealand263,722251,645280,175*
 2,378,1262,899,6513,534,351

The increase for the period is 1,156,225 oz. The mint value of Australasian gold averages £3 16s. per ounce, and a comparison of value is therefore as follows: 1896, £9,036,879; 1897, £11,018,674; 1898, £13,430,533: increase, 1896 to 1898, £4,393,654.

The Cyanide Process

On the Hauraki Goldfields gold is often found either in so finely divided a form that the ordinary methods of amalgamation fail to recover a payable percentage, or it is associated with, or entangled in, base metallic minerals which necessitate the adoption of scientific, and often costly, methods of treatment. In these goldfields the successful use of the cyanide process is steadily extending, with the result that many ores that formerly were worked at a loss by amalgamation processes now yield regular returns on the capital invested.

Indeed, the cyanide process is the most noteworthy improvement as yet introduced in the treatment of gold- and silver-bearing ores. It is particularly suitable where the gold is found in the ore in fine particles; whereas, if the gold be at all coarse, cyanide will do no more than cleanse and brighten its surface and render it fitter for amalgamation. In a paper on “Cyaniding in New Zealand,” Mr. James Park, F.G.S., comments on the treatment of these ores:—

Dry Crushing

Prior to the introduction of the cyanide process the ores were treated by dry crushing and hot pan amalgamation with chemicals, by which a recovery of 65 per cent. was effected.

When cyanide treatment was adopted, dry crushing was naturally continued at the different mills, the dry pulverised material being charged into shallow vats and treated directly with cyanide. From 65 per cent. by pan amalgamation the recovery rose at a bound to 85, and in some cases to 90 per cent., and the results were so satisfactory that no further improvement was considered possible.

In a few years, however, it became apparent that dry crushing possessed many disadvantages as compared with wet crushing, the principal ones being the cost of the preliminary drying of the ore, the low duty of the stamps, and the large number of vats required for leaching. In 1897 mine-owners began to turn their attention to wet crushing, and one by one, since the beginning of 1898, the different mills have been adopting wet crushing, until at the present time dry crushing is the exception, and not, as it was two years ago, the rule.

Wet Crushing

  1. For ores containing a large proportion of free, easily amalgamable gold, with a certain proportion of fine or “float” gold, and silver-sulphide, the mill practice is:—

    1. Crushing with water.

    2. Plate amalgamation.

    3. Spitzlutte separation of sands and slimes.

    4. Cyanide treatment of sands and slimes by ordinary percolation.

    A typical example of an ore of this class is that of the Kauri Gold Estates, at Opitonui, where a new forty-stamp mill has just started. The sands and heavy slimes are subjected to the “double” cyanide treatment; but it is doubtful if the additional saving will pay for the extra labour involved. So far no provision has been made for the treatment of the fine slimes. If they are worth it, they will probably be treated by agitation and decanting.

  2. For a clean ore, almost identical with that described above, but containing a small proportion of free amalgamable gold and a large proportion of fine cyaniding gold, with little or no slimes, the method of treatment at the Crown Mines is:—

    1. Crushing with cyanide solution.

    2. Direct cyanide treatment of mixed sands and slimes by percolation.

    3. Plate amalgamation of free gold.

    With an ore exceptionally free from slimes, it seems that the order of treatment could be reversed with advantage as regards both stamp duty and efficiency of amalgamation on the plates.

  3. For ores containing some easily amalgamable gold, and fine gold associated with pyrites and silver-sulphides, the treatment used is:—

    1. Crushing with water.

    2. Plate amalgamation.

    3. Spitzlutte separation of fine slimes, if necessary.

    4. Vanner concentration of sulphurets.

    5. Cyanide treatment of sands by percolation.

    6. Cyanide treatment of sands by agitation and decanting.

    7. Cyanide treatment of concentrates by agitation.

    The practice at the Woodstock mill is a typical example of this system, the details being as follows: The ore is chalcedonic and finely crystalline quartz, containing a small proportion of clayey matter and a little pyrites. It is stained a greyish- and blackish-brown colour through the presence of iron and manganese oxides.

  4. For very slimy ores, containing very little easily amalgamable gold and a large proportion of extremely fine gold, besides the usual silver-sulphides, the treatment is as follows:—

    1. Crushing with cyanide solution.

    2. Spitzlutte separation of sands and slimes.

    3. Treatment of sands by percolation.

    4. Treatment of slimes by agitation and decanting.

    This method of treatment is subject to various modifications as regards mechanical appliances and methods of application, but the general principles are the same everywhere.

By a statute passed in December, 1897, and termed “The Cyanide Process Gold-extraction Act, 1897,” an agreement was approved by Parliament under which the Government arranged to purchase the patent rights in New Zealand of the Cassel Gold-extracting Company, thus rendering the said patent rights available for mining purposes at reasonable rates of royalty. The process used under the patent is what is commonly known as the cyanide process, and the operation of the Act should prove highly important in the development of low-grade ores, and otherwise promote the mining industry. The royalties received by the Government up to the 31st March, 1899, amounted to £1,774 18s. 7d.

Quartz and Alluvial Workings

The working of quartz mines and deep alluvial drifts necessitates a large outlay of money before returns can be expected, and can only be undertaken when capital is available. In the case of quartz mines, they must be sufficiently opened up to ascertain the value and extent of the reefs preparatory to the erection of reduction machinery, which must be constructed on the most modern principles to insure efficiency and economy in the handling and treatment of large bodies of ore.

The introduction of capital has the effect of enabling the claims not only to be opened up at greater depths than heretofore, but they will also be worked in a more systematic and economical manner. Modern machinery and appliances are introduced and erected for the reduction and treatment of the ores, and it is expected that a far larger percentage of the gold will be recovered than has been the case in the past.

The improved appliances introduced in dredging and hydraulic elevating and sluicing machinery have made it possible to work with profit alluvial ground and drifts that a few years ago could not be handled remuneratively.

In the successful development of alluvial drifts containing only a few grains of gold to the ton or cubic yard, a large and constant supply of water is of primary importance, and to secure this the construction of expensive races must be undertaken as the initial step towards systematic working.

In the colony there are large areas covered with auriferous drifts which will prove remunerative if a sufficient quantity of water can be obtained to work them on an extensive scale; and the number of men who can be profitably employed in alluvial workings will necessarily be in proportion to the quantity of water available.

COAL-MINING

The extent of the coal-measures in New Zealand will make coal-mining one of the large industries in the colony, especially on the west coast of the Middle Island, where bituminous coal exists equal, if not superior, in quality to coal of the same class in any part of the world.

The progressive increase in the output of coal from 1878 to the and of 1899 is shown below:—

Year.Raised in the Colony.Imported.Total raised in the Colony, and imported, per Annum.Exported (excluding Coal for Fuel by Ocean Steamers).Total Consumption of Coal within the Colony.Yearly increase in Consumption within the Colony.
Total.Yearly Increase.
* Decrease.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
1878162,218..      174,148336,3663,921332,445..      
1879231,21869,000158,076389,2947,195382,09949,654
1880299,92368,705123,298423,2217,021416,20034,101
1881337,26237,339129,962467,2246,626460,59844,398
1882378,27241,010129,582507,8544,245503,60943,011
1883421,76443,492123,540545,3047,172538,13234,523
1884480,83159,067148,444629,2756,354622,92184,789
1885511,06330,232130,202641,2652,371638,89415,973
1886534,35323,290119,873654,2262,862651,36412,470
1887558,62024,267107,230665,85012,951652,8991,535
1888613,89555,275101,341715,23627,678687,55834,659
1889586,445−27,450*128,063714,50839,290675,21812,340
1890637,39750,952110,939748,33633,404714,93239,714
1891668,79431,397125,318794,11229,093764,01949,087
1892673,3154,521125,453798,76828,169770,5996,580
1893691,54818,233117,444808,99224,288784,70414,105
1894719,54627,998112,961832,50725,449807,05822,354
1895726,6547,108108,198834,85226,151808,7011,643
1896792,85166,197101,756894,60727,974866,63357,932
1897840,71347,862110,907951,62026,639924,98158,348
1898907,03366,320115,4271,022,46018,3481,004,11279,131
1899975,23468,20199,6551,074,88914,1461,060,74356,631

It will be seen from the above that, with the exception of 1889, there has been a steady increase in the output of coal from the mines in the colony, year after year, since records have been kept by the Mines Department. The yearly increase in output is principally due to the growing demand for consumption within the colony. During a period of twenty-one years the annual consumption of coal in New Zealand has increased to the extent of 728,298 tons, showing that new industries are quickly springing up, requiring fuel for generating motive-power.

The total output from the mines last year was 975,234 tons, as against 907,033 tons for 1898, an increased output of 68,201 tons. The coal imported from other countries was 99,655 tons, against 115,427 tons in 1898, a decrease in the importation last year of 15,772 tons. The imports were 98,786 tons from New South Wales, 456 tons from Queensland, 363 tons from Victoria, and 50 tons from the United Kingdom. The total export of coal was 93,843 tons, of which 89,480 tons were colonial produce, and 4,363 tons imported coal from other countries. Of the coal exported, 79,697 tons were for coaling direct steamers trading between the colony and the United Kingdom, and has been treated as coal consumed within the colony, these steamers trading wholly between New Zealand and Great Britain. Taking, therefore, the output from the mines and the coal imported, there is a total of 1,074,889 tons, of which 14,146 tons were exported, leaving the consumption within the colony last year 1,060,743 tons, as against 1,004,112 tons for 1898, an increased consumption of 56,631 tons.

The largest increase in the output last year was in the Grey-mouth district—namely, 36,021 tons. There was also an increased production from the mines in the Westport district of 22,722 tons, in the Otago District of 16,821 tons, in the Southland district of 1,103 tons, in the Malvern district of 845 tons, and from the Mokau of 817 tons; but' there was a decline in other places, the largest falling off being in the Kawakawa and Hikurangi district, 5,671 tons.

The quantities of coal produced in each district are as under:—

Name of District.Output of Coal.Increase or Decrease.Approximate total Output of Coal up to the 31st December, 1899.
1899.1898.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Kawakawa and Hikurangi51,66157,332− 5,6711,083,180
Whangarei, Kamo, Ngunguru, and Whauwhau15,66216,808− 1,146407,523
Waikato68,92970,191− 1,2621,089,977
Mokau4,8764,059+ 81722,588
Pelorus..      ..      ..      711
West Wanganui2401,230− 99051,236
Westport363,043340,321+ 22,7223,346,347
Reefton4,0175,076− 1,05979,765
Greymouth154,647118,626+ 36,0212,669,201
Malvern14,19213,347+ 845369,224
Timaru..      ..      ..      10,657
Otago249,824233,003+ 16,8213,807,124
Southland48,14347,040+ 1,103521,347
            Totals975,234907,033+ 68,20113,458,880

The following table, constructed from “Laboratory Reports of the Geological Survey” (Sir J. Hector) gives the composition of samples of New Zealand coals freshly taken from the principal mines:—

Number.Description.Locality.Analysis.Evaporative Power.*
Fixed Carbon.Hydrocarbon.Water.Ash.1.2.
* The second column headed “Evaporative Power” is obtained by the use of a multiple computed from the results of Professor Liversedge's experiments upon the coals of New South Wales. The multiple used for the first column is the one which has long been generally used for computing the evaporative power of coals; but, to prevent any unfair and prejudicial comparison of our coals with those of New South Wales, the second column is given.
1AnthraciteAcheron, Canterbury84.121.961.8012.1210.9318.50
2BituminousCoalbrookdale74.8320.501.163.519.7016.45
3            ″                        ″            70.0022.152.525.339.1015.40
4            ″            Banbury69.9725.710.993.339.0915.38
5Altered brown coalMalvern Hills68.5419.894.157.428.2712.50
6BituminousTyneside65.5929.180.824.418.5213.55
7Glance coalRakaia Gorge64.5121.276.767.468.3013.20
8BituminousWallsend62.8731.641.663.838.1713.82
9            ″            Grey River62.3729.441.996.208.0113.22
10Pitch coalKawakawa61.1628.002.518.337.9512.55
11BituminousPreservation Inlet60.8828.604.336.197.9112.80
12Pitch coalBlackball, Grey River60.2029.978.011.827.8212.20
13BituminousMokihinui59.7532.143.974.147.7611.80
14            ″            Coalpit Heath58.8138.981.021.197.6412.96
15            ″            Mokihinui57.9234.943.963.187.5012.75
16            ″            Brunner Mine56.6235.681.596.117.3612.46
17            ″                        ″            56.2137.731.504.567.3012.36
18            ″            Westport56.0137.172.604.227.2812.30
19            ″            Mokihinui55.5938.863.162.397.2012.22
20            ″            Brunner54.1635.852.507.497.0411.91
21Altered brown coalMalvern Hills53.2932.0412.652.026.9211.50
22BituminousWallsend53.1035.471.4110.026.9011.68
23            ″            Otamataura Creek52.8936.632.198.296.9011.70
24            ″            Near Cape Farewell51.3738.724.385.536.3111.60
25Pitch coalKawakawa50.1542.634.183.046.5011.80
26Glance coalWhangarei50.1138.688.013.206.5011.75
27Pitch coalKamo50.0137.699.612.696.5011.17
28Brown coalMalvern Hills49.9935.4211.792.806.4910.90
29            ″            Fernhill49.9536.9512.001.106.4910.99
30            ″            Allandale47.3134.2612.416.026.1510.96
31            ″            Kaitangata46.4833.4814.665.386.0410.22
32            ″            Shag Point46.2132.6516.025.126.0010.16
33            ″            Homebush44.9236.0015.833.255.839.87
34Pitch coalHikurangi, Whangarei44.5047.005.992.515.789.79
35Brown coalHokonui44.2838.2216.501.005.759.77
36            ″            Kaitangata44.1138.3215.442.135.749.96
37            ″            Nightcaps43.6233.6818.334.375.679.59
38Pitch coalShag Point43.1930.0515.8210.945.619.52
39Brown coalSpringfield42.6833.6618.655.015.559.38
40            ″            Orepuki42.6436.2614.446.665.549.38
41            ″            Kaitangata38.2932.4317.5011.784.878.32
42            ″            Shag Point35.7630.8613.2220.164.647.85
43            ″            Allandale34.7241.4318.994.864.517.63
44Pitch coalGrey River34.7256.486.202.604.517.63
FOR COMPARISON.
 Newcastle, N.S.W.Best58.3334.171.835.677.5012.82
             ″            Worst53.3426.663.3316.676.9011.72

As regards the quality of the coal, it cannot be surpassed. The late Sir John Coode, in his presidential address to the Institute of Civil Engineers, London, stated: “The bituminous coal found on the west coast of the Middle Island is declared by engineers to be fully equal, if not superior, to the best description from any part of the world.”

The quantity of each class of coal produced in 1898 and 1899 was:—

Class of Coal.Output of Coal.Increase.Approximate total Output of Coal up to the 31st December, 1899.
1899.1898.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Bituminous588,036538,47749,5597,272,962
Pitch37,83536,4321,4031,760,323
Brown314,542298,36516,1773,979,161
Lignite34,82133,7591,062446,434
            Totals975,234907,03368,20113,458,880

It has been computed that to deliver coal at the pit-mouth costs in labour 6s. a ton. The number of men employed in all the coalmines last year was 2,153, and the output of coal, 975,234 tons: the average earning per man would thus be £135 17s. 9d. per annum, or about £2 12s. 3d. per week.

OTHER METALS OR MINERALS

Very little has been done in the colony to prospect and develop mines other than for gold and silver. The only exports last year of metalliferous products, excluding gold and silver, were 135 tons of manganese-ore, 1,227 tons of sulphur, and small parcels of other minerals, representing an aggregate value of £6,998.

KAURI-GUM

The quantity of kauri-gum exported last year was 11,116 tons, as against 9,905 tons for 1898. Last year's produce (£607,919) gave an average value of about £54 13s. 9d. per ton, while for 1898 the average was £59 4s. 9d. per ton.

Chapter 44. SECTION XV.—METEOROLOGY

TEMPERATURE, RAINFALL, ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, AND WIND, THROUGHOUT NEW ZEALAND, AS OBSERVED AT SIX STATIONS, FOR THE YEAR 1899

Sir James Hector

THE OBSERVATIONS WERE TAKEN AT 9.30 A.M.
Stations and Months.Temperature in Shade.Rainfall.Mean Height of Barometer.Prevailing Wind.
Highest.Lowest.Wet Days.Fall.
 ° Fahr.° Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
Auckland (lat. 36° 50′ S.; long. 174° 50′ 40″ E.; alt. 125 ft.)
        January80.054.0133.64029.830SW, N, NE.
        February84.550.071.86030.030NE, SE.
        March77.052.0102.20030.030S, NE, SW.
        April76.050.0112.41030.050SE, SW.
        May73.041.0152.98029.950SW, S, NW.
        June63.139.0144.76030.060SE, NE, E.
        July61.037.0175.32030.020SW, SE.
        August65.041.0122.78030.120SE, SW.
        September65.044.5101.31030.140SW.
        October68.047.0224.79029.980SW.
        November72.048.0152.05029.960SW, NE.
        December78.053.550.34029.990SW.
New Plymouth (lat. 39° 3′ 35″ S.; long. 174° 4′ 58″ E.; alt. 100 ft.).
        January76.044.0169.99029.700NE, SW.
        February79.040.083.95030.010SE.
        March81.543.0183.65030.024SE, NW.
        April79.040.0166.49030.132NW.
        May75.033.0159.42029.984SE.
        June72.042.093.84230.128SE.
        July89.035.0226.53029.990SW, SE.
        August78.034.0133.96030.210SE.
        September73.036.0222.84030.250NE, SE.
        October73.037.0255.86030.000NE, W, NW.
        November75.040.0205.21529.980NE, NW.
        December77.047.0232.98030.030W.
Wellington (lat. 41° 16′ 25″ S.; long. 174° 47′ 25″ E.; alt. 140 ft.).
        January76.350.0154.83529.731NW.
        February73.044.098.42330.093NW, SE.
        March76.041.9124.57830.045NW, SE.
        April73.038.9133.60830.017NW, S
        May65.037.0266.87029.949SE, S, NW.
        June59.035.0152.66030.087S. NW.
        July57.331.0226.44729.956NW, S.
        August59.034.0152.43130.208SE.
        September64.038.0103.61530.065NW.
        October68.039.0172.52029.756NW, S.
        November74.038.0152.25029.843NW, S.
        December73.044.0124.47829.843NW.
Hokitika (lat. 42° 41′ 30″ S.; long. 170° 59′ E.; alt. 12 ft.).
        January76.044.51920.54029.684SW, NW.
        February76.539.543.38030.077SW.
        March82.539.5108.83030.020SW.
        April70.039.094.55030.033SW.
        May66.033.01010.58029.911E.
        June62.032.5124.45030.041E.
        July60.027.0158.64029.934E.
        August66.531.061.38030.162E.
        September61.534.0196.76030.051SW, NW.
        October69.536.01811.88029.783SW.
        November72.037.01510.39029.830SW.
        December69.042.51513.40029.861SW, NW.
Dunedin (lat. 45° 52′ 11″ S.; long. 170° 31′ 7″ E.; alt. 300 ft.).
        January81.040.0135.50629.605NE, W.
        February79.040.093.21830.025SW.
        March79.036.0155.14429.973SW, NE.
        April79.035.0153.36729.921SW, W
        May62.033.0153.52229.917SW.
        June58.032.060.81629.984SW.
        July55.023.0163.77229.906SW, W.
        August58.030.0101.83430.136W, SW.
        September70.034.0102.20229.941W, SW.
        October80.032.0151.79629.708SW.
        November74.033.0153.58829.749SW, NE
        December75.041.0203.85629.708SW, W.
Chatham Islands (lat. 43° 52′ S.; long. 176° 42′ W.; alt. 100 ft.).
        January69.041.0142.75029.600SW, NW.
        February69.040.0114.73029.950SW.
        March69.042.093.42030.000SW, N, NE.
        April66.043.5132.23029.870SW, NW.
        May61.038.0193.64029.750NW, SW.
        June57.037.0171.35029.980SW, SE.
        July55.031.0263.31029.670SW.
        August53.033.0181.25030.040SW, SE.
        September59.031.0110.62029.930NW, SW.
        October63.039.0182.60029.730SW, W.
        November63.037.0203.19029.770SE, N, SW, NW.
        December67.038.0111.37029.660SW, NW.
SIX STATIONS: COMPARATIVE TABLE; YEAR 1399.
Stations.Temperature in Shade.Rainfall.Mean Height of Barometer.Prevailing Wind.
Highest, and Date.Lowest, and Date.Days on which Rain fell.Greatest Fall, and Date.
 ° Fahr.° Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
Auckland84.5, 17 Feb.37.0, 26 July1511.330, 19 July30.013SW.
New Plymouth89.0, 19 July33.0, 12 May2072.400, 24 May30.036SE.
Wellington76.3, 1, 2, 6 Jan.31.0, 15,26 July1813.530, 6 Feb.29.966NW.
Hokitika82.5, 28 Mar.27.0, 15 July1524.930, 30 Jan.29.949SW, E.
Dunedin81.0, 13 Jan.23.0, 25 July1592.400, 17 Jan.29.881SW, W.
Chatham Islands69.0, 16 Jan., 22 Feb., 7 Mar.31.0, 26 July 10 Sept.1872.650, 23 Feb.29.830SW, NW.

The following table, compiled from information published in the Statistical Abstract for the Colonial Possessions of the United Kingdom, shows the shade temperature for each month in New Zealand and other British Colonies. The figures given are the means of four years (H signifies highest, and L lowest):—

British Possessions (Stations and Height in Feet above Sea Level where known).Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.
New Zealand—°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.
      Wellington (140)7845784776447043663862345933623465376941743375447833
Queensland—
      Brisbane (130)9264936391618554805076427539784185469150945797619739
New South Wales—
      Sydney (155)9259895884597951724867446339704277458848875494579439
Victoria—
      Melbourne (91)101489947994586407437643762326834743481409444964510132
South Australia—
      Adelaide (140)108491065010048894578406738653674397941864196451014810836
Western Australia—
      Perth (47)10750102539852965781407038703773388042834293481005110737
Tasmania—
      Hobart (160)9145944593447538713761345933663372357735924086439433
Natal—
      Durban (150)9963956194609458895286498848914996509153975798599949
Cape Town—
      Royal Observatory (37)9454905192498645804276397437763783398644894890529437
Hong Kong—
      Observatory (110)7347784677498458896891739174917492709066825579499146
Straits Settlements—
      Singapore (30)8870907091719173907390729072897289718971897189709170
Mauritius—
      Royal Alfred Observatory (179)8469847184708270806277607559755977628062826684688459
Canada—
      Toronto (350)47−345−35167122783186448846894782417127561345−189−3
      Montreal (187)45−1442−134406924813287438850865081397027591143−1188−13
      St. John (N.B.) (116)49−746−74746222693381427949774873376026561649−381−7
      Halifax (122)50−146−550106322733283398448844980366929602151384−3
      Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island (38)47−643−94756020703177398049794975396630581947180−9
      Winnipeg, Manitoba (764)34−3732−3749−2576882209035874091348630731753−1639−2991−37
      Victoria, British Columbia(10)511455260306729733876397943764471386435553051237914
      St. John's, Newfoundland (125)48−650−850116115712776338141794278336524621951981−8
Barbados—
      Joes River (430)8167816783698470847185728470857085718571847083698567
Bahamas—
      Military Hospital7763796879678469897288738978897387758677827077678963
Jamaica—
      Kingston (60)9163906390629168917092719571937392709369916790639562
Trinidad (130)8667876888698870897086718671867089708870877085698967

Chapter 45. SECTION XVI.—OCCUPATION OF LAND; AND LIVE STOCK

THE occupation of land must not be confused with ownership,* because there are large parcels of lands held which are unused and unoccupied. Neither can lands occupied be properly compared with the returns of Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands have passed into the hands of Europeans which were never made waste lands of the Crown.

The occupied lands of the colony for 1899–1900 have been returned by the Department of Agriculture at 34,422,653 acres, including Crown lands leased for pastoral purposes only, or 36,385 acres in excess of the quantity for the preceding year.

Tables are given showing the numbers and acreages of holdings, grouped according to size, for the four years in which the Department of Agriculture has compiled the information.

In 1895 the holdings of over 1 acre in extent, as returned to the Registrar-General, numbered only 46,676. Holdings occupied by Maoris were excluded, besides holdings of exactly one acre, also gardens and orchards attached to residences.

OCCUPIED LANDS: HOLDINGS.

[This and the succeeding statement deal with the full extent of occupied land, including Crown pastoral leases.]

Sizes of Holdings.No. of Holdings.
1896–97.1897–98.1898–99.1899–1900.
1 acre to 10 acres, inclusive16,71517,13318,23017,454
10 acres to 50     ″11,00811,18211,42611,505
50       ″       100     ″6,8337,0687,2767,195
100       ″       200     ″8,8049,1929,1649,177
200       ″       320     ″5,2965,4815,5845,675
320       ″       640     ″5,2445,4365,5555,830
640       ″       1,000     ″1,8291,9561,9462,128
1,000       ″       5,000     ″2,3672,4542,5892,667
5,000       ″       10,000     ″343345369352
10,000       ″       20,000     ″227246220233
20,000       ″       50,000     ″162164175169
50,000 acres and over112102105100
 58,94060,75962,63962,485

* The only information in reference to ownership of land, which is available, gives figures up to the year 1892. It is contained in Parliamentary Return B.-20A of that year, and states the total number of owners of land (town and country holdings of all sizes) to be 91,501 for the colony. But the Commissioner of Taxes pointed out in his remarks that the most important figures (showing ownership of productive land) are those of freeholders outside boroughs and town districts, and excluding holdings of under 5 acres. These figures are:—

NEW ZEALAND OWNERS (OVER 5 ACRES).
Year 189238,935
      ”       188937,432
Year 188634,450
      ”       188330,764

† At the census of April, 1896, the actual number of persons described in the census schedules as having occupations necessitating their occupying holdings of land was 36,643. This number includes 31,577 farmers, 2,115 runholders, 1,402 market-gardeners, 619 horticulturists, 430 dairy-farmers, 225 fruit-growers, 175 nurserymen, 33 vignerons, 32 poultry-farmers, 19 bee-farmers, and 16 others.

The holdings are shown to have increased by the number of 3,545 since 1896–97.

The total acreage of occupied land is given in the following table:—

OCCUPIED LANDS: ACREAGES.
Sizes of Holdings in Acres.1896–97.1897–98.1898–99.1899–1900.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1 to 10 inclusive                     69,62668,92968,67170,290
10       ″       50     ″316,493317,321315,651322,936
50       ″       100     ″548,035558,798570,503568,716
100       ″       200     ″1,369,1701,396,6991,401,1711,404,581
200       ″       320     ″1,387,4311,431,4061,469,8591,475,195
320       ″       640     ″2,449,4512,492,2752,568,4622,688,231
640       ″       1,000     ″1,486,6931,611,2671,649,5801,731,636
1,000       ″       5,000     ″4,929,5395,165,1195,364,5395,495,467
5,000       ″       10,000     ″2,422,1972,416,1492,579,7732,451,073
10,000       ″       20,000     ″3,293,7063,501,5763,274,6233,201,355
20,000       ″       50,000     ″4,913,2285,251,8195,448,0335,535,541
50,000 and over                                     10,126,6439,769,1219,675,4039,477,632
 33,312,21233,980,47934,386,26834,422,653

In regard to holdings, out of a total of 62,485 in 1900, the large proportion of 36,154, or 57.86 per cent., were from 1 to 100 acres in extent; 45,331 or 72.55 per cent., were from 1 to 200 acres; and 51,006, or 81.63 per cent., were from 1 to 320 acres in size. The total number over 320 acres was only 11,479, or 18.37 per cent. of the whole, thus indicating a considerable degree of moderately close settlement, although the area of the holdings over the 320 acres limit necessarily shows as very large in a table which includes the Crown pastoral leases.

The plan of excluding these leases from the table showing the holdings in classes has its advantages, though not now adopted.

From the total extent of occupied land shown for the colony, such of the area of the Crown pastoral leases as has been distinguished by the enumerators can be deducted, and comparison then made for the census years 1886 and 1891, and the Agricultural Department returns for 1899–1900. The figures are:—

Census Results, March, 1886.Census Results, April, 1891.Figures returned by Department of Agriculture, 1899–1900.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.
Total area of occupied land (after deducting Crown pastoral leases)17,077,07419,951,92525,607,049

The acreage shown in the returns as held on Crown pastoral lease may have been understated in the returns rendered by occupiers, for the table (which is given on the next page) shows less than nine millions of acres. The figures in the previous column headed “Held from Crown under various tenures” seem greater than they should be, judging from the Lands Department returns. Possibly there may have been some misplacements, and caution is advised in using the numbers in the last two columns.

OCCUPATION OF LAND: TENURE.
Provincial Districts.Total Area of Holdings.Freehold.Leased from Private Individuals or Public Bodies.Leased from Natives.Held from Crown under Different Tenures.Held under Pastoral License.
* For remarks as to the accuracy of the figures in these columns see above.
 Acres.    Acres.    Acres.    Acres.    Acres.    Acres.    
Auckland5,063,7783,256,396452,430579,429700,24875,275
Taranaki997,959549,503199,02780,474168,088867
Hawke's Bay3,290,2121,930,893307,855785,399178,35287,713
Wellington3,663,1802,408,427468,653252,832529,5023,766
Marlborough2,154,130808,93888,6415,047338,071913,433
Nelson1,994,220998,45072,57516,209355,140551,846
Westland660,13455,41520,3625,367178,015400,975
Canterbury6,391,6062,754,083817,84710,750439,6672,369,259
Otago10,207,4342,890,5811,001,6787,9881,894,7174,412,470
            Totals34,422,65315,652,6863,429,0681,743,4954,781,800*8,815,604*

It would appear that holders of their lands from the Crown do not return to collectors so much as the quantity on which they pay rent to Government. The acreages stated to be held under Crown pastoral license do not agree with the tables of the Lands Department.

Arranged according to the number of holdings, the provincial districts stand in order as under:—

Auckland14,806 holdings.
Otago13,929       ″      
Canterbury10,965       ″      
Wellington9,977       ″      
Taranaki4,295       ″      
Hawke's Bay3,298       ″      
Nelson3,084       ″      
Marlborough1,448       ″      
Westland683       ″      

The occupied holdings of the North Island now considerably outnumber those of the Middle Island, the numbers being: North Island, 32,376; Middle Island, 30,109. For the year 1896–97 the returns showed 29,535 holdings for the Middle Island, against 29,369 for the North, besides 36 holdings at the Chatham Islands, of which no account was taken for the last three years.

The full details of holdings and acreages, classified according to size, for the year 1899–1900 will be found in the table on the following page.

OCCUPATION OF LAND: NUMBER AND AREA OF HOLDINGS (INCLUDING CROWN PASTORAL LEASES).
Provincial Districts.Total of Holdings.1–10 Acres. inclusive.Over 10–50 Acres, inclusive.Over 50–100 Acres, inclusive.Over 100–200 Acres, inclusive.Over 200–320 Acres, inclusive.Over 320–640 Acres, inclusive.Over 640–1,000 Acres inclusive.Over 1,000–5,000 Acres, inclusive.Over 5,000–10,000 Acres, inclusive.Over 10,000–20,000 Acres, inclusive.Over 20,000–50,000 Acres, inclusive.Over 50,000 Acres
Auckland: Area in acres5,063,77815,66485,947153,546340,333344,227589,246372,7721,052,994523,007341,012490,997754,033
            Number of holdings14,8064,0132,8591,9422,2721,3261,2884665137626169
Taranaki: Area in acres997,9592,55516,98355,843172,449154,250206,075109,044247,07920,18113,500…      …      
            Number of holdings4,2955235846991,15260345613913531…      …      
Hawke's Bay: Area in acres3,290,2125,39417,04318,49842,64944,452104,85976,157439,857345,251641,7491,028,887525,416
            Number of holdings3,2981,276626247288169222922464950285
Wellington: Area in acres3,663,18011,70246,69392,556256,463235,660506,279338,795988,630375,227366,669279,496165,010
            Number of holdings9,9772,6501,7291,0931,5748861,0784114625428102
Marlborough: Area in acres2,154,1301,5984,8839,03925,29531,95178,36363,093213,05089,744162,359390,0621,084,693
            Number of holdings1,448459198114165127158771051310139
Nelson: Area in acres1,994,2203,08519,37731,40765,68772,212118,30686,998234,80839,24871,644439,796811,652
            Number of holdings3,08477466340945527526211510155137
Westland: Area in acres660,1346453,9536,28815,20014,29516,65912,57728,568106,440224,169163,72067,620
            Number of holdings6832081338510053391614161351
Canterbury: Area in acres6,391,60614,19264,25593,360186,796215,853393,181273,7761,051,304390,844502,9091,178,2742,026,862
            Number of holdings10,9653,5082,2951,2211,25184784332852054373625
Otago: Area in acres10,207,43415,45563,802108,179299,709362,295675,263398,4241,239,177561,131877,3441,564,3094,042,346
            Number of holdings13,9294,0432,4181,3851,9201,3891,48448457182634842
        Totals                  Area in acres34,422,65370,290322,936568,7161,404,5811,475,1952,688,2311,731,6365,495,4672,451,0733,201,3555,535,5419,477,632
                  Number of holdings62,48517,45411,5057,1959,1775,6755,8302,1232,667352233169100

LIVE-STOCK

A comparative table is presented showing the increase in livestock since the year 1858. The figures are taken from the census as far as 1891, but for 1895–96 and following years the results of the enumeration made annually by the Department of Agriculture under “The Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics Act, 1895,” have been made use of.

Year.Horses.Asses and Mules.Cattle.Sheep.Goats.Pigs.Poultry.

* Not enumerated.

† Numbers for April, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, and 1899.

185814,912122137,2041,523,32411,79740,734*      
186128,275153193,2852,761,38312,19143,270236,098
186449,409339249,7604,937,27312,00561,276378,414
186765,715323312,8358,418,57911,964115,104676,065
187181,028397436,5929,700,62912,434151,460872,174
187499,859267494,91711,704,85314,276123,9211,058,198
1878137,768241578,43013,069,33814,243207,3371,323,542
1881161,736362698,63712,985,08511,223200,0831,566,114
1886187,382297853,35816,564,59510,220277,9011,679,021
1891211,040348831,83118,128,1869,055308,8121,790,070
1895–96237,4184261,047,90119,826,604†*      239,778*      
1896–97249,8134341,138,06719,138,493†*      209,834*      
1897–98252,8343931,209,16519,687,954†*      186,027*      
1898–99258,1155341,203,02419,673,725†*      193,512*      
1899–1900261,9314591,210,43919,348,506†*      249,751*      

The stock owned by Maoris in the year 1896, which is included above, comprised 314,406 sheep, and 29,125 head of cattle. The number of horses is not specified, but is known to be large.

TABLE SHOWING FOR EACH COUNTY IN NEW ZEALAND THE NUMBER OF HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, AND PIGS IN 1899.
County.Horses, November, 1899.Cattle, including Calves, November, 1899.Dairy Cows, included in foregoing.Sheep, including Lambs, April, 1899.Pigs, November, 1899.
* Not including 39,887 heifers over two years old intended for dairying.
Mongonui1,8067,90273528,3482,440
Whangaroa5501,7351157,1791,076
Hokianga2,6076,5921,78313,4983,359
Bay of Islands2,2059,7051,60037,1901,833
Hobson3,16617,9603,47616,6284,636
Whangarei3,63826,6677,12245,2091,885
Otamatea1,41712,1882,01852,875905
Rodney1,92511,3532,91773,326926
Waitemata2,38612,1903,81738,1371,530
Eden5,8876,9424,2532,3872,707
Manukau7,80241,67112,89293,8737,310
Coromandel7093,25681012,700353
Thames1,7854,3041,7496,7821,485
Ohinemuri1,4823,5691,0974,6541,205
Piako2,32126,9083,211182,8721,743
Waikato2,68916,9133,75677,7472,617
Waipa2,92719,2555,87541,6783,967
Raglan3,06621,3532,88275,4055,494
Kawhia3,30012,45881651,0739,131
West Taupo1,6435,392349..      2,255
East Taupo..      ..      ..      34,025..      
Rotorua88892020534,025960
Tauranga2,63513,9162,0687,4112,960
Whakatane3,0028,7161,90146,3463,133
Opotiki..      ..      ..      ..      ..      
Waiapu3,13713,952482308,6493,100
Cook6,05529,9573,495824,1292,405
Clifton1,12114,6394,27423,1782,288
Taranaki5,38255,22519,90528,56013,560
Stratford2,23238,32913,67465,4306,182
Hawera5,73771,04926,506165,59312,455
Patea2,99923,0655,652225,9042,852
Wairoa2,9317,956726548,567961
Hawke's Bay7,74829,6354,8701,250,8584,690
Waipawa4,82934,7297,053731,5973,822
Patangata2,81624,788675760,854633
Waitotara2,10310,1072,385180,4161,513
Wanganui4,01714,8712,935386,8453,931
Rangitikei4,79323,4483,943513,8773,080
Oroua4,77125,40510,124360,4098,575
Kiwitea1,87513,0774,417262,3403,262
Pohangina8765,5922,029101,9981,782
Manawatu2,31416,5744,561221,6683,447
Horowhenua2,44915,8304,572161,2524,044
Pahiatua1,76216,1866,267182,4933,843
Akitio8187,325542132,036272
Eketahuna9825,4822,87858,2941,685
Mauriceville3242,2141,38550,596547
Wairarapa North4,34623,6832,855646,4711,798
Wairarapa South4,84141,0447,846604,4055,362
Hutt4,58613,6888,282207,6373,805
Sounds6134,6151,306133,0111,379
Marlborough3,4306,1102,219472,0061,980
Kaikoura9932,312824146,304600
Collingwood1,0526,2042,19646,4512,529
Waimea4,31612,4975,022214,2496,163
Buller4523,8601,5992,074714
Inangahua4116,3931,43424,28417
Amuri1,2783,760308397,474148
Cheviot8061,863653175,744818
Grey6955,8071,71310,418965
Westland1,39011,0702,48717,151914
Ashley7,81514,8506,434747,1487,298
Selwyn14,75426,30014,716672,82516,948
Akaroa2,60418,7265,320223,4102,916
Ashburton8,6779,1663,643752,3084,892
Geraldine4,2486,4692,358..      2,686
Levels3,2725,2512,261692,4631,306
Waimate4,3756,4642,303558,3672,057
Mackenzie1,3592,016676393,935264
Waitaki6,08316,0696,240519,4752,906
Waihemo1,2953,9741,498118,682557
Waikouaiti1,4248,8735,06477,3162,052
Peninsula8127,0444,3834,0071,179
Taieri6,84222,71810,025211,4164,725
Bruce3,4049,7013,396160,4091,878
Clutha4,52117,3965,457281,2752,556
Tuapeka3,6336,9502,500371,7061,145
Maniototo2,2166,1921,623308,963533
Vincent2,1785,3291,458307,6591,080
Lake1,4533,7141,006164,719450
Southland15,19858,51920,535765,11210,210
Wallace and Fiord4,64320,2605,028423,7152,077
Stewart Island9252911,0315
            Totals261,9311,210,439343,556*19,348,506249,751

Live-stock in Australasian Colonies

The following gives the number of the principal kinds of livestock in the several Australasian Colonies for the year 1898–99:—

Colonies.Sheep.Cattle.Horses.Pigs.
* As in 1894.
Queensland17,552,6085,571,292480,469127,081
Now South Wales41,241,0042,029,516491,553247,061
Victoria13,180,943*1,833,900*431,547*337,588*
South Australia5,012,620260,343161,77460,132
South Australia (Northern Territory)64,076353,55115,4061,710
Western Australia2,244,888245,90762,44239,284
Tasmania1,493,638148,55829,79745,274
 April, 1898.Nov., 1898.Nov., 1898.Nov., 1898.
New Zealand19,673,7251,203,024258,115193,512

New Zealand thus takes second place in order for number of sheep, and fourth for the number of her cattle and horses.

Sheep

The returns made to the Department of Agriculture show a smaller number of sheep for the years 1886 and 1891 than the census figures given previously, because the account was taken later in the year. The particulars are given for fourteen years, distinguishing the number for the North from that in the Middle Island.

According to these returns, the flocks of the North Island increased from 5,285,907 sheep in the year 1886 to 9,953,399 in 1899, or at the rate of over 88 per cent., while sheep in the Middle Island decreased from 9,888,356 to 9,395,107, a loss of 5 per cent. in the same period. For the North Island the increase during the fourteen years was 4,667,492 sheep, while in the Middle Island there was an actual loss of 493,249.

YearNorth Island.Middle Island.Total.
18865,285,9079,888,35615,174,263
18875,506,4859,649,14115,155,626
18885,668,9969,373,20215,042,198
18895,990,2449,433,08415,423,328
18906,588,3469,527,76716,116,113
18917,159,9279,593,82516,753,752
18928,204,02910,366,72318,570,752
18938,685,36110,695,00819,380,369
18949,169,35211,061,47720,230,829
18958,994,64610,831,95819,826,604
18969,131,73610,006,75719,138,493
18979,540,71710,147,23719,687,954
18989,864,9459,808,78019,673,725
18999,953,3999,395,10719,348,506

There was a decrease of 325,219 in the total number of sheep since April, 1898, by the above figures, but, notwithstanding this, an increase between 1891 and 1899 amounting to 2,594,754, or at a rate of 15.49 per cent. The export and local consumption of wool developed from 111,537,546 lb. for the year ended September, 1891, to 147,902,708 lb. for the corresponding year of 1899. The export of sheepskins and pelts, which in 1890 was 2,292,521 in number, rose to 4,960,054 in 1899.

Over a series of years the number of sheep has been well maintained, although the slaughter needed for the export of frozen mutton increased to upwards of three million three hundred thousand sheep and lambs in 1899.

The proportion of small flocks of sheep, until last year, increased very considerably, and with smaller flocks the rabbit difficulty is easier to master than with large ones.

NUMBER OF FLOCKS, 1886, 1891, 1896, AND 1899.
Size of Flocks.1886.1891.1896.1899.
Under 5006,0248,27212,02812,719
500 and under 1,0001,1891,6912,6052,656
1,000        ”        2,0007479691,4602,519
2,000        ”        5,000532666892
5,000        ”        10,000263287340363
10,000        ”        20,000228239231204
20,000 and upwards      166169147138
 9,14912,29317,70318,599
 1899.
From 1,000 to 2,5001,880
            ″             2,500 to 5,000639
 2.519

The average size of the flocks is found to have been 1,659 sheep for 1886, 1,363 for 1891, 1,081 in 1896, and 1,040 in 1899.

Of the provincial districts, that of Wellington had most sheep in 1899, Canterbury came next, and Otago occupied the third place. The full particulars, with increases or decreases since 1898, are:—

Provincial Districts.No. of Sheep in 1899.No. of Sheep in 1898.Increase.Decrease.
Wellington4,070,7374,054,07516,662..      
Canterbury4,040,4564,072,687..      32,231
Otago3,715,4853,961,459..      245,974
Hawke's Bay3,291,8763,308,748..      16,872
Auckland2,082,1212,015,14266,979..      
Nelson860,276896,916..      36,640
Marlborough751,321849,738..      98,417
Taranaki508,665486,98021,685..      
Westland27,56927,980..      411
 19,348,50619,673,725Net dec,325,219

Six of the provincial districts show a decrease in the number of sheep in 1899 when compared with the previous year's returns, aggregating 430,545, for which loss Otago is accountable for 245,974, Marlborough for 98,417, Nelson for 36,640, Canterbury for 32,231, Hawke's Bay for 16,872, and Westland for 411. The other three provincial districts show increases (Auckland 66,979, Taranaki 21,685, and Wellington 16,662), and thus reduce the loss for the whole colony to 325,219, as shown above.

It has been estimated that the annual consumption of mutton in New Zealand is equivalent to 2.25 sheep per inhabitant, and that the number of sheep required in the present year (1900) for food will be about 1,800,000. (Maoris, for the purposes of this calculation, have been included.)

Two important advantages that sheep-farming has in New Zealand are mentioned by Mr. J. A. Johnstone in the Year-book for 1894. They are: (1) the low cost of the production of mutton, (2) the high percentage of natural increase. Respecting the first point, it has been proved beyond all doubt that, under ordinary conditions, the very choicest of mutton can be so produced as to pay the grower handsomely when sold at 2d. per pound for the carcase at the nearest shipping-port. To the British sheep-farmer this statement, of course, is valueless by itself; but, when told that this mutton would cost the London butcher, delivered ex steamer at the dock, only 3 1/2d. per pound, he will be able to realise in some measure what a wonderful grazing-country New Zealand is, and to understand how it is that settlers of the right stamp have done so well. Then, with regard to the high percentage of increase, there need only be cited a few average returns from well-known flocks to show what excellent lambing New Zealand farmers obtain under good management.

LAMBING RETURNS.—AVERAGES.
Locality.Breed of Flock.Breed of Rams.Breed of Ewes.No. of Ewes.Percentage of Lambs.Remarks.
North IslandLincolnLincolnLincoln7,51781.04Land merely surface - sown in English-grass pasture.
            ″                        ″                        ″                        ″            5,30185.05
            ″                        ″                        ″            7/8 Lincoln12,177100.00
            ″            RomneyRomneyRomney1,14196.17
            ″            LincolnSouthd'nLincoln2,03394.71
Middle IslandMerinoMerinoMerino14,76575.36Mountainous country in n'tive past're, unimproved.
            ″                        ″            B. Leic'str            ″            4,23588.94
            ″            Cross-bred            ″            Cross-bred8,62480.82In English grass pasture.
            ″            Half-bred            ″            Half-bred2,74782.79
            ″            B. Leic'str            ″            B. Leic'str77890.77
            ″            LincolnLincolnLincoln45288.08
            ″            R. MarshR. MarshR. Marsh253111.46
            ″            E. Leic'strE. Leic'strE. Leic'str46493.34
            ″            ShropshireShropshireShropshire16897.41
            ″            Southd'nSouthd'nSouthd'n11496.87

The above returns are fair average ones, but much higher might have been shown if exceptional cases had been selected.

As showing the actual cost of managing two large estates in New Zealand (Middle Island), No. 1 carrying 20,000 cross-bred sheep, and No. 2 carrying 40,000, the subjoined table may prove interesting:—

 No. 1. Per Head.No. 2. Per Head.
 s.d.s.d.
Cost of shearing, including scouring and putting wool f.o.b.06.506.3
Management, shepherding, dipping, &c.01009.6
Cost of providing special feed (turnips, green feed, chaff, &c.)1116.3
Cost of renewing English grass2015
            Total per head45.543.2

Cattle

The increase of cattle between 1891 and 1896 was 216,070, or at the rate of 25.98 per cent. The rapid development of the butter and cheese industry, represented in great part by the export figures given in the comparative table on page 203, created a requirement for milch cows, which increased in number from 206,906 in 1891 to 276,217 in 1896, or at the rate of 33.50 per cent.

The cattle as enumerated in 1899-1900 for each provincial district are given in the next table. Here is shown the substantial increase of 7,415 head of all classes over the number returned in 1898-99, and of no less than 12,258 in the number of cows and heifers for dairy purposes.

Provincial District.Bulls for Stud Purposes.Steers over Two Years Old.Cows and Heifers for Dairy Purposes.Cows and Heifers for Breeding Purposes.Cows and Heifers for Fattening.Steers and Heifers under Two Years not otherwise enumerated.Totals.

* Including heifers over two years old intended for dairying: 39,887 in 1899-1900, and 37,649 in 1898-99. For actual number of dairy cows in each county see table on pages 340-42.

† Decrease.

Auckland5,03372,83380,70145,55715,327116,323335,774
Taranaki3,34431,18677,4585,7856,97577,559202,307
Hawke's Bay1,45725,08414,99525,8992,93026,74397,108
Wellington3,95840,58972,52736,6489,03971,765234,526
Marlborough2481,5584,6491,1287054,74913,037
Nelson6125,83212,6801,4992,70511,24934,577
Westland2264,0454,9521,5091,2064,93916,877
Canterbury1,57912,53840,2581,8305,66427,37389,242
Otago3,29728,89475,22313,9928,49057,095186,991
            Totals, 1899-190019,754222,559383,443*133,84753,041397,7951,210,439
                  ”       1898-189918,678214,822371,185*127,30861,035409,9961,203,024
            Increase1,0767,73712,2586,539−7,994†−12,201†7,415

Classified according to breed, the numbers for the two years under review are:—

Pure-bred—1899-1900.1898-99.
      Shorthorn50,41744,742
      Hereford4,3016,602
      Polled Angus8,2059,434
      Ayrshire5,3955,241
      Jersey3,5403,096
      Other pure-breds2,6232,734
Crosses1,135,9581,131,175
            Totals1,210,4391,203,024

Out of a total of 1,210,439 cattle in the colony, the North Island is shown to have had 869,715, or 72 per cent., while the Middle Island had 340,724, or 28 per cent. Similarly, the dairy cows and heifers intended for dairying in the North Island numbered 245,681, and in the Middle Island 137,762.

Thus, the North Island, which now leads as regards number of sheep, contains nearly twice as many dairy cows and other cattle as the Middle Island.

Of the total number of cattle (1,210,439) given above, 343,556 were dairy cows. It is found impossible to give a statement of the actual amount of butter and cheese made, even at the factories only. All that can be said is that there were in October, 1899, 235 cheese and butter factories and creameries, with 171 skimming-stations, reported to the Department of Agriculture. But very few of these factories made any return to the department of their output for the previous year, and it is therefore impossible to arrive at the total quantity of cheese and butter made. The census returns for 1896 show there were in that year only 170 factories and 105 creameries, the annual output at that time amounting to 11,336,776 lb. of butter and 4,323 tons of cheese.

Horses

The increase in horses is shown for three census years:—

Census Years.Number of Horses.Numerical Increase.Increase per Cent.
1886187,38223,65812.63
1891211,040
1896237,41826,37812.50

At the enumeration made in 1899-1900 (November to January), the number of horses was found to have increased to 262,390 (including 459 mules and asses), for which particulars are given. It will be seen that the Provincial District of Auckland had by far the most horses, Otago and Canterbury following, Wellington taking fourth place.

Provincial District.Entires.Geldings.Mares over Two Years old.Mares with Foal at Foot, or to foal this Season.Colts and Fillies under Two Years old.Totals.
* Including 459 mules and asses in 1899-1900, and 534 in 1898-99.
Auckland68233,02721,7445,4628,38169,296
Taranaki1227,9976,5581,2741,53217,483
Hawke's Bay2108,5436,1311,5241,94118,349
Wellington34519,54914,8382,8413,32240,895
Marlborough392,3201,7983834965,036
Nelson903,9542,9765487558,323
Westland339596981642392,093
Canterbury36722,21717,2702,9084,40747,169
Otago35724,27920,0973,6745,33953,746
            Totals, 1899-19002,245122,84592,11018,77826,412262,390*
                  ”       1898-992,264119,95991,05017,83527,541258,649*
                  Increase..      2,8861,060943..      3,741
                  Decrease19..      ..      ..      1,129..      

Classified according to breed, the numbers for the two years under review are:—

 1899-1900.1898-99.
Thoroughbred5,6605,617
Hunter and hackney27,54027,936
Carriage and trotting16,87116,776
Light ordinary107,240106,347
Draught93,30090,349
Ponies under 14 hands11,32011,090
Mules and asses459534
            Totals262,390258,649

It has long been expected that the export of New Zealand horses to Australia and India would assume large proportions. So far, however, the trade has not developed to the extent anticipated. The opinion has been often expressed that more might be done than has been in the past. The following figures will show the position for the years 1885, 1890, and 1895 to 1899:—

Exported to1885.1890.1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.
Victoria133921022344112
New South Wales2,6871975353263970
Tasmania113271123116
Fiji3257122234
Bengal342359415155116105
Brazil..2..........
South Sea Islands131815141196
United Kingdom....56112
United States of America (W. Coast)10..3......1
Natal............2
Singapore............1
 3,022628193249152210219

Pigs

Pigs have decreased since 1891, when the number was 308,812, against 249,751 in 1899-1900. The figures given in the accompanying table are those compiled by the Agricultural Department, and for 1899-1900 show an increase of 56,239 in the total number of pigs kept in the previous year. The Auckland Provincial District has far more pigs than any other.

NUMBER OF PIGS IN EACH PROVINCIAL DISTRICT.
Provincial District.Boars for Stud Purposes.Barrows and Sows over One Year old, for Fattening.Sows kept solely for Breeding Purposes.Barrows and Sows under One Year old.Totals.
Auckland2,08112,4809,99044,86469,415
Taranaki7653,1514,99128,43037,337
Hawke's Bay2681,4561,7796,60310,106
Wellington1,2054,2347,57733,93046,946
Marlborough1123776602,8103,959
Nelson2228371,4807,85010,389
Westland623252651,2271,879
Canterbury7192,0115,44430,19338,367
Otago7073,4224,60522,61931,353
      Totals, 1899-19006,14128,29336,791178,526249,751
            ”       1898-994,47625,75926,203137,074193,512
         Increase1,6652,53410,58841,45256,239

The approximate numbers of the different breeds were:—

 1899-1900.1898-99.
Pure Berkshire36,94227,695
Pure Yorkshire4,6433,696
Other pure-breds850711
Crosses207,316161,410
            Totals249,751193,512

Ostrich-farming

Ostrich farming has been attempted in New Zealand, both in Canterbury and Auckland. (See Year-book, 1897, page 313, and also special article in Part III. of Year-book of 1899, entitled “The Heir of the Moa.”)

Chapter 46. SECTION XVII.—AGRICULTURE

UNTIL 1895 the agricultural statistics were collected and compiled by the Registrar-General, under authority of “The Census Act, 1877,” annually in the month of February, except in census years, when the collection was made with the enumeration of the people. Under this Act statistics of the acreage in grass and in all kinds of cultivation were taken; and, at the same time, the estimated yields of all the principal crops were obtained from the farmers themselves.

By the Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics Act, passed in 1895, the duty of collecting the returns devolved upon the Department of Agriculture. The plan now adopted under the Act of 1895 is similar to that used in the United Kingdom, the account of land laid down in crop being made up much earlier than formerly, while estimates of produce are made after the results of threshing are known.

Statistics of the land in cultivation were accordingly collected in November, 1899, and an interim return of the compiled results was published in detail in the New Zealand Gazette of the 30th January, 1900, while the corrected acreages under each description of crop were made public on the 30th April following. A summary of the particulars then given is shown in the accompanying tables, with the finally corrected statements of yield of the principal crops; but, in comparing these figures with the results obtained in former years, it must be remembered that, under the new Act, statistics of the acreage and crops of land held and cultivated by Maoris are included; whereas previously information about the farming carried on by Maoris was obtained only when a census of the Native race was taken.

Full remarks on the progress of agriculture in New Zealand, in respect of all its features in detail, are supplied by Mr. Murphy, of Christchurch, in the special article devoted to the subject, which appears as the first of Section II. in Part III.

ACREAGE AND ACTUAL YIELD IN PRINCIPAL CORN-CROPS, 1900.
Provincial Districts.WHEAT.OATS.BARLEY.RYE.MAIZE.
Acres.Yield per Acre, in Bushels.Total Bushels.Acres.Yield per Acre, in Bushels.Total Bushels.Acres.Yield per Acre, in Bushels.Total Bushels.Acres.Yield per Acre, in Bushels.Total Bushels.Acres.Yield per Acre, in Bushels.Total Bushels.

* Not included in calculating the average yield for the colony.

† Estimate only.

Auckland5,19722.26115,6967,95229.65235,8081,02632.6933,5358719.381,68616,30039.006,5,700
Taranaki1,27340.5951,6736,28947.21296,92468237.0025,2312712.5033725122.505,647
Hawke's Bay1,43726.8738,6075,29937.03196,2312,45939.7997,8434430.001,32067836.7224,896
Wellington9,82930.43299,14722,66441.99951,6781,15236.8542,45717219.753,39718519.753,653
Marlborough5,40224.59132,8353,40036.44123,8966,89329.77205,20411521.102,415…      …      …      
Nelson3,50323.2381,3695,14633.00169,8154,75324.74117,5715422.001,18812*…      …      
Westland…      …      21*…      …      1*…      …      …      …      …      …      …      …       
Canterbury181,64831.355,694,593137,42940.155,517,88018,06035.71644,84531723.507,4513*…      …      
Otago61,46035.272,167,978210,04342.058,833,60012,97732.24418,4591,26527.2134,420…      …      …      
            Totals269,74931.818,581,898398,24340.9916,325,83248,00333.021,585,1452,08125.0952,21417,42938.44†669,896†
NUMBER OF ACRES UNDER CULTIVATION IN EACH PROVINCIAL DISTRICT, 1900
Provincial DistrictsIn Grass or Clover, sown after land ploughed.In Grass, surface-sown: land not ploughed.In Hay, included in either or both of the previous Columns.In Bare Fallow.In Grain-crops (for threshing only).In Green and other Crops.In GardenIn Orchard or Vineyard.Total in Grass, Crop, and Fallow.In Plantations of Forest trees.Tussock or Native Grass, and unimproved.

* 13,492 acres private garden; 3,398 acres market garden.

† 23,956 acres orchard; 445 acres vineyard.

Auckland524,5491,269,93210,76917,25030,79984,3263,02810,6111,940,4959,5563,113,727
Taranaki131,328569,8936,5864548,67016,3521,036807728,540954268,465
Hawke's Bay359,9441,354,7319,8419,46610,20428,2531,2341,4701,765,3024,1091,520,801
Wellington254,8692,161,36310,9361,86235,18062,2092,5243,5412,521,5483,9161,137,716
Marlborough91,292200,5702,1581,69716,97513,866215428325,0431,2661,827,821
Nelson109,096277,5943,1471,12714,08529,3144982,161433,8751,5961,558,749
Westland10,35238,0439993221,4965923250,2073609,924
Canterbury1,419,466350,40514,94214,249343,946273,3694,5062,9652,408,90622,8743,959,826
Otago1,436,698293,1778,85632,643285,804287,5883,7902,1862,341,8864,6687,860,880
            Totals4,337,5946,515,70868,23478,751745,685796,77316,890*24,401†12,515,80248,94221,857,909
ACREAGE UNDER SOWN GRASSES, AND CULTIVATION GENERALLY, FOR EACH COUNTY, AS ON THE 15TH NOVEMBER, 1899.
Counties.In Sown Grasses, after having been ploughed.In Sown Grasses, not previously ploughed.Land broken up but not under Crop.Total under Crop.In Garden.In Orchard.Plantations of Forest Trees.
 Acres.  Acres.  Acres.  Acres.  Acres.  Acres.  Acres.  
Mongonui6,08510,3342651,231301465
Whangaroa8153,1232012519832
Hokianga60018,808697712626057
Bay of Islands5,52525,16027884610221214
Hobson2,27259,4171,2041,909180291254
Whangarei21,96074,8531612,349641,07132
Otamatea5,02657,2872566226830260
Rodney8,34170,3485669691291,062100
Waitemata20,24030,0911,2501,8832701,883210
Eden15,3225,4561561,696954561339
Manukau103,59680,5887,82921,1972651,426767
Coromandel2,8685,8863020165751
Thames4,7977,998271,05312039020
Ohinemuri4,9228,050821,1328111816
Piako109,82250,3232,80921,710552461,111
Waikato48,51332,3941,1859,740745444,814
Waipa58,7125,53017512,363665441,051
Raglan12,77071,022643,4245319184
Kawhia20,66020,483..      1,77215828
Taupo, East and West8,3457,5991001,619173288
Rotorua1,2132,95238457123559
Tauranga23,81522,8622328,76590456156
Whakatane12,54419,2948810,3694210823
Opotiki
Waiapu1,013160,486599813624
Cook24,743419,5884247,718132455261
Wairoa17,084229,3272042,3176391162
Hawke's Bay176,404419,1452,25719,7556807231,543
Waipawa103,312361,1546,76712,3413883751,637
Patangata63,144345,1052384,044103281767
Taranaki44,609135,6321846,988324379219
Hawera39,922148,5781239,22245498289
Patea35,837112,7661355,423121195434
Clifton9,58242,59052,29193965
Stratford1,378130,32771,09844397
Waitotara24,38174,2971935,152155210191
Wanganui16,149158,4811395,109156354250
Rangitikei51,610208,13014617,250202322967
Oroua13,796157,6626814,571323736399
Kiwitea935131,906..      2,5743818023
Pohangina39469,802..      767351183
Manawatu50,64449,8344015,411140152373
Horowhenua3,082123,534403,16621029657
Pahiatua1,553127,718361,45920010940
Wairarapa North24,680367,06821712,522238281461
Akitio1,07382,68619217691514
Eketahuna6553,1281641092805
Mauriceville39935,101..      10816246
Wairarapa South57,807359,88594516,619224318979
Hutt8,301162,13132,054426346148
Sounds2,64278,696341,3344711613
Marlborough58,74382,3021,53326,6641432761,007
Kaikoura29,90739,5721302,8432536246
Collingwood3,39729,327141,2552520830
Waimea29,786143,77652022,2322811,700236
Buller1,0356,434216054109..      
Inangahua3,46734,2142395410761
Amuri53,16152,7583577,69264371,051
Cheviot18,25011,08521111,1066431278
Westland4,60121,1353889201023
Grey5,75116,908..      62939130..      
Ashley237,466105,7412,69692,4987184302,194
Selwyn281,59721,2221,874143,1231,9941,2365,896
Akaroa27,269140,895205,42377314407
Ashburton389,42416,2962,390174,7997903219,747
Geraldine129,39610,7903,09560,9202252632,055
Levels86,2031,49750643,0233562601,061
Waimate207,67235,4632,96081,991264136740
Mackenzie60,43918,50170815,538825774
Waitaki195,22027,7702,31379,2574192581,288
Waihemo29,8917,1081,04011,9848959118
Waikouaiti15,49648,3443346,86672114119
Peninsula1,92914,61419387087121
Taieri82,73318,73845332,403683321443
Bruce100,6129,4591,43442,03418579384
Clutha171,16733,7521,82257,77133675350
Tuapeka180,80029,7732,50035,835294306217
Maniototo38,9474,5291,30020,28922522200
Vincent17,1842,1302,12413,2249516493
Lake10,5384,1364,87612,00510071172
Southland447,18745,59312,621198,669983544848
Wallace and Fiord144,95946,9151,82562,10722682314
Stewart Island35316..      101341
            Total4,337,5946,515,70878,7511,542,45816,89024,40148,942

The extent of land in cultivation (including sown grasses and land broken up but not under crop) amounted to 12,515,802 acres. Of this area, land under artificial grasses comprised 86.72 per cent.; land under grain-crops, 5.96 per cent.; land under root and green crops, 6.36 per cent.; land in garden and orchard, 0.33 per cent.; and land in fallow, 0.63 per cent. Full details for the last thirteen years are tabulated.

NUMBER OF ACRES IN GRASS, UNDER EACH CLASS OF CROP, AND IN BARE FALLOW, 1888 TO 1900.
Year.In Grass or Clover, sown after land ploughed.In Grass or Clover, surface-sown: land not ploughed.In Hay, included in either or both of the previous Columns.In Bare Fallow.In Grain crops (for threshing only).In Green and other Crops.In Garden.In Orchard or Vineyard.Total in Grass, Crop, Fallow, Garden, and Orchard.In Plantations of Forest trees.
18882,884,0073,053,05267,812154,266738,603454,8248,60816,3297,309,68928,565
18892,941,8883,337,42350,656142,747793,866454,2438,56115,2467,693,97433,938
18903,027,9123,497,13745,889149,979826,505513,8938,56815,7718,039,76528,928
18913,250,5433,715,67544,045210,509703,329582,4399,81017,0478,489,35235,310
18923,327,7554,076,12646,652140,454769,778579,1129,60819,6278,922,46038,723
18933,611,3934,650,65261,811154,254753,091544,3559,76320,0859,743,59340,401
18943,865,3484,833,54960,740142,342669,850551,9629,95121,10910,094,11139,826
18953,908,5814,921,13656,614140,494560,179597,68610,26321,40110,159,74055,386
18964,254,9835,030,24796,81858,039674,850680,75017,74919,36210,735,98043,246
18974,308,7205,733,138109,46657,158688,297762,76216,92422,29111,589,29047,630
18984,123,3045,743,24567,86560,792727,038790,18416,17722,38711,483,12752,546
18994,065,8606,178,87975,62051,164892,468796,23516,93022,98312,024,51947,216
19004,337,5946,515,70868,23478,751745,685796,77316,89024,40112,515,80248,942

Wheat

The wheat harvest of 1900 showed an average yield of 31.81 bushels per acre, the crop realised being 8,581,898 bushels, against 13,073,416 bushels in 1899, 5,670,017 bushels in 1898, 5,926,523 bushels in 1897, 6,843,768 bushels in 1896, 3,613,037 bushels in 1895, 4,891,695 bushels in 1894, 8,378,217 bushels in 1893, and 10,257,738 bushels in 1892.

The quantity of wheat of last season's harvest held by farmers in November, 1899, as shown by the gazetted figures, was 5,036,373 bushels, an amount which, exclusive of stocks of grain and flour held by merchants and millers, is more than sufficient to meet demands for consumption in the colony for a whole year. The total amount of wheat exported during the year 1899 was 2,901,676 bushels, while the imports were only 434 bushels, most probably for seeding purposes.

The imports of flour during 1899 were 2,909 centals (145 tons), and the exports 1,643 tons.

The area under wheat for threshing decreased from 399,034 acres in 1899 to 269,749 acres in 1900; and this decrease of 129,285 acres was shared by all the provincial districts. In addition to the area cut for threshing, 408 acres were cut for chaff, and 20 acres for ensilage, while 265 acres were fed down with stock, so that the total area sown in wheat was 270,442 acres.

Of the 269,749 acres in wheat (for threshing) this year, no less than 181,648 acres were in Canterbury, and 61,460 acres in Otago.

The area under wheat for grain, the estimated gross produce in bushels, and the average yield per acre for each of the last ten years were:—

Year.Land under Wheat.Estimated Gross Produce.Average Yield per Acre.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
1891301,4605,723,61018.99
1892402,27310,257,73825.50
1893381,2458,378,21721.98
1894242,7374,891,69520.15
1895148,5753,613,03724.32
1896245,4416,843,76827.88
1897258,6085,926,52322.92
1898315,8015,670,01717.95
1899399,03413,073,41632.76
1900269,7498,581,89831.81

The following gives the area in wheat and the estimated produce, for the Australian Colonies, for the season of 1899:—

Colony.Wheat-crop.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels per Acre.
Queensland46,219607,01213.13
New South Wales1,319,5039,286,2167.04
Victoria2,154,16319,581,3049.09
South Australia1,788,7708,778,9004.90
Western Australia74,732864,90911.57
Tasmania85,2872,303,51227.01

Consumption of Wheat

The yearly consumption of wheat per head of population in New Zealand, as previously stated, has been estimated at 6 bushels.

The difficulty of correctly computing the consumption of bread-stuffs is shown by the great differences in the estimates arrived at.

The average quantity required per head of the population (exclusive of that used for seed) has been calculated at 6.4 bushels for New South Wales, and 4 1/2 to 5 bushels for Victoria, by statisticians in those colonies.

The average consumption of wheaten bread-stuffs in New Zealand thus appears to be somewhat higher than in Victoria.

The following is the average annual consumption of wheat per inhabitant in some of the principal countries of the world:—

United Kingdom5.6 bushels.
Canada6.6       ″      
France8.1       ″      
Germany3.0       ″      
Russia2.1       ″      
Italy5.4       ″      
United States4.5       ″      

The English consumption during the last twenty-five years appears to have ranged from 5 1/2 to 6 bushels per head of population.

Wheat-crop of the World

In the next table the wheat crop of the world for the five years 1893 to 1897 is shown, and from this it will be seen that the importance of Australasia in the wheat market of the world is not great: out of a total production of about 2,245 million bushels in 1897, only thirty-four million bushels, or 1.5 per cent., were grown in the Australasian Colonies:—

WHEAT-CROP OF THE WORLD FOR THE YEARS 1893 TO 1897 INCLUSIVE.
Country.1893.1894.1895.1896.1897.
 1,000  1,000  1,000  1,000  1,000  
Europe—Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
      Russia and Poland359,873383,862333,479343,877292,000
      France277,980343,113348,280335,881248,000
      Hungary149,069152,305152,345143,949102,000
      Italy130,355117,958111,960131,95396,000
      Germany109,562110,359102,363103,964100,000
      Spain83,968103,964103,96479,97296,000
      Romania58,37942,38665,97868,97540,000
      United Kingdom50,38359,17637,98657,97854,000
      Bulgaria33,98635,98845,98249,98232,000
      Caucasia65,17759,98063,97643,98428,000
      Turkey31,98827,98835,98839,98428,000
      Austria42,39647,18340,38535,98834,000
      Belgium16,79318,39418,39419,99220,000
      Servia8,7977,9969,99813,9946,800
      Greece7,9967,1995,9985,9985,200
      Holland5,5984,7975,1975,9985,200
      Switzerland4,4005,1974,7974,7974,000
      Denmark4,4774,0004,4004,0004,000
      Norway-Sweden3,6003,6004,4004,0004,000
      Portugal5,5986,7995,5984,0006,000
            Totals1,450,3751,542,2441,501,4681,499,2661,205,200
America—
      United States455,838511,818495,822447,842560,000
      Canada47,98443,98453,98233,98656,000
      Mexico11,19511,99611,9969,99812,000
      Argentine82,37159,98045,98231,98848,000
      Chili17,99413,19313,59411,99616,000
      Uruguay6,3987,9969,9985,9988,000
            Totals621,780648,967631,374541,808700,000
Asia—
      India267,104252,710255,108204,729192,000
      Asia Minor31,98827,98831,98835,98848,000
      Persia15,99217,99419,99219,99220,000
      Syria11,9969,9989,99811,99612,000
            Totals327,080308,690317,086272,705272,000
Africa—
      Algeria14,79519,99217,99419,99216,000
      Egypt9,9989,9989,9987,9968,000
      Tunis3,4005,9985,5985,1974,800
      Cape Colony4,3974,7974,7974,3974,800
            Totals32,59040,78538,38737,58233,600
Australasia—
      New South Wales6,5037,0415,1958,85410,560
      Victoria15,25511,4465,6697,07610,580
      Queensland4135451246011,009
      South Australia13,6187,7815,9292,8044,015
      Western Australia520170188244409
      Tasmania8348721,1651,2861,668
      New Zealand4,8923,6136,8445,9275,670
            Totals42,03531,46825,11426,79233,911
            Grand Totals2,473,8602,572,1542,513,4292,378,1532,244,711

Oats

The extent of land in oats grown for grain in 1900 was 398,243 acres, against 417,320 acres in the preceding year, a decrease of 19,077 acres. The Provincial Districts of Otago (210,043 acres) and Canterbury (137,429 acres) account for 347,472 acres of the total area, Wellington taking third place with 22,664 acres. The breadth of land in oats for chaffing, ensilage, or feeding down with stock was 193,452 acres, a decrease of 21,156 acres on the figures for 1899.

The average yield per acre was, in 1899, 39.56 bushels, and in 1900, 40.99, the quantity of produce decreasing from 16,511,388 bushels to 16,325,832 bushels.

The oat-crop for 1899 in the Australian Colonies was as follows:—

 Acres.Bushels.Average per Acre.
Queensland2714,04714.93
New South Wales19,874278,00713.99
Victoria266,1595,523,41920.75
South Australia25,823304,00211.77
Western Australia3,07255,85418.18
Tasmania59,5092,271,07038.16

Maize

This is a very important crop. In 1900 there were 17,429 acres sown for grain, the estimated yield being 669,896 bushels of corn, an average of more than 38 bushels per acre. Maize is grown only in the North Island, with the exception of a few acres in Nelson and Canterbury. The Provincial District of Auckland had 16,300 acres; Hawke's Bay, 678 acres; Taranaki, 251 acres; and Wellington, 185 acres, in 1900. As considerable interest is taken in this crop, the group of counties where it is chiefly grown is stated, viz.: Hobson, Manukau, Rodney, Whangarei, Mongonui, Hokianga, Tauranga, Whakatane, Cook, Wairoa, and Hawke's Bay. Small acreages are found in all the counties of the Auckland, Taranaki, and Hawke's Bay districts and in most of the counties in Wellington.

Barley

Under barley, 48,003 acres were returned in 1900, the estimated crop being 1,585,145 bushels, an average yield per acre of 33.02 bushels. In 1899 the area under barley was 45,671 acres, and the yield 1,677,908 bushels, or 36.73 bushels per acre.

Rye

There were 2,081 acres in rye, yielding 52,214 bushels, or at the rate of 25.09 bushels per acre, against 2,946 acres and 65,999 bushels, the rate being 22.44 bushels per acre, in 1898–99.

Peas and Beans

The area under peas for threshing in the season 1900 was 7,086 acres, yielding 241,090 bushels, or an average of 34.02 bushels per acre, against 6,334 acres and 178,420 bushels, or 28.17 bushels per acre, in the previous year.

Under beans there were 3,094 acres, giving a return of 115,488 bushels, the average being 37.33 bushels per acre, against 2,624 acres and 96,574 bushels (37.31 bushels per acre) in 1899.

Potatoes

The area under potatoes was 36,984 acres in 1900, yielding the excellent return of 222,124 tons, or a rate of 6 tons per acre, against 38,604 acres in 1899, and 298,561 tons (or 7.73 tons per acre), a decrease of 1,620 acres and 76,437 tons.

A comparison of the gross yield of potatoes with the amount exported in each of the twelve years, 1883–94, showed that for such period an average of 597 lb. per head of population was retained in the colony. Allowing for waste, pig-feed, and seed, the average amount retained for human consumption was found to be 449 lb. a head. The surplus crop of 1899–1900 available for export might possibly amount to sixty thousand tons.

Turnips

Turnips and rape form a most important crop in a sheep-breeding country such as New Zealand, and in 1892 the area of land under this crop amounted to 422,359 acres. The returns for 1895 gave only 385,788 acres, but for the present year 540,829 acres (415,462 acres in turnips and 125,367 in rape) were set down as under these crops, and there were in addition 10,421 acres in mangolds (8,051), beet (615), and carrots (1,755).

The cost of growing turnips sown broadcast and in drills may be: Broadcast—Ploughing, 5s. 6d. per acre; harrowing, 3s. per acre; rolling, 1s. per acre; seed and sowing, 1s. 6d. per acre: total, 11s. per acre. Drill—Ploughing, 5s. 6d; grubbing, 3s.; harrowing, 3s.; rolling, 1s.; drilling, 3s. 6d.; hand-hoeing, 10s.; horse-hoeing, 5s.; seed and sowing, 2s. 6d.; manure, 10s. to 15s.: total, £2 3s. 6d. to £2 8s. 6d. per acre.

Hops

There were 994 acres under hops in 1900, as against 947 acres last year. No account of the produce for the last five years was taken, but in 1895 the yield was 7,556 cwt. In 1895 the total quantity used by the breweries in the colony amounted to 3,793 cwt. Of the land under hops in 1900, 835 acres were in the Waimea County, and 135 in Collingwood, both in the Provincial District of Nelson. The import of hops in 1899 amounted to 1,195 cwt., and the exports to 6,301 cwt., of which 6,228 cwt. were the produce of the colony.

Tobacco

The growing of tobacco does not progress in New Zealand. In 1889, 34 acres were being cultivated; in 1890, 25 acres; in 1891, 16 acres; in 1892, 6 acres; in 1893, 4 acres; in 1894, 4 acres; and in 1895, 5 acres, producing 1,599 lb. of dried leaf. Statistics of this crop have not been taken since 1895.

Gardens and Orchards

The extent of land in garden was 16,890 acres, of which 13,492 acres were private gardens, and 3,398 acres market gardens. In plantations of forest-trees there were 48,942 acres.

There were 23,956 acres in orchard in 1900, an increase of 1,330 acres on the area so returned in the previous year, and 445 acres were returned as “vineyard.” The fruit-crop of the colony is supplemented by a considerable import from the Australian Colonies and Fiji.

Sown Grasses and Seeds

New Zealand is essentially suited for grazing purposes. Wherever there is light and moisture, English grasses thrive when the natural bush and fern are cleared off. In fact, the white clover gradually overcomes the fern; and, from the mildness of the winter season, there are few places where there is not some growth, even in the coldest months of the year. In all parts of the colony stock live, although in varying condition, without other food than such as they can pick up. Sown grass land, as might be expected, heads the list of cultivations.

At the beginning of the year 1900 there were 10,853,302 acres under artificial grasses. Of these, 4,337,594 acres had been previously ploughed, presumably under grain or other crops, while 6,515,708 acres had not been ploughed. Much of the latter area was bush- or forest-land, sown down in grass after the timber had been wholly or partially burnt off.

The area under ryegrass for seed in the season of 1900 was 39,543 acres, yielding 993,184 bushels of 20 lbs., or a rate of 25.12 bushels per acre, against 66,295 acres and 1,657,482 bushels, an average of 25.01 bushels per acre, in 1898–99.

In cocksfoot there were 54,718 acres, which yielded 9,026,906 lb., or an average of 165 lb. per acre, against 46,275 acres and 6,943,039 lb. (a rate of 150 lb. per acre) in the previous year.

Seeds for sowing pasture lands are used much as in Great Britain, the following being a common mixture: Perennial ryegrass, 25 lb. to 30 lb. per acre; cocksfoot, 2 lb.; alsike, 2 lb.; timothy, 3 lb.; cowgrass, 2 lb.; red clover, 2 lb.; white clover, 2 lb.; rape, 1 lb.: total, 39 lb. to 44 lb. per acre. Pastures are renewed at intervals of from four to eight years, according to the nature of the land.

The following shows the acreage in sown grasses in the Australasian Colonies in 1898–99:—

 Acres.
Queensland12,543
New South Wales348,829
Victoria150,157
South Australia20,946
Western Australia (1898)3,317
Tasmania238,799
New Zealand10,244,739

It will be observed that the acreage of land under sown grasses was more than thirteen times as great in New Zealand as in the whole of Australia and Tasmania. When compared in size with the colonies of Australia, New Zealand is not large—about one-thirtieth of their total area—but in respect of grazing capabilities the relative importance of this country is much greater. Australia is generally unsuitable, owing to conditions of climate, for the growth of English grasses, and the amount of feed produced by the natural grasses throughout the year is very much less per acre than is obtained from the sown grass lands in New Zealand; indeed, it may be said that the average productiveness of grass-land is about nine times as great here as in Australia, or, in other words, that land in this colony covered with English grasses may be considered equal, for grazing purposes, to an area of Australian land about nine times as great.

In addition to the artificially-sown pastures, the returns for 1900 show that 21,857,909 acres of unimproved land, including that in tussock or native grass, belonged to the occupied holdings, and were available for stock-feeding by the sheep-farmers and cattle-farmers of the colony.

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

In respect of the present condition of the dairy industry Mr. Ruddick remarks:—

The tendency seems to be in the direction of building up large central butter factories, with contributing skimming stations, situated at convenient points in the surrounding country. Already some of the New Zealand factories are large institutions, having a daily output of from one to three tons of butter. It can be said also that the best of these factories are as well built and equipped for the manufacture of fine butter as those to be found in any other country. Such a system, where large quantities of butter are made under the direction of one man, tends towards uniformity in the quality of the product. Large factories are more apt to be well equipped than very small ones, and the volume of business done enables the company or proprietors to pay sufficient salary to secure picked men for managers. The fact that these large factories do exist, where a fair salary may be earned, is an inducement for superior men to follow the work. It is one of the hopeful signs for the future of New Zealand dairying that the factory managers are, as a whole, a very excellent class of men.

Government Aid to the Dairy Industry

The Department of Agriculture assists the dairy industry mainly through the “dairying-service” branch. At the head of this branch is the Dairy Commissioner, who is assisted by two dairy instructors and five dairy produce graders. Meetings are addressed on dairying topics, and practical instructions are given at the factories to butter- and cheese-makers, as well as advice to the directors of dairy companies. A large amount of correspondence is attended to, which includes a wide range of technical subjects relating to the manufacture of butter and cheese, the testing of milk, and the organization and equipment of factories. Information on special subjects is disseminated by means of leaflets and pamphlets circulated free from time to time, as occasion may arise.

Grading of Dairy Produce

Since the 31st March of last year, all butter and cheese intended for export must be sent to one of the Government cool stores to be graded. Butter which is to be sent to Great Britain is frozen after being graded, and given free storage for one month, or until the leaving of the first steamer having available space. Butter for Australian markets is held in ordinary storage only, as the ships which carry it have no refrigerated space. It is stored free for one week. Cheese is held in cool storage under the same conditions as apply to butter, according to the market for which it is intended. The department also pays the cost of handling in and out of the stores.

Reports are given by the grader to the manufacturer of the butter or cheese, showing in detail the result of his examination of each parcel. These reports are becoming a recognised commercial document, and are often attached to bills of lading. Contracts are based on them, and thus they facilitate business as well as protect the local shipper.

Dairy Factories, October, 1899

Districts.Butter Factories.Cheese Factories.Butter and Cheese Factories combined.Skimming Stations.
Auckland1411..40
Taranaki8521254
Hawke's Bay5113
Wellington1811..36
Marlborough12....
Nelson5......
Westland1....2
Canterbury79..13
Otago1632223
            Total1526815171

Chapter 47. SECTION XVIII.—TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

SHIPPING

THE shipping entered inwards during 1899 comprised 609 vessels, of 811,183 tonnage; while entered outwards were 604 vessels, of 807,866 tons. Comparison with the figures for the previous year shows in the entries a decrease of 11 vessels and an increase of 45,928 tons, and in the clearances a decrease of 18 vessels and an increase of 42,073 tons. Of the vessels inwards, 149, of 850,861 tons, were British; 388, of 392,671 tons, colonial; and 72, of 67,651 tons, foreign. Those outwards numbered 152, of 355,442 tons, British; 379, of 386,219 tons, colonial; and 73, of 66,205 tons, foreign. Compared with the figures for 1898 there was a decrease of 11 vessels and an increase of 22,831 tonnage in colonial vessels entered, and a decrease in the British shipping entered of 3 vessels, but an increase of 21,796 tons. Of the entries, 252, of 141,310 tons, were sailing-vessels, and 357, of 669,873 tons, steamers. Of the clearances, 250, of 134,621 tons, were sailing-vessels, and 354, of 673,245 tons, steamers. The shipping inwards and outwards for ten years is given in the table following:—

VESSELS ENTERED, 1890–99.
Year.Total Number.British.Colonial.Foreign.
Vessels.Tons.Crews.Vessels.Tons.Crews.Vessels.Tons.Crews.Vessels.Tons.Crews.
1890744662,76923,475190280,1056,786477298,49713,5987784,1673,091
1891737618,51521,889169265,1646,817507291,80012,9516161,5512,121
1892686675,22322,038203335,5778,274411265,76911,3037273,8772,461
1893617615,60420,935166290,3237,289405272,25011,7454653,0311,901
1894609631,10021,834141271,9946,456423306,54713,2794552,5592,099
1895611672,95122,074146299,6676,837420319,31313,2094553,9712,028
1896589614,09719,857126249,6015,495395300,17612,2106864,3202,152
1897600686,89921,542133276,0206,086395340,79313,1387270,0862,318
1898620765,25524,081152329,0657,910399369,84013,8976966,3502,274
1899609811,18323,929149350,8616,986388392,67114,6667267,6512,277
VESSELS CLEARED, 1890–99.
NOTE.—Coasting-vessels are not included in the above table.
1890745649,70523,260195284,6357,168477283,73513,0767381,3353,016
1891744625,80722,080168271,5337,002515291,93812,9476162,3362,131
1892689656,10021,679189315,6337,934424263,50411,2417676,9632,504
1893635642,46621,448186317,1307,839400270,30811,6654955,0281,944
1894614631,25021,934140270,4646,437432310,05013,5274250,7361,970
1895597648,94621,619134281,8406,528420315,17113,0684351,9352,023
1896592627,65920,217123259,0645,637402305,92612,4486762,6692,132
1897587675,33321,409140280,2296,240378327,06812,8816968,0362,288
1898622765,79324,130150322,1507,898403377,10213,9486966,5412,284
1899604807,86624,117152355,4427,194379386,21914,6567366,2052,267

The noticeable feature in the operations for the decennium is a considerable increase of tonnage inwards and outwards, but decrease in the numbers of vessels, showing that larger ships are now used than those of ten years ago.

The figures given apply to the external trade only; but in a new country such as New Zealand, as yet deficient in roads, but having an extensive seaboard and a number of good harbours, the coastal trade must be relatively very large, as is evidenced by the figures next given:—

SHIPPING ENTERED COASTWISE, 1899.
 Number.Tons.
Sailing-vessels4,952326,883
Steamers16,4026,306,051
SHIPPING CLEARED COASTWISE, 1899.
 Number.Tons.
Sailing-vessels4,954329,400
Steamers16,3386,313,507

The total number of vessels entered coastwise was thus 21,354, of 6,632,934 tons, an increase of 1,460 vessels and 737,156 tons on the figures for 1898. The total clearances coastwise were 21,292 vessels, of 6,642,907 tons, an increase of 1,535 vessels and of 741,473 tons on the number for the previous year.

REGISTERED VESSELS

The number and tonnage of the registered vessels belonging to the several ports on the 31st December, 1899 (distinguishing sailing-vessels and steamers), was as under:—

REGISTERED VESSELS, 31ST DECEMBER, 1899.
Ports.Sailing-vessels.Steam-vessels.
Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
Auckland17314,83614,2038311,0746,798
Napier8797774171,564852
Wellington234,2014,070244,4532,494
Nelson1128128110820516
Lyttelton295,2825,13971,170479
Dunedin4814,39414,1406968,29341,507
Invercargill182,2232,1462195124
            Totals31042,01440,75321287,56952,770

RAILWAYS

The history and progress of railways in New Zealand was specially described in the Year-book of 1894, as was also the line partly built by the New Zealand Midland Railway Company. An account of the line belonging to the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company was published in the Year-book for 1895.

The length of Government railways open for traffic on the 31st March, 1900, was 2,104 miles, of which 824 were situated in the North Island and 1,280 in the Middle Island.

The sections of the North Island lines consist of the Kawakawa, 8 miles; Whangarei, 21; Kaihu, 17; Auckland, 327; and the Wellington—Napier—New Plymouth, 451 miles. The Middle Island sections comprise the Hurunui—Bluff, with branches, 1,173 miles; Greymouth—Brunner, 8; Greymouth—Hokitika, 24; Westport, 31; Nelson, 23; Picton, 21 miles. The total cost of construction has been £16,703,887 (besides £850,385 spent on unopened lines), and the average cost per mile £7,939.

The following statement shows the number of miles of Government railways open, the number of train-miles travelled and of passengers carried, and the tonnage of goods traffic, for the past ten years:—

Year.Length open.Train mileage.Passengers.Season Tickets issued.Goods and Live-stock.*
* The equivalent tonnage for live-stock has been given.
..Tons.
1890–911,8422,894,7763,433,62913,8812,134,023
1891–921,8693,010,4893,555,76416,3412,122,987
1892–931,8863,002,1743,759,04416,5042,258,235
1893–941,9483,113,2313,972,70117,2262,128,709
1894–951,9933,221,6203,905,57828,6232,123,343
1895–962,0143,307,2264,162,42636,2332,175,943
1896–972,0183,409,2184,439,38743,0692,461,127
1897–982,0553,666,4834,672,26448,6602,628,746
1898–992,0903,968,7084,955,55355,0272,744,441
1899–19002,1044,187,8935,468,28463,3353,251,716

The traffic in local products for the past ten years was:—

Year.Wool.Timber.Grain.Minerals.Horses and Cattle.Sheep and Pigs.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Number.Number.
1890–9187,701153,078528,683828,07944,9991,313,155
1891–9285,888170,521442,277873,89947,6181,117,253
1892–9396,842169,910523,637884,03146,5901,359,860
1893–94101,340183,192411,191864,53851,5731,394,456
1894–95103,328198,578388,556857,91752,0751,563,213
1895–9699,363213,132374,699878,65950,7661,893,058
1896–9798,958257,825423,8881,032,25247,2562,016,437
1897–98103,055313,073427,4481,048,86854,8712,399,379
1898–9997,396310,266420,0711,147,35366,2262,552,745
1899–1900104,621334,677764,0331,218,69876,5372,559,836

The cash revenue for the year 1899–1900 amounted to £1,623,891; and the total expenditure to £1,052,358. The net cash revenue—£571,533—was equal to a rate of £3 8s. 5d. per cent. on the capital cost; the percentage of expenditure to revenue was 64.80. The earnings on some of the lines ranged as high as £8 11s. 10d., and even £13 2s. 2d., per cent.

The particulars of the revenue and expenditure for the past ten years are given herewith:—

Year.Passenger Fares.Parcels Luggage and Mails.Goods and Live-stock.Rents and Miscellaneous.TotalExpenditure.Net Revenue.Percentages of Expenditure to Revenue.Percentages of Revenue to Capital Cost.
NOTE.—For 1895–96 and subsequent years the railways have been credited with the value of services performed for other Government departments, and debited with the value of work done for the railways by other departments.
 £      £      £      £      £      £      £       £s.d.
1890–91353,59338,997690,77938,3321,121,701700,703420,99862.4721811
1891–92364,61741,795671,46937,5501,115,431706,517408,91463.342159
1892–93390,61944,801707,78538,3161,181,521732,141449,38061.97310
1893–94402,01945,206686,46939,0981,172,792735,358437,43462.702179
1894–95385,14943,270683,72638,7061,150,851732,160418,69163.622146
1895–96389,23454,736698,11540,9561,183,041751,368431,67363.512160
1896–97410,16058,084774,16343,7511,286,158789,054497,10461.353310
1897–98433,43060,872837,58944,1171,376,008857,191518,81762.303410
1898–99475,55366,418882,07745,6171,469,665929,737539,92863.263510
1899–00515,02068,488985,72354,6601,623,8911,052,358571,53364.80385

The average revenue per mile of railway was £773 12s. 3d., and the average expenditure £501 6s. 9d.; equal to 7s. 9d. and 5s. 0 1/4d. per train-mile respectively.

The total number of miles travelled by trains was 4,187,893.

In addition to the above railways, there were 167 miles of private lines open for traffic on the 31st March, 1900—namely, the Wellington-Manawatu Railway, 84 miles; the Kaitangata Railway Company's line, 4 miles; and the Midland Railway,* 79 miles.

The cost of the construction of the Wellington-Manawatu Railway was £762,751, being at the rate of £9,080 per mile. The term “cost of construction,” as applied to railways, includes value of equipment, rolling-stock, &c., not merely the road-line and buildings. The revenue for the twelve months ended the 28th February, 1900, amounted to £94,046, and the working-expenses to £44,429, equivalent to 47.24 per cent. of the revenue.

The traffic return from the opened part of the Midland line for the year ended 31st March, 1900, was £22,248, and the expenditure £19,011, equivalent to 85.45 per cent. of the revenue. The total expenditure on the construction of this line has been about £760,000.

Australasian Railways

The following statement gives the number of miles of Government railways open for traffic and in course of construction in the Australasian Colonies in 1898–99:—

* This line has since been taken over by the Government under the provisions of “The Railways Construction and Land Act, 1881.”

RAILWAYS (STATE ONLY).
Colonies.Year ended.No. of Miles of Line open at end of Year.No. of Miles of Line in course of Construction.Cost of Construction of Open Lines.Gross Receipts.Working Expenses.Percentage of Net Revenue to Cost.Number of
Locomotives.Vehicles.
Passenger.Goods and Livestock.
    £      £      £      %         
Queensland31 Dec., 18982,7425818,455,3171,263,153728,1612.903163565,033
New South Wales30 June, 18992,70718337,992,2763,145,2731,690,4423.834911,04410,806
Victoria30 June, 18983,113..      38,593,2052,608,8961,646,0542.495171,0619,171
South Australia30 June, 18981,724..      12,764,106984,228603,4742.983323656,232
Ditto, Northern Territory30 June, 1898146..      1,155,15214,12420,268−0.5367134
Western Australia30 June, 18991,355..      6,427,3701,004,620712,3294.552313434,558
Tasmania31 Dec., 1898438..      3,585,040178,180141,1791.03661611,212
New Zealand31 Mar., 18992,0908116,404,0761,469,665929,7373.292935509,792

In addition to the Government lines open for traffic in 1899, New South Wales had 84 1/2 miles of private railway; South Australia, 20 miles; Western Australia, 495 miles; Tasmania, 78 miles, 7 1/2 miles of which are worked by Government; and New Zealand, 167 miles.

POSTAL AND ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH

There were 1,620 post-offices in New Zealand at the end of 1899.

The number of letters, letter-cards, post-cards, books, and pattern-packets, newspapers, and parcels dealt with during the year, compared with the number handled in 1898, was as under:—

 Total Number dealt with.Increase.
1898.1899.
Letters34,737,31637,380,6712,643,355
Letter-cards917,6311,103,700186,069
Post-cards1,479,9641,643,051163,087
Books and pattern-packets16,618,10117,659,8581,041,757
Newspapers15,095,48715,717,388621,901
Parcels204,603223,35018,747

The average number of letters, &c., posted per head of the population in each of the past five years was,—

 1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.
Letters and letter-cards39.8740.7742.9845.3447.77
Post-cards1.731.651.841.902.12
Books and parcels12.2717.1917.3619.7221.68
Newspapers12.9513.4714.1014.7715.13

The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and without the colony have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 11 lb. in weight being sent to almost all the important countries of the world.

The number and weight of parcels dealt with in 1890, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, and 1899 are given. The word “parcels” in the preceding table includes the parcels herein mentioned:—

1890.1895.1896.1897.1898.1899.
No.Weight.No.Weight.No.Weight.No.Weight.No.Weight.No.Weight.
 Lb.   Lb.   Lb.   Lb.   Lb.   Lb.  
136,327380,521176,206582,193186,611654,333197,554676,054204,603698,301223,350765,836

Owing to the greatly reduced book-post rates a large number of the lighter packets of the classes formerly sent by parcel-post continue to be diverted to the packet- and sample-post. This fact accounts for the small increase in the number of parcels.

The following table shows the number of parcels exchanged with the United Kingdom, the Australian Colonies, &c., in 1898 and 1899:—

Country.Number of Parcels.
Received.Despatched.
 1898.  1899.  1898.  1899.  
United Kingdom and foreign offices viâ London17,82319,7194,0234,524
Victoria3,2923,2351,3111,346
New South Wales4,6145,6911,7791,975
Queensland343327267293
South Australia235258190194
Tasmania143152308315
Western Australia190244236266
Samoa1714123213
Rarotonga5106270
Ceylon326340145166
Hawaiian Islands42561824
Uruguay....1514
Vancouver..1323767
Fiji142927109
            Totals27,04430,2078,5419,576

The declared value of the parcels received from places outside the colony was £70,094, on which the Customs duty amounted to £15,849 18s. 2d.

Money Orders and Postal Notes

The number of offices open for the transaction of money-order business at the end of 1899 was 434.

During 1899, 344,664 money-orders, for a total sum of £1,118,808 5s. 7d., were issued at the various post-offices in the colony. The money-orders from places beyond New Zealand and payable in the colony numbered 24,023, for the amount of £85,824 4s. 6d.

The number of offices open for the sale of postal notes at the end of 1899–1900 was 497: 461,447 postal notes were sold, value £147,686 8s. 6d. (including £3,054 11s. 5 1/2d. commission).

The notes paid numbered 449,584, value £145,083.

Mail-services

The cost of the various mail-services between England and New Zealand was, in 1899, as follows:—

                      SAN FRANCISCO SERVICE.1899.
 £s.d.
Payments—
      Subsidies, &c.29,737106
      Interprovincial and other charges4,66096
 £34,39800
Receipts—
      Postages received from England and the Australian Colonies11,459176
      Postages collected in the colony12,192199
      Penalty for late arrival..
 £23,652173
            Loss to the colony£10,74529
PENINSULAR AND ORIENTAL AND ORIENT LINES SERVICES.
 £s.d.
Payments—
      To P. and O. and Orient Lines3,051149
      Transit across Australia14964
            ”       European Continent391114
      Intercolonial services1,532011
 £5,124134
Receipts—
      Postages collected from England and from foreign offices907196
      Postages collected in the colony2,66489
 £3,57283
            Loss to the colony£1,55251

The total amount of postages collected and contributions received for these services in 1899 was £27,225 5s. 6d.

The average number of days in 1899 within which the mails were delivered between London and each of the under-mentioned ports in New Zealand was:—

 San Francisco Service.P. and O. Line.Orient Line.
London to—
      Auckland31.5438.0838.85
      Wellington32.7739.1539.38
      Dunedin33.9240.4040.48
      Bluff34.6739.6539.73

Electric Telegraph

There were 6,910 miles of telegraph-line open at the end of March, 1900, carrying 19,228 miles of wire. 3,469,631 telegrams were transmitted during the year; of these, the private and Press messages numbered 3,159,093, which, together with telephone exchange and other telegraph receipts, yielded a revenue of £162,944 14s. 4 1/2d.

There were twenty telephone exchanges and twenty sub-exchanges on the 31st March, 1900. The number of connections increased from 6,203 in March, 1899, to 7,150 in March, 1900. The subscriptions to these exchanges during the financial year amounted to £43,302 2s. 10d.

The capital expended on the equipment, &c., of the several telephone exchanges up to the 31st March, 1900, was £162,333 1s. 2d.

Chapter 48. SECTION XIX.—CROWN LANDS

A SUMMARY of the transactions during the year ended 31st March, 1900, will be found in the following table, which shows under all descriptions of tenure the number of selectors and the area selected:—

Nature and Tenure of Lands selected during the Year ended the 31st March, 1900.Number of Purchasers or Selectors.Area.
 Selectors.Area. A.R.P.
A.R.P.
Town lands sold for cash26113212147423,922117
Suburban lands sold for cash66290235
Rural lands sold for cash14723,49911
Perpetual lease262400
Occupation with right of purchase395117,771028
Lease in perpetuity348111,108238
Agricultural lease369324
Village settlement, cash64112
      ”       occupation with right of purchase3120
      ”       lease in perpetuity691,74727
Village-homestead special settlement630221
Special-settlement associations1203
Improved-farm special settlement (lease in perpetuity and occupation with right of purchase)417,392310
Occupation leases, Mining Act642,294311
Small-grazing-runs57142,699017
Pastoral runs1401,019,83134
Miscellaneous leases and licenses31889,723020
Cheviot Estate—
      Cash lands1713339
      Lease in perpetuity1620
      Miscellaneous1023133
Land for Settlements Acts—
      Lease in perpetuity29842,415222
      Lease in perpetuity, village1114026
      Small grazing-runs712,410036
      Miscellaneous392,691125
            Totals2,3101,574,799033

Particulars of the number of Crown tenants at present holding lands under the several tenures, together with the yearly rental payable, are given in the next statement.

STATEMENT showing the TOTAL NUMBER OF CROWN TENANTS, with Area selected or held, and the Yearly Rent payable, as on the 31st March, 1900.
Tenures.Total Number of Tenants.Total Area held by such Tenants.Total Yearly Rental or Instalment payable.

* Includes one endowment in Wellington—area, 107 acres—of an annual rental of £11 7s. 5d.; and five holdings of endowment land in Nelson—area, 241 acres 1 rood 1 perch—annual rental, £23 18s.

† Annual rental has not been fixed in a number of cases.

            ORDINARY CROWN LANDS. A.R.P.£s.d.
Deferred payment926*134,0142317,4151611
Perpetual lease1,429336,1832812,55008
Occupation with right of purchase2,567588,16403922,7751611
Lease in perpetuity2,775802,48333426,40722
Agricultural lease20652323323
Homestead191,939310  
Mining Districts Land Occupation Act22210,026222441167
Village settlements—
      Deferred payment458210268754
      Perpetual lease2073,697231572160
      Occupation with right of purchase3929101322
      Lease in perpetuity76313,2800191,517157
Village-homestead special settlements—
      Perpetual lease51811,5743231,713188
      Lease in perpetuity1334,464336469100
Special settlement associations—
Deferred-payment323,1880910584
      Perpetual lease242,19413114972
      Lease in perpetuity666122,966026,16625
Improved-farm special settlements—46146,97529†2,518152
Small grazing-runs5751,123,3581423,6191010
Pastoral runs96611,339,0710275,007152
Miscellaneous leases1,861334,8433118,51237
                  Totals14,24814,879,93109190,077511
CHEVIOT ESTATE
      Lease in perpetuity10623,9110336,42818
      Village-homestead special settlement772,4801087304
      Grazing-farms3945,691096,587148
      Pastoral runs22,1020026238
      Miscellaneous661,6563372441010
LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS ACTS
      Lease in perpetuity1,489210,54323765,2711711
      Lease in perpetuity, village4642901232366
      Special-settlement associations112,1141916278
      Small grazing-runs3151,6400246,471156
      Miscellaneous793,42503946450
THERMAL-SPRINGS (ROTORUA)2125,4130261,435114
                  Grand totals16,40615,229,338035278,60210

The decennial tables I. and II. exhibit the acreage of land taken up for settlement, and the number of holdings under each description of tenure. The lands held under pastoral license and miscellaneous leases, such as for timber and flax-cutting, coal-mining, &c., are not included in these tables. Tables III. and IV. show the total acreage taken up year by year since 1890 in each land district, and the number of holdings grouped according to size, the areas varying from less than one acre in extent to 1,000 acres and over.

The forfeitures and surrenders in respect of the lands taken up for settlement (excluding, as already remarked, pastoral and miscellaneous leases) for the last four years were:—

1896–97815 holdings228,978 acres.
1897–98658     ″130,380       ″      
1898–99567 holdings180,957 acres.
1899–1900513     ″164,204       ″      

Forfeited and surrendered lands are again thrown open for selection as soon as possible, and in the majority of cases are taken up again by fresh selectors within a short time.

A full description of the various tenures under which land is dealt with in the colony is given in the article entitled “The Land System of New Zealand,” in Part III. of this book.

I.—COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING ACREAGE OF LANDS SELECTED UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS (EXCLUDING PASTORAL RUNS AND MISCELLANEOUS LEASES AND LICENSES) DURING EACH OF THE YEARS ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1890–1900.
1889–90.1890–91.1891–92.1892–93.1893–94.1894–95.1895–96.1896–97.1897–98.1898–99.1899–1900.

* Perpetual lease.

† Lease in perpetuity.

NOTE.—The forfeitures and surrenders for the last four of the years dealt with in the table were—for the year 1896–97, 228,978 acres; 1897–98, 130,380 acres; 1898–99, 180,957 acres; and for 1899–1900, 164,204 acres. But it must not be supposed that these relate to the acreages taken up during the same years; on the contrary, forfeitures may have their origin in selections of long standing and various dates.

 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Cash lands46,922100,01440,50136,32734,99938,69526,57528,48522,52537,40023,936
Deferred payments41,37634,09140,46721,08412,6695,454456..      ..      13..      
Perpetual lease and small areas236,905288,917282,547122,5583,8541,2631,4279,106651640624
Occupation with right of purchase..      ..      ..      54,271108,13375,47884,96859,64881,414109,950117,771
Lease in perpetuity..      ..      ..      55,320179,99391,799122,350104,927117,938159,415153,531
Agricultural lease535519019436545361325811470
Occupation lease under “The Mining Districts Land Occupation Act, 1894”..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      2,9312,8171,2851,4492,295
Village settlement—
      Cash656210429528224941304
      Deferred payment782370182391..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      
      Perpetual lease1,7299548932,636..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      
      Occupation with right of purchase..      ..      ..      ..      12324221
      Lease in perpetuity..      ..      ..      43,9534,0503,3651,3171,4262,1151,762
Village-homestead special settlement2703502,2134942,5502,7437933604213431
Special-settlement associations4,970711,923*157,381†68,852††51,346†44,23728,084††442†607†2
Homestead1,7519451,01038..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      
Special-settlement improved farms..      ..      ..      ..      ..      9,73128,3484,8829,0074,8237,393
Small grazing-runs and grazing-farms60,34086,161159,46592,927252,693117,84646,40768,934149,45877,632155,109
            Totals395,754512,634529,720544,153668,064398,497361,904308,581384,449394,324462,529
II.—COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING NUMBER OF SELECTORS OF LAND UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS (EXCLUDING PASTORAL RUNS AND MISCELLANEOUS LEASES AND LICENSES) DURING EACH OF THE YEARS ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1890–1900.
1889–90.1890–1.1891–2.1892–3.1893–4.1894–5.1895–6.1896–7.1897–8.1898–9.1899–1900.
NOTE.—The forfeitures and surrenders for the last four of the years dealt with in the table were—for the year 1896–97, 815 holdings; 1897–98, 658 holdings; 1898–99, 567 holdings; and 1899–1900, 513 holdings. See note to previous table as to the origin of these failures.
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.
For cash543573493552497392476388272534491
Deferred payments30425822316996476..      ..      1..      
Perpetual lease and small areas756788824385173719212
Occupation with right of purchase..      ..      ..      161461398431277380458395
Lease in perpetuity..      ..      ..      126612372696659599675647
Agricultural lease14245232523
Occupation lease under “The Mining Districts Land Occupation Act, 1894”..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      6948233164
Village settlement—
      Cash1598788753231642216
      Deferred payment75512329..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      
      Perpetual lease765659164..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      
      Occupation with right of purchase..      ..      ..      ..      53034233
      Lease in perpetuity..      ..      ..      22082321931029210680
Village-homestead special settlement2010140331186019189126
Special-settlement associations46213838290262238142551
Homestead19981..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..      
Improved-farm special settlement..      ..      ..      ..      ..      10731545776441
Small grazing-runs and grazing-farms35438039142603227714064
            Totals2,0341,8811,9532,5782,4541,9882,5041,7351,5391,9531,803
III.—LANDS TAKEN UP UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS DURING EACH OF THE YEARS ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1891–1900 (EXCLUSIVE OF PASTORAL RUNS AND MISCELLANEOUS LEASES AND LICENSES).*
Land District.1890–91.1891–92.1892–93.1893–94.1894–95.1895–96.1896–97.1897–98.1898–99.1899–1900.
* See notes as to forfeitures and surrenders on previous tables.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Auckland95,510105,120115,454134,99299,31367,83149,52256,29590,16078,677
Hawke's Bay45,60336,00849,83124,35620,14116,35322,85819,87636,22236,451
Taranaki33,78555,23749,06413,95435,11355,85022,00216,78618,86754,960
Wellington108,05382,311156,29784,87149,58679,47863,80148,90963,74641,387
Nelson23,80812,99217,79736,73934,90619,42114,46213,60018,67310,211
Marlborough11,0233,0168,0558,22718,35315,85820,85854,58151,97374,311
Canterbury133,76162,83112,77794,86133,74414,82722,65475,04152,83934,218
Westland3131,0101621,3461,8261,7653,865437352792
Otago47,450141,56590,043159,05080,43970,23879,21277,34540,59968,436
Southland13,32829,63044,673109,66825,07620,2839,34721,57920,89363,086
            Totals512,634529,720544,153668,064398,497361,904308,581384,449394,324462,529
IV.—HOLDINGS TAKEN UP UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS DURING EACH OF THE YEARS ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1891–1900 (EXCLUSIVE OF PASTORAL RUNS AND MISCELLANEOUS LEASES AND LICENSES), CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO SIZE.
Size.1890–91.1891–92.1892–93.1893–94.1894–95.1895–96.1896–97.1897–98.1898–99.1899–1900.
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.
Under 1 acre170214154176256259154103293345
1 to 50 acres531581727739696719588496571501
51 to 250 acres6036171,2539337571,198709616633492
251 to 500 acres307255264341169232178197277262
501 to 1,000 acres17318710415070708463128116
1,001 acres and upwards979976115402622645187
            Totals1,8811,9532,5782,4541,9882,041,7351,5391,9531,803

Chapter 49. SECTION XX.—LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS

A FULL description is given, in a special article belonging to Section 1, Part III., of the objects and method of the Land for Settlements Acts, under which the acquirement by Government is authorised, through purchase from private owners, of properties for subdivision into small farms to meet the want felt of Crown lands for disposal in places where they are specially in demand.

The report of the Chairman of the Board of Land Purchase Commissioners on the transactions for the twelve months ended the 31st March, 1900, states:—

Fifty-seven estates, of a total area of 381,213 acres, were offered during the year. Of that area, 81,318 acres were declined, not recommended, or withdrawn, leaving 299,895 acres, of which an area of 191,830 acres is under consideration, and an area of 108,065 acres was recommended for purchase. Including with this latter area part of the land offered in the previous year, twenty-eight estates were recommended for purchase, with the result that offers were accepted for nineteen, of an aggregate area of 79,889 acres, for the sum of £353,718. Of the other nine estates, the owners of eight declined the prices offered, and the owners of one have the offer made them under their consideration.

The names of the estates purchased are:—Whitehall, Fencourt, Aorangi, Te Matua, Ohakea, North Bank, Punaroa, Papaka, Pareora No. 2, Rautawiri, Takitu, Rural Sections 36056-57, 36228, 36231, part 36469, Elderslie, Janefield, and Barnego. With the exception of North Bank, possession of all was given within the year under review.

The total purchases under the Land for Settlements Act since its commencement are seventy-seven estates, containing an area of 324,168 acres, at a cost of £1,523,927 for land, and £74,165 for road-formations, surveys, and administration—in all, a total of £1,598,092.

In the matter of the compulsory taking of the Hatuma Estate, the Compensation Court sat in Napier in April, 1899, and in February, 1900, for the purpose of fixing the value of the estate; but as no award was made on either occasion, the Court again sat from the 21st to the 27th June at the same place, when an award was made fixing the price to be paid for 26,391 acres at £141,618, or at the rate of nearly £5 7s. 4d. per acre. The offer made by the Government in October, 1897, was £4 10s. per acre.

An amendment of the Act came into force on the 29th September, 1899, rectifying certain working details, but principally extending the scope of acquiring lands, or of taking them compulsorily, if need be, for workmen's homes. Negotiations have been entered into for the acquisition of land for that purpose, but it is found to be a very difficult matter in some cases to obtain suitable land in position and at a price within the means of workmen who would travel to and from their work daily by railways to the cities. As the Act expires by effluxion of time on the fourteenth day after the close of the present session of Parliament, provision is made for its continuance in a Bill, now being prepared, consolidating the principal Act and its amendments.

The Surveyor-General's report to the Hon. the Minister of Lands on the condition and settlement of the lands acquired and handed over to his department under the above-mentioned Acts gives the particulars of the estates offered for selection as follows:—

There were nine new estates offered, besides four allotments purchased in order to furnish homestead-sites for pastoral lands hitherto without them. The total area offered for selection this last year was 45,059 acres in nine estates, and 318 acres in four homesteads, an area considerably less than dealt with the preceding year, though the number of properties is greater. In the report of the Department of Lands and Survey for the current year will be found a good deal of detail respecting each of the estates purchased to date.

ESTATES OFFERED FOR SELECTION during the year ended 31st March, 1900.
Land District and Name of Estate.Area of Estate.Number of Selectors.Number of Original Applications.Area unselected 31st March, 1900.Annual Rental payable on Lands leased.Date when offered for Selection.
 A.R.P.  A.R.P.£s.d. 
Auckland—
      Fencourt7,1053525242,4711221,14271012 Mar., 1900
Wellington—
      Ohakea1,74513012253633989811627 Dec., 1899
      Te Matua70201913175277427 Dec.,       ″      
Marlborough—
      Richmond Brook5,8540011401,31313418 Aug.,       ″      
Canterbury—
      Tamai4102830157001910426 June,       ″      
      Takitu9,7130374171,494009311041 Mar., 1900
      Pareora No. 28,132031312204840373,49510022 Mar.,       ″      
      Four homesteads318112447002 
Otago—
      Janefield14702203112002569015 Sept., 1899
      Elderslie11,6182424503,5010112,98112430 Mar., 1900
            Totals45,377381744438,33313911,80822 

The area unselected on the 31st March last seems large, but this has been considerably reduced since that date by further selections. Some few portions of the estates were purposely withheld from selection for a time. In the case of Fencourt a most unfortunate fire occurred just before the day of selection, which destroyed the grass and some of the surface-soil, and consequently this part remains unselected at present.

In addition to the 174 selectors shown in the above table, other selections in the estates previously acquired took place, making the total number for the year to be 316, which number is exclusive of several holders of miscellaneous leases.

The Commissioners' reports speak favourably of the condition and settlement on these estates as a whole. Some few are still suffering from drawbacks, due to natural and other causes, which are, however, of a temporary nature, whilst the bulk of the estates are flourishing, and appear to be well established.

The arrears of rent owing by 213 selectors out of a total number of 1,630, amounted to £7,193 on the 31st March. During the year thirty-six selectors had their properties forfeited for non-compliance with the conditions of the leases, the rentals in those cases amounting to £1,130 9s. The surrenders during the year numbered ten, the rentals of which amounted to £142 9s. It is the rule that forfeited or surrendered sections are re-offered to the public as soon as possible, and they are very generally taken up again.

The total number of estates acquired, and which have been offered for selection, is sixty-nine, covering an area of 289,660 acres, out of which 267,991 acres have been leased in farms, &c., whilst 6,278 acres have been absorbed in roads and reserves, and 15,390 acres remained unlet on the 31st March last. These figures exclude eight estates acquired but not offered for selection up to the close of the year, as they could not be prepared in time. They have since been offered, and nearly the whole disposed of.

The following figures will show the position as at the 31st March last:—

Cost of estates that have been offered for selection£1,413,149
Cost of roads, surveys, administration, on estates offered for selection, and preliminary expenses73,313
 £1,486,462
The lands disposed of are let at an annual rental of£72,656
The lands unlet (exclusive of roads and reserves, &c.) are valued at a rental of3,671
 £76,327

Taking the lands actually let, it will be seen that the rentals will pay interest on the capital expended at the rate of 4.8 per cent., or exactly the same as for the previous year. If the unlet lands are included, the interest would be at the rate of 5.1 per cent. on capital.

It is understood that that part of the capital raised on loan is paying interest at the rate of not quite 4 per cent., consequently the estates are more than paying their way, even after allowing for the arrears of rental due, which, however, are a good asset.

The estates, &c., acquired in each district under the Land for Settlements Acts to the 31st March, 1900, are next shown:—

Name of Estate.Area acquired.
A.R.P.
Auckland—
      Fencourt7,10700
      Karapiro2,27039
      Okauia5,919130
      Opouriao7,60400
      Rangiaka4,00400
      Whitehall8,98010
 35,885139
Hawke's Bay—
      Elsthorpe9,74000
      Mahora1,33339
      Pouparae33734
      Raureka42720
      Tomoana110216
      Waimarie430130
      Willows77520
 12,955219
Wellington—
      Aorangi1,78500
      Okakea1,741129
      Paparangi322332
      Te Matua702019
 4,55120
Marlborough—
      Blind River5,02000
      Flaxbourne (part)40400
      North Bank13,00000
      Omaka3,89800
      Puhipuhi32000
      Richmond Brook5,82700
      Starborough32,385315
 60,854315
Westland—
      Poerua3,23016
Canterbury—
      Aibury19,340338
      Arowhenua4,651012
      Ashley Gorge1,666024
      Braco2720
      Epworth2103
      Hekeao2,20908
      Highbank9,11932
      Horsley Down4,004133
      Kapua57415
      Kereta105216
      Marawiti2,028233
      Omihi Stock Reserve2000
      Orakipaoa384031
      Otarakaro3939
      Otaio376230
      Pareora620213
      Patoa7,347038
      Pawaho51318
      Papaka1,561334
      Pareora No. 28,108329
      Punaroa7,02515
      Rautawiri113337
      R.S. 2018436222
            ”       2682624
            ”       364692000
            ”       36228100323
            ”       3623198330
            ”       36056-758016
            ”       36409 (2)15432
      Roimata48337
      Rosebrook60018
      Studholme107217
      Takitu9,697337
      Tamai40334
      Waikakahi47,86511
      Wharenui73110
 127,809119
Otago—
      Ardgowan4,24100
      Barnego7,019139
      Elderslie11,394021
      Janefield14702
      Maerewhenua11,150336
      Makareao2,367331
      Makareao Extension2,53530
      Momona218236
      Pomahaka7,46231
      Puketapu50906
      Tahawai69019
      Teanaraki347318
      Toka-rahi11,05129
 58,515118
Southland—
      Beaumont4,322320
      Merrivale9,99800
      Otahu6,044029
 20,36509
            SUMMARY.
      Auckland35,885139
      Hawke's Bay12,955219
      Wellington4,55120
      Marlborough60,854315
      Westland3,23016
      Canterbury127,809119
      Otago58,515118
      Southland20,36509
            Totals324,16725

Of the total area of 324,168 acres acquired to the 31st March, 1900, an area of 267,991 acres was leased to 1,630 selectors, representing 4,197 persons on the land, the annual rent now payable being £72,656. The area occupied by roads and reserves was close on 7,000 acres, the area unlet is 15,390 acres, and the balance of nearly 36,500 acres was under survey and preparation for selection on above date.

Chapter 50. SECTION XXI.—FINANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

FOR the year ended 31st March, 1900, the receipts from all sources amounted to £5,699,618, while the actual expenditure, exclusive of £450,000 transferred to the Public Works Fund in terms of section 17 of “The Appropriation Act, 1899,” was £5,140,127. The excess of receipts shown on the year's transactions was thus £109,491, but the amount in hand at the beginning of the year having been £495,861, makes the total credit balance on the 31st March £605,352.

The chief heads of revenue and expenditure are shown in the following table:—

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
 ££
Revenue.
Balance on 31st March, 1899 495,861
Customs duties2,107,567 
Beer duty80,292 
Stamps860,893 
Land-tax293,627 
Income-tax128,721 
Railways1,621,013 
Registration and other fees74,373 
Marine dues27,820 
Miscellaneous123,246 
Territorial revenue262,229 
  5,580,386
Other receipts—  
    Proceeds of debentures for Sinking Fund accretions50,400 
    Net recoveries from Government Advances to Settlers' Office Management Account7,000 
    Recoupment of interest in respect of debentures issued under the Land for Settlements Acts, 1892 and 189461,832 
  119,232
Expenditure.
His Excellency the Governor5,000 
Legislative42,996 
Ministers' salaries and allowances9,173 
Interest and Sinking Fund charges1,749,394 
Exchange and commission28,864 
Pensions, civil and military33,898 
Old-age Pensions157,095 
Railways1,039,412 
Public Instruction472,653 
Postal and telegraph services388,582 
Judicial and legal241,197 
Hospitals and charitable institutions87,853 
Defence162,940 
Subsidies to local bodies68,920 
Department of Agriculture68,163 
Lunatic Asylums53,581 
Valuation Department20,579 
Customs35,628 
Marine (Harbours and Lights)38,138 
Printing and Stationery25,874 
Land and Income Tax Department26,604 
Registration of Land and Deeds, Births, Deaths, and Marriages20,319 
Public Buildings and Domains16,507 
Miscellaneous expenditure121,030 
Territorial expenditure230,817 
  5,140,127
Other expenditure—  
    Transferred to Public Works Fund 450,000
Balance on March 31, 1900 605,352
  £6,195,479

Ordinary Revenue.

With the exception of “Land-tax" the chief heads of ordinary revenue show most substantial increases for the year 1899-1900 over the figures for 1898-99. Taking these items in order of their magnitude, the advance is shown below:—

Heads of Revenue.Ordinary Revenue.Increase.
1899-1900.Per Cent. of Total.1898-99.Per Cent. of Total.Numerical.Centesimal.
* Decrease. 
 £ £ £Per Cent.
Customs duties2,107,56739.631,965,01840.00142,5497.25
Railways1,621,61330.491,465,50729.83156,10610.65
Stamps860,89816.19779,39915.8781,49910.46
Land-tax293,6275.52298,0536.07-4,426*-1.49*
Income-tax128,7212.42115,4802.3513,24111.47
Beer duty80,2921.5176,2131.554,0795.35
Registration and other fees74,3731.4073,8221.505510.75
Marine27,8200.5225,4900.522,3309.14
Miscellaneous123,2462.32113,6472.319,5998.45
            Ordinary revenue5,318,157100.004,912,629100.00405,5288.25

Though the receipts from Land-tax decreased by 1.49 per cent. during the year, the amount derived from Customs duties was 7.25 per cent. greater than that shown for 1898-99, Beer duty 5.35 per cent., Income-tax 11.47 per cent., Stamps 10.46 per cent., and Railway revenue shows an advance of 10.65 per cent. While the population of the colony increased by 1.60 per cent. during 1899-1900, the ordinary revenue advanced at the much higher rate of 8.25, as shown above.

The Customs and Excise duties in 1899-1900 accounted for £39 12s. 7d. out of every £100 of ordinary revenue collected; Railways, £30 9s. 10d.; and Stamps, £16 3s. 9d. Of other items the Land-tax yielded 5.52 per cent., and Income-tax 2.42 per cent. of the revenue.

Territorial Revenue.

Territorial revenue decreased from £273,799 in 1898-99 to £262,229 in 1899-1900, or at the rate of 4.22 per cent. In the previous year, 1898-99, there was an increase of 3.99 per cent. Details for the last two years are as under:—

Territorial Revenue.Increase or Decrease, 1899-1900.
1899-1900.Per Cent. of Total.1898-99.Per Cent. of Total.Numerical.Centesimal.
 £ £ £Per Cent.
Cash land sales73,59228.0681,38429.72-7,792-9.57
Deferred-payment land sales17,2396.5821,9118.00-4,672-21.32
Pastoral runs, rents, miscellaneous171,39865.36170,50462.28+894+0.52
Territorial revenue262,229100.00273,799100.00-11,570-4.22

By the foregoing table the cash land sales for 1899-1900 are shown to have decreased by nearly 10 per cent., and to supply 28 per cent. of the whole territorial revenue; while rents and miscellaneous, which constitute 65 per cent. of the total, have slightly increased.

Moneys received for lands sold under deferred-payment regulations show a decrease of £4,672, or 21.32 per cent., when compared with the figures for 1898-99.

Ordinary and Territorial Revenue.

The total ordinary and territorial revenue is found to have increased from £5,186,428 in 1898-99 to £5,580,386 in 1899-1900, at the rate of 7.6 per cent., or nearly five times the rate at which population has increased:—

 Ordinary.Territorial.Total.
 £££
Year 1898-994,912,629273,7995,186,428
Year 1899-19005,318,157262,2295,580,386
                    Increase405,528-11,570 (dec.)393,958

After allowing for alteration in system of charging interest and sinking fund, the charges of the public debt in proportion to the ordinary and territorial revenue are found to have fallen from 41.6 per cent. in 1890-91 to 31.4 per cent. in 1899-1900.

If the sum of £90,831, the amount of territorial revenue received by way of land sales in 1899-1900, is deducted from the total revenue, the charges of the public debt will be found to have absorbed 31.87 per cent. of the revenue, reduced by the sum derived from relinquishment of real estate of the Crown.

Total Revenue of General Government.

The whole of the revenue of the General Government arising from taxation as well as from other sources for the last five financial years exhibits great progress. The rates of taxation and of revenue per head of mean population are given to illustrate this.

Year ended 31 March.Revenue.Rate of Taxation per Head of Mean Population.Rate of Revenue per Head of Mean Population.
From Taxation.From other Sources.Total.
 ££££s.d.£s.d.
18962,335,7602,220,2554,556,01537161010
18972,521,9112,276,7974,798,70831106151
18982,678,5762,400,6545,079,23031311702
18992,707,0992,551,1295,258,2283133723
19002,891,1262,808,4925,699,618316107116

The total revenue is shown to have increased from £4,556,015 in 1895-96 to £5,699,618 in 1899-1900, a difference of £1,143,603, while the proportion to population has increased by over £1 per head. The greater yield from the sources of taxation exhibited by the above figures can be regarded as indicative of increased prosperity enjoyed by the people of the colony.

Ordinary Revenue, Expenditure.

The expenditure for 1899-1900 (exclusive of expenditure properly belonging to territorial purposes) amounted to £4,909,310, of which the largest item, after the charges of the public debt, £1,749,394, was on account of railways, £1,039,412. Public instruction cost £472,653, of which £393,228 were for carrying on the Board schools; £18,576 for technical and higher education; £17,346 for Native schools; £11,623 for industrial schools; and £25,000 for school buildings. The postal and telegraph services cost £388,582. Under the heading “Judicial and Legal” the total sum expended was £241,197, of which the largest item was the police, £115,752; the next, District and Magistrates' Courts, £44,783; and, thirdly, prisons, £28,926. Hospitals and charitable institutions cost £87,853, and the lunatic asylums £53,581. Defence required £162,940; the Department of Agriculture £68,163; and the Valuation Department £20,579. Payments of Old-age Pensions required £157,095 for the year ended 31st March, 1900.

Territorial Expenditure.

The chief items of expenditure under this head are the Lands and Survey Department, £123,441, and Mines, £14,763; while there was paid to local bodies £87,221 (£34,309 being “thirds" and “fourths" under the Land Act; and £16,418 for the Greymouth, £6,194 for the New Plymouth, and £30,300 for the Westport Harbour Boards); besides £4,872 expended in management of water-races, and £520 in rates on Crown lands.

Ordinary and Territorial Expenditure: Five Years.

The expenditure out of ordinary and territorial revenue during the last five financial years shows somewhat of increase, but by no means so much as the increase of revenue before alluded to. The chief heads of expenditure are given below. It must be noted that the old-age pensions become a large item for the year 1899-1900:—

Expenditure.Financial Years (ended 31st March).
1895-96.1896-97.1897-98.1898-99.1899-1900.
 £££££
Charges of the Public Debt1,683,7751,709,4691,741,4131,767,4681,749,394
Railways744,200776,748849,923968,9171,039,412
Public Instruction (including School-buildings, Industrial and Native Schools, and Deaf-and-dumb Institution)453,156461,582466,925475,218472,653
Postal and Telegraph338,836352,386362,993388,546388,582
Militia and Volunteers98,98588,74291,388119,051162,940
Old-age Pensions  3,124157,095 
Crown Lands and Surveys117,498115,247119,920114,469123,441
Police and Armed Constabulary98,014100,401104,214115,293115,752
Other expenditure836,017905,406865,596906,425930,858
            Totals4,370,4814,509,9814,602,3724,858,5115,140,127

Loan Accounts Expenditure, 1899-1900.

In addition to the expenditure above referred to, there were also—excluding redemption and renewal of debentures, &c.—disbursements during the financial year ended 31st March, 1900, out of the Public Works Fund to the amount of £993,223, chiefly for roads, railway construction, and for public buildings; also out of the Land for Settlements Account the large sum of £374,149 for purchase of estates to be cut up for close settlement, including contingent expenses. This account also recouped the Consolidated Revenue with an amount of £95,182 on account of interest which had accrued since 1893. The Loans to Local Bodies Account, which deals with moneys used chiefly for roading the more inaccessible country, shows an expenditure of £100,133; and for interest on debentures, surveys, roads, &c., in connection with the Cheviot Estate £8,917 was paid. Details of all these are given. The total expenditure out of loan accounts was £1,906,604, but, as previously explained, this account was aided by a transfer from revenue of £450,000 to the Public Works Fund.

EXPENDITURE OUT OF LOAN ACCOUNTS, 1899-1900.
 ££
Public Works Fund—  
Immigration385 
Public Works, Departmental12,572 
Railways417,937 
Roads285,532 
Development of goldfields21,815 
Purchase of Native lands31,882 
Telegraph extension26,771 
Public buildings115,427 
Lighthouses, harbour-works, and defences9,026 
Rates on Native lands744 
Contingent defence42,810 
Charges and expenses of raising loans28,322 
  993,223
Cheviot Estate Account—  
Interest (including arrears)8,866 
Surveys, Roading, &c.51 
  8,917
Land for Settlements Account—  
Purchase of Estates353,718 
Expenses20,431 
Interest recouped to Consolidated Fund95,182 
  469,331
Loans to Local Bodies Account—  
Grants to Local Bodies68,770 
Roads to open up Crown Lands31,363 
  100,133
Aid to Public Works and Land Settlements Acts—  
Debentures redeemed and advances repaid 335,000
                    Total £1,906,604

The expenditure out of loan accounts for five years may be summarised as given in the next table. The large amounts shown for 1895-96 as devoted to advances to settlers and for preferred shares in the Bank of New Zealand are of the nature of investments calculated to contribute directly to the revenue:—

Heads of Expenditure out of Loan Accounts.Financial Years.
1895-96.1896-97.1897-98.1898-99.1899-1900.

* Including sums expended in the purchase of land for settlements—viz., £168,467 in 1895-96; £313,572 in 1896-97; £158,586 in 1897-98; £518,459 in 1898-99; and £469,331 in 1899-1900.

† Including sums expended under section 2 of “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1891”—viz., £30,057 in 1895-96; £31,017 in 1896-97; £18,770 in 1897-98 £16,972 in 1898-99; and £31,363 in 1899-1900.

‡ Including sums expended under “The Lands Improvement Act, 1894”—viz., £108,168 in 1895-96, and £106,930 in 1896-97.

§ Or, excluding the amounts applied to investments by way of advances to settlers with charges and expenses, and the Bank of New Zealand preferred shares, £972,196 for the year 1895-96.

 £££££
Charges and expenses of raising loans105,883942522528,322
Cheviot Estate purchase and expenses14,51314,95316,65716,4978,917
Contingent defence5,00010,55410,36013,86742,810
ImmigrationCr. 1030170105385
Land purchases*331,878*442,535*220,089*571,642*501,355
Lighthouses, harbour works, and defences7,41011,6005,29515,6629,026
Public buildings76,52970,57973,585107,267115,427
Public Works departmental expenditure14,30014,8929,68910,09012,572
Railway construction and other works connected with railway extension197,105207,286351,600374,141417,937
Rates on Native lands340332156347744
Roads†‡204,999†‡202,184†309,548†312,506†316,753
Telegraph extension35,53836,79129,38428,55126,771
Development of goldfields9,34510,50833,11717,35521,815
Payments to Local Bodies under Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts75,24966,13375,25775,42868,770
Government Advances to Settlers Office, separate account1,394,124    
Bank of New Zealand preferred shares500,000    
Debentures redeemed and advances repaid    335,000
Totals §2,972,2031,089,5901,134,8121,543,6831,906,604

The total amount of actual loan moneys under various heads raised from the beginning is roughly shown further on in a table dealing with the public debt of the colony.

Although the Public Works Fund forms the main source of the expenditure out of Loan Accounts, all the money included in it has not been raised from loans. Amounts from the Revenue of the Consolidated Fund were paid to the Public Works Fund during the last nine financial years as under:—

 £
1891-9230,000
1892-93200,000
1893-94250,000
1894-95250,000
1895-96150,000
1896-97150,000
1897-98300,000
1898-99425,000
1899-1900450,000
                        Total£2,205,000

The expenditure each year since 1884 on services provided for by the Public Works Fund has been:—

Year.Immigration.Railways.Roads.Development of Goldfields.Telegraph Extension.Public Buildings.Lighthouses, &c.Other Services.Totals.

* Exclusive of moneys spent on roads under Lands Improvement, Native Lands Purchase, and Government Loans to Local Bodies Accounts: £103,076 in 1894–95, £162,757 in 1895–96, £173,358 in 1896–97.

† The expenditure on roads under the first two Acts mentioned above (*) is included as part of Public Works Fund; the sum of £18,770 was also spent out of Loans to Local Bodies Account on roads to open up Crown lands in 1897–98, £16,972 in 1898–99, and £31,363 in 1899–1900. These moneys have been excluded, as have also small sums expended in reading, &c., the Cheviot Estate.

 £££££££££
1884–8557,148663,063317,0438,02925,799117,36134,033114,2511,336,727
1885–8611,675725,496335,9049,03236,01086,859133,975136,4351,475,386
1886–8712,454615,265278,6177,66518,95289,598148,705162,2281,333,484
1887–8815,598403,726219,5191,01622,98490,52976,825135,962966,159
1888–898,791272,077106,4405512,04734,59247,593132,344613,939
1889–90867289,57284,12628416,34635,4739,43446,362482,464
1890–911,823180,02071,28982116,29222,8192,66639,026334,756
1891–92817154,416101,6052,25727,77334,7917,34762,495391,501
1892–93242220,894105,5063,81129,24531,10111,20560,502462,506
1893–94343176,304147,4185,27216,12744,0326,58810,713406,797
1894–95101247,54561,757*5,86519,22954,1903,1459,578401,410*
1895–96Cr. 10197,10566,774*9,34535,53876,5297,41019,639412,330*
1896–97301207,23164,292*10,50836,79170,57911,60026,683427,985*
1897–9870351,600290,777†33,11729,38473,5855,29581,715865,543†
1898–99105374,141295,534†17,35428,551107,26715,66277,713916,327†
1899–1900385417,937285,532†21,81526,771115,4279,026116,330993,223†

Conversion Account.

Three per cent. stock to the value of £193,690 was inscribed during the year 1899–1900, which began with a debit balance of £2,211 in this account. Of this sum £26,690 were applied to the conversion of (£25,400) loans, and £116,306 to paying off debentures. Expenses, the chief items of which were discount (£5,908), stamp duty (£1,808), brokerage and commission (£415), absorbed £8,581, leaving a credit balance in this account of £39,902 on the 31st March, 1900.

On the total (£25,400) conversions, premiums ranging from 4 to 17 per cent. and amounting in all to £1,290 were paid.

The interest-charge on the debentures prior to conversion into 3-per-cent. inscribed stock averaged slightly over 4 per cent. per annum, so that by the year's operations the annual expenditure under this head has been lessened by £222.

Loans for Government Advances to Settlers.

A notable feature in the legislation of the year 1894 was the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act, a description of which, with its amending Acts and the loan operations under the same, will be found in part III.

The applications for loans and the loans authorised to the 31st March, 1900, classified according to provincial districts, are shown in tabular form:—

Provincial Districts.Applications for Loans.Loans authorised.
Number of Applications.Amount of Loans applied for.Number of Applications.Amount applied for.Amount of Advances authorised.
  £ ££
Auckland2,380679,9381,607490,876431,575
Taranaki1,220432,8621,086393,662350,825
Hawke's Bay836249,050638193,775172,500
Wellington2,503928,6612,070820,037716,083
Marlborough327120,25223689,56780,650
Nelson21979,06015048,91543,115
Westland20757,5809925,20522,545
Canterbury961268,752728213,287178,145
Otago2,342894,8781,838737,546638,002
        Totals10,9953,711,0338,4523,012,8702,633,440

Of the 8,452 advances authorised, 1,004 applicants declined the grants (£454,000) offered them, so that the net advances to the 31st March, 1900, numbered 7,448, and amounted to £2,179,440.

About sixty per cent. of the total amount applied for was for the purpose of paying off existing mortgages at rates of interest higher than 5 per cent.

Of the total applications 9,211 were for advances under £500 in value and 1,784 over, while of the advances authorised 6,944 did not exceed £500, only 1,508 being over that amount.

The liabilities and assets at 31st March, 1900, of the Government Advances to Settlers Office were:—

DR. Liabilities.£s.d.
3-per-cent. Loan, redeemable 1st April, 1945, “A”1,500,00000
3-per-cent. Loan, redeemable 1st April, 1945, “B”500,00000
Suspense Account3,1741911
Accrued interest payable198133
Profit and Loss Account26,3941410
 £2,029,76880
CR. Assets.£s.d.
Investment Account—   
Advances on mortgages£2,087,56500
Less repayments340,235103
 1,747,32999
Temporary investments, Bank of New Zealand guaranteed stock4,836170
Temporary investments, aid to public works50,00000
Sinking Fund Investment Account with Public Trustee49,678153
Assurance Fund invested with Public Trustee2,1991910
Mortgage instalments receivable, overdue828146
Bills receivable (Prior's deficiency)1,19091
Interest receivable, overdue3,57956
Interest receivable, accrued20,94198
Cash in hand and in bank15,144169
Loan-flotation charges, “A”£105,89775
Loan-flotation charges, “B”28,14133
 134,038108
 £2,029,76880

“The Government Advances to Settlers Act Amendment Act, 1899,” as an encouragement to the early payment of the prescribed instalments of interest on fixed loans, and of interest and principal on loans under the instalment principle, provides or a rebate to the mortgagor, which reduces his interest to 4 1/2 per cent. in lieu of 5 per cent. per annum.

There are new alternative modes of disposing of moneys paid in advance laid down in this measure, but it is optional with mortgagors to adopt the new system instead of that previously in operation in respect of moneys paid before the commencement of the new Act, and which are held under the original arrangements.

Provision is made for the readjustment of loans by memorandum of adjustment, which gives elasticity to the system by treating the balance of principal due as a fresh loan granted for a new term.

The margin of security on loans is provided for as follows: In the case of fixed loans the amount of the loan is not to exceed three-fifths of the value of the security, while in case of loans under the instalment system on freehold security of first-class agricultural land, the amount of the loan is not to exceed two-thirds the value of the security; on other rural freeholds the limit is three-fifths.

Advances may now be made on the security of urban or suburban land, but on the instalment system only, and with limitation of amount to a maximum of two thousand pounds and a minimum of twenty-five.

Urban land is defined as that situate in a borough having a population of at least two thousand persons, and which is not used for farming, dairying, or market gardening. And suburban land means that which is situate in a borough having under two thousand people, or any town or vicinity, and which is not used for agricultural or dairying purposes as above referred to.

As to security for loans,—in the case of urban lands on which there are buildings, the amount of the loan is not to exceed three-fifths of the value of the land apart from the buildings, plus one-half of the value of the buildings apart from the land. When the land is suburban, having buildings thereon, the loan is not to exceed one-half of the value of the land apart from the buildings, plus one-half of the value of the buildings separately.

When the land be urban or suburban, but having no buildings, the loan is not to exceed one-half of the value of the land, and there is not to be any loan except for the erection of buildings, and to be by way of instalments as erection proceeds.

There is a further subdivision of the Act, under which special provisions are made for protecting the interests of the Advances to Settlers Department, with respect to other than freehold securities.

New Zealand Consols.

Another important financial Act, termed the New Zealand Consols Act, was passed in 1894, with the intention of providing further means of investment for the savings of persons resident in the colony. Some progress is being made in this class of deposits, which tends to show that the public may in time recognise the system as a means of safe and profitable investment of their savings. It is singular that deposits of moneys belonging to trust funds or minors are not more freely made. It is thought that the advantage of such an investment at a fair rate of interest and of a permanent character is not widely enough known.

Up to the 31st March, 1899, deposits amounting to £385,925 had been received in sums ranging from £5 to £150,000, and during 1899–1900 the deposits inscribed totalled £55,562, making the sum invested to the 31st March, 1900, £441,487.

The system of making deposits in New Zealand Consols is fully described in Part III.

Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement.

“The Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1896,” empowered the Colonial Treasurer to raise £1,000,000: in aid of the Public Works Fund to the extent of £500,000, and the Lands Improvement Account and the Native Lands Purchase Account, £250,000 each. The sum of £750,000, bearing interest at 3 1/2 per cent. per annum, was raised locally at par (£500,000 being issued with an alternative currency of or twenty-five years); the balance of £250,000 being placed upon the London market in the form of 3-per-cent. inscribed stock, along with the further loan referred to in the succeeding paragraph.

The Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act Amendment Act, passed in 1897, authorised the raising of an additional sum of £250,000 to be applied for the purpose of procuring £200,000 for further rolling-stock for railways, and for the repair of damages to lines by floods or otherwise; £25,000 for erection and repair of public-school buildings, and another sum of £25,000 for purposes of building and equipment of technical schools.

“The Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Acts Amendment Act, 1898,” provided for raising £500,000 in addition to £250,000 raised under the Amendment Act of 1897, and the £1,000,000 under the principal Act of 1896, the provisions of which extend to the later Act.

Of £500,000 which was paid to the Public Works Fund the amount of £175,000 was allocated to railways construction, £200,000 was for new rolling-stock for open railways, and £125,000 for the construction of roads, bridges, and other works authorised.

“The Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1899,” empowers the Colonial Treasurer, upon the authority of the Governor-in-Council, to raise from time to time, in the colony or elsewhere, such sums of money as he thinks fit, not exceeding altogether the sum of one million pounds sterling. The money is raised by means of debentures or scrip, or by the creation or issue of inscribed stock, under the New Zealand Consolidated Stock Act, 1877.

There is provision for obtaining what money is wanted, pending the raising of the money authorised, by the sale, &c., of short-dated debentures, which are to bear interest not exceeding 4 per cent. per annum, and to have a currency of not more than seven years—but the interest on the money finally raised is limited to three and a-half per cent.

All the money raised under the Act is to be placed to the credit of the Public Works Fund, to be applied to the following works and purposes:—

 £
1. Railways— 
    Railway construction300,000
    Additional rolling stock, &c., for open lines225,000
2. Land settlement and goldfields development— 
    The construction of roads and bridges to open up back blocks, &c.150,000
    Also, for opening up Crown and Native lands150,000
    Also, for developing goldfields50,000
3. Public and technical school buildings50,000
4. Purchase of native lands50,000
5. Contingent harbour defence25,000
 £1,000,000

Loans under Land for Settlements Acts.

The moneys raised under these Acts and the operations by way of purchasing estates to be cut up for close settlement form the subject of a special section of this part of the Year-book (No. XX.).

“The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act Amendment Act, 1899.”

In view of the general lowering of rates of interest, this new Act modifies the terms of the principal Act by providing in respect of the debentures of any future loan, instead of interest payable at 5 per cent. for a term of twenty-six years, one or other of the following alternatives:—

Four and a half per cent. per annum for a term of twenty-six years; or

Four per cent. per annum for a term of thirty-two years; or

Three and a half per cent. per annum for a term of forty-one years.

The loans in existence at the passing of the Act may be readjusted so as to come under one or other of the alternatives under the new amendment quoted above.

The rate of 1 1/2 per cent. per annum, which under the Act of 1892 forms the basis for calculating the amount payable to the Sinking Fund is now reduced to 1 per cent. per annum if the term of the loan is thirty-two years, and 1/2 per cent. if the term is for forty-one years.

SUBSECTION B.—TAXATION.

THE direct taxation prior to 1892 consisted of a property-tax of 1d. in the pound on all assessed real and personal property (with an exemption of £500), and the stamp duties; but in 1891 a Land and Income Assessment Act was passed repealing the property-tax. A full description of the system of the land- and income-tax will be found in a special article in Part III. of this work. The leading features only are briefly stated here.

The Assessment Act of 1891 provides for an ordinary land-tax on the actual value of land, and an owner is allowed to deduct any amount owing by him secured on a registered mortgage. Under the original Act the deduction for improvements might not exceed £3,000; but, by the Amendment Act of 1893, the value of all improvements whatsoever is exempted from liability to land-tax. Besides this, an exemption of £500 is allowed when the balance, after making deductions as above stated, does not exceed £1,500; and above that a smaller exemption is granted, but ceases when the balance amounts to £2,500. Mortgages are subject to the land-tax. The revenue from the ordinary land-tax is, in round numbers, about £214,000 per annum. The rate of ordinary land-tax for 1899–1900 was 1d. in the pound. Occupied Native land is taxed 1/2d. in the pound on the unimproved value.

In addition to the ordinary land-tax, there is a graduated land-tax which commences when the unimproved value is £5,000. For the graduated land-tax, the present value of all improvements is deducted; but mortgages are not deducted. The Act of 1893, while reducing ordinary taxation on land by exempting all improvements, increased the graduated tax, and the revised rates are now one-eighth of a penny in the pound sterling when the value is £5,000 and is less than £10,000, from which the rate increases with the value of the property by further steps of an eighth of a penny until the maximum of 2d. in the pound is reached, payable when the value is £210,000, or exceeds that sum.

This graduated tax yields, in round numbers, £80,000 per annum, which is not included in the sum of £214,000 given above. Twenty per cent. additional tax is levied in case of persons who have been absent from the colony for three years or more prior to the passing of the yearly taxing Act. This amounts to about £1,000, and is included in the £80,000 shown above.

Income-tax is levied on all incomes above £300, and from taxable incomes a deduction of £300 is made. The rate of income-tax for 1899–1900 was 6d. in the pound on the first taxable £1,000, and 1s. in the pound on taxable incomes over £1,000.

Companies pay 1s. in the pound, and are not allowed the £300 exemption. The Act of 1893 further disallowed the £300 exemption in the case of persons not domiciled in New Zealand.

The revenue derived from income-tax may be roughly set down at £128,700 per annum.

The indirect taxation is made up of Customs duties, and excise duty on beer made in the colony.

The following statement shows the total amount raised by the General Government taxation in 1885, 1890, and the last five financial years ending 31st March:—

 Amount of Revenue raised by Taxation.Amount per Head of Population (excluding Maoris).
 ££s.d.
18852,016,73031010
18902,173,9853100
1895–962,335,761371
1896–972,521,9113110
1897–982,678,57631311
1898–992,707,0993133
1899–19002,891,12631610

The average annual amount of revenue raised by taxation during the nine years, 1882 to 1890 inclusive, was £3 8s. 11d. per head of population, excluding Maoris.

It may be well to call attention to the fact that a rise in the amount of taxation per head of population may indicate (outside the question of increasing the rate of any particular tax levied) a satisfactory condition of business, as showing activity. In regard to the Customs, notwithstanding modifications of the tariff in 1895, the value of the imports for 1899–1900 was greater than for 1897–98 or 1898–99, which would seem to show greater purchasing power than before, and that profits of trade would still allow of a large amount of duty being paid. The quantity of stocks in hand at the beginning and end of the two years, and any disturbance in prices during the period, may modify the above argument.

As the Maoris contribute somewhat to the Customs revenue, an allowance should be made on that account to ascertain more correctly the amount of taxation per head of the rest of the people. By including Maoris the Customs and excise duties per head of the rest of the population would be reduced by 2s. 11d. for the year 1899–1900. If this amount be deducted from the taxation per head given for that year, the rate would be reduced from £3 16s. 10d. to £3 13s. 11d. This latter rate may fairly be used for comparison with the rates in the neighbouring colonies.

Of the total amount of taxation stated for the year 1899–1900, the indirect taxation, i.e., Customs and excise duties, amounted to £2,187,859, while land- and income-tax, with stamps for taxation, yielded £703,267, which constitutes direct taxation. So that the colony still raises more than 75 per cent. of its revenue from taxation by means of the indirect method.

A table of the Customs tariff is given in detail in Part I. of this book (pp. 71–85), and the duties leviable upon estates of deceased persons on page 88.

Growth of Amount paid in Income Tax.

The amounts paid by way of income tax, under a uniform rate of taxation, show great increase year by year, and afford satisfactory evidences of prosperity. These are quoted with a caution in regard to the figures for 1892 to 1895. The full number of persons properly liable to the tax may not have been ascertained at such time.

 Income-tax paid.
 £
1892–367,367
1893–475,238
1894–589,891
1895–692,778
1896–7105,504
1897–8115,210
1898–9115,480
1899–1900128,721

The increase from 1895–6 to 1899–1900 is £35,943, being a rate of 38.74 per cent., while the population increased during the same period by 7.88 per cent.

Taxation by Local Governing Bodies.

The various local bodies levied taxation during the year ended 31st March, 1899, to the amount of £782,531, or £1 1s. 2d. per head of European population. Of the total sum, £467,106 was raised by general rates, £218,664 by special and separate rates, £76,008 by licenses, and £20,753 by other taxes.

Taxation in Australasian Colonies.

The following were the rates of General Government taxation per head of population in the Australasian Colonies for 1898–9, specifying the proportions derived from Customs and other taxes:—

Colonies.Rate of Taxation per Head of Mean Population.Proportion of Taxation from Customs and Excise Duties.Ratio of Taxation by Customs to Value of Imports.
Customs and Excise.Other Taxes.Total.

* Or, including the Maoris, £3 10s. 5d. See remarks on previous page.

 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Queensland3030100310385.7921.44
New South Wales14101311118063.385.11
Victoria1180013112111173.1911.38
South Australia11420171211366.739.24
Western Australia5320795101192.9817.10
Tasmania29001211311179.1124.58
New Zealand (excluding Maoris)215301803133*75.4023.83

SUBSECTION C.—PUBLIC DEBT.

THE gross public debt of the colony on the 31st March, 1900, was £47,874,452, an increase of £936,446 on the amount owing at the end of the preceding financial year. A detailed statement of particulars relative to the various loans is supplied.

The total increase by the issue of debentures and conversion operations during the year was £1,021,446. On the other hand, debentures and stock amounting to £85,000 were redeemed, leaving, as stated before, a net increase to the gross public debt of £936,446.

The particulars of the items of increase are clearly shown below:—

 £
Debentures issued for— 
    Aid to public works and land settlement300,000
    Loans to local bodies115,500
    Purchase of land for settlement448,000
    Sinking-fund accretions50,400
Inscription— 
    New Zealand Consols55,562
    Conversion operations51,984
 1,021,446
Gross debt, 31st March, 189946,938,006
 £47,959,452
Debentures redeemed— 
    Aid to Public Works and Land Settlements Acts, 1896 and 189885,000
Gross debt on 31st March, 190047,874,452
 £47,959,452

The following table of the public debt of New Zealand states the debentures and stock in circulation on 31st March, 1900, under the several Loan Acts or Ordinances of the Colonial and Provincial Governments, the dates when redeemable, the sinking funds accrued in respect of the same, and the annual charge thereon for interest and sinking fund:—

PUBLIC DEBT ON 31ST MARCH, 1900.
Amount Outstanding.Due Date.Sinking funds. AccruedNet Indebtedness.Annual Charge.Remarks.
Rate.Amount.When payable.
Int.S.F.

*Only £200,000 has actually been issued to the public; the unsold debentures are available for the purpose of obtaining temporary advances from time to time.

 ££ ££c.c.£  
New Zealand Loan Act, 1863 266,30015 July, 1914123,303142,9975115,97815 Jan. and 15 July 
Consolidated Loan Act, 1867 389,700Ann. drawing 389,7005 19,485Quarterly, 15 Jan., &c. 
Immigration and Public Works Loan Act, 1870 1,000,000*1 June, 1907610,826389,17442.464,0001 Juno and 1 Dec.Sinking Fund payable 13 Mar. and 13 Sept.
Canterbury Loan Ordinance, 18623,80016,0002 Jan., 191511,7884,212611,12030 June and 31 Dec. 
12,2002 July, 1916
Otago Loan Ordinance, 1862 4001 July, 1898 400   Debentures not presented for payment. 
Consolidated Loan Act, 1867 13,00015 April, 1913 13,0004 52015 April and 15 Oct. 
Immigration and Public Works Loan Act, 1870363,000390,90015 April, 1913 363,000414,52015 April and 15 Oct.  
27,90015 April, 1913 27,9004 1/21,25615 April and 15 Oct.  
Defence and other Purposes Loan Act, 187025,000100,0001 July, 1910 25,0004 1/21,12530 June and 31 Dec.  
75,00015 April, 1913 75,00043,00015 April and 15 Oct.  
General Purposes Loan Act, 187317,40082,90015 Oct., 1913 17,4004 69615 April and 15 Oct. 
10,80015 May, 1914 10,8004 43215 May and 15 Nov. 
54,70028 Nov., 1914 54,7005 2,73515 May and 15 Nov. 
District Railways Purchasing Acts, 1885-8640,000137,1001 July, 1909 40,000 97,1006 2,4001 April and 1 Oct. 
97,1001 April, 1905 97,1004 3,884
        Carried forward 2,396,300 745,9171,650,383  131,151  
Brought forward 2,396,300 745,9171,650,383  131,151 * Represents the accrued Sinking Fund in respect of the total amount issued under “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886,” of which £912,300 has been converted into Consolidated Stock debentures.
Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886 442,60031 Dec., 1900198,458244,1423 1/21 1/235,814†1 Mar. and 1 Sept. 
Consolidated Stock Act, 1877 29,150,3021 Nov., 1929 29,150,3024 1,166,0121 May and 1 Nov. 
 6,161,1671 Jan., 1940 6,161,1673 1/2 215,6411 Jan. and 1 July. 
 5,855,8101 April. 1945 5,855,8103 175,674†1 April and 1 Oct. 
Consolidated Stock Act, 1884—          
Colonial Issue 104,7001 Sept., 1905 104,7003 1/2 3,6641 Mar. and 1 Sept.† The Sinking Fund is payable on £1,354,900; the Land Assurance Fund is also charged with 1/2 per cent. as a contribution towards Sinking Fund.
Naval and Military Settlers' and Volunteers' Land Act, 1892 32031 Oct., 1899 320§  † £60,000 of this amount will be recouped by the Government Advances to Settlers Office.  
Native Land Purchases Act, 1892 125,00031 Oct., 1900 125,0001/2 4,37530 April and 31 Oct.§ Debentures not presented for payment.
Land for Settlements Act, 1892 45,27631 Oct., 1906 45,2763 1/21,58530 April and 31 Oct.  
Land for Settlements Acts, 1894, 1897, and 1899739,4901,536,49031 Oct., 1906 45,2963 1/2 1,58530 April and 31 Oct. 
349,0001 April, 1909 349,0003 3/4 25,88230 April and 31 Oct. 
62,0001 April, 1909 62,0003 1/2 2,1701 April and 1 Oct. 
30,00031 Oct., 1906 30,0003 1/2 1,05030 April and 31 Oct. 
300,0001 April, 1902 300,0004 12,0001 April and 1 Oct. 
56,0001 April, 1905 56,0004 2,2401 April and 1 Oct. 
Lands Improvement and Native Lands Acquisition Act,1894 400,00030 Sept.,1908 281,000411,32031 Mar. and 30 Sept.  
117,0003 1/24,09531 Mar. and 30 Sept.  
New Zealand Consols Act, 1894 441,4871 Feb., 1910 441,4873 1/2 15,4521 Feb. and 1 Aug. 
Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1896, and Amendment Acts, 1897, 1898, and 1899250,0001,215,0001 Feb., 1902 250,0003 1/2 8,7501 Feb. and 1 Aug.¶ Loan may be paid off at any time after 15th February, 1907, on six months' notice being given.
500,00015 Aug., 1921¶ 500,0003 1/2 17,50015 Feb. and 15 Aug.¶ per cent. over bank rate; varying interest, calculated at 3 1/2 per cent.
15,00031 Oct., 1903 15,000 525  
150,0004 Jan., 1904 150,000 5,250  
100,00015 Jan., 1905 100,000 3,500  
100,00015 Feb., 1905 100,000 3,500  
100,00015 Mar., 1905 100,000 3,500  
        Totals 47,874,452 944,37546,930,077 1,863,738   

Treasury Bills amounting to £700,000 are not included.

Net Indebtedness: Comparison with past Years.

The net public debt, after deducting the accrued sinking fund (£944,128), was on 31st March, 1900, £46,930,324, an increase of £849,597 during the year. More than eight years' revenue, ordinary and territorial, at the present rate would thus be required to pay off the net debt of the colony. The net indebtedness per head of population for 1899-1900 is greater than in 1898-99 by 2s. 11d. In March, 1890, it stood at £60 5s. 3d.; in 1891, £59 11s. 10d.; in 1892, £59 2s.; in 1893, £58 2s. 7d.; in 1894, £57 8s. 10d.; in 1895, £57 9s. 9d.; in 1896, £60 2s. 4d.; in 1897, £60 13s. 9d.; in 1898, £60 4s. 11d.; in 1899, £61 14s. 4d.; and in 1900, £61 17s. 3d. But, when considering the increase of the amount of debt per head as a burden on the people, regard should be paid to the effect of conversions on the amounts paid by way of charges of the public debt out of the revenue year by year. Remarks on this subject are made, and figures given, further on, under the head of interest and sinking funds; also previously under revenue, which is shown to have been relieved substantially since the year 1890.

Years ended 31st March.Estimated Population.Amount of Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Gross Indebtedness per Head of European Population.Amount of Sinking Fund accrued.Net Indebtedness.Net Indebtedness per Head of European Population.
  ££s.d.£££s.d.
1890618,65738,667,950621011,386,18537,281,7656053
1891626,65838,830,350611941,487,04237,343,308591110
1892637,47238,713,068601481,037,86237,675,2065920
1893656,18739,257,840591671,113,77038,144,0705827
1894676,74739,826,41558170951,92438,874,49157810
1895689,47540,386,96458116751,93239,635,0325799
1896703,18743,050,7806145778,89142,271,8896024
1897717,64944,366,61361165814,29443,552,32460139
1898731,71344,963,4246190881,90344,081,52160411
1899746,67346,938,00662173857,27946,080,72761144
1900758,61647,874,4526322944,37546,930,07761173

The debt of the colony as above stated does not include the unpaid loans raised by the several local bodies, amounting at the end of March, 1899, to £6,963,254, of which sum £5,485,100 was raised outside the colony. These are referred to in dealing with the finance of local bodies.

Increase of Gross Public Debt.

The increase of the gross public debt since the 31st March, 1891, amounts to £9,044,102. A schedule of items composing this sum is subjoined. It shows the purposes to which the money raised has been or is being devoted. The largest item is £2,000,000 raised for advances to settlers, which represents investments by the Government bearing interest and lent on continually improving security, the principal being repaid by instalments.

Other items which may be considered to represent interest-bearing investments are those under the heads “Land Settlement,” “Native Land Purchases,” “Loans to Local Bodies,” “Lands Improvement,” “N.Z. Consols,” and “Bank of N.Z. Preferred Shares.”

  £
Gross Public Debt, 31st March, 1900 47,874,452
Gross Public Debt, 31st March, 1891 38,830,350
                    Increase £9,044,102
 £ 
Native Land Purchases649,700 
Land Settlement (including Cheviot)1,856,566 
Loans to Local Bodies1,029,900 
Lands Improvement500,000 
Advances to Settlers2,000,000 
Bank of N.Z. Preferred Shares500,000 
N.Z. Consols441,487 
District Railways47,000 
Public Works1,635,000 
Increase by Conversions678,712 
Sinking Fund Accretions1,354,900 
Naval and Military Settlers27,226 
  £
  10,720,491
    Less Redemptions—  
            Consolidated Stock Act, 1884, Debentures1,260,420 
            Other Debentures415,969 
  1,676,389
                Total net increase £9,044,102

Interest and Sinking Fund.

Of the total amount of outstanding public debt at the end of March, 1900—viz., £47,874,452—more than thirty-one millions sterling bore interest at the rate of 4 per cent., over nine millions sterling at 3 1/2 per cent., and nearly six millions sterling at 3 per cent. The following are the rates of interest payable on the complete public debt:—

Rates of Interest.Amount at each Rate.

*Including £465,000 on which the interest paid was one quarter per cent. over bank rate: varying rate averaging 3 1/2 per cent.

† Debentures not presented for payment.

 £
6 per cent.56,000
5 per cent.710,700
4 1/2 per cent.52,900
4 per cent.31,365,602
3 3/4 per cent.349,000
3 1/2 per cent.9,483,720*
3 per cent.5,855,810
Nil720†
                Total£47,874,452

The total amount of interest payable to bondholders on the full amount of the public debt as quoted above is £1,816,592, which gives an average rate of £3 15s. 11d. per £100. On the total public debt outstanding on the 31st March, 1891, the average interest charge was £4 10s. 3d. per £100. During the period 1891-1900, therefore, the average rate is found to have declined nearly 16 per cent.

The above refers to interest payable to bondholders only, and has nothing to do with sinking fund requirements, which are included in the whole annual charge of the public debt.

The actual payments during six years for interest and sinking fund are shown hereunder, together with the percentage of ordinary and territorial revenue absorbed by the public debt charges:—

Year ended 31st March.Amounts actually paid for Interest and Sinking Fund.Rate per Head of Mean Population.Percentage of Revenue absorbed by Public Debt Charges.
Public Debt.Treasury Bills.Total.
Interest.Sinking Fund.Total.Interest.
 ££££££s.d. 
18951,619,92557,9791,677,90438,9851,716,889210338.96
18961,602,93341,1831,644,11639,6591,683,77528436.96
18971,630,57741,8581,672,43537,0341,709,46928235.62
18981,668,69743,3801,712,07729,3361,741,41328134.28
18991,689,74944,6511,734,40033,0681,767,468271033.61
19001,674,61846,0731,720,69128,7031,749,39426631.07

NOTE.—The alteration made in 1894-95 of the system which previously obtained in dealing with the drawing loan of 1867 has affected the comparison of the figures for the last six years with those preceding, The total amount actually paid for interest and sinking fund in 1889-90 was, under the old system, £1,897,602. The figures for each of the years ended March, 1890 to 1894 inclusive, will be found in the Year-book for 1899.

The amount actually paid for interest and sinking fund during 1899-1900 was £18,074 less than that for the previous year, and the rate of charge per head of population decreased considerably, notwithstanding the increase of the public debt by no less than £936,446. Savings in interest-charge effected by conversion operations have assisted to bring about this satisfactory result.

The lowering of the burden on the public revenue by the lessened charges of the public debt is shown in the last column of the table.

The securities in which the sinking funds were held, as on the 31st March, 1900, are specified in the statement following:—

STATEMENT of the SECURITIES in which the SINKING FUNDS of the several LOANS were invested on the 31st March, 1900.
Investments in—   
 £s.d.
        New Zealand 5-per-cent. Debentures3,47000
        New Zealand 4 1/2-per-cent. Debentures1,70000
        New Zealand 4-per-cent. Inscribed Stock120,731167
        New Zealand 3 1/2-per-cent. Inscribed Stock2,57137
        County of Tauranga 5-per-cent. Debentures6000
        Borough of Brunner 6-per-cent. Debentures84000
        Borough of Hokitika 6-per-cent. Debentures1,86000
        Borough of Patea 4 1/2-per-cent. Debentures20000
        Borough of Tauranga 5-per-cent. Debentures20000
        Borough of Thames 5 1/2-per-cent. Debentures90000
        Westport Harbour Board 4-per-cent. Debentures55000
        Waimakariri-Ashley Water-supply Board 5-per-cent. Debentures32000
        Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company 5-per-cent. Debentures54000
        Government Loans to Local Bodies 3 1/2 per-cent. Debentures52000
        Mortgages103,30000
        New South Wales 4-per-cent. Debentures20,80000
        New South Wales 4-per-cent. Stock5,48667
        New South Wales 3 1/2-per-cent. Stock84,269134
        New South Wales 3-per-cent. Stock37,78170
        Victoria 4-per-cent. Debentures21,80000
        Victoria 4-per-cent. Stock43,233174
        Victoria 3 1/2-per-cent. Stock77,00941
        Victoria 3 per cent. Stock8,444137
        South Australia 4-per-cent. Debentures24,70000
        South Australia 4-per-cent. Stock4,85105
        South Australia 3 1/2-per-cent. Stock38,068116
        South Australia 3-per-cent. Stock63,56815
        South Australia 3-per-cent. Consols22,253145
        Canada 4-per-cent. Debentures18,20000
        Canada 4-per-cent. Stock60,00000
        Canada 3 1/2-per-cent. Stock34,022118
        Canada 3-per-cent. Stock32,670173
        Canada 2 1/2 per-cent. Stock13,6661511
 848,589148
                    Cash balance on 31st March, 190095,78603
                        Total£944,3751411

Flotation of Loans.

Of the gross public debt of the colony outstanding on 31st March, 1900, £43,299,679 were raised in London, £181,600 in Australia, and £4,393,173 in New Zealand; and of the total amount £41,608,766 were inscribed stock and £6,265,686 debentures. Details are given hereunder.

  Floated in 
Kind of Stock.London.Australia.New Zealand.Total.
Debentures2,132,400181,6003,951,6866,265,686
Inscribed Stock41,167,279 441,48741,608,766
        Total43,299,679181,6004,393,17347,874,452

Prices of New Zealand Stock.

The highest and lowest London prices for the New Zealand 4, 3 1/2, and 3-per-cent. stock, taken over a range of twelve years, are quoted:—

QUOTATIONS, NEW ZEALAND STOCK.
Year4 per Cents.3 1/2 per Cents.3 per Cents.
 Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.
1888104 1/296 1/4    
1889109 1/499 5/8    
1890109 1/8102 1/498 5/893 1/4  
1891107 1/210098 1/491 1/8  
1892106 5/81009891 1/2  
1893107 1/49797 1/290  
1894109 7/8105 3/8103 1/296 1/4  
1895113 1/2105 5/8107 1/210095 3/491
1896118 1/4106 1/2110 3/8101 1/2103 1/290
1897117112 3/8111104 3/410299 1/2
1898116 7/8108109 7/8103101 1/296 1/2
1899116 1/2105 1/210910299 1/494 1/4

Prices of Australasian Stock.

The prices of stock of the Australasian Colonies in London for the years 1893 and 1897 show the position as affected by the financial and banking crisis in the former year, and the improvement that had taken place since 1893 and as late as 1897.

Colony.Year when Stock Redeemable.Prices, 1893.*Prices, 1897.
Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.

* Figures taken from Victorian Year-book, 1894.

† Debentures.

‡ Rate for week ending 19th May, time of Australian banking crisis.

§ At any time on or after 1st January, 1920, on giving twelve months' notice.

4 PER CENTS.
Queensland1915-24103 1/289116111
New South Wales193311197 1/2123 3/4117 1/2
Victoria1920103 1/495115111 1/8
South Australia1917-36105 3/893114 1/2111 1/4
Western Australia1934107 1/2102123 3/4120
Tasmania1911†102 3/497 1/4110105
New Zealand1929107 1/497117112 3/8
3 1/2 PER CENTS.
Queensland192492 1/475108 5/8104 5/8
New South Wales192497 1/883 1/8111 1/2107 3/4
Victoria192393 1/879‡108 3/8104 1/4
South Australia19399685 1/2113 1/2109 3/4
Tasmania1920-40§9684111 1/8105 1/2
New Zealand194097 1/290111104 3/4

Public Debt of Australasian Colonies, &c.

The following figures, which, with the exception of those for New Zealand, are taken from Mr. Coghlan's Australasian Statistics, show the public debt of each colony in 1898 or 1899:—

Colony.Date.Public Debt.Debt per Head of Population.
Fixed Debt.Floating Debt.Total.   
* As shown previously (see page 398), the amount of accrued sinking fund reduces this by more than £1 per head.
  ££££s.d.
Queensland31 Dec., 189833,598,414 33,598,4146629
New South Wales30 June, 189961,580,0822,181,58463,761,66646198
Victoria30 June, 189949,264,2771,115,00050,379,27742162
South Australia31, Dec., 189824,672,810243,50024,916,3106798
Western Australia30 June, 18998,938,3631,550,00010,488,3636251
Tasmania31 Dec., 18987,721,420691,4848,412,9044789
New Zealand31 Mar., 189946,938.006 46,938,00662173*

The amount of indebtedness per head of population in December, 1898, in South Australia and Queensland was thus greater than that for New Zealand in March, 1899.

Public Works in New Zealand.

The burden of a public debt depends greatly on the measure in which it is expended on reproductive works, and on the degree of prosperity enjoyed by the people. The generally rugged character of this country, and the natural difficulties appertaining to the sites of many of the towns, soon necessitated a large outlay on roads and public works. The need was fully recognised, and to some extent met, by the Provincial Governments, which have justly received great credit for their far-seeing and liberal exertions. A great deal of road-making, often of a very costly character, was accomplished, harbour and other improvements begun, and immigration encouraged. Some railways were made in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. The City of Christchurch and the Canterbury Plains were connected with the Port of Lyttelton by a railway, which required the construction of a long and very costly tunnel through the intervening range of hills. In Otago, private enterprise, backed by the guarantee of the Provincial Government, built a railway from Dunedin to Port Chalmers, and some miles of line were made in Southland from the town of Invercargill into the interior; but no general and comprehensive scheme of public works could be carried out by the separate exertions of the Provincial Governments. In 1870, therefore, the General Government brought forward its public-works and immigration policy, by which it was proposed to raise a loan of ten millions for the construction of main trunk railways, roads, and other public works of importance to the colony as a whole, as well as for the promotion of immigration on a large scale, the expenditure to be spread over a period of ten years. This policy was accepted by the Legislature, and embodied in “The Immigration and Public Works Act, 1870.”

The demands for local railways and other works soon caused the original proposals to be exceeded, and entailed an expenditure at a much more rapid rate and to a far greater amount than was originally contemplated. Although many of the works undertaken have been directly unremunerated, yet the effect of the policy, as a whole, has been largely to develop the settlement of the country, and to increase enormously the value of landed property; land, in parts which before the construction of railways was valued at from £1 to £2 per acre, having been subsequently sold at prices varying from £10 to £20 per acre. Moreover, the railway and telegraph-lines yield a revenue which covers a large portion of the interest on their cost after paying working-expenses.

Utilisation of Money composing Public Debt.

A statement is supplied based on figures taken from the Colonial Treasurer's Budget of 1897 (to which the necessary additions have been made), showing the purposes for which the money forming the public debt of the colony was raised or voted.

But the amounts in the items must be regarded as only approximations to the actual facts. The information is merely indicative of the truth, and is a revision of what was given in the Year-book, 1899, which was found to be not as near to correctness as possible in places.

PUBLIC DEBT OF NEW ZEALAND, MARCH, 1900, SHOWING APPROXIMATELY THE AMOUNTS RAISED OR VOTED UNDER VARIOUS HEADS, ARRANGED IN FOUR CLASSES.
 On 31st March, 1900.

*NOTE.—Only a portion of expenditure of old Provincial Governments on railways became public debt of the colony. The total expenditure on railways (Provincial and General Government), to 31st March, 1900, was over seventeen millions sterling, which includes £1,104,281 spent by the Provincial Governments, of which £82,259 was for the Dunedin and Port Chalmers line.

 £
(a.) Railways15,619,000*
Lands improvement (roads and bridges)4,595,000
Public works and buildings3,799,000
Land-purchases2,150,000
Immigration2,459,000
Maori war2,357,000
Defence1,673,000
Telegraphs844,000
Goldfields and coal-mines733,000
Lighthouses and harbours495,000
(b.) Advances to settlers1,866,000
Loans to local bodies1,309,000
Purchase of lands for settlement1,878,000
Bank of New Zealand preferred shares500,000
New Zealand Consols deposits442,000
(c.) Deficiencies in revenue
Charges and expenses of raising loans
Provincial liabilities
4,771,000
(d.) Miscellaneous2,384,452
                Total public debt47,874,452

It will be found that on the 31st March, 1900, out of a total debt of £47,874,452 the amounts allocated for services formed approximately the following proportions of the whole:—

For Railways32.62
For Lands improvement (roads and bridges)9.60
For Public works and buildings7.94
For Land-purchases4.49
For Immigration5.14
For Maori war4.92
For Defence3.49
For Telegraphs1.76
For Goldfields and coal-mines1.53
For Lighthouses and harbours1.03

The total sum is divided into four classes in the table, of which (a.) is composed of the various services above referred to, and the total of which forms 72.53 per cent. of the whole debt in 1900. Class (b.) consists of moneys devoted to what may be termed investments, being 12.80 per cent. of the total; (c.) moneys paid away in charges and expenses of raising loans, also to meet deficiencies of revenue, besides old provincial liabilities, 9.97 per cent.; and (d.), an amount of over two millions and a quarter sterling, set down as miscellaneous, and forming 4.70 per cent, of the debt.

The figures given as to railways do not include all the sums spent by the Provincial Governments, as stated in the note to the table, nor do the figures in some other items agree with those given elsewhere, made up from tables showing the expenditure out of the Public Works Fund, which, as previously explained, is aug-augmented by contributions from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

Expenditure out of “The Public Works Fund.”

The net expenditure, under all heads, of the Public Works Fund from 1870 to the 31st March, 1900, can be given correctly, but this fund, as stated previously, is not altogether composed of money charged to the Public Debt. It had received £29,954,187 from loans and £3,164,188 by way of receipts in aid on the latter date. The money received by way of aid included £2,205,000, transferred from the Consolidated Fund during the last nine financial years, out of surplus revenue. Thirty-three millions sterling were spent since the year 1870 up to March last, and the items given below exhibit the nature of the works, &c., with amount for each.

NET EXPENDITURE OF PUBLIC WORKS FUND FROM 1870 TO 31 MARCH, 1900.
 £
Expenditure on— 
    Immigration2,147,505
    Public Works, Departmental446,384
    Railways, including Surveys of New Lines16,450,303
    Roads5,248,158
    Land Purchases1,936,282
    Development of Goldfields670,446
    Telegraph Extension856,057
    Public Buildings2,388,286
    Lighthouses, Harbour-works, and Defences959,096
    Contingent Defence512,310
    Rates on Native Lands63,553
    Thermal Springs14,600
    Charges and Expenses of raising Loans1,056,311
    Coal-mines10,835
    Interest and Sinking Fund218,500
                        Total32,978,626

Expenditure on Railways.

The expenditure on railway-works has been kept within comparatively narrow limits during the last few years. The railway expenditure during each of six quinquennial periods since the initiation of the public-works policy has been as follows:—

 £
1st July, 1870, to 30th June, 18753,575,362
1st July, 1875, to 31st March, 18804,919,712
1st April, 1880, to 31st March, 18853,120,680
1st April, 1885, to 31st March, 18902,308,319
1st April, 1890, to 31st March, 1895978,498
1st April, 1895, to 31st March, 19001,547,732
                        Total16,450,303

This great diminution in expenditure has necessarily involved proceeding with the railways at a very much slower rate, and New Zealand's expenditure on railways is now, with one exception, that of Tasmania, the lowest per head of the population of any of the Australasian Colonies. The following table shows the cost of railway-works, the mileage, the average cost per mile, the population, and the cost per head of the population in the several colonies referred to:—

Colony.Year ended.Cost of Construction of Open Lines.No. of Miles of Line open.Average Cost per Mile.Estimated Population.Cost per Head of Population

*Including Northern Territory.

  £ £ £s.d.
Queensland31 Dec., 189818,455,3172,7426,731498,5003705
New South Wales30 June, 189937,992,2762,70714,0351,351,5002823
Victoria30 June, 189838,593,2053,11312,3971,169,4003301
South Australia*30 June, 189813,919,2581,8707,443369,300371310
West'n Australia30 June, 18996,427,3701,3554,743169,600371711
Tasmania31 Dec., 18983,585,0404388,185177,3002045
New Zealand31 Mar., 189916,404,0762,0907,849746,70021195

In the foregoing table the cost per head of population for railway-construction is shown to have been between thirty-three and thirty-seven pounds sterling in the Colonies of Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia; in New South Wales it was over twenty-eight pounds; but in New Zealand and Tasmania the cost has been only a little over twenty pounds per head of population.

Chapter 51. SUPPLEMENTARY.
THE ASSETS REALISATION BOARD.

ON page 298 reference is made to the establishment of an Assets Realisation Board for the purchase, in connection with the affairs of the Bank of New Zealand, of all the assets of the Estates Company and of the Auckland Agricultural Company.

The sales for the year ending 31st March, 1899, amounted to £105,318. The proportion of sales from the beginning (31st March, 1896, when the Board took office) to the book-cost of the whole of the estates (£2,731,706) was at that date 15.20 per cent. The land-tax valuation, plus 10 per cent. for sundry properties, and the General Manager's valuation for station properties, which together total £1,895,179, gave then a proportion of 21.91 per cent.

Further Realisations.

The General Manager reports that during the year ended 31st March last (1900) sales have been made in larger volume and to greater value than for the previous year, and embrace 46,429 acres of country lands realising £111,137, and town and suburban lands and sundries to the value of £43,300.

The enhanced value of produce and stock has been responded to in land, and prices hitherto unobtainable have been secured.

Nothing has been lost by the Board's policy of feeding the market in no greater quantity than could be absorbed at fair values, and the Board has succeeded in all cases in selling at or over reserve prices without difficulty.

The keenest inquiry experienced has been in the South Island, where certain of the Board's estates have been cut up and sold at considerable advance on the prices quoted for the estate as a whole, Glentui having far exceeded anticipations. It is certain that the concluding sale of Glentui freehold was well timed, and had the Board's operations not been somewhat precipitated by outside representations, and had no portion been sold prior to the 31st December, 1899, there would have been a considerable addition to the surplus on the property.

The sales for the year are as follow:—

 £
Land154,437
Stock and implements on properties finally realised13,909
 £168,346

Land sales being £34,917 in excess of those for the previous year.

The sales for the period 1895-1900, including stock, amount to £583,571.

On 31st March the proportion of total sales from time of starting to the book-cost of all estates (£2,731,706) was 21.40; and to land-tax valuation, plus 10 per cent. for sundry properties, with the manager's valuation for station properties (which together total £1,895,179), it was 30.79.

Particulars of operations are—

 £
Sales of properties finally closed, 1895-1900 (including stock)360,534
Properties partially sold, 1895-1900223,037
 £583,571

The book-cost of the estates in respect of which the sales were finally closed was £518,506. These properties are shown above to have realised £360,534, leaving a deficiency of £157,972, including the realisation expenses, &c.

The localities in which sales have been made are shown here-under:-

 Estates.Farms.Town Sections.Suburban Properties.£
Auckland493538151158,819
Hawke's Bay  9 2,304
Wellington 1729186,289
Marlborough1463619,414
Canterbury3591863206,056
Otago255649565,817
     538,699
Sundry proceeds: sales iron, furniture, fire insurance received, &c.7,810
Stock sales on properties finally closed37,062
     £583,571

SPECIAL BANKING LEGISLATION.

A SYNOPSIS of the Banking Acts under which guarantees have been given by the Government of New Zealand will be found on pages 296 to 299 ante.

Chapter 52. MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS.

I.—PROGRESS OF THE COLONY, YEARS 1899 AND 1891.

SUMMARY.

  1899.1891Increase.
Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris), 31st December 756,505634,058122,447
Value of land and improvements—    
            Unimproved value(1898)84,401,24475,787,8958,613,349
            Value of improvements(1898)54,190,10346,365,2977,824,806
Land in cultivation—    
Holdings (in cultivation)No.*62,48538,083*24,402
            Total area (including sown grasses and land in fallow, but excluding gardens and orchards (41,291 acres) and plantations of forest trees (48,942 acres))Acres12,474,5118,462,4954,012,016
            In crops1,542,4581,285,768256,690
            In sown grasses10,853,3026,966,2133,887,084
            In fallow78,751210,509-131,758
Live-stock—    
            HorsesNo.261,931211,04050,891
            Cattle1,210,439831,831378,608
            Dairy cows (included above)343,556206,906136,650
            Sheep19,348,50616,753,7522,594,754

AUCKLAND PROVINCIAL DISTRICT, 1899-1891.

  1899.1891.Increase.

NOTE.—The minus sign (-) signifies decrease.

* The comparison is not quite a fair one, as in 1899 holdings of exactly one acre in extent, and certain holdings occupied by Maoris, have been included by the Department of Agriculture, which was not done in 1891.

Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris) 165,793134,72431,069
Value of land and improvements—    
            Unimproved value(1898)14,236,61112,196,4242,040,187
            Value of improvements(1898)10,538,8718,830,8921,707,979
Land in cultivation—    
            HoldingsNo.*14,8068,608*6,198
            Total area (including sown grasses and land in fallow)Acres1,926,8561,165,441761,415
            In crops115,12570,03845,087
            In sown grasses1,794,4811,060,741733,740
            In fallow17,25034,662-17,412
Live-stock—    
            HorsesNo.69,02842,82626,202
            Cattle335,744234,306101,438
            Dairy cows (included above)69,42446,18223,242
            Sheep2,082,1211,500,102582,019

TARANAKI PROVINCIAL DISTRICT, 1899-1891.

  1899.1891.Increase.
Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris) 34,48622,42112,065
Value of land and improvements—    
            Unimproved value(1898)4,064,5102,982,6441,081,866
            Value of improvements(1898)2,913,8881,529,0451,384,843
Land in cultivation—    
            HoldingsNo.*4,2952,504*1,791
            Total area (including sown grasses and land in fallow)Acres726,697308,072418,625
            In crops25,02215,3809,642
            In sown grasses701,221291,471409,750
            In fallow4541,221-767
Live-stock—    
            HorsesNo.17,47110,9156,556
            Cattle202,307103,35698,951
            Dairy cows (included above)70,01126,95143,060
            Sheep508,665240,471268,194

HAWKE'S BAY PROVINCIAL DISTRICT, 1899-1891.

  1899.1891.Increase.
Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris) 37,13928,9228,217
Value of land and improvements—    
            Unimproved value(1898)6,747,0436,704,82042,223
            Value of improvements(1898)4,273,8643,864,044409,820
Land in cultivation—    
            HoldingsNo.*3,2981,913*1,385
            Total area (including sown grasses and land in fallow)Acres1,762,5981,085,454677,144
            In crops38,45736,2182,239
            In sown grasses1,714,6751,021,277693,398
            In fallow9,46627,959-18,493
Live-stock—    
            HorsesNo.18,32413,4804,844
            Cattle97,10855,00942,099
            Dairy cows (included above)13,3249,0394,285
            Sheep3,291,8762,668,893622,983

WELLINGTON PROVINCIAL DISTRICT, 1899-1891.

  1899.1891.Increase.

NOTE.—The minus sign (-) denotes decrease.

* See note on page 409.

Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris) 132,42099,09833,322
Value of land and improvements—    
            Unimproved value(1898)16,772,59512,456,6124,315,983
            Value of improvements(1898)12,133,5708,874,9703,258,600
Land in cultivation—    
            HoldingsNo.*9,9775,808*4,169
            Total area (including sown grasses and land in fallow)Acres2,515,4831,508,5871,006,896
            In crops97,38963,31334,076
            In sown grasses2,416,2321,440,893975,339
            In fallow1,8624,381-2,519
Live-stock—    
            HorsesNo.40,85730,54210,315
            Cattle234,526155,46679,060
            Dairy cows (included above)65,02130,61534,406
            Sheep4,070,7372,750,4611,320,276

MARLBOROUGH, NELSON, AND WESTLAND PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS, 1899-1891.

  1899.1891.Increase.
Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris)—    
            Marlborough Provincial District 13,49912,964535
            Nelson Provincial District 38,14235,1542,988
            Westland Provincial District 15,04215,929-887
Value of land and improvements—    
            Unimproved value(1898)6,851,5067,395,637-544,131
            Value of improvements(1898)3,937,7023,555,449382,253
Land in cultivation—    
            HoldingsNo.*5,2153,200*2,015
            Total area (including sown grasses and land in fallow)Acres805,532475,860329,672
            In crops75,75855,43120,327
            In sown grasses726,947411,199315,748
            In fallow2,8279,230-6,403
Live-stock—    
            HorsesNo.15,43615,181255
            Cattle64,49148,81615,675
            Dairy cows (included above)19,76113,7596,002
            Sheep1,639,1661,631,4567,710

CANTERBURY PROVINCIAL DISTRICT, 1899-1891.

  1899.1891.Increase.
Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris) 145,058129,90115,157
Value of land and improvements—    
            Unimproved value(1898)20,458,82519,148,8671,309,958
            Value of improvements(1898)10,132,43210,073,19659,236
Land in cultivation—    
            HoldingsNo.*10,9657,563*3,402
            Total area (including sown grasses and land in fallow)Acres2,401,4352,034,813366,622
            In crops617,315566,15351,162
            In sown grasses1,769,8711,409,785360,086
            In fallow14,24958,875-44,626
Live stock—    
            HorsesNo.47,10447,567-463
            Cattle89,24282,0587,184
            Dairy cows (included above)37,71131,2506,461
            Sheep4,040,4563,559,533480,923

OTAGO PROVINCIAL DISTRICT, 1899-1891.

  1899.1891.Increase.

NOTE.—The minus sign (-) denotes decrease.

* See note on page 409.

Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris) 174,664154,65020,014
Value of land and improvements—    
            Unimproved value(1898)15,270,15414,902,891367,263
            Value of improvements(1898)10,259,7769,637,701622,075
Land in cultivation—    
            HoldingsNo.*13,9298,487*5,442
            Total area (including sown grasses and land in fallow)Acres2,335,9101,884,268451,642
            In crops573,392479,23594,157
            In sown grasses1,729,8751,330,852399,023
            In fallow32,64374,181-41,538
Live stock—    
            HorsesNo.53,71150,5293,182
            Cattle186,991152,82034,171
            Dairy cows (included above)68,30449,11019,194
            Sheep3,715,4854,402,836-687,351

The population of the Chatham and Kermadec Islands, which are not included in any provincial district, was 262 persons in 1899, and 295 in 1891.

II.—THE TOTALISATOR.

Year.No. of Totalisator Licenses issued.Days.Percentage paid to Treasury.Total Amount Invested by the Public.
N.B.—The years used for purposes of the table are financial years, not the racing years. This accounts for the number of licenses issued in some of the periods being over the legal limit for one year.
   ££
1889-90187241  
1890-91219278  
1891-922343007,591506,078
1892-9324030710,800720,029
1893-9424731810,375691,673
1894-9520726810,446696,456
1895-9617025611,156743,763
1896-9715825011,911794,096
1897-9815526813,297886,567
1898-9914425013,695912,969
1899-190015417815.9831,065,580

III.—LICENSES UNDER THE GAMING AND LOTTERIES ACT, GRANTED TO RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

RETURN of LICENSES granted by the Colonial Secretary under “The Gaming and Lotteries Act, 1881,” to Persons connected with Religious Denominations.

Year.Total Number of Licenses granted.Church of England.Presbyterian Church.Roman Catholic Church.Jewish Church.Not stated.
1894-9546910234 
1895-9648811821 
1896-976230329  
1897-9870352321 
1898-99401426   

PART III.—ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS

Table of Contents

Chapter 53. SECTION I.—THE LAND SYSTEM OF NEW ZEALAND.

S. PERCY SMITH, F.R.G.S., Secretary for Crown Lands and Surveyor-General.

THE Crown lands of New Zealand are administered under “The Land Act, 1892,” together with its amendments and the regulations made thereunder.

The distinguishing features of the present land system are the outcome of ideas which have been gradually coming to maturity for some years past in this colony. These features involve the principle of State ownership of the soil, with a perpetual tenancy in the occupier. This, whatever may be the difference in detail, is the prevailing characteristic of the several systems under which land may now be selected. In New Zealand this tendency to State ownership has taken a more pronounced form than in any other of the Australasian Colonies, and the duration of the leases has become so extended as to warrant the name, frequently given to them, of “everlasting leases.” In point of fact, most of the Crown lands are now disposed of for terms of 999 years. The rentals are based on the assessed value of the land at the time of disposal, without increase or recurring valuations. Under this system there is a fixity of tenure practically equal to freehold, and which, like freehold, necessarily carries with it the power of sale, sub-lease, mortgage, or disposition by will. Since all lands held under the Crown by “lease in perpetuity” are subject to the land-tax, the necessity for the periodical revaluations under the perpetual-lease system is done away with, the State reaping the advantage of the unearned increment through the before-mentioned tax. At the same time the improvements made in the soil by cultivation, &c., are secured to the tenant.

The advantages of this system to the selector are manifest. When it is taken into consideration that, with few exceptions, the Crown lands are, in their prairie condition, incapable of producing anything until brought into cultivation, the advantage to the settler of setting free his capital to develop the capabilities of the soil, rather than having to expend it in the purchase of a freehold, is very apparent. One of the most striking benefits of this system is the advantage it gives to the poor man, who, with little more capital than his strong right arm, is enabled to make a home for himself; which, under the freehold system, he is frequently unable to accomplish.

The values placed on the Crown lands are, as a rule, low, for the State does not so much seek to raise a revenue directly therefrom as to encourage the occupation of the lands by the people; this secures indirectly an increased revenue, besides other advantages resulting from a numerous rural population.

Again, underlying the whole of the New Zealand land system is a further application of the principle of “the land for the people”—viz., the restriction in area which any man may hold. This subject has been forced upon the attention of the Legislature by defects in former systems, under which one individual with means at his command could appropriate large areas, to the exclusion of his poorer fellow-settler. Under existing conditions, where the price at which land is offered is fixed for ever, and where choice of selection is by ballot, the poor settler has the same chance as the rich one, and may, should he wish it, hold under the Crown as much land. The quantity that a selector may hold is so fixed as to encourage the class of small farmers, and up to the statutory limit the amount he may select is left entirely to himself. The Act defines the amount of land any one may select at 640 acres of first-class, or 2,000 acres of second-class land, inclusive of any land he may already hold. These limits apply to lands which are thrown open for “free selection,” as it is termed, but in some cases, where found desirable, the limit is by regulation made much smaller.

In addition to the many advantages offered by the “lease-in-perpetuity” system, the Land Act provides others, to meet the wants of different classes. The rule is almost invariable, that land thrown open for so-called “free selection” is offered to the public under three different tenures, the choice of which is left entirely to the would-be settler.

The three tenures are:—

  1. For cash, in which one-fourth of the purchase-money is paid down at once, and the remainder within thirty days. The title does not issue until certain improvements have been made on the land.

  2. Lease with a purchasing clause, at a 5-per-cent. rental on the value of the land; the lease being for twenty-five years with the right to purchase at the original upset price at any time after the first ten years.

  3. Lease in perpetuity, at a rental of 4 per cent. on the capital value, as already described above.

The present land-laws have been in force since the 1st November, 1892, and, therefore, the returns of the Department of Lands and Survey for the year ending the 31st March, 1900, in respect of lands the tenure of which is optional, will give a fair idea of that tenure most favoured by the public. The figures are:—

  1. Cash: 95 selections, 16,510 acres.

  2. Occupation with right of purchase: 395 selections, 117,771 acres.

  3. Lease in perpetuity: 348 selections, 111,108 acres.

“The Land Act, 1892,” provides for a special class of settlement called “small-farm associations,” which found favour with the public to a very considerable extent during the first three years after the Act of 1892 came into force, but is now superseded to a large extent by the “improved-farm settlements” system. The “small-farm association” system provides that, where not less than twelve individuals have associated themselves together for mutual help, such an association can, with the approval of the Minister of Lands, select a block of land of not more than 11,000 acres, but there must be a selector to each 200 acres in the block. The extreme limit that one person may hold is fixed at 320 acres. Settlements of this class are held on “lease in perpetuity” for 999 years, in a similar way to lands under the same tenure when thrown open for free selection. The conditions of residence and improvement are the same. The system offers many advantages to the settler, so long as the blocks of land are judiciously chosen, having regard to quality of land, access, markets, and the probability of employment being obtained in the neighbourhood. In the eagerness to obtain lands on such easy terms, these points have, in the past, not received sufficient attention by some of the associations, and in consequence their success remains to be proved.

Under “The Land Act, 1885,” there was a somewhat similar system, but it allowed of the acquisition of the freehold. This is now being taken advantage of to a considerable extent.

The following figures show the amount of settlement under both Acts on the 31st March, 1900. At that date there were 733 selectors, holding 130,463 acres under various tenures and in different parts of the country. Many of the settlements, where the conditions are favourable, are doing well. Others, in inaccessible parts, are barely holding their own.

The “village-settlement system” of New Zealand has become widely known in the Australian Colonies, and has excited much inquiry with a view to its adoption in other parts. It is believed, however, that this and the “small-farm association” settlements, referred to above, are often confounded in the minds of the public, for of recent years there has been no very great extension of village settlements in this colony. On the 31st March last there were 1,838 settlers holding land under the village-settlement system, which comprise 36,777 acres, and the total number of persons residing in these settlements was 5,323, the amount advanced by Government for houses, clearing, &c., being £25,932, of which £2,936 had been returned. The total value of improvements on the lands at the same date was £252,431. The above figures include the settlement on reserves and endowments.

The “improved-farm settlements” system during the last few years has largely taken the place of both the “village settlement” and the “small-farm association.” In order to find work for the unemployed, considerable areas of forest-clad Crown lands have been set aside, and small contracts for the clearing, burning, and sowing these with grass have been let. The land is then subdivided into small farms and let on “lease in perpetuity” at a rental sufficient to cover the cost of clearing, &c., together with a fair rental of the land. Up to the 31st March, 1900, 46 settlements had been allocated, covering an area of 76,069 acres, situate in various parts of the colony. At that date 499 settlers had been allotted sections, who, together with their families, numbered 1,974 persons who were residing on the lands. They had felled and grassed 23,674 acres. The amount paid to the settlers up to the 31st March, 1900, was £64,786, and the total value of improvements on the land (including the Government advances) was £95,394.

The size of holdings averages about 100 acres.

With respect to other methods of dealing with the Crown estate, the “Digest of the Land-laws” appended hereto will give sufficient particulars.

THE LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS ACTS.

Allusion has already been made to the dearth of Crown lands suitable for small settlements in localities where they are most needed—i.e., in settled districts, where the lands are frequently held in large estates, whose owners employ a good deal of labour. Not only is this the case in many parts of the colony, but there is also a want of land where the sons of settlers can obtain farms not far from the homes of their parents. To meet this want the Hon. J. McKenzie, the Minister of Lands, introduced into the Legislature in the session of 1892 a Bill intituled “The Land for Settlements Act,” which authorised the purchase from private individuals of suitable properties for subdivision into small farms not exceeding 320 acres in extent. Under the provisions of this and the amending Acts properties have been acquired, and subsequently divided into small farms and leased in perpetuity at a 5-per-cent. rental, on a capital value fixed at a sufficient rate to cover first cost, together with survey, administration, and roads (if required). The process of acquisition is as follows: Whenever a property is offered to the Government, if it is so situated as to meet the object of the Act, a report on it is obtained by a qualified Government officer, and, should his report be favourable, the question of purchase is then referred to a Board of Land Purchase Commissioners, composed of the Inspector, who is the permanent Chairman, three other Government officers, and a member of the local Land Board, whose training and duties qualify them to advise the Government as to whether the purchase is a suitable one, and as to the price which should be given for the property. It is only on the advice of this Board that the Government acts. In nearly all cases the properties acquired have been improved farms, situated in settled districts, where the tenants have some chance of obtaining employment in the vicinity. The amount which might be expended per annum under the Act of 1892 was £50,000; but the Act of 1894 extended this amount to £250,000, and it also provided that the limit of land which might be selected should be the same as under “The Land Act, 1892.” A further amendment of the Act in 1897 fixed the amount which might be spent yearly at £500,000. The Act also provides for the exchange of high-lying pastoral Crown lands for low-lying agricultural lands suitable for small holdings.

A new feature was introduced into the Act of 1894—namely, the power of taking lands compulsorily in cases where the Board could not agree with the owner as to price, &c., and where the Governor in Council decides that the possession of the land for purposes of subdivision is otherwise desirable. The amount payable to the owner is decided by a Compensation Court, composed of a Judge of the Supreme Court and two Assessors; one appointed by Government, the other by the owner of the property. Only one property has hitherto been acquired compulsorily, and that has since been disposed of on satisfactory terms.

The acquisition of lands under the Land for Settlements Acts should prove beneficial in providing homes for a large class of persons, who, from inexperience in the breaking in of new country or other reasons, are in a measure prohibited from occupying the waste lands of the Crown; and, moreover, as the properties acquired are all more or less improved, they seem to afford to the small-farmer class of the Old Country an opening for building up homes for themselves where their previous experience will be of use, instead of having to learn—often by sad experience—the methods adapted to a new and wild country.

“The Land for Settlements Act Amendment Act, 1896,” contains special provisions as to the disposal of lands acquired under “The Land for Settlements Act, 1894,” giving the preference to landless people, and requiring applicants for rural land to satisfy the Land Board as to their means to stock and cultivate the same and erect suitable buildings thereon. It gives the Board, in fact, a discretion as to who shall be entitled to apply for the lands. It also provides, in cases where buildings are on the land to be disposed of, that their value, apart from the capital value of the land, shall, with interest thereon at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum, be paid by the tenant in half-yearly instalments extending over a term of years.

Under “The Land for Settlements Act Amendment Act, 1899,' land may be compulsorily taken within a borough having a population of at least 15,000 persons, or within a radius of fifteen miles from the border thereof, for the purposes of providing workmen's homes or villages; but the area is restricted to not more than 100 acres every year within any such borough, or within the radius named above from the boundary of the borough.

The owner is left with right to retain an area of not more than 10 acres if in a borough, or 50 acres in any other case.

Special regulations have been made as to advances by Government to successful applicants for allotments, in aid of the cost of fencing and planting the same and building dwelling-houses thereon; and also special provisions as to allotments for workmen's homes, the area of which should not in any case exceed 3 acres.

Regulations giving full directions to applicants under this Act have been issued from time to time, which should be in the hands of every one before applying for lands under this Act.

An account of the operations under the Land for Settlements Acts will be found in Part II. of this work.

PURCHASE OF NATIVE LANDS BY GOVERNMENT.

From about the year 1823 (which is the date of the first recorded deed) until the 6th February, 1840, the date of the Treaty of Waitangi, lands in New Zealand were acquired by direct purchase from the Maoris by individual members of the white races. During the years 1837 to 1839, or about the time it became probable that the sovereignty of the islands would be assumed by the Queen, the greater number of these purchases were made, and they extended to most parts of the country. These purchases are technically known as “the Old Land Claims,” and their total number (including pre-emptive claims), as estimated by Commissioner F. Dillon Bell in 1862, was 1,376, covering an area of about 10,322,453 acres, out of which large area grants were recommended for 292,475 acres. These figures have been slightly added to since, but not to any very large extent. The large area shown above was reduced on survey to about 474,000 acres, situated principally to the north of Auckland. The difference in area between the amount granted and the total area surveyed became what are termed “surplus lands of the Crown.” It was held that the Native title had been fully extinguished over the whole area surveyed; but, as by statute the claimants could only be granted 2,560 acres each, the balance became vested in the Crown on the assumption of the sovereignty, the Native title having been fully extinguished.

In many cases the titles did not issue to those to whom the land was awarded, as they were compensated by scrip issued by the Government, with the understanding that such scrip was to be exercised in the purchase of Crown lands in the neighbourhood of Auckland, to which place it was desirable—so soon as the capital was founded—to draw a population. The lands thus paid for in scrip became Crown lands, and these, together with the surplus lands, have from time to time been disposed of by the Crown and settled on. The amount of scrip, &c., issued up to 1862 was over £109,000.

On the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on the 6th February, 1840, the pre-emptive right of purchase from the Maoris was ceded to the Queen, and consequently private purchase ceased. This remained the law until the passing of “The Native Land Act, 1862,” when the Crown relinquished its right of pre-emption, whilst at the same time the purchase of Native lands for the Crown did not abate, but continued side by side with the private purchases up to the passing of “The Native Land Court Act, 1894.”

From time to time since 1840 various sums were appropriated by Government or by Parliament for the acquisition of a Crown estate. Up to the date of passing of “The Native Land Act, 1862,” these operations were conducted by officers of the Government specially appointed, who, from a knowledge of the Maoris, their customs and disposition, were successful in securing large areas of land for settlement. It must be conceded that their operations as a whole were successful, and that the number of disputed cases arising out of their labours was exceedingly small. The Waitara purchase is, however, here excluded, for there were reasons of general policy affecting that sale which did not prevail in other cases. This purchase was the ostensible cause of the war of 1860 and following years, but the motives which led to it were far deeper than the mere purchase of a few acres—there was a great principle at stake.

The difference effected in the mode of purchase by “The Native Land Act, 1862,” was this: Previously, the title of the Maoris who were to receive payment for the land was decided by the Land Purchase officers; but the Act quoted set up a Court, presided over by able Judges, who determined the titles, which were afterwards registered in a special Court. Purchases have since been effected with the registered owners.

It is difficult to obtain figures showing the actual area acquired by the Crown from the Maoris up to 1870, but in round numbers it was 6,000,000 acres in the North Island; whilst the whole of the Middle Island, with the exception of reserves for the original Native owners, was acquired prior to the passing of “The Native Land Act, 1862.” Stewart Island was purchased from the Native owners by deed dated 29th June, 1864.

The Native rebellion of 1860-69 brought Native-land purchases, for the time being, practically to a standstill.

The Immigration and Public Works Acts of 1870 and 1873 appropriated £200,000 and £500,000, respectively, for the purchase of lands in the North Island; and these amounts have, up to the 31st of March, 1900, been augmented by further annual appropriations from the public funds and other loan-moneys, covering altogether a total expenditure since 1870 of £1,936,282, with the following results: Area finally acquired in the North Island from Natives, from 1870 to 31st March, 1900, 7,582,705 acres. Area under negotiation in the North Island on 31st March, 1900, 791,759 acres; interests therein finally acquired, 279,391 acres.

DIGEST OF THE LAND-LAWS.

Administration.

The Crown lands are administered, under the authority of “The Land Act, 1892,” by the Hon. the Minister of Lands at Wellington. For convenience the colony is divided into ten land districts, each being under the local direction of a Commissioner and a Land Board. The Commissioner's office is known as the principal land office, and in some of the larger districts there are one or more sub-offices. It is with these land offices the selector has to transact all business, from the first consultation of the maps to the final receipt of the Crown title.

Land Districts and Principal Land Offices.

The names of the land districts and of the towns where each principal office is situated are, beginning with the most northerly and taking them geographically, as under:—

Land District.Town where Principal Land Office is situated.
AucklandAuckland.
TaranakiNew Plymouth.
Hawke's BayNapier.
WellingtonWellington.
NelsonNelson.
MarlboroughBlenheim.
WestlandHokitika.
CanterburyChristchurch.
OtagoDunedin.
SouthlandInvercargill.

Classification of Lands, &c.

Crown lands are divided into three classes:—

  1. Town and village lands, the upset prices of which are, respectively, not less than £20 and £3 per acre; such lands are sold by auction:

  2. Suburban lands, the upset price of which may not be less than £2 an acre; these lands are also sold at auction:

  3. Rural lands, which may be disposed of at not less than £1 per acre for first-class, and 5s. an acre for second-class lands; such lands may be sold or leased by auction, or sold or leased on application.

No rural section may be larger than 640 acres in extent if first-class land, or 2,000 acres if second-class land, whether offered by auction or application. No person can select more than 640 acres of first-class or 2,000 acres of second-class land, including therein any land which he then holds. Pastoral runs are limited to areas which will carry 20,000 sheep or 4,000 cattle. No person can select more than one run.

Mode of acquiring Crown Lands.

Crown lands may be acquired as follows:—

  1. By auction, after survey, in which case one-fifth of the price is paid down at the time of sale, the balance within thirty days:

  2. By application, after the lands have been notified as open for selection, in which case the applicant fills up a form (to be obtained at any of the Land Offices) and makes the declaration and deposit required by the particular system he wishes to select under.

All applications, whether for surveyed or unsurveyed lands, are deemed to be simultaneous if made on the same day, and, if there be more than one applicant for the same land, the right of selection is determined by ballot.

Lands thrown open for application may be either surveyed or unsurveyed, and those not selected the first day remain open.

The Optional System of Selection.

Lands for selection are notified as open for application on and after a stated day, and, at the option of the applicant, may be obtained on any of the three following tenures: (a) Cash; (b) Occupation with the right of purchase; (c) Lease in perpetuity.

(a.) Cash.

If the land is surveyed, one-fifth of the price is to be paid down at the time of application, and the balance within thirty days; or, if the land is not completely surveyed, the survey-fee is paid on application, and goes towards the purchase of the land; the balance must be paid within thirty days of notice that the survey is completed.

A certificate of occupation will issue to the purchaser on final payment, which will be exchanged for a Crown title so soon as the Board is satisfied that the improvements mentioned on the next page have been completed.

(b.) Occupation with Right of Purchase.

Lands selected on this tenure are held under a license for twenty-five years. At any time subsequent to the first ten years, and after having resided and made the improvements hereinafter described, the licensee can, on payment of the upset price of the land, acquire the freehold. If the land be not purchased, the license may be exchanged for a lease in perpetuity.

The rent is 5 per cent. on the cash price of the land; a half-year's rent has to be paid in with the application, if surveyed land, which represents the half-year's rent due in advance on the 1st day of January or July following the selection. If the land is unsurveyed, the cost of survey is to be deposited, and is credited to the selector as so much rent paid in advance, counted from the 1st day of January or July following thirty days' notice of the completion of survey.

Residence and improvement of the land are compulsory, as hereinafter described.

(c.) Leases in Perpetuity.

Lands selected on this tenure are leased for 999 years, subject to the conditions of residence and improvements described below. The rental is 4 per cent. on the cash price of the land, and applications are dealt with in the same way as under the previous tenure (b), but there is at no time a right of purchase.

Two or more persons may make a joint application to hold as tenants in common under either of the two last-named tenures.

Residence and Improvements.

Under the two last-mentioned tenures, the conditions as to residence and improvements are:—

RESIDENCE—

  1. Must commence on bush or swamp lands within four years, and in open or partly open land within one year, from the date of selection:

  2. Must be continuous for six years on bush or swamp land, and for seven years on open or partly open land, on lands occupied with a right of purchase:

  3. Must be continuous for a term of ten years on lease-in-perpetuity lands.

The Board has power to dispense with residence in certain cases, such as where the selector is residing on adjacent lands, or is a youth or unmarried woman living with parents, and in a few other cases.

RESIDENCE implies the erection of a habitable house to be approved of by the Board.

IMPROVEMENTS which must be made are as follows:—

  1. Cash-tenure lands must be improved within seven years to an amount of £1 an acre for first-class land, and 10s. an acre for second-class land.

  2. Lands held on lease with right of purchase, or on lease in perpetuity, must be improved to an amount equal to 10 per cent. of the value of the land within one year from the date of the license or lease; within two years must be improved to the amount of another 10 per cent.; within six years must be improved to the value of another 10 per cent., making 30 per cent. in all within the six years. In addition to the above, the land must be further improved to an amount of £1 an acre for first-class land, and on second-class land to an amount equal to the net price of the land, but not more than 10s. an acre.

Improvements may consist of reclamation from swamps, clearing of bush, planting with trees or hedges, cultivation of gardens, fencing, draining, making roads, wells, water-tanks, water-races, sheep-dips, embankments or protective-works, or in any way improving the character or fertility of the soil; or the erection of any building, &c.; and cultivation includes the clearing of land for cropping, or clearing and ploughing for laying down with artificial grasses, &c.

Special-settlement Associations.

Under the existing regulations any number of persons, not less than twelve, may apply for a block of land of not less than 1,000 acres or more than 11,000 acres in extent, but the number of members must be such that there shall be one for every two hundred acres in the block, and no one can hold more than 320 acres, except in swamp lands, where the area may be 500 acres.

The capital value of lands within a special settlement is fixed after survey by special valuation, but may not be less than 10s. an acre; the rental is not less than 4 per cent. on the capital value, and the tenure is a lease in perpetuity.

Residence, occupation, and improvements are generally the same as already described, and applications have to be made in manner prescribed by regulations.

Applicants should apply to a Commissioner for a copy of the regulations, as they are liable to change at any time.

Improved-farm Settlements.

Special regulations are in force for this class of settlement, which should be applied for, but briefly the terms are as follow: Those who form settlements under these provisions are selected from the applicants by the Commissioner of Crown Lands, preference being given to married men. The areas of the farms may vary from 10 acres to 200 acres, according to locality; no settler can select more than one farm. The land is leased for 999 years at a rental of 4 per cent. on the improved capital value. The rates allowed for felling are those current in the district, but must not exceed £1 15s. per acre. Advances to cover cost of sowing with grass will be made, if required, likewise not more than £10 towards building a house or erecting fencing. Not more than 100 acres of felling will, however, be paid for. As a rule, the settlers can get employment on the road-works in the neighbourhood, but Government does not guarantee this.

Residence for the first ten years is compulsory, and improvements must be made in terms of Part III. of “The Land Act, 1892.” (See ante.)

Village Settlements.

Village settlements are disposed of under regulations made from time to time by the Governor, but the main features are as follow:—

Such settlements may be divided into:—

  1. Village allotments not exceeding one acre each, which are disposed of either by auction among the applicants or by application, as already described, with option of tenure, the cash price being not less than £3 per allotment:

  2. Homestead allotments not exceeding 100 acres each, which are leased in perpetuity at a 4-per cent. rental on a capital value of not less than 10s. per acre.

Residence, improvements, and applications are the same as already described. The leases are exempt from liability to be seized or sold for debt or bankruptcy.

The Colonial Treasurer is empowered in certain cases to advance small sums for the purpose of enabling selectors to profitably occupy their allotments.

Small Grazing-runs.

Small grazing-runs are divided into two classes: First-class, not exceeding 5,000 acres; second-class, not exceeding 20,000 acres in area. The rental in both cases is not less than 2 1/3 per cent. on the capital value per acre, but such capital value cannot be less than 5s. per acre. Small grazing-runs are leased for terms of twenty-one years, with right of renewal for other twenty-one years, at a rent of 2 1/2 per cent. on the then value of the land. The runs are declared open for selection, and applications and declarations on the forms provided have to be filled in and left at the Land Office, together with the deposit of one half-year's rent, which represents that due on the 1st day of March or September following the selection.

No holder of a pastoral run, and no holder of freehold or lease-hold land of any kind whatever, over 1,000 acres in area, exclusive of the small grazing-run applied for, may be a selector under this system; and only one small grazing-run can be held by any one person.

The lease entitles the holder to the grazing rights, and to the cultivation of any part of the run, and to the reservation of 150 acres round his homestead through which no road may be taken; but the runs are subject to the mining laws.

Residence is compulsory, if bush or swamp land, within three years; if open, within one year; and must be continuous to the end of the term, but may in a few cases be relaxed. Improvements necessary are as follow: Within the first year, to the amount of one year's rent; within the second year, to another year's rent; and, within six years, to the value of two other years' rent: making in all a sum equal to four years' rental, which must be expended within six years. In addition to these improvements, bush-covered first-class runs must be improved to an amount of 10s. an acre, and second-class bush-clad runs to an amount of 5s. an acre.

These runs may be divided, after three years' compliance with the conditions, amongst the members of the selector's family.

Pastoral Runs.

Pastoral country is let by auction for varying terms not exceeding twenty-one years; and, excepting in extraordinary circumstances, runs must not be of a greater extent than will carry 20,000 sheep or 4,000 head of cattle. Runs are classified from time to time by special Commissioners into: (1) Pastoral lands, which are suitable only for depasturing more than 5,000 sheep; (2) pastoral-agricultural lands, suitable for subdivision into areas of under 5,000 acres, which may be either let as pastoral runs, generally for short terms, or cut up for settlement in some other form. Leases of pastoral lands may not be resumed; leases of pastoral-agricultural lands may be resumed at any time after twelve months' notice, without compensation.

No one can hold more than one run; but, in case of any one holding a run of a carrying-capacity less than 10,000 sheep, he may take up additional country up to that limit.

Runs are offered at auction from time to time, and half a year's rent has to be paid down at the time of sale, being the amount due in advance on the 1st day of March or September following the sale, and the purchaser has to make the declaration required by the Act. All leases begin on the 1st day of March, and they entitle the holder to the grazing rights, but not to the soil, timber, or minerals; and the lease terminates over any part of the run which may be leased for some other purpose, purchased, or reserved. The tenant has to prevent the burning of timber or bush; in open country to prevent the growth of gorse, broom, or sweetbrier; and to destroy the rabbits on his run. With the consent of the Land Board, the interest in a run may be transferred or mortgaged, but power of sale under a mortgage must be exercised within two years.

In case it is determined again to lease any run on expiry of the lease, the new lease must be offered by auction twelve months before the end of the term, and if, on leasing, it shall be purchased by some one other than the previous lessee, valuation for improvements, to be made by an appraiser, shall be paid by the incoming tenant, but to a value not greater than three times the annual rent—excepting in the case of a rabbit-proof fence, which is to be valued separately. If the run is not again leased, the value of rabbit-proof fencing is paid by the Crown, but the tenant has no claim against the Crown beyond the value of the rabbit-proof fence; he may, however, within three months of sale, remove fences, buildings, &c. Runs may also be divided with the approval of the Board.

Survey Charges on Unsurveyed Lands.

The following is the scale of charges for surveys of unsurveyed lands:—

Not exceeding 30 acres, £6.

Exceeding 30 and up to 50 acres, 3s. 6d. per acre, but not less than £6.

Exceeding 50 and up to 100 acres, 3s. per acre, but not less than £8 15s.

Exceeding 100 and up to 200 acres, 2s. 6d. per acre, but not less than £15.

Exceeding 200 and up to 300 acres, 2s. per acre, but not less than £25.

Exceeding 300 and up to 500 acres, 1s. 8d. per acre, but not less than £30.

Exceeding 500 and up to 1,000 acres, 1s. 4d. per acre, but not less than £41 10s.

Exceeding 1,000 and up to 2,000 acres, 1s. per acre, but not less than £66 10s.

For the survey of any area of rural land, being open land, the scale of charges shall be two-thirds the foregoing rates.

The Chief Surveyor may vary the above charges by substituting a rate per mile or per day for such work as may not come under the foregoing scale.

Chapter 54. ADVANCES TO SETTLERS.

THE Government Advances to Settlers Act was a Government policy measure in the legislation of 1894. It was designed to afford relief to a numerous class of colonists who were struggling under the burden of high rates of interest and heavy legal expenses of mortgages. These were established when prices of agricultural produce were high and profits large; and, so long as business continued to be prosperous, they attracted but little, if any, attention. For several years preceding 1894 commerce and agriculture had suffered from world-wide depression; settlers were becoming embarrassed in their circumstances; and the high rates of interest still charged were felt to be a burden on the industry of the people not easily borne, and a hindrance to the settlement and development of the farming lands of the colony. Under these circumstances the Government brought in the Government Advances to Settlers Act. It was passed towards the close of the session of 1894, and immediately came into operation, with results which have proved beneficial to the farming community. A general decline in the rates of interest at once set in, and it is not too much to claim that the Act has been instrumental in lowering these to a considerable extent on several millions of money invested on mortgage of the farming lands of the colony. This result, while it may have diminished the incomes of a few persons resident within the colony, has benefited thousands of deserving settlers and led to large areas of land being brought under cultivation that, but for the Advances to Settlers Act, would still be in their natural state.

The Act authorised the raising of three million pounds sterling within two years, in sums of a million and a-half per annum, at a rate of interest not higher than 4 per cent. In May, 1895, tenders were invited in London for £1,500,000 of 3-per-cent. in-scribed stock of the Government of New Zealand, and applications were received for £5,960,400 at prices ranging from £100 to £90. The million and a-half was placed at an average price of £94 8s. 9d.

An amending Act, passed in 1895, extended the time for raising the residue of the three millions to three years from the coming into operation of the amending Act. In 1898 this term was extended for a further period of three years. £580,000 of the second half of the loan has been raised on satisfactory terms.

To carry out the objects of the Act, an office was established called the “Government Advances to Settlers Office”; at the same time a General Board was constituted to co-operate with and assist the Superintendent, the title by which the chief administrative officer is known.

The business of the office is the advancing of money in New Zealand on first mortgage of lands and improvements held under the following classes of tenure, free from all encumbrances, liens, and interests other than leasehold interests, that is to say:—

  1. Freehold land held in fee-simple under “The Land Transfer Act, 1885,” or freehold land held in fee-simple the title to which is registered under “The Deeds Registration Act, 1868.”

  2. Crown land held on perpetual lease under “The Land Act, 1885.”

  3. Crown land held under Parts III. and IV. of “The Land Act, 1892.”

  4. Crown land held on lease as a small grazing-run under “The Land Act, 1885,” or under “The Land Act, 1892.”

  5. Crown land held on agricultural lease under “The Mining Act, 1891.”

  6. Crown land held on lease (not being for mining purposes) under “The Westland and Nelson Coalfields Administration Act, 1877.”

  7. Native land held on lease under “The West Coast Settlement Reserves Act, 1881,” or under the Act of 1892.

  8. Land held on lease under “The Westland and Nelson Native Reserves Act, 1887.”

  9. Land held under “The Thermal-Springs Districts Act, 1881.”

  10. Educational and other reserves which are subject to the provisions of “The Land Act 1877 Amendment Act, 1882,” by virtue of Proclamation made under section 50 thereof, or “The Land Act, 1885,” by virtue of Proclamation made under section 237 thereof, or “The Land Act, 1892,” by virtue of Proclamation made under section 243 thereof, and are held on perpetual lease or lease in perpetuity, or on deferred-payment or small grazing-run systems.

  11. Crown land held by license on the deferred-payment system under Part III. of “The Land Act, 1885.”

  12. Land held under section from a leasing authority, as defined by “The Public Bodies' Powers Act, 1887,” and providing for the payment by the incoming tenant of valuation for improvements made upon the land, whether by the lessee named in such lease or any former lessee, as tenant.

With regard to classes 10 and 12, a lease is not eligible if it provides for absolute forfeiture (without compensation) for breach of conditions, or if on the determination of the lease compensation is to be allowed for certain improvements only.

Mortgages are granted either on the instalment or the fixed-loan system (fully described hereafter); and the margins of security required by the Act are as follow:—

  1. On freeholds (other than urban or suburban) three-fifths of the value may be advanced either on the instalment or fixed-loan system: Provided that in the case of first-class agricultural freeholds instalment loans may be advanced up to two-thirds of the value.

  2. On leaseholds (other than urban or suburban) one-half of the value of the lessee's interest in the lease may be advanced on the instalment system. No loans are granted on leaseholds on the fixed-loan system.

  3. On urban and suburban freeholds, loans are granted on the instalment system only, and the amounts of loan are limited as follow:—

    1. On urban freehold on which buildings exist, three-fifths of the value of the land, plus one-half the value of the buildings, may be advanced;

    2. On suburban freehold on which buildings exist, one-half the value of the land, plus one-half the value of the buildings, may be advanced:

    3. On urban or suburban freehold on which no buildings exist, one-half the value of the land may be advanced, but on such security no loan shall be granted except for the erection of buildings on the land: the loan to be advanced by instalments at the discretion of the Board, as the erection of the buildings proceeds.

“Urban land” means land which is situate in a borough having a population of at least two thousand inhabitants and is not used for farming, dairying, or market-gardening purposes.

“Suburban land” means land which is situate in a borough having a population of less than two thousand inhabitants, or in any town, or in the vicinity of any town or borough, and is not used for farming, dairying, or market-gardening purposes.

Lands situated within towns which are used for farming, dairying, or market-gardening are treated in accordance with paragraph (3), subsections (a) and (b), hereof.

The right of determining what land may be considered “urban” or “suburban,” or “first-class agricultural,” is imposed by the Act on the General Lending Board.

The security which the applicant offers for the loan must consist of one or more holdings of the several classes of tenure above mentioned, and must, of course, be of the necessary value; and, if the security is leasehold, all the covenants and conditions of the lease, including the payment of rent, must have been regularly complied with.

Any person desiring an advance is required to make a written application on the prescribed form, a copy of which can be obtained from any Postmaster in the colony. The Postmaster also supplies an envelope in which the application may be forwarded free of postage, and affords to the applicant any explanation which may be required respecting the filling-in of the application.

In the case of an application for an advance on the security of an interest in land held under a lease or license issued from the Lands Department (and belonging to one or more of the classes of tenure numbered 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11), a notice of the application must be forwarded to the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district in which the land is situated, on a form which, with an envelope for forwarding it free of postage, may be obtained from any Postmaster in the colony.

No loan of less than £25 or more than £3,000 can be granted, and in the case of “urban” or “suburban” lands the maximum loan is fixed at £2,000.

All applications must be accompanied by a valuation-fee according to the following scale:—

 £s.d.
On an application for a loan not exceeding £1000106
Exceeding £100 but not exceeding £250110
Exceeding £250 but not exceeding £5001116
Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £3,000220

If the applicant has already obtained any advance under the Act and is desirous of obtaining a further advance, either on the same security or on a separate security, the amount of the application, added to the amount of the advances already obtained, must not exceed the limit mentioned above—£3,000 for farming and £2,000 for urban or suburban lands.

Mortgages granted on the fixed-loan system may be for any period not exceeding ten years, and the principal is repayable at the end of the term. They may also be repaid in whole or in part on any half-yearly due date during the term, as explained hereafter. Interest at the rate of 5 per cent. is payable half-yearly, reducible to 4 1/2 per cent. provided payment is made not later than fourteen days after due date and there are no arrears.

Mortgages granted on the instalment system are repayable by seventy-three half-yearly payments of principal and interest combined. They may also be repaid in whole or in part at any time. Interest is charged at the rate of 5 per cent., reducible to 4 1/2 per cent. provided payment is made not later than fourteen days after due date and there are no arrears.

Every half-yearly instalment, except the last, is at the rate of £3 (less the rebate of interest in case of prompt payment) for every £100 of the loan. The following table shows, taking a loan of £100 as an instance, how much of each instalment is applied to repaying the principal, and how much is in payment of interest. It shows also the balance of principal remaining due after payment of the respective instalments until the loan is entirely repaid in thirty-six years and a half:—

TABLE OF PRESCRIBED HALF-YEARLY INSTALMENTS FOR EVERY ONE HUNDRED POUNDS OF THE LOAN.
Half-year.Prescribed Half-yearly Instalment.Apportioned thus:Balance of Principal owing.
On Account of Interest at 5 per Cent.On Account of Principal.
 £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
1st3 0 02 10 00 10 099 10 0
2nd3 0 02 9 90 10 398 19 9
3rd3 0 02 9 60 10 698 9 3
4th3 0 02 9 30 10 997 18 6
5th3 0 02 9 00 11 097 7 6
6th3 0 02 8 80 11 496 16 2
7th3 0 02 8 50 11 796 4 7
8th3 0 02 8 10 11 1195 12 8
9th3 0 02 7 100 12 295 0 6
10th3 0 02 7 60 12 694 8 0
11th3 0 02 7 20 12 1093 15 2
12th3 0 02 6 110 13 193 2 1
13th3 0 02 6 70 13 592 8 8
14th3 0 02 6 30 13 991 14 11
15th3 0 02 5 100 14 291 0 9
16th3 0 02 5 60 14 690 6 3
17th3 0 02 5 20 14 1089 11 5
18th3 0 02 4 90 15 388 16 2
19th3 0 02 4 50 15 788 0 7
20th3 0 02 4 00 16 087 4 7
21st3 0 02 3 70 16 586 8 2
22nd3 0 02 3 20 16 1085 11 4
23rd3 0 02 2 90 17 384 14 1
24th3 0 02 2 40 17 883 16 5
25th3 0 02 1 110 18 182 18 4
26th3 0 02 1 60 18 681 19 10
27th3 0 02 1 00 19 081 0 10
28th3 0 02 0 60 19 680 1 4
29th3 0 02 0 01 0 079 1 4
30th3 0 01 19 61 0 678 0 10
31st3 0 01 19 01 1 076 19 10
32nd3 0 01 18 61 1 675 18 4
33rd3 0 01 18 01 2 074 16 4
34th3 0 01 17 51 2 773 13 9
35th3 0 01 16 101 3 272 10 7
36th3 0 01 16 31 3 971 6 10
37th3 0 01 15 81 4 470 2 6
38th3 0 01 15 11 4 1168 17 7
39th3 0 01 14 51 5 767 12 0
40th3 0 01 13 101 6 266 5 10
41st3 0 01 13 21 6 1064 19 0
42nd3 0 01 12 61 7 663 11 6
43rd3 0 01 11 91 8 362 3 3
44th3 0 01 11 11 8 1160 14 4
45th3 0 01 10 41 9 859 4 8
46th3 0 01 9 71 10 557 14 3
47th3 0 01 8 101 11 256 3 1
48th3 0 01 8 11 11 1154 11 2
49th3 0 01 7 31 12 952 18 5
50th3 0 01 6 61 13 651 4 11
51st3 0 01 5 81 14 449 10 7
52nd3 0 01 4 91 15 347 15 4
53rd3 0 01 3 111 16 145 19 3
54th3 0 01 3 01 17 044 2 3
55th3 0 01 2 11 17 1142 4 4
56th3 0 01 1 11 18 1140 5 5
57th3 0 01 0 21 19 1038 5 7
58th3 0 00 19 22 0 1036 4 9
59th3 0 00 18 12 1 1134 2 10
60th3 0 00 17 12 2 1131 19 11
61st3 0 00 16 02 4 029 15 11
62nd3 0 00 14 112 5 127 10 10
63rd3 0 00 13 92 6 325 4 7
64th3 0 00 12 72 7 522 17 2
65th3 0 00 11 52 8 720 8 7
66th3 0 00 10 32 9 917 18 10
67th3 0 00 9 02 11 015 7 10
68th3 0 00 7 82 12 412 15 6
69th3 0 00 6 52 13 710 1 11
70th3 0 00 5 12 14 117 7 0
71st3 0 00 3 82 16 44 10 8
72nd3 0 00 2 42 17 81 13 0
73rd1 13 100 0 101 13 0 

With reference to the above table, it has to be borne in mind that the amount of each instalment (£3) is reduced by one-tenth of the amount set down for interest if payment is made within the prescribed time. Thus, a mortgagor paying promptly his first instalment on a loan of £100 would be charged not £3, but £2 15s., the interest being reduced by one-tenth.

The mortgagor under the instalment system may pay to the Superintendent at any time, and under the fixed-loan system on any half-yearly due date, the whole balance of principal owing, with interest to date of payment, and obtain a discharge of the mortgage on payment of the fee prescribed for such discharge.

The mortgagor may also from time to time pay to the Superintendent, in addition to the half-yearly payments, sums of £5 or a multiple of £5, and in the case of fixed loans such deposits are applied in reduction of the advance, and interest is charged on the balance only; or, if the mortgagor so directs, such deposits are held on his behalf and applied in payment of the half-yearly instalments of interest as they fall due.

In the case of an instalment loan, money paid in advance by a mortgagor is applied in one of the following methods, according as he directs:—

  1. It may be held on his behalf and applied in payment of the half-yearly instalments (consisting partly of interest and partly of principal) as they fall due, until the deposit is exhausted.

  2. It may be applied at once in payment of as many future half-yearly instalments of principal (but not of interest) as it will cover, and, as far as such instalments are concerned, the corresponding interest will not be charged. On the next half-yearly date, however, the mortgagor will be required to continue his payments as before, the advance payment having the effect of reducing the period (thirty-six years and a half) during which he would have to pay such instalments. For instance, a mortgagor has a loan of £100: On the due date of his eighth half-yearly instalment he pays, in addition to the amount due, a sum of £5. This is applied in payment of his ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth instalments of principal—12s. 2d., 12s. 6d., 12s. 10d., 13s. 1d., 13s. 5d., 13s. 9d., 14s. 2d. (see table), making a total of £4 11s. 11d.—and the corresponding interest, £2 7s. 10d., £2 7s. 6d., £2 7s. 2d., £2 6s. 11d., £2 6s. 7d., £2 6s. 3d., £2 5s. 10d., is not charged. A balance of 8s. 1d. remains in his favour. Then on the next due date he has to make the half-yearly payment as usual (less 8s. 1d.), but, instead of being the ninth, it counts as the sixteenth instalment, and by this means the whole loan is repaid three years and a half earlier (seven half-yearly payments) than it otherwise would.

  3. It may be applied as explained in the next paragraph.

On the due date of any instalment, after at least one-tenth of the loan has been repaid, by means of the half-yearly instalments or of moneys repaid in advance, or both, the mortgagor (provided he is not in arrear with any instalment or other payment due under the mortgage) may, with the consent of the Superintendent, readjust the loan by treating the balance of principal then unpaid as a fresh loan duly granted on that date for a fresh term. But no readjustment is allowed unless the balance of unpaid principal amounts to at least £100. Under this arrangement the mortgagor is relieved of paying interest calculated on the original amount of the loan. He only pays interest on the balance of principal not repaid.

Advance payments in reduction of the mortgage, unless made on the due date of a half-yearly payment, take effect only from the next due date.

The law-costs payable for preparing and completing the mortgages under the Act are as follow:—

Mortgages under “The Land Transfer Act, 1885.”

Law-costs of preparing, or perusing, and of completing mortgage (to be deducted from the advance),—

 £ s. d.
If advance be not exceeding £5000 10 6
Exceeding £500, but not exceeding £1,0001 1 0
Exceeding £1,000, but not exceeding £3,0001 11 6

With cash disbursements, which are the same in every case, namely,—

Mortgage form 2s.With an additional 2s. for every certificate of title after the first.
Search-fee 2s.
Registration 10s.

Fee for discharge of mortgage,—

Release fee5s.

Mortgages under “The Deeds Registration Act, 1868.”

Costs of preparing, or perusing, and of registering mortgage, including disbursements (to be deducted from the advance),—

 £ s. d.
If advance be not exceeding £5002 10 0
For every additional £5000 15 0
Costs of discharge, including registration fees1 1 0

Solicitors are entitled to charge moderately for any services mortgagors may require over and above those for which the above scale fixes the costs—such services, for example, as clearing encumbered titles, obtaining and registering titles, &c.

Valuation reports on the securities offered are made on behalf of the Department by expert land-valuers; and these reports, together with the corresponding valuations appearing in the district valuation-rolls, prepared in accordance with the provisions of “The Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896,” and reports from the Commissioners of Crown Lands in the case of Crown leaseholds, are considered by the General Board. Board meetings are held weekly, or as occasion requires, and the Superintendent is bound by the resolutions of the Board. A resolution is taken with regard to every application placed before the General Board, so that on the Board rests the responsibility of granting loans or of refusing to grant them.

Some applicants offer securities which are obviously not eligible; and in that event the valuation-fees paid are returned, the securities are not reported on, and the applications do not go before the Board.

By arrangements made with the Post Office, mortgagors are enabled to pay their instalments and interest to the credit of the Superintendent at any money-order office throughout the colony, and free of all costs for remitting the money to Wellington. This is an arrangement at once convenient and economical for the large number of persons scattered all over the colony who have financial dealings with the Advances to Settlers Office. Loans may also be repaid in full through the Post Office.

The officials of the Government Advances to Settlers Office are bound by declaration to observe secrecy respecting applications for advances, and are forbidden to give any information respecting the business of the Department except to officers appointed to assist in carrying out the provisions of the Act.

The Act provides penalties for persons employed in the business of the Advances to Settlers Office taking any fee or reward from an applicant for a loan under the Act; for persons acting as valuers of land in which they have a pecuniary interest; and for persons who may attempt to bribe any one employed under the Act. It should be understood that no commission, charge, or procuration fee is payable in connection with an application for a loan.

The first meeting of the General Board for the purpose of considering applications for loans was held on 23rd February, 1895; and up to the 31st March, 1900, the Board had authorised 8,452 advances, amounting to £2,633,440. The total amount applied for in the 8,452 applications granted in full and partially was £3,012,870. 1,004 applicants declined the partial grants offered to them, amounting to £454,000; so that the net advances authorised at 31st March, 1900, numbered 7,448, and amounted to £2,179,440. The security for the net authorised advances was valued at £4,359,983. The number of applications received up to 31st March, 1900, was 10,995, for an aggregate amount of £3,711,033. 60 per cent. of the total amount applied for was wanted for the purpose of paying off existing mortgages at rates of interest higher than 5 per cent.

Chapter 55. THE LAND-TAX AND INCOME-TAX.

THE LAND-TAX.

AT the time of the repeal of the Property Assessment Act in 1891 it was contended by many that the substitution of a land-tax which exempted from taxation all the improvements on the land, and of an income-tax which exempted all private incomes up to £300 a year, would lead to such a shrinkage of revenue as to render the experiment exceedingly risky. After several collections of land-tax upon the unimproved value only, and an income-tax with the above exemption, it can now, however, be fairly claimed that such a contention has not been realised, and that the revenue, notwithstanding the many adverse circumstances attending the introduction of a new system of taxation, has been fully maintained.

The yield of land-tax for 1899–1900 was, in round figures, £294,000, of which about £214,000 represents ordinary tax; the balance, £80,000, being graduated tax, and the special tax on absentee landowners. For the preceding year the total amount collected was £4,000 or so more, the difference being the tax formerly paid on certain estates acquired by Government under the Land for Settlements Act.

For the purposes of the “ordinary” land-tax, owners are allowed under the Act to deduct from the total unimproved value of their land the amount of any registered mortgage thereon, and the mortgagees are required to make a return of all their mortgages. In the case of uncompleted sales, where the title has not been transferred the amount of unpaid purchase-money is treated as a mortgage—that is, it may be deducted by the purchaser and must be included in the return made by the vendor.

An owner of land the unimproved value of which, together with mortgages owing to him, does not exceed £1,500 (after deducting mortgages owing” by him) is allowed an exemption of £500, but where such value exceeds £1,500 the exemption diminishes by £1 for every £2 that such value increases, so that no exemption is allowable when £2,500 is reached.

The Act contains a provision that in cases where the income from any land or mortgages is less than £200 per annum, and the owner is incapacitated by age or infirmity from supplementing such income, a further exemption may be allowed by the Commissioner upon his being satisfied that the payment of the tax would entail hardship on such owner. This discretionary power has been exercised in a considerable number of instances, especially in the case of widows and orphans with small means, and much hardship prevented.

All mortgages are assessed at their full nominal value, except where it is satisfactorily shown that owing to depreciation of the security or other cause such value has been diminished. In the case of mixed mortgages—that is, mortgages which are secured on both real and personal property—the amount of the mortgage chargeable with land-tax is taken to be the assessed value of the land included in the security, the interest derived from the balance of mortgage being liable to income-tax.

It will be readily seen that the deductions and exemptions which have been referred to materially reduce the number of taxpayers as compared with the number of land-owners, the latter being upwards of 90,000, whilst the former only number about 13;000.

If the unimproved value of land in any assessment amounts to £5,000 or over, graduated tax is payable thereon according to the scale given on another page. Mortgages, however, are not chargeable with the graduated tax; but, on the other hand, no deduction is allowed in an assessment for graduated tax in respect of any mortgage owing on the land.

Twenty per cent. additional on the amount of the graduated tax is levied where the owners have been resident out of the colony for a period of three years or more prior to the date of the passing of the annual Tax Act.

Native lands which are occupied by Europeans are subject to the ordinary tax, it being considered that as such lands have benefited equally with the lands of Europeans by the expenditure of public money, they should bear some proportion of the taxation. But, recognising that in some instances, where the interests of the Native owners are small, the collection of the tax might possibly entail some hardship, the Legislature decided that only half the usual rate should be collected on such lands. Graduated tax is not chargeable on Native land.

THE INCOME-TAX.

Both the number of income-tax payers and the amount of tax received may appear at first sight smaller than might be expected from the population of New Zealand, but it should be remembered that incomes from land and mortgages are exempt, the unimproved value of the former and the capital value of the latter being chargeable with land-tax in the manner herein before explained. The statutory exemption of £300, plus life-insurance premiums up to £50, renders a very large number of employés and small traders exempt from the tax. Companies pay the tax on profits, and dividends are not returnable by their shareholders. These circumstances will account for the smallness of the number subject to income-tax and, to a certain extent, the comparatively inconsiderable contribution to the revenue.

Objections to income assessments are heard in private before the Stipendiary Magistrate.

It would be impossible to indicate the number and variety of questions which arise daily in connection with income assessments, much less to give any intelligent account of how they are dealt with. The department has endeavoured to lay down certain definite rules for its guidance in the greater number of cases, and a memorandum embodying these has been circulated among all who have been called upon to make returns. It is, however, much too lengthy to introduce here.

Amongst the questions to which special attention has been given is that of the depreciation of plant and machinery, and the amount to be allowed as a deduction under this heading. The Amendment Act of 1894 admitted, amongst deductions, an allowance for depreciation of plant and machinery over and above what might be claimed as repairs and renewals. The allowance was, by law, fixed at “what might be considered just by the Commissioner,” but the Chief Inspector of Machinery is, in this matter, the expert adviser of the department, and he fixes the rates to be allowed on the different classes of machinery. There were naturally some differences of opinion between owners of machinery and the department, but only in the case of steam-vessels has the Inspector found it necessary to alter the scale first laid down. The rule formulated for the Inspector's guidance was as follows:—

An allowance to be made of such an amount (over and above what is expended in renewals and repairs) as will equal the annual loss of profit-earning power.

This is not intended to provide for the loss of capital invested, but simply represents the annual loss through wear and tear (as affecting income-earning capacity), other than that which can be made good by repairs.

Obsolete machinery is also allowed for when the machinery has been actually discarded; and here the amount to be allowed must bear the same proportion to the whole loss as the time the tax has been in operation bears to the life of the machine. An engine discarded in the third year of the tax—the life of the engine being, say, twenty years—would be allowed for to three-twentieths of the loss incurred, less the annual amounts that had been allowed by the department for depreciation for those three years. Machinery superseded by something better, but kept in reserve in case of a breakdown, would not be allowed for.

It should be mentioned here that the statutory exemption of £300 is not allowed to absentees, whether firms or individuals, nor to companies.

Regulations have been issued for levying income-tax on the profits earned by shipowners whose head-quarters are beyond the colony. The plan adopted is to require a return of the outward freight and passenger lists, and to levy tax at the rate of one shilling in the pound upon 5 per cent. of the total returned.

YIELD OF TAX.

For 1895–96 the land-tax yielded £271,000, and the income-tax £94,000; for 1896–97 the yield of the land-tax was £272,000, and the income-tax £105,000; for 1897–98 the land-tax yielded £269,000, and the income-tax £115,000; for 1898–99 the land-tax yielded £298,000, and the income-tax £115,500; and for 1899–1900 the land-tax yielded £294,000, and the income-tax £129,000.

RATES OF TAX.

The rates of tax at present are as follow: The ordinary land-tax is 1d. in the pound; the graduated tax commences at £5,000, at 1/8d. in the pound on the unimproved value, and rises to 2d. where the unimproved value of an owner's land is £210,000, or exceeds that sum. The ordinary tax on Native land occupied by Europeans is 1/2d. in the pound. For taxpayers other than companies the rate of income-tax is 6d. in the pound on the first taxable £1,000—that is, after deducting the £300 exemption—and 1s. in the pound on any excess over £1,000. A person having an annual income of £1,900 would be thus taxed: £300 would be exempted; £1,000 would pay 6d. in the pound; and the remaining £600, 1s. in the pound: making a total of £55 a year. The tax on an income of £400 would be at 6d. on £100, equal to £2 10s. Income-tax is payable by companies, at the uniform rate of 1s. in the pound.

The schedule of rates of graduated land-tax is as follows:—

Where the value is £5,000 and is less than £10,000, one-eighth of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £10,000 and is less than £15,000, two-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £15,000 and is less than £20,000, three-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £20,000 and is less than £25,000, four-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £25,000 and is less than £30,000, five-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £30,000 and is less than £40,000, six-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £40,000 and is less than £50,000, seven-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £50,000 and is less than £70,000, one penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £70,000 and is less than £90,000, one penny and one eighth of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £90,000 and is less than £110,000, one penny and two-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £110,000 and is less than £130,000, one penny and three-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £130,000 and is less than £150,000, one penny and four-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £150,000 and is less than £170,000, one penny and five-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £170,000 and is less than £190,000, one penny and six-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £190,000 and is less than £210,000, one penny and seven-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £210,000 or exceeds that sum, twopence in the pound sterling.

Chapter 56. THE GOVERNMENT VALUATION OF LAND ACT.

DURING the session of 1896 the Government Valuation of Land Act was passed, providing for the periodical valuation of all landed properties in the colony. For the purposes of the Act it is provided that the colony shall be divided into special districts.

The first valuation under the Act has been completed. The purposes for which the valuations are to be used are: Land-tax, local rates (in cases where rates are levied on the capital or on the unimproved value), stamp duties, and duties under “The Deceased Persons' Estates Duties Act, 1881”; for advances and investments on mortgage of land made by the Post Office, Government Insurance Department, Public Trust Office, Government Advances to Settlers Office, and the Commissioners of the Public Debts Sinking Funds. The valuation will also be used for the guidance of the Government in transactions under” The Land for Settlements Act, 1894,” and “The Public Works Act, 1894.”

Valuations will be supplied by the department on payment of the prescribed fee.

The general valuation-roll continues in force until a fresh roll is made, but whilst in force it may be altered and amended from time to time. The rolls for rating purposes are supplied to local bodies by the Valuer-General on the request of the local authority. The aim is to insure a standard valuation for all purposes.

Owners and occupiers dissatisfied with their valuations have the right of objection, the procedure being that laid down by “The Rating Act, 1894,” and the regulations under “The Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896.”

The cost of making the valuation is divided proportionally between the departments mostly using it and the local authorities, while separate fees are provided for by regulation for supplying individual valuations to those requiring them.

Chapter 57. RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUE OF LAND.

IN August, 1896, an Act was passed by the General Assembly termed “The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896,” for the purpose of affording an opportunity to local bodies of adopting the principle of rating which is expressed in the title of the measure. It is entirely at the option of the bodies to adopt the system, and provision is made for a return to the old system of rating, if desired, after three years' experience of the new one. Under the interpretation clause the term “gross value” means the capital value of land with all its improvements, as assessed by the local authority of the district, the unimproved value of which is to be rateable; and the “unimproved value” is the gross value less that of improvements thereon. “‘Improvements‘ includes water-races, whether constructed by loan or otherwise, houses and building, fencing, planting, draining, clearing from timber, scrub, or fern, laying down in grass or pasture, and any other improvements whatsoever on land, in so far as the benefit thereof is unexhausted at the time of valuation, but does not include reclaiming of land from the sea.” The Act provides that a proportion of the ratepayers on the roll, varying from 25 per cent. where the total number does not exceed 100, to 15 per cent. where the number exceeds 300, may by demand in writing, delivered to the chairman of the district, require that a proposal to rate property on the basis of the unimproved value may be submitted to the ratepayers, whose votes shall be taken between twenty-one and twenty-eight days after delivery of the demand. The poll is to be taken in the same manner as in case of a proposal to raise a loan in the district under ‘The Local Bodies’ Loans Act, 1886.”

A minimum number of one-third of the ratepayers must vote, and a majority of votes carries the proposal.

A rescinding proposal can be carried at a poll by the same means as one for adoption, but not until after three years have elapsed, and, vice versaâ, rejection of a proposal bars its being again brought forward for a similar period.

In the valuation-roll to be prepared, the gross value, the value of improvements, and the unimproved value of rateable property must all be set forth. Provision is made for adjustment of rating powers given under previous Acts to the new Act by fixing equivalents. Thus a rate of 1s. in the pound on the annual value under former Acts is to be considered equal to 3/4d. in the pound on the gross value.

The adjustments are to be made so that the rates on the unimproved value shall be such as to produce as much as, but not more than, the rates under “The Rating Act, 1894.” For instance, supposing a local authority has a rating power up to 3/4d. in the pound on the gross (or capital) value, then it can levy any rate in the pound on the unimproved value of land in its district so long as the producing capacity of such rate is not greater than would be the producing capacity of a 3/4d. rate on the gross value of the district. When a fixed rate, under the older system of rating, is security for a loan, the Controller and Auditor-General is given power to interfere and fix the new rate himself if of opinion that the new rate on the unimproved value does not afford equally good security to the one to be given up.

The operation of the Act does not apply to water, gas, electric light, sewage, or hospital and charitable aid rates.

Up to the present time (8th June, 1900) the number of local bodies that have elected to take advantage of the Act is seventeen. Particulars respecting these cases are subjoined:—

“RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUE ACT, 1896.”

Results of Polls.
Cheviot CountyCarried.
Eketahuna CountyCarried.
Greymouth BoroughCarried.
Hokianga CountyCarried.
Hunua Road DistrictCarried.
Inangahua CountyCarried.
Invercargill BoroughRejected.
Karori BoroughCarried.
Manawatu Road BoardCarried.
Maraetai Road BoardCarried.
Melrose BoroughCarried.
Normanby Town DistrictCarried.
Pahiatua BoroughCarried.
Pahiatua CountyRejected.
Palmerston North BoroughCarried.
Pelorus Road BoardCarried.
Petone BoroughRejected.
Picton BoroughRejected.
Raglan CountyRejected.
Stratford CountyRejected.
Summer BoroughRejected.
Tauranga CountyRejected.
Taratahi Carterton Road DistrictCarried.
Waipawa CountyCarried.
Waimate BoroughRejected.
Wairarapa North CountyRejected.
Woodville BoroughCarried.
Woolston BoroughRejected.
Votes recorded.
 For.Against.Informal.

* As less than one-third of the ratepayers have voted, the proposal is rejected.

† Not yet gazetted.

Cheviot County16541 
Eketahuna County149121
Greymouth Borough147281
Hokianga County109256
Hunua Road District602 
Inangahua County239112
Invercargill Borough267*199*5*
Karori Borough9331
Manawatu Road Board10510 
Maraetai Road Board16†  
Melrose Borough236406
Normanby Town District82563
Pahiatua Borough136381
Pahiatua County312*21*1*
Palmerston North Borough402123
Pelorus Road Board9841 
Petone Borough72*5*1*
Picton Borough27731
Raglan County122*20* 
Stratford County449*13* 
Sumner Borough27*1*1*
Tauranga County112*2*2*
Taratahi-Carterton Road District26153 
Waimate Borough100*16*2*
Wairarapa North County331*68*10*
Waipawa County462283
Woodville Borough17571
Woolston Borough1031915

Chapter 58. “THE MUNICIPAL FRANCHISE REFORM ACT, 1898.”

A SHORT account of the leading features of this measure is to be found on page 271, in the section relating to the local bodies in the colony.

Chapter 59. OLD-AGE PENSIONS.

IN 1898 a Bill, introduced into Parliament by the Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier, became law,* which provided for the payment of an old-age pension out of the Consolidated Fund (revenue of the General Government) to persons duly qualified, without contribution by the beneficiaries. The Act, however, only provides for payments out of revenue, for the purposes of the pensions, until the close of the second session of the present Parliament. The conditions under which pension is granted are set forth in sections 7, 8, and 64 of the statute, as under:—

* A Bill had been previously introduced in 1897, which, as amended by the lower branch of the Legislature, was transmitted to the Legislative Council, but thrown out by that body.

As a preliminary to the introduction of the Bill in 1897, an Act entitled “The Registration of People's Claims Act” was passed in 1896, under which persons aged sixty-five years or upwards, having resided twenty years in the colony, and whose income did not exceed £50 per annum, were allowed for a limited time to send in pension claims. This Act has been repealed, and all certificates granted under it cancelled, by the Old Age Pensions Act of 1898.

  • 7. Subject to the provisions of this Act, every person of the full age of sixty-five years or upwards shall, whilst in the colony, be entitled to a pension as hereinafter specified.

  • 8. No such person shall be entitled to a pension under this Act unless he fulfils the following conditions, that is to say:—

  1. That he is residing in the colony on the date when he establishes his claim to the pension; and also

  2. That he has so resided continuously for not less than twenty-five years immediately preceding such date:

    Provided that continuous residence in the colony shall not be deemed to have been interrupted by occasional absence therefrom unless the total period of all such absence exceeds two years; nor, in the case of a seaman, by absence therefrom whilst serving on board a vessel registered in and trading to and from the colony if he establishes the fact that during such absence his family or home was in the colony; and also

  3. That during the period of twelve years immediately preceding such date he has not been imprisoned for four months, or on four occasions, for any offence punishable by imprisonment for twelve months or upwards, and dishonouring him in the public estimation; and also

  4. That during the period of twenty-five years immediately preceding such date he has not been imprisoned for a term of five years with or without hard labour for any offence dishonouring him in the public estimation; and also

  5. That the claimant has not at any time for a period of six months or upwards, if a husband, deserted his wife, or without just cause failed to provide her with adequate means of maintenance, or neglected to maintain such of his children as were under the age of fourteen years; or, if a wife, deserted her husband or such of her children as were under that age:

    Provided that, if the pension-certificate is issued, the pensioner's rights thereunder shall not be affected by any disqualification contained in this subsection unless the fact of such disqualification is established at any time to the satisfaction of a Stipendiary Magistrate; and also

  6. That he is of good moral character, and is, and has for five years immediately preceding such date been, leading a sober and reputable life; and also

  7. That his yearly income does not amount to fifty-two pounds or upwards, computed as hereinafter provided; and also

  8. That the net capital value of his accumulated property does not amount to two hundred and seventy pounds or upwards, computed and assessed as hereinafter provided; and also

  9. That he has not directly or indirectly deprived himself of property or income in order to qualify for a pension; and also

  10. That he is the holder of a pension-certificate as hereinafter provided.

64. This Act, in so far as it provides for the granting of pensions, shall not apply to—

  1. Aboriginal natives of New Zealand to whom moneys other than pensions are paid out of the sums appropriated for Native purposes by “The Civil List Act, 1863” nor to

  2. Aliens; nor to

  3. Naturalised subjects, except such as have been naturalised for the period of five years next preceding the date on which they establish their pension-claims; nor to

  4. Chinese or other Asiatics, whether naturalised or not.

The full pension is £18 a year, payable in twelve monthly instalments; but for each £1 of income above £34, also for each £15 of accumulated property above £50, £1 is deducted from the amount of the pension.

The first instalment of the pension is payable on the first day of the month next but one following the date of the certificate.

For the administration of the Act the colony is divided into seventy-two districts, for each of which there is a Deputy-Registrar, controlled by a Chief Registrar at Wellington.

Each claimant for a pension must make application on a printed form. The said form is obtainable at any post-office, and when completed the claim is to be sent to the Deputy-Registrar for the district in which the claimant resides.

Each application is recorded in a book called “The ..... District Old-age Pension-claim Register,” and then transmitted to a Stipendiary Magistrate, who, having fixed a day for investigation, notifies the claimant to attend, if his presence is considered necessary. If the claim is admitted, the Stipendiary Magistrate issues a certificate to the Deputy-Registrar, who on receipt enters the particulars in a book called “The ..... District Old-age Pension Register,” after which a pension certificate is issued to the pensioner.

The particulars of pensions granted are entered on a weekly return form, which, with the Magistrate's certificate, is sent to the Chief Registrar for entry in the General Register of Old-age Pensions.

The particulars of instalments falling due are advised to the General Post Office on a schedule. Advice, authorising payment, is then issued to the Postmaster at the money-order office at which the pensioner desired the instalment to be paid. At frequent intervals the Accountant of the General Post Office furnishes a statement of the payments made, from which the monthly instalments are entered on a card bearing the name of the pensioner.

At the due date of the instalment the pensioner may present his certificate for payment at the money-order office named in the certificate. A pensioner failing to collect his instalment within twenty-one days forfeits the amount, but may apply for a warrant of waiver within fourteen days of such forfeiture. If a pensioner is unable, through sickness or other reasonable cause, to collect his pension, he may apply to have an agent appointed to receive the instalments on his behalf. Should a pensioner desire to change the office of payment an application is to be made to the Deputy-Registrar for the district in which the pension is registered. The change is advised to the Chief Registrar by telegram, who notifies the postal authorities. A transfer of a pension-certificate from one district to another is effected by the Deputy-Registrar for the district in which the pension is registered sending a warrant to the Deputy-Registrar for the district to which the transfer is made.

The decease of all persons of the age of sixty-five years and upwards is notified to the Chief Registrar by the Registrars of Deaths in the various districts.

All matters affecting the payment of pensions are reported by the Deputy-Registrars from time to time.

The Act came into force on 1st November, 1898. The appointment of a Registrar followed; and in December the old-age pension districts were constituted, and Deputy-Registrars appointed for them. By the 31st March, 1899, a total of 7,487 pensions had been granted, which represented a yearly payment of £128,082, or an average pension of about £17 2s. A year later (31st March, 1900) the number of pensions in force, at each rate, was:—

NUMBER OF PENSIONS IN FORCE, AT EACH RATE, ON THE 31ST MARCH, 1900.
Yearly Pension.Number of Pensions.Amount.
£ £
189,656173,808
171993,383
162003,344
151952,925
141381,932
131341,742
121641,968
111151,265
1097970
965585
881648
758406
642252
547235
438152
31957
21836
11010
Totals11,285£193,718

The average value of each pension is found to be £17 3s. 4d.

The number of pensions in force in each of the old-age pension districts is also given,—

NUMBER OF PENSIONS IN FORCE IN EACH OLD-AGE PENSION DISTRICT ON THE 31ST MARCH, 1900.
District.Number of Pensions.Amount.
  £
Akaroa32542
Amberley6108
Ashburton1702,949
Auckland98616,508
Balclutha1222,070
Blenheim1412,364
Chatham Islands472
Christchurch1,07618,334
Clyde951,688
Coromandel1121,998
Culverden460
Dannevirke1091,830
Dargaville631,114
Dunedin84314,559
Fairlie6108
Feilding681,160
Geraldine1151,984
Gisborne1001,779
Greymouth4077,250
Greytown681,181
Hamilton1702,905
Havelock8134
Hawera45755
Helensville2083,606
Hokitika4517,984
Invercargill4698,100
Kaiapoi2564,308
Kaikoura26431
Lawrence1833,118
Marton901,579
Masterton681,186
Maungaturoto47771
Milton1061,792
Mongonui52921
Motueka741,202
Napier2023,357
Naseby781,355
Nelson2774,611
New Plymouth2163,633
Oamaru2203,848
Onehunga3025,019
Otaki49850
Paeroa36615
Pahiatua30506
Palmerston North1352,302
Palmerston (South)53895
Patea26467
Port Awanui47846
Port Chalmers1772,983
Queenstown911,628
Raglan1191,995
Rawene1091,878
Reefton1232,188
Riverton971,697
Rotorua641,149
Russell891,499
Stratford30527
Taupo32572
Tauranga781,375
Te Aroha26455
Thames2504,357
Timaru1312,231
Waimate661,143
Waipawa17303
Wairoa1091,670
Wanganui1682,894
Warkworth741,206
Wellington4417,726
Westport2153,795
Whakatane1352,394
Whangarei1612,746
Whangaroa32553
Total11,285£193,718

With the above, a statement of the cost of administration for the year ended 31st March, 1899, is furnished, to show the initial expense. The Registrar of Friendly Societies is Registrar under the Old Age Pensions Act; the Deputy Registrars are mostly Clerks of Stipendiary Magistrate's Courts; the adjudication on claims is by the Magistrates; and the payments are made through the Postal Department.

COST OF ADMINISTRATION OF “THE OLD AGE PENSIONS ACT, 1898,” FOR THE FINANCIAL YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1899.
Salaries—£ s. d.£ s. d.
Registrar100 1 1 
Deputy Registrars40 3 10 
  140 4 11
Other expenses—  
Advertising and printing16 6 0 
Clerical assistance247 18 0 
Interpreting (S.M. Courts)7 9 3 
Shorthand-writer (S.M. Courts)19 0 0 
Travelling-allowances and expenses76 2 2 
Sundries3 7 9 
  370 3 2
Total £510 8 1

The cost of administration for the second financial year (ending 31st March, 1900) shows a total of £2,360 8s. 0d.

Salaries—£ s. d.£ s. d.
Registrar100 0 0 
Deputy Registrars150 0 0 
  250 0 0
Other charges—  
Clerical assistance1,124 3 3 
Contributions to Post-office465 18 9 
Travelling expenses and interpreters' fees308 13 7 
Sundries211 12 5 
  2,110 8 0
Total £2,360 8 0

The Registrar (Mr. Edmund Mason) remarks, in his departmental report, dated 15th June of this year:—

In my first report I was able to state that the Act had been smoothly and effectively administered from its inception. To this, after a year's additional experience, I may add that the usefulness of the measure is now generally recognised, and that the anticipated difficulties raised by adverse critics are not apparent in its practical working. As a consequence of its success there is very little matter for comment.

It is estimated that on the 31st March, 1900, the number of persons, exclusive of Maoris and Chinese, aged sixty-five years and upwards was 24,800. On this estimate the ratio of the number of pensioners of European descent to the number above the pension-age was, on the last-mentioned date, over 40 per cent.

The number of applications for the second year's pension-certificate received and dealt with up to the 31st March, 1900, was 6,178. Of these, 6,141 were granted, and 37 were rejected.

The number of claims rejected under the respective subsections of section 8 of the Act were: one under subsection (5), twelve under subsection (6), and twenty-four under subsections (7) and (8).

While in some instances the pension has been misapplied, the number of beneficiaries reported as so offending is relatively small. Testimony to the good character of old-age pensioners generally is also borne by the fact that out of 6,178 claims for the second year's pension-certificate dealt with up to the 31st March, 1900, only thirteen were rejected on the ground that the conditions set forth in the subsections of section 8 of the Act relating to character had not been fulfilled.

The ratio of the number of old-age pensioners to total population varies according to locality. This variation is due partly to differences in the percentage of persons above the pension-age, and partly to the fact that in districts where mining is the chief industry a large majority of those who have reached the pension-age are unable to earn a living.

NUMBER OF PENSIONS GRANTED SINCE THE ACT CAME INTO OPERATION; AND NUMBER OF DEATHS, CERTIFICATES CANCELLED, PENSIONS LAPSED AND IN FORCE AT END OF EACH YEAR.
Year endedNumber of Pensions granted.Number of Deaths of Pensioners.Number of Pension Certificates cancelled.Number of Pensions lapsed.Number of Pensions in Force at End of Year.
31st March, 18997,487386 7,443
“ 19004,69978665611,285
Total12,186824716 

Chapter 60. NEW ZEALAND CONSOLS.

THE purpose of “The New Zealand Consols Act, 1894,” is, by providing for an inscription of such Consols, to give further facilities for the safe investment of savings. Practically, it establishes another branch of the Government Savings-Bank, with extended power of investment. Under section 3 the Colonial Treasurer is authorised to receive by way of deposits from persons in the colony sums of money up to £500,000; but the amount deposited in any one year must not be more than £250,000. The currency of such deposits is not to exceed forty years. The present issue matures 1st February, 1910. The rate of interest must not exceed 4 per cent. The actual rate being paid is 3 1/2 per cent. per annum.

Post-office money-order offices throughout the colony are made use of to receive applications for inscription, and also for payment of the half-yearly interest on the amounts deposited. The Receivers are the Postmasters, and the Registrar under the Act is the Secretary to the Treasury, Wellington.

Regulations have been issued, under which every deposit of money for inscription is to be accompanied by an application according to the form given further on, which is to be signed by the applicant and countersigned by the Receiver (Postmaster) taking the deposit. The person paying the money receives an interim receipt pending official acknowledgment from the Registrar at Wellington. The receipt subsequently given by the Registrar to the Consols-holder is not a negotiable document, or of monetary value, beyond its being proof of the deposit for purposes of inscription. A holder of Consols can obtain from the Registrar on application and payment of 5s. a certified copy of any entry in the register relating to his deposit.

There is provision for the transfer of Consols from one holder to another on application being made to the Registrar according to the second form given, and payment of 1s. fee.

In case an inscriber desires to make use of his deposit, or any portion of it, to the extent of £5, or a multiple of £5, he can obtain a Consols certificate which is payable to bearer, and is transferable by delivery. This certificate entitles the holder to receive interest half-yearly at the same rate as the original inscription, and also to payment of the principal sum on the due date.

The application for the certificate must be according to the form appended, and the fee payable is 1s. for every one hundred pounds or aliquot part thereof expressed in the certificate. There is also a fee at the above rate for inscribing the amount of a Consols certificate. The form of Consols certificate is also given.

Interest on Consols for which no certificate has been issued is payable by warrant, and such warrants are transferable by endorsement in the manner provided in the form.

Interest on Consols for which a certificate has been issued is payable to the bearer of the certificate on presentation at any post-office money-order office, or at the Treasury, Wellington (see the last form).

The Act provides for the deposit of money by minors, which may be acceptable to parents as encouraging habits of thrift in children.

As stated previously, the present issue of Consols has a currency to the 1st February, 1910, and carries interest at the rate of three pounds ten shillings for every one hundred pounds deposited; and an assured investment of moneys bearing a fair rate of interest for so long a term should secure, when well known, a large portion of the deposits of our thrifty population.

Application for Inscription.

To the Registrar of Inscribed Consols,

     Treasury, Wellington.

I [We], of having this day deposited at the sum of pounds shillings and pence, for investment in -per-cent. New Zealand Consols, hereby request that the same may be duly inscribed in the books of your office in the name of

                 Signature of depositor:

                 Full address of depositor, together with name of nearest money-order office:

Dated at this day of 19

      Deposit duly received as above.

                           Signature of Receiver:

Application for Transfer.

IN consideration of the sum of the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, I [we], of do assign the sum of pounds shillings and pence, being my [our] interest or share in the New Zealand -per-cent. Inscribed Consols, under the “The New Zealand Consols Act, 1894,” and all my [our] property, right, and interest in and to the same, and the dividends thereon, unto of his [their] executors, administrators, or assigns, and the Registrar is hereby requested to transfer the same accordingly. The prescribed fee of is enclosed herewith.

Witness my [our] hand this day of 19

                    Signature:

Witnessed by—

       Signature:

       Occupation:

       Address:

I [We], of do hereby accept the above Consols, and apply for the transfer thereof to me [us].

                      Signature:

Witnessed by—

                      Signature:

Application for Consols Certificate.

                      Place:

                      Date: 19

To the Registrar of Inscribed Consols,

      Treasury, Wellington.

I [We], of being the holder of New Zealand Inscribed Consols to the amount of pounds shillings and pence, do hereby make application for a Consols certificate in favour of bearer for the sum of pounds, to be issued to me [us] in accordance with and subject to the provisions contained in “The New Zealand Consols Act, 1894.” The prescribed fee of is enclosed herewith.

                    Signature:

Witness—

       Signature:

       Occupation:

       Address:

Consols Certificate.

No.          £

THE bearer of this certificate will be entitled to payment of the sum of pounds sterling upon presentation hereof at the Treasury at Wellington, New Zealand, on the day of 19 together with such interest, computed at the rate of sterling per centum per annum, as may be found to be unpaid on the before-mentioned date in accordance with the endorsements of interest-payments made hereon.

The principal and interest are a charge upon and shall be paid out of the accruing income of the Consolidated Fund of the colony.

Interest hereon at the rate of sterling per centum per annum is payable half-yearly, on the and in each year, at any post-office money-order office within the colony.

The amount of interest paid is to be endorsed on the back hereof by the person making such payment.

Dated at the office of the Registrar of Inscribed Consols, Wellington, 19                         Registrar.

Countersigned—

               , Controller and Auditor-General.

Entered, folio

[On the back, endorsements of the half-yearly dividends paid by the Postmaster are to be duly made.]

Dividend Warrant.

To the Treasury at Wellington, or to the Postmaster at any post-office money-order office throughout the colony.

PLEASE pay or order the sum of pounds shillings and pence, being interest for half-year due 19 on £ -percent. New Zealand Consols.

£          Registrar.

I hereby acknowledge to have received the above-mentioned sum in full payment of interest for half-year due as above.

                       Signature:

Chapter 61. DESPATCH OF NEW ZEALAND TROOPS FOR ACTIVE SERVICE IN SOUTH AFRICA.

ON Thursday, the 28th September, 1899, the Right Hon. R. J. Seddon moved in the House of Representatives for a respectful address to be presented to His Excellency the Governor, requesting him to offer to the Imperial Government, for service in the Transvaal, a contingent of mounted rifles, and that the Government should be empowered (in the event of the offer being accepted) to provide, equip, and despatch the force. The Premier concluded his speech with the following remarks:—

It has been said by the historian Macaulay that it would be a New-Zealander who, on a broken arch of London Bridge, would recount the ruin of London and the downfall of the empire. I am sorry for Macaulay; he little knew the New-Zealander. The history of the future will show that the New-Zealander will not recount the downfall of the empire, but will fight to maintain it; and that he will, on that London Bridge, recount the fact that New Zealand to-day took action and a leading step which will, if followed by the other colonies and dependencies, effectually prevent the downfall of the empire. See what is going on now in the way of division of territory in the far East. Look at the nations which are now established in China and in the Pacific. I say our strength lies in being an integral part of the mighty British Empire, and that we should help to maintain its unity intact. And the day is not far distant when, if we take responsibilities and share the burdens and expense of maintaining the empire, we shall have representatives from this colony and the other colonies taking a direct part in the government of a federated empire. I assert we shall, before many years have elapsed, be represented in the council of the nation at Home; the New-Zealander will be advising in council, not croaking on London Bridge. By proving ourselves worthy we shall be entrusted with increased responsibility. We must show that we are equal to the occasion. On this opportunity there should be no division of opinion, no hesitation or shirking of duty. Let it go to the Imperial Parliament, let it go to the world, that we passed this resolution to send help to the Transvaal without a division. We are the first colonial Parliament that has been called upon to do so. Ministers in the other colonies have made offers, but this is the first colony in which the representatives of the people in Parliament assembled have been called upon to give a vote upon this question. Let that vote be practically unanimous; and I trust there may, if possible, be no division taken.

On the question being put, the House divided, and it was resolved in the affirmative, the Ayes being 54, and the Noes 5. The members then rose and fervently sang the National Anthem, and, at the call of the Premier, gave three hearty cheers for Her Majesty the Queen. The resolution was transmitted to the Legislative Council, which body subsequently expressed its satisfaction thereat by Message.

On Monday, the 2nd October, His Excellency the Governor by Message to the House of Representatives, transmitted the following telegram from the Right Hon. the Secretary of State for the Colonies:—

From the SECRETARY OF STATE for the Colonies to His Excellency the GOVERNOR.

          30th September.

REFERRING to your telegram of 28th September, Her Majesty's Government highly appreciate and are grateful for loyal and patriotic offer of Legislature of New Zealand, of which they will gladly avail themselves if occasion arises, in which case you will be advised as early as possible.

          CHAMBERLAIN.

As the result of the offer of assistance, five contingents have been despatched from New Zealand between the 21st October, 1899, and the 31st March, 1900, consisting in all of 1,797 officers and men, with 1,980 horses; besides which 680 horses for remounts were shipped in May and June following. The number forming the different contingents, which were composed of mounted infantry and bushmen, are given in tabular form:—

RETURN OF NEW ZEALAND TROOPS DESPATCHED ON ACTIVE SERVICE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
No. of Contingent.Date of Sailing.Mounted Infantry.Bushmen.
Men.Horses.Men.Horses.

* Remounts for various contingents.

121st October, 1899215250  
221st January, 1900258304  
317th February, 1900264277  
324th February, 1900 96*  
424th March, 1900466520  
531st March, 1900  523533
Reserve24th March, 190071   
Reserve19th May, 1900 180*  
Reserve16th June, 1900 500*  
  1,2742,127523533
Totals.
Men.Horses.
1,2742,127
523533
1,7972,660

The names of the vessels by which these troops were despatched, and the number of men conveyed in each vessel, were: s.s. “Waiwera,” 21st October, 1899, 215 men; s.s. “Waiwera,” 21st January, 1900, 258 men; s.s. “Knight Templar,” 17th February, 1900, 264 men; s.s. “Monowai,” 24th March, 1900, 245 men; s.s. “Maori,” 31st March, 1900, 209 men; s.s. “Waimate,” 31st March, 1900, 278 men; s.s. “Gymeric,” 31st March, 1900, 328 men.

Chapter 62. SECTION II. AGRICULTURE IN NEW ZEALAND.

M. MURPHY, F.L.S.

IT is generally admitted that there is no part of the British dominions where agriculture, in its widest sense, can be carried on with so much certainty and with such good results as in New Zealand. The range of latitude, extending as it does from 34° to 47° South, secures for the colony a diversity of climate which renders it suitable for all the products of subtropical and temperate zones, while an insular position protects it from the continuous and parching droughts which periodically inflict such terrible losses on the agriculturist and pastoralist of Australia and South America.

Again, the climate, although somewhat variable, never reaches the extremes of heat or cold. So genial, indeed, is it that most animals and plants, when first introduced to the colony, assume a vigour unknown to them before.

NORTH ISLAND.

All the best forage-plants and grasses thrive most admirably, continuing to grow throughout the year with little intermission. Stock of every sort thrive and fatten rapidly on the pastures, coming to maturity at an early age without the aid of roots or condimental foods. All cereals flourish equally well, more especially Indian corn, which produces from fifty to eighty bushels per acre.

So full is the soil of plant-food that several continuous crops of potatoes or cereals may be taken with little apparent exhaustion. Wheat, oats, and barley thrive where the soil is not too rich; otherwise they produce enormous crops of straw, without a corresponding yield of corn. The tobacco-plant thrives well, as do also hops and sorghum, broom-corn, peanut, hemp, ramee or rhea (China grass), together with a large variety of economic plants, the growth of which will one day afford employment for a large population. In addition to these, all the British, Chinese, and Japanese fruits, with oranges, lemons, limes, olives, and vines (in the northern part), flourish abundantly, requiring but ordinary care. Potatoes are largely grown, and yield heavy crops.

Much of the country along the south-west and west coast is being rapidly taken up, and the primeval forest is fast disappearing before the setter's axe. For the most part, the soil is fertile, and the growth of grass and clover is extremely rapid and vigorous when sown on the surface after the felled timber has been destroyed by fire.

To the British husbandman it will seem almost incredible that the best pasture-grasses grow and thrive as they do with no other preparation than the ashes resulting from the burnt timber—no ploughing and no previous loosening of the soil—yet, in less than a year from the date of scattering the seed, this same land will fatten from five to six sheep per acre.

So rapidly are these fertile forest-lands being cleared and converted into pastures that the demand for stock (principally dairy) has greatly increased, and this demand must continue for a series of years before it is fully met.

Those who in the past have watched the progress of New Zealand, especially of the North Island, have always maintained that when the Maori difficulties and other impediments to settlement were over, the prosperity of the country would advance at a very rapid rate. The time has now come, and all that is required to expedite the coming prosperity is the settlement of our lands by a thrifty class of settlers.

There are millions of acres yet unoccupied, a great portion of which is of good quality, and only waiting the hand of man to make it carry, with very little cost, large herds of dairy stock, with flocks of long-wool and crossbred sheep. The west coast of the island is essentially a cattle-country. Considerable areas in the midland districts are adapted to long-wool sheep, as is also the country along the east coast. Much of the country may be described as being good sheep-land, a large portion of which is quite capable of carrying two sheep to the acre, and some of it as many as three or four.

MIDDLE ISLAND.

If the North Island has a splendid inheritance in her forests, the Middle Island can boast of her magnificent plain-lands, rolling downs, and vast mountain ranges, all of which, to a greater or less degree, have already been made to contribute to the wealth of the colony.

The central portion of the Middle Island presented to the first-comers a vast plain, covered only with waving tussock-grass, offering little or no obstruction to the plough.

Travelling south the country assumes a different character: easy, undulating downs, well watered, here and there interspersed with fertile plains, the greater portion admirably adapted for agriculture, and all of it suitable for pastoral purposes.

The climate of the Middle Island is not so warm in summer nor so mild in winter as that experienced in the North Island. However, as has already been stated, there are no extremes of heat or cold. Much more might be said in praise of this portion of the colony. It is deemed necessary to say so much in order that readers may better comprehend the comparative ease with which every kind of farming is carried on in New Zealand as compared with other countries less favourably situated.

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS.

Full particulars, with comparative tables showing the progress of agriculture in the colony, will be found in the statistical portion of this work, Part II., Section XVII.

THE PAST SEASON.

Notwithstanding the extreme variableness of the spring and summer of 1899-1900—characterized by cold cutting winds, and the want of rain at certain times—the year has been a fairly prosperous one for agriculturists. The abnormal crops of all kinds of cereals in the previous year, and the low prices which prevailed for wheat, had the natural effect of curtailing the area devoted to that crop. It is fortunate that such was the case, as, notwithstanding the diminished acreage, prices have not advanced. It is true that when the war broke out in South Africa there was a rise, which, however, proved not to be permanent, prices soon reverting to what they had been before, and, indeed, wheat remained for a time almost unsaleable. As the season progressed, a slight improvement took place, but not sufficient to leave any good margin of profit to the grower. A reference to the agricultural statistics on page 356 will show that the area under wheat in the past season was 269,749 acres, or a falling-off of 129,285 acres as compared with the previous year.

Referring to the pastoral industry, “Ovis,” writing in the Canterbury Agricultural and Pastoral Journal, has the following remarks, which will not be out of place here. He says:—

Sheep in poor condition are practically unknown this season. It would appear, however, that the lambing, good as it was, has not made up the deficiency in the sheep stock of Canterbury, and it does not seem probable that our southern neighbours will have any to spare this season. According to the last returns the shortage of sheep in Otago was greater than in Canterbury, and the price being more equalised in the two districts there will be no temptation on the part of Otago sheep owners to oversell, as possibly some of them did last year. Our pastoral industry is certainly liable to very curious vicissitudes. Two years ago we did not know what to do with our store sheep. The man who was fortunate enough to have feed bought and fattened and got gain almost anyhow he liked; but this season it is a question whether the seller of stores is not better off than the man who fattens. The prospects of the frozen lamb and mutton trade are not particularly encouraging, and the margin between the value of store and fat sheep is reduced to the narrowest limits. Breeding ewes, too, are much sought after, and there can be no doubt that the indiscriminate and wholesale sacrifice of ewe lambs for the sake of immediate profit is being severely felt. It is an evil which is likely to work its own cure, only it takes time to effect it. Numbers of farmers are holding their ewe lambs for the simple reason that if they sell them they cannot buy other sheep, at the prices that are going, that are likely to pay them so well to keep. The enhanced value of wool, as compared with several previous seasons, is likely to influence farmers in holding their young stock. Of course it is possible that if the price of frozen lamb should rise later on—and such a contingency is not impossible, as the chief demand for New Zealand lamb does not usually set in till about Easter—many of those who have resolved to keep their ewe lambs may be tempted by higher prices to part with them.

There may be fluctuations in the market, but there appears every reason to think that the price of sheep will rule high throughout this year. Should the weather be extremely dry during March and April, the prospects for winter feed would be considerably affected, and the price of sheep might suffer in consequence, for it seems to be more a matter of feed than anything else; but, with the country lightly stocked and the turnip crop fairly well established, nothing in the nature of a severe collapse is to be looked for. A few weeks of dry weather can do much in diminishing the feed supply, but as most farmers have now fewer sheep than the land could keep, owners are not likely to be under the necessity of forcing their sheep into the market in great numbers. There is much new grass in the country at present, the laying-down operations of the past two seasons having been successful, and this is necessarily a most important factor in the demand for sheep. The difference in the carrying capacity between new and old grass is enormous. Not only is the bulk of feed greater, and the quality more nutritious, but it grows earlier in the spring, and thus helps to bridge over the critical period after the turnips are finished. And there is the additional consideration that the crops generally being on the light side this year the stubble feed will be good. When the crops are exceptionally heavy—as was the case last year—there is not generally much undergrowth, but with light or patchy crops the stubble-feed counts for a good deal. It seems hardly likely that oats will be used very freely for sheep-feeding purposes during next winter, owing to the demand for export purposes, which promises to continue for some time to come; but the sheep probably will not be badly in want of them. Most farmers prefer a direct profit when they can get it, and only resort to indirect means when no other course is open. Oaten sheaf chaff is somewhat expensive feeding when the price of oats is such as to leave a fair profit on the crop. It is undoubtedly necessary that sheep should be supplied with some sort of dry feed when on turnips, to counteract the overplus of water that the root-crop contains, but for sheep not meant to be fattened good straw is sufficient; and for fattening purposes good hay meets all requirements. Owing to the dry and unfavourable character of the weather in the early part of the spring, hay is not very plentiful throughout the country, and in any season farmers do not pay sufficient attention to this branch of their business. Many, if not the majority of, farmers never save hay in any considerable quantity. Probably this is to be accounted for by the fact that in most seasons the paddocks are so hard stocked that it is not found possible to spa paddock to lay up for hay until it is too late. Nevertheless, we often see good feed going to waste in the summer which, in view of winter requirements, would pay well for running the mowing-machine and the rake over. And this occurs at a time of the year when there is not usually a great press of work on the farm, and would fill in the time between the completion of the tillage operations and the beginning of harvest.

Hay is not saved, because the grass cannot be spared in the early spring, and also because so much of the pasture is so poor that if a paddock is laid up the hay crop will not come to much unless the season is exceptionally favourable. But the question arises whether it would not pay to have recourse to top, dressing in order to stimulate the growth. Our farmers are slow to realise that circumstances have undergone considerable change during the last few years, and that operations that would not have paid ten years ago may pay very well now. Land is becoming too valuable to allow it to lie comparatively idle, and although it is wise to proceed cautiously in the introduction of new methods which involve the expenditure of more capital on the land, it is inevitable that, as time goes on and population increases, our system of agriculture must become more intensified if we are to hold our own against other countries. Only on the richest soil or on quite new land does anybody attempt to grow turnips or rape now without the aid of artificial manure; and if it is found to pay, as it undoubtedly does, to use manure for turnips or rape, why should not its further application, within limits, be extended to the pastures? It is probable, however, that the system of top-dressing would not be found to answer so well here as it does in Great Britain, for the dry weather to which we are occasionally liable in the early spring would be against it. Nevertheless, it is a matter for surprise that more farmers do not try the experiment, even though it may be on a small scale. If any of the readers of this journal should have tried the experiment of top-dressing, they would be conferring a benefit on the community by making the results of their experiments public. But in records of that kind it is desirable that as much accuracy as possible should be observed—such as the kind of manure used, the amount per acre, the quality of land and previous treatment, as well as the general character of the pasture, and the season at which the manure was applied, and the kind of weather experienced during and after the time of sowing. Scientific experiments, in the true sense of the word, are not within the reach of farmers; but it is quite within their capacity to carry out experiments of a useful and instructive nature. In one sense a farmer's life is one long series of experiments, and probably more experiments, in the stricter sense of the word, are tried than are ever heard of publicly, the general run of farmers having an unaccountable disinclination in such matters for taking their fellow agriculturists and pastoralists into their confidence.

During the past twelve months the sheep farmers of Canterbury have had the somewhat unusual experience of seeing the greater part of the sheep stock of the country in good condition throughout the four seasons of the year. There has been very little heard about sheep in low condition, and this should be the case every year. It would be going too far to say that overstocking may always be avoided by good management, for in some seasons—though such seasons are exceptional—it is an evil difficult to provide against. And it is curious, too, how little the cruelty involved in overstocking seems to strike the minds of many men who are not otherwise wanting in humane feelings. But, apart from the moral aspect of the matter, it may be depended on as an absolutely sound maxim that in the treatment of stock humanity is the best policy. Since last autumn the country generally has been considered understocked, but, if it were possible to work out the net profit derived from the flocks in the aggregate, and leaving out the rise in the price of wool, it is probable, indeed it is almost certain, that the profits shown would be greater than in seasons when the number of sheep was considerably greater, but the feed not quite sufficient for the sheep. What is wanted, however, is not to reduce the number of sheep, but to increase the food-supply, and especially the food-supply at lambing-time. Under the present order of things it is held to be desirable that the lambing should take place early, or, at, any rate, at a moderately early period; but, unless special and adequate provision is made, the result of early lambing is that the increase in the number of stock to be fed comes in at a time when the paddocks are in their barest state. The most ordinary common-sense dictates that the wants of the lambing ewes must be provided for by autumn cultivation and sowing, or else the lambing should come at a later period, after the grass has had time to grow. But the proper course is to make provision in the autumn. Many farmers appear to think that if the winter is provided for the spring may be trusted to take care of itself. A well-wintered flock will certainly stand a pinch in the spring better than one that has been half starved, but the advantages of good wintering are to no small extent lost—both as regards ewes and hoggets—if there comes a bad break in the supply of feed, and especially if the shortage of feed is accompanied by severe weather, as is so often the case at the close of the winter.

WHEAT.

The Canterbury Plains, the great wheat-growing district of the Middle Island, extend 150 miles north and south, running inland from the sea for forty miles, the whole forming an area of about 3,000,000 acres. A great portion of this vast plain is admirably adapted for the production of wheat, barley, and oats of the best quality, the growing of which has been carried on extensively since the foundation of the colony. The total area under wheat for threshing in the colony for the season 1899-1900 was 269,749 acres, of which 181,648 acres were grown in Canterbury, the average yields being approximately 32 bushels per acre. The land is for the most part free from stones or impediments of any kind. Single-furrow ploughs are now rarely seen, double- and three-furrow ploughs being in general use, and an occasional steam plough. Three horses, occasionally four, with a man or a boy, can turn over three acres per day on the plains, at a cost of 5s. or 6s. per acre. A stroke of the disc or other harrow, followed by the seed-drill and light harrows, completes the operation of sowing.

Seed-sowing commences in May, and can be continued as weather permits through the winter, and in the heavy swamp-land (drained) on into September and even October. From 1 1/4 to 1 1/2 and 2 bushels of seed per acre are usually sown, the quantity increasing as the season advances.

Good results are in general obtained by feeding-off the early-sown grain with sheep, followed by the harrows and roller. The average yield on the better class of soil in favourable seasons is from 40 to 60 bushels per acre of dressed grain. The usual general average for the whole colony may be set down at 25 to 30 bushels, according to the season. It must also be stated that the small-bird nuisance (principally the English sparrow) reduces the average by at least 2 to 3 bushels per acre of wheat, oats, and barley. As a set-off against this, however, the destruction of caterpillars and seeds of weeds must be credited to these feathered marauders. Another cause for low averages is the fact that wheat is sown on land entirely too light in quality for that cereal. It will, however, be noted that the general average yield of all our cereals is higher than that of most other countries except that of Britain herself.

OATS AND BARLEY.

Otago and Southland districts excel in the production of oats, which is their principal cereal crop, the breadth of land laid down last season being 210,043 acres of oats, against 61,460 acres of wheat.

The yield of oats in Otago and Southland varies from 40 to 80 bushels per acre, the cost of production being about the same as wheat—viz., £2 per acre when grown from grass-land, and £1 10s. from stubble.

Malting barley, of very superior quality, is grown in Nelson and Marlborough, where the soil and climate appear to be particularly adapted to its culture.

The growing of this cereal (barley) for malting purposes requires more attention than it has yet received in this colony. It is claimed for this crop that it will show a better result than wheat, for the following reasons: (1) It is less exhaustive to the soil; (2) it gives an average yield of from 10 per cent, to 20 per cent, more than wheat; (3) the growing crop in favourable seasons can be fed off twice, or even three times, to the advantage of the subsequent yield of grain. Land of a light and calcareous nature, but unsuitable for wheat, will give a barley thin in the skin, and particularly suited for malting purposes. Barley is not a difficult crop to raise, but there are certain points that need careful attention, which, if neglected, would probably result in the production of an inferior sample, which would hardly pay for growing.

REMARKS ON CEREALS.

Observers of passing events, as affecting rural affairs, must have noted that corn-growing, like that of any other industry, has its cycles of depression, followed by others of prosperity. A few years ago it was predicted that profitable wheat-growing had come to an end in this colony, and indeed it appeared like it when wheat fell to 2s. and 2s. 6d. per bushel. The acceptance of this theory has given an impetus to the cultivation of turnips, rape, barley, oats, peas, &c., for feeding sheep, lambs, and pigs, from which a more certain return can be secured, while large areas of formerly cultivated land reverted to pasture for grazing purposes. The manufacture of cheese and butter also received a lasting stimulus. The curtailment of the wheat area referred to is, indeed, by no means an unmixed evil, for had farmers gone on cropping indiscriminately, our fields would not only have become exhausted, but they would have been polluted with weeds to an irrecoverable extent. Farmers have come to see that a mixed system is the only safe course to pursue now in the management of their land.

ROOT-CROPS.

Potatoes: Potatoes are largely grown throughout New Zealand. On suitable soils very heavy crops are raised, it being no uncommon thing to dig from 8 to 10 tons per acre, although the general average is much lower, for the reason that unsuitable land is frequently devoted to this crop. The area under potatoes in 1899-1900 was 36,984 acres, as against 38,604 acres grown in 1899—a decrease of 1,620 acres. The bulk of the crop is planted without manure, but, where used, bonedust, superphosphate, blood-manure, or animal guano (which may be procured of first quality from the local manure manufactories), from 1 cwt. to 2 cwt. per acre, is applied with good results. The potato is, however, an expensive crop to grow, costing from £5 to £6 per acre. The potato is perhaps the most precarious of all crops, as the prices fluctuate in a most erratic manner. In 1898 the price rose to £7 and £8 per ton; in 1899 it fell to £1 10s. and £2, and the crop of 1900 is barely saleable at £2, Potato growers admit that £1 10s. per ton off the fork will pay better than £2 after being stored for any time. A feeling prevails amongst growers that if regular communication were established between New Zealand, the Cape, and the Islands, as well as China and Japan, a market would probably be opened up for produce, such as potatoes, onions, vegetables, fruits, &c., packed in cases or crates. A consignment of onions has been sent to the English market. It is hoped that the venture will prove successful, as the markets in the Australian Colonies will probably be closed against us in the near future from two causes—a federated Australia, and the rapidly improving condition of the agricultural industry. With extended transcontinental railway communication some one part of the continent will always be in a position to supply the wants of others; it is only a matter of transport. In view of these contingencies New Zealand farmers will have to look further afield for a market for their surplus produce.

Land for potatoes is usually broken out of grass, skim-ploughed in autumn, ploughed deeply in spring, and thoroughly tilled; or potatoes may be grown in drills opened and closed with a double-furrow plough. The seed—15 cwt. per acre—is then ploughed in under every third furrow, the after-culture consisting of harrowing just as the crop is appearing over ground (by this means myriads of seedling weeds are destroyed); drill-grubbing, hoeing, horse-hoeing, and earthing-up being the subsequent operations. Heavy crops of wheat, oats, barley, beans, or peas can always be relied upon after potatoes, season permitting.

Turnips: The turnip crop of this season has been a most unequal one. On the plains of Canterbury the want of rain at the critical period of their growth had a disastrous effect on thousands of acres. The green fly and the turnip moth completed the destruction of large areas to those north; while along under the hills and farther south the rains have sufficed to secure an ample crop, and the later rains have changed the face of nature, which in early autumn was parched and dry, to a verdant green, and there is now a prospect of ample feed for the winter.

On virgin soil turnips can always be relied upon as a certain crop without any manure, even with a single furrow and a couple of strokes of the harrow. But, as most of the land (at least in the Middle Island) has already been cropped, turnips cannot now be successfully grown without the aid of manure. In the nature of things, from a climatic point of view, farm-yard manure cannot be procured in sufficient quantity; artificial manures are therefore largely used, from 1 cwt. to 1 1/2 cwt. of superphosphate of lime per acre being now applied with the best results, securing ample crops of sound roots, from 15 to 30 tons per acre. The seed is sometimes sown in drills on the flat, the manure being dropped in front of the seed by the same machine, from 1/2 lb. to 1 lb. of seed per acre being used; when sown broadcast a smaller quantity will suffice. Sometimes the manure is deposited in a liquid state by machines manufactured for the purpose, called water-drills. This system invariably secures a rapid and vigorous braird, forcing the young plant into the rough leaf, after which it is secure from the attack of the turnip-beetle, usually the first enemy of the young plant's growth. So soon as the turnip-plants reach the third or fourth leaf, they are thinned by a scuffler, made for the purpose, which is drawn across the drills, bunching the turnips and thoroughly loosening the soil.

The drill-grubber and scuffler are used as required till the leaves meet. This kind of culture produces capital crops at a minimum of cost. In Otago and Southland, where Swede turnips are largely grown, the seed is sown in drills and the young plants are thinned out with the hand-hoe in the same manner as the mangold crop is treated in Canterbury and elsewhere. Large areas are sown broadcast, and, if found too thick, the harrows are run through them; in any case, a stroke of the harrows is a great help in promoting the growth of the plant. The varieties used are Devonshire Grey for early and very late sowing; Purple- and Green-top Aberdeen are the most generally grown. Swede turnips, from their proneness to the attack of the turnip aphis, are not so much grown, though they produce enormous crops in Otago and Southland, where the climate is more suitable. The turnip-crop is generally fed off by sheep intended for freezing. It is estimated that an acre of good turnips, with a little hay or oat-chaff, will fatten from eight to fourteen sheep. Turnip-sowing commences in November, and may be continued till the end of December. Stubble turnips may be sown in March, but this can only be considered as a catch-crop. It, however, often proves of great value, supplying an abundance of green food for ewes with early lambs. Turnip-land is usually sown with oats or barley, and sometimes spring wheat.

Rape is largely grown as sheep-feed, and may be sown either in early spring or immediately after harvest, the stubble being skim-ploughed or broken up with the spring-timed cultivator. This crop is invaluable in the early spring, and may be fed-off in time for oats or barley. Dairy-cattle, however, should not be fed on rape, as doing so destroys the flavour of the milk. This fodder plant ranks next in value to the turnip, and forms a most valuable adjunct to that crop. The following notes are from the pen of an experienced farmer, who writes from his own experience. He says:—

In my opinion rape, as a crop by itself, without grass, does best in medium to first-class land, as it bears feeding more frequently, and does not wither or go off with aphis in dry weather as soon as it does in the lighter class of land. I always put my best land into rape, following wheat, as then all weeds come up with the rape, and are eaten off by sheep or lambs before they seed; then heavy land, in which weeds are generally so abundant, is kept clean in the cheapest manner, and saves the labour of hoeing, &c., the rape paying the rent while the sheep are eating the weeds. To do this effectively, the rape must be stocked pretty early, as combine and fat-hen grow so fast; and it may be necessary to fence off the dirtiest parts of a field, to force dry ewes or wethers to eat the weeds after lambs have had the first picking. Broad-leaf Essex is the variety generally sown in October and November for summer feeding, say, up to the 15th March, or later if it is a dropping season. Quantity of seed per acre depends on the class of land and the preparation given to the seed-bed. If the land has been ploughed twice and worked fine, 2 1/2 lb. to 3 lb. is abundance on good land, and a shade less on lighter. If rape is sown in the autumn for spring feeding, with grass, during February and March, sow 3 lb. to 3 1/2 lb. of seed, as some is destroyed by frost, &c., in winter, and it gives more feed when running to flower in the spring. I much prefer turnip to rape for fattening lambs and sheep after the 1st March. Purple-top Mammoth to feed first, and then Imperial Green Globe to follow. These turnips are sown on clean land, first or second week in November, with 200 lb. of manure per acre and 6 oz. of seed. I start feeding rape, as a rule, about Christmas, wearing all the lambs as I take off my first draft of fat lambs. In my opinion, it is a great waste to put the ewes on the rape with the lambs, unless the ewes are old and are wanted for the butcher, as rape without grass is not good for producing milk, but simply fattens the ewe. This does not apply to running rape and young grass autumn sown for spring feeding, but, even then, rape is bad for milk in wet weather. Rape by itself, as a rule, follows dun oats or wheat, as previously stated, with the object of keeping down weeds; the first ploughing being done in July, giving twitch, &c., time to rot. To quote a well-known saying, “If farmers in New Zealand do not oust weeds the weeds will soon oust them.” I do not grow rape for seed, preferring to buy good clean imported seed, free from weeds. A good crop of rape in a favourable season will fatten fifteen to twenty lambs per acre, all depending on the condition of the lambs put on from time to time, and the skill of the owner. When hay and oat sheaf chaff are cheap, as they usually are in New Zealand, it pays well to give lambs hay or chaff on late rape and early turnips, as it makes a certainty of their fattening quickly, more especially in a wet autumn, if the owner is going to ship his own, and not sell, as the lambs weigh like lead, and the seller does not always get the credit. Early ploughing in July, and rolling on the furrow and cross-ploughing later, is the secret of making the turnip crop a certainty, as the small plants on which the enemies of the turnip live through the winter are destroyed, and the flies, &c., are not exactly on the spot when the young turnip first appears—at least, there are much fewer, and have to come from a distance; also, half, if not two-thirds, of the moisture comes from below, and if weeds and grass are continually growing the land cannot conserve its moisture, nor get any rest, the weeds consuming the food as nature generously makes it. The earth is also warmer when lying up ploughed: thus warmth and moisture, two great essentials in helping land to make its best return, are provided, and Nature, so bountiful in New Zealand, is given a chance to do her duty by man doing his.

Mangolds and Carrots are largely grown in some districts. They cost more money per acre than turnips to produce, as they must be hand-hoed; nor are they so suitable a crop for cleaning the land. Turnip-sowing does not commence till November or December, affording ample time for the destruction of seedling weeds; this important opportunity is largely lost in the culture of the mangold, which is usually sown in October. Mangolds are, however, an invaluable crop on a stock-farm, as they do not reach their primmest condition until the turnip-supply is exhausted, usually in August. From 30 to 60 tons per acre is not an uncommon yield of these roots, often without the aid of manure, on rich swamp land.

It must be pointed out that overgrown mangolds are not by any means the most profitable. M. Garold, director of one of the French agricultural stations, in a paper on the subject, refers to the extra expense of carriage involved with large roots, and states that the nutritive value of 15 tons of medium-sized roots is quite equal to that contained in double the quantity of large ones. These remarks are entirely borne out by Mr. G. Gray (lecturer on chemistry, Canterbury Agricultural College) in his report on the analysis of seven samples of roots exhibited at the last winter show of the Canterbury Agricultural and Pastoral Association, submitted to him for analysis.

The following is an extract from the report:—

TABLE I.—PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF ROOTS.       
Aberdeen Purple-top Turnip. (1.)Aberdeen Green-top Turnip. (2.)Swedo Turnip. (3.)Golden Tankard Mangold. (4.)Tankard Mangold. (5.)Globe Mangold. (6.)Long Red Mangold. (7.)
Water91.9591.8190.2687.3792.3394.7791.91
Sugar3.183.885.158.591.211.762.62
Extractive matter1.791.332.010.983.350.832.50
Fat, colouring matter, &c.0.530.610.540.330.250220.16
Albuminoids0.510.580.530.680.500.350.36
Crude fibre0.971.000.830.810.830.600.64
Ash1.070.790.681.241.531.471.81
Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00
TABLE II.—CONDITION OF NITROGEN IN ROOTS.       
Percentage of Nitrogen in Dry Matter of Roots.       
Albuminoid nitrogen1.011.150.870.851.051.070.71
Non-albuminoid2.010.441.594.401.781.501.01
Total3.021.592.465.252.832.571.72
Percentage of Total Nitrogen existing as Albuminoids and Non-albuminoids.
Percentage of nitrogen as albuminoids33.4472.3235.3616.1937.1041.6341.27
Percentage of nitrogen as non-albuminoids66.5627.6864.6483.8162.9058.3758.73
Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

For the purpose of analysis, segments of each root, cut from the top to the bottom, were taken so as to represent the average composition of the whole. One of the main points shown in the analyses is the large percentage of water existing in roots; only in one case, that of the Golden Tankard mangold, does it fall below 90 per cent. In the dry matter sugar is the constituent present in greatest amount, the mangold just mentioned containing an unusually large amount, pertaining in this respect more to the character of a sugar-beet. The sugar present is mainly in the form of cane-sugar. The term “extractive matter” includes bodies of the pectoral group, digestible fibre, &c., which are assumed to have a feeding-value equivalent to starch. The albuminoids indicated in the analyses are true albuminoids, or flesh-formers, the nitrogen not existing as such being shown in Table II. Roots, like other immature vegetable products, are characteristic in containing nitrogen, much of which does not exist as albuminoids, and consequently does not act as flesh-formers. Amides and similar bodies containing nitrogen exist, and also nitrates. Mangolds, especially, contain a large proportion of their nitrogen in the latter form. Crude fibre is that portion of the root which is assumed to be indigestible, having resisted the action of solvents similar to those secreted by the digestive organs; with this exception the whole of the dry matter in roots is assumed to be digested. The composition of roots depends largely upon the nature of season, soil, and manuring, especially the latter. Nitrogenous manures in excess tend to increase the amount of leaf at the expense of the feeding value of the bulbs, and also to lower the proportion of the nitrogen as albuminoids and increase that existing as amides, &c. Large roots, as a rule, contain more water than smaller ones of the same kind. The specific gravity or density of roots compared to water is a good indication of their feeding value; the greater this is, the higher, as a rule, will be the proportion of nutrient substances present.

As will be seen in the description of the roots examined, several of them were past the stage of maximum feeding value, as shown by a want of compactness in the flesh of the root. The amount of sugar in roots goes on increasing up to a certain point, after which it begins to diminish, being converted into woody fibre, and the root becomes pithy. The comparative feeding value of the several roots may be shown by the number of food units present. These are obtained by adding together the amounts of the albuminoids and fat, and multiplying the result by 2.5, and adding the number so obtained to the percentage of carbohydrates, the sugar, extractive matter, &c., present. This is done on the assumption that the fat and albuminoids are, commercially, two and a half times the value of the carbo-hydrates. The food units obtained in this way with the roots examined are as follows:—

 Food Units.
Golden Tankard mangold12.1
Swede9.8
Aberdeen Green-top turnip8.2
Aberdeen Purple-top turnip7.4
Long Red mangold6.4
Tankard mangold6.4
Globe mangold4.0

Carrots are also a valuable crop, especially for horses; on sandy loams the yield reaches 15 to 20 tons per acre. Carrots impart a pleasant flavour to butter, and should be largely grown for dairy stock.

FERTILISERS.

This industry has now assumed important dimensions—manufactured from the waste products of animals slaughtered for freezing. The demand for fertilisers must increase from year to year, as our lands become more frequently cropped. In the early days of the freezing industry, when the demand for turnips became general, the native-grass land (tussock) was then in its natural state. All that was necessary was to turn this virgin soil over with a shallow furrow, harrow down, and sow the seed (a few ounces) to the acre, without any fertiliser whatever. A good crop was the inevitable result.

The plough has been over almost the whole of our available new lands. It is now found absolutely necessary to sow fertilisers with the seed to give the young plant a start. Assuming that 1 1/2 cwt. per acre is used all over the 588,234 acres in root-crops, this would mean an annual demand for 44,177 tons, without taking into consideration that used for grain, orchards, &c. One of the most practical farmers in New Zealand has, however, given it as his opinion that, with a proper course of rotation, it will be many years before it will be necessary to apply fertilisers to corn crops—except, indeed, in a few extreme cases. Experiments have been made with a view to testing how far fertilisers may be used for raising wheat on the thinner soils of the colony, with varying success. In some cases it has been demonstrated that the application of a nitrogenous manure resulted in an increased yield sufficient to justify the additional outlay per acre, in others the result was not favourable; however, the season has much to do with results from such experiments. The lack of moisture will nullify the good which might otherwise follow the application of fertilisers whether to root or cereal crops.

Notwithstanding the quantity of fertilisers manufactured in the colony, importations are made, principally from Australia. Mr. G. Gray, Lecturer on Chemistry at Canterbury Agricultural College, in a paper on “Soil Fertility” shows that the land is drained annually of 5,871 tons of nitrogen, 1,000 tons of phosphates, 2,438 tons of potash, and 1,006 tons of lime: so that there is room for still further enterprise in the manufacture of manures. Recognising the value of such deposits, the South Australian Government recently offered a reward of £500 to the finder of a payable deposit of coprolites.

SEEDS.

Clover: Saving clover for seed has now become an established and a lucrative industry, adding materially to the farmers' income. Clover is sown with a spring crop, usually of corn, lightly grazed in the following autumn, and then reserved for a crop of hay, which, according to the season, yields from 2 to 3 tons per acre when cut in November or early in December. Some farmers prefer feeding off with sheep in preference to mowing for hay. The after-growth is then allowed to flower and seed, which it does very freely. Thousands of humble-bees may be seen in the clover-fields during the months of January, February, and March. The seed ripens in March, and is then cut and dried, and threshed out by machines known as clover-shellers. An acre of clover may yield in hay and seed from £8 to £10. It must, however, be stated that, while a good crop of clover-seed is a most lucrative one, it is nevertheless a most precarious one. Owing to the lateness of the season of ripening, it sometimes happens that the fertilisation is imperfect, resulting in a majority of barren heads. This has given rise to a controversy as to whether the proper bee has been introduced. The point was referred to Miss Ormerod, the English entomologist, who settled the question in the affirmative.

White and alsike clover are now grown in considerable quantities. White clover yields enormously: as much as 300 lb. of alsike seed has been obtained per acre. These clovers are not so dependent on the action of the humble-bee for their fertilisation. They mature earlier, and are more easily threshed and cleaned than cow-grass and red clover.

Grass-seed Saving: All the most valuable British grasses flourish throughout New Zealand. Cocksfoot has been for many years a staple product of Banks Peninsula (Akaroa County), where the soil for the most part consists of decomposed volcanic rocks and vegetable mould. Large quantities of this seed are now raised in the North Island as well. The seed is of the finest description, frequently weighing 20 lb. to the bushel, 12 lb. being a standard bushel. Cocksfoot thrives on a very wide range of soil, from the richest to the poorest, preferring, of course, the former. It may be found on the dry stony plains of the interior, green and healthy, when the surrounding herbage, introduced or indigenous, has yielded to the heat of the summer sun.

Growing ryegrass for seed is also an important industry. The seed is usually gathered by stripping; sometimes the grass is cut and tied and afterwards threshed by machinery. The average yield is from 15 to 20 bushels per acre, weighing from 25 lb. to 32 lb. per bushel, 20 lb. being the standard weight. A common practice is to graze the land till midsummer; to take the stock off for a few weeks, and then to run the stripper over the ground. By this primitive method 10 bushels per acre are sometimes secured, being of the finest quality. Ryegrass-seed is usually in good demand; the price varies according to the season, the usual price however is from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. and 4s. per bushel.

Meadow fescue, one of the most valuable of all the grasses for permanent pasture on good land, is grown both in the North and Middle Islands, but as yet not very largely. A noticeable instance of the value of this grass for pasture purposes was illustrated in a paddock which came under the writer's notice. The paddock was laid off into three equal parts, and sown with perennial ryegrass, meadow fescue, and Italian ryegrass. When well grown, sheep were turned in. They at once commenced to feed on the fescue, eating it quite bare, while the perennial ryegrass was left almost untouched. The Italian ryegrass received considerable attention. The preference for the fescue was very marked. Growing grass-seed of all the finer kinds should be an important industry in New Zealand, but as yet very little attention is paid to it. All that is required is to select clean land and clean seed to commence with. Carefully conducted, the seed-growing business should prove a lucrative one.

Small Seeds: New Zealand, from the nature of her soil and climate, offers a fine field for growing all kinds of farm and garden seeds. This circumstance has already attracted the attention of some of the larger seed-merchants of Great Britain, whose agents occasionally visit the colony with a view to inducing farmers and others to grow certain kinds of seeds. The industry is peculiarly adapted to small holdings, and well suited to young persons, the work being light and of an interesting character. Ready sale can be found for carefully-grown and carefully-cleaned garden seeds.

OTHER CROPS.

Pulse: Peas and beans are largely grown for pig and horse feed, and for export; they form an excellent preparation for wheat. An extensive trade in peas of a certain description is done in the manufacturing towns of Great Britain; and efforts are now being made to secure a share of this trade for the colony by producing peas suitable for splitting for human food. The business should prove a most remunerative one. Thirty bushels of peas are considered a fair crop, while 40 to 70 bushels of beans are often secured. As showing the extraordinary fertility of some of the lands in the Canterbury District, it may be mentioned that beans and wheat have been grown alternately on Kaiapoi Island for thirty years without any apparent diminution of yield, the crops of recent years being as abundant as those grown years ago; 40 to 50 bushels of wheat and 60 to 70 bushels of beans being the usual return per acre.

Cape Barley and Winter Oats: The demand for early spring feed has resulted in the growing of these plants for forage. Their extreme hardiness renders them well adapted for autumn sowing. If sown in March they are ready for feeding-off in May; they may be fed off again in July, and on till the beginning of October, when, if allowed to run to seed, they will produce 40 to 60 bushels per acre, or they may be ploughed in for turnips.

Tares are also grown, but not so largely as they deserve to be, especially for dairy stock. Mixed with oats, barley, or rye, they are excellent milk-producers; and when grown luxuriantly they destroy all kinds of weeds, and leave the land in fine condition for a spring corn-crop.

Lucerne: This permanent fodder-plant thrives admirably in most parts of New Zealand, yielding three to five cuttings in the year; and, if properly cultivated and well attended to, it will continue to yield liberal cuttings for seven or eight years. This is a most excellent crop for the small or large farmer, furnishing, as it does, an abundant supply of succulent fodder, in deeply-cultivated soils, during the drier months of midsummer, as well as in the early spring. All farm animals are partial to lucerne; pigs thrive admirably upon it. No farm should be without a well cultivated plot of this plant. In deeply-cultivated land lucerne will yield several cuttings during the season, no matter how hot and dry the weather may be. It is this drought-resisting quality which renders lucerne such a valuable fodder plant in Queensland and New South Wales.

COST OF WORKING A FARM IN NEW ZEALAND.

When comparing the cost of working a farm in England with one of the same size in the colony, several points have to be taken into account, such as the climate, the soil, labour, and machinery. In the colonies wages are higher than in Britain; as a set-off against this, the colony can claim, firstly, that there are more fine working days in the year, that the fields are much larger, that the latest improvements in machinery have been introduced, that the soil is more easily worked, and that the genial nature of the climate renders it unnecessary to house stock during the winter months, at least in the North Island, thus saving the cost of attendance; secondly, that farming operations may be carried on continuously throughout the ploughing and sowing season; and, thirdly, that the paddocks are so large, and usually so level, that the double-and treble-furrow plough may be worked by one man or youth with three horses, thus equalising the cost of labour, as we have shown that one man, or even a boy, will be quite equal to two men or boys in the Old Country, so that after all the difference in the rate of wages is not so great as might appear at first sight.

The hay-crop is simply cut one day, raked into windrows the next, and in a couple more it is ready for stacking.

Wheat is cut and tied by machinery, the stooks requiring no capping. It is frequently threshed out of the stook in favourable seasons, thereby saving the cost of stacking and thatching; but this method is not recommended except in hot, dry seasons. When stacked, the stacks are rarely thatched, except, perhaps, on the weather side. This is a wise precaution, the neglect of which sometimes entails serious loss.

The manure bill, which is such a heavy item of annual expenditure with the British farmer, presses as yet very lightly on the farmers of the colony. It is, however, a notable fact that the use of fertilisers is becoming more general; 1 cwt. to 1 1/2 cwt. of superphosphates per acre is used with the turnip and other root-crops, for the purpose of forcing the young plant into the rough leaf, when it will be out of one danger—the turnip-fly. It will nevertheless be seen that the colonial farmer has many advantages over the farmer of the Old Country.

The labour question and the laws regulating it, and other surrounding circumstances, are tending to bring about a considerable change in the condition of things agricultural. There is a fast-growing desire on the part of the workers to acquire holdings of their own, however small, rather than to labour for others. The settlement of the land in small holdings is chiefly, if not entirely, responsible for this laudable ambition.

There can be no doubt but that the policy of settlement has come to stay, and it requires but little power of divination to predict that, in the near future, we shall have a thrifty and numerous body of yeomanry throughout the country—small capitalists, who have gladly availed themselves of the facilities offered by the regulations whereby none of their cash is required for the purchase of the holding, leaving it available for the acquirement of implements and stock.

LIVE STOCK.

Cattle: The total number of cattle in the colony was 1,210,439 for 1899-1900.

Horses: Horses, 261,931, an increase for 1899-1900 of 3,816.

Sheep: If any evidence was required to show how splendidly New Zealand is adapted for the production of sheep, it would be found in the fact that, according to the latest returns, the sheep stock of the colony in 1899 was 19,348,506. This is a remarkable result when it is considered that 1,719,282 sheep and 1,168,883 lambs were frozen for export in 1898.

Pigs: The stock of pigs, according to the last returns, is set down at 249,751 as against 193,512, showing an increase of 56,239. There is still room for an enormous extension of this industry. With wheat at 2s., oats at 1s. 3d., per bushel, and an abundance of mangolds and carrots, Canterbury alone could do with double the stock of breeding sows now on hand.

SHEEP.

Sheep: New Zealand has proved itself admirably adapted for the breeding of all classes of sheep, from the fine-combing merino to the strongest type of Lincoln. The merino occupies and thrives on the wild lands of the colony, from the snow-line to the border of the plains, as well as on the drier portions of the plains. The merino ewe furnishes the foundation for all the crossbred varieties. On the rich moist soils the Lincoln and Romney Marsh sheep flourish, while the finer English and Border Leicesters occupy the drier lands.

Crossbred Sheep: Those bred from merino ewes and longwool rams, or from crossbred ewes with Down rams, are the most suitable for the frozen-meat trade, and are known as “freezers.”

The dapper little Southdowns flourish wherever crossbreds thrive. Their more ponderous cousins, the Shropshire and Hampshire Downs, have their admirers, especially the Shropshire, which are largely used for crossing, with a view to producing early-maturing lambs. English Leicesters are also much sought after for this purpose, particularly in the Middle Island where “prime Canterbury” mutton is produced.

Since the development of the frozen-meat trade, sheep-farming in the colony has undergone a radical change. At one time wool was the chief consideration, the surplus stock finding its way into the boiling-down vat, the tallow and pelts being the only products of value. Things have marvellously altered since 1882, the inaugural year of the frozen-meat trade. Farming has assumed a new phase, sheep-raising for mutton and wool being the most profitable branch. Small and large flocks of pure and crossbred sheep are now kept on all farms which are suitable for them, the object being the production of early lambs for freezing. The percentage of increase all over the colony is very high, especially in the paddocks, where 100 to 125 per cent, is not uncommon in favourable seasons, while on the hill and unimproved country it varies from 45 to 80 per cent.

Shearing commences in September, and is continued till January. The usual price per hundred is from 15s. to 17s. 6d. Shearing-machines are now largely used.

The average clips for the various breeds of sheep are approximately as follow: Merino, from 4 lb. to 7 lb.; quarter-breds, about 6 1/2 lb.; half-breds, 7 1/2 lb.; three-quarter-breds, 8 1/2 lb.; Leicester, 10 1/2 lb.; Lincoln, 11 lb. Of course, very much larger clips are obtained from special flocks, as much as 25 lb. to 30 lb. per sheep; but the above figures represent general averages.

The staple of New Zealand wool, especially the long-wool and cross-bred, is remarkable for its freedom from breaks and other imperfections incidental to countries subject to long droughts and scarcity of feed.

The most profitable sheep for New Zealand is that which combines the best fleece and the most suitable carcase for freezing purposes, together with early maturity. This is the class of sheep which some sheep-breeders have set themselves to produce. Whether such an animal, having fixity of type, can be evolved, remains to be proved; so much depends on the feed, situation, and soil.

The capability of New Zealand for producing mutton has not yet reached its limit. When the frozen-meat trade was first seriously considered, an assertion to the effect that the colony could soon find 1,000,000 sheep per annum for freezing without impairing the breeding-flocks was treated as highly chimerical by sheep-breeders of long experience. It is found, however, on reference to the statistical returns, that 2,102,533 sheep and 1,272,525 lambs were exported from New Zealand during the year 1899. There are twenty-one freezing - works in the colony, with a full freezing-capacity of 3,665,000 sheep per annum. While congratulating the colony on the rapid development of the frozen-meat trade, it must be borne in mind that in Argentina strenuous efforts are being made to secure a share of the frozen-mutton trade carried on by New Zealand with Great Britain; Australia is also striving hard to share the trade with New Zealand. It must be admitted that with cheaper land, and a closer proximity to the markets of the world, Argentina will necessarily be a very formidable rival with Australasia. The only way to keep command of the market is to ship nothing but first quality mutton and lamb. The development of the frozen mutton industry, especially that of our rivals, may fairly be gauged by the following facts: In 1899 the importations of frozen mutton into Great Britain were valued at £5,439,707. Of this vast sum Australasia contributed £3,282,976; the foreign countries contributing the balance of £2,156,731 were Argentina, £1,490,166; Holland, £629,040; Germany, £1,503; other countries, £36,022.

Raising lambs for the frozen-meat trade has become one of the mainstays of colonial farmers, large and small, especially the latter. As with butter and cheese, the returns are ready cash. The year 1900 may be regarded as a record season for lambs, which have been selling for freezing purposes at prices ranging from 11s. to 15s. a head, a few exceptionally fine lots realising as much as £1 5s. The magnitude of this industry may best be estimated by the fact that in the year ended 31st December, 1899, the colony sent away 1,272,525 lambs. This, with the fact of an export of 2,102,533 sheep, is sufficient evidence of the great and important changes which have come over the agricultural industries of this colony—a condition of things which has brought about a system of farming calculated to develop to the utmost the resources of the country. Some 548,500 acres were devoted to root and other fodder crops this season for feeding sheep.

“The New Zealand Flock-book,” published in 1895, is now thoroughly established, and, with careful management, must prove of great service to owners of pure pedigree flocks. The Royal Agricultural Society of Victoria have already published a Flock-book for British breeds of sheep. This is a step in the right direction, as flock-masters in South America demand a certificate to the effect that the cattle and sheep purchased by them are duly registered in an authorised Herd-or Flock-book. The value of these books are now so fully recognised that all the distinctive breeds of sheep in Britain have their recognised registers.

HORSE-BREEDING.

The climate of New Zealand is admirably adapted for the breeding and rearing of horses of all kinds, especially draught-horses. Indeed it would be difficult to find better Clydesdale horses than those bred on the limestone soils of Oamaru and elsewhere. Some of the best blue-blood of this breed has from time to time been imported from Scotland, with the result that the breed is now well established in the colony.

The light-horse stock of the colony has risen into note through the production of animals which have rendered themselves famous on the colonial turf. The demand for horses suitable for remounts for the cavalry service in India is a continuous one, affording a ready market for the proper stamp of animal. Shipments have from time to time been made to that country. The importation, however, of a few really good sires for the production of carriage-horses, hunters, and cavalry mounts would be a national benefit. The fact that the bulk of the horses purchased for the troops in South Africa came from America clearly shows what a good field we should have in this colony for the production on a large scale of this class of horse.

CATTLE.

The colony possesses all the best strains of blood, and this is evidenced by the superior class of cattle to be met with throughout the settled districts, especially in the show yards. There are two Herd-books published by the Canterbury Agricultural and Pastoral Association—one for shorthorns, the other for breeds other than shorthorns. The value of properly kept herd-books is now fully recognised in South America, as all imported stud animals are required to be registered in some herd-or stud-book. New Zealand is free from any of the diseases so disastrous to horned stock in other countries. It is said that Iceland is the only other spot on the earth which enjoys the same immunity. With a view to maintaining this enviable position, the Government have prohibited vessels carrying live-stock from infected colonies touching at any of the ports of New Zealand except under certain conditions. This action is deemed necessary, owing to the prevalence of pleuro-pneumonia in Australia.

DAIRY STOCK.

The breeding of first-class dairy stock offers a field for profitable investment. Milking-cattle now command a fair price, and will continue to do so. The rearing of well-bred heifer calves will repay all the time and trouble bestowed thereon. They must, however, be of exceptionally good quality and from fine milking strains. Separated milk, although relieved of its butter-fat, loses little of its feeding value; the addition of a little linseed meal will restore the fatty constituents, which, however, are not the most valuable for feeding purposes. Ground oats, wheat, or barley added to the linseed mucilage will render calves fit for the butcher in a comparatively short time. An acre or so of European flax should be grown upon every farm where stock-rearing is carried on. The fattening of calves for export has not yet been attempted in the colony, although there is a very large and lucrative market for veal calves in London, ranging from £4 to £6 and £7 per head. Much has still to be done in the way of improving the dairy stock of the colony. The yield of milk from fairly good milking-cattle is approximately 500 gal. per annum, although 700 gal. per head are frequently obtained from selected herds. The average quantity of milk obtained will no doubt be increased as more attention is paid to breeding, and proper feeding. The general management and feeding of dairy stock is a question demanding immediate attention. Kind treatment is essential to success; clean pastures, clear running water, and grasses of the best quality are all factors fully recognised wherever dairying is successfully carried out.

The average yield of butter from milk passed through the separator is 1 lb. for every 2 1/2 gal. of milk of 10 1/2 lb.; so that the average cow produces annually 200 lb. of butter, or 500 lb. of cheese, which, estimated at 4 1/2d. per pound, will be worth about as much as the butter.

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY.

This industry has flourished throughout New Zealand during the past year. Although the milk supply in some districts was curtailed for want of feed, the percentage of cream was greater in proportion. The export of butter for the year ended 31st December, 1899, reached 136,086 cwt., valued at £571,799; and of cheese, 69,440 cwt., value £141,818: or a total of £713,617. This industry is capable of much greater expansion without even increasing the number of milch cattle, but by improvement in breeding. The Government have spent large sums of money in teaching the art of butter-making by the factory system, but little or nothing has as yet been done in the way of encouraging the breeding of better strains of cattle for the production of milk of superior quality as well as quantity. It will thus be seen that this business has now developed into one of the settled industries of the colony, resulting in the introduction of dairy experts, whose business is to instruct the dairy farmers and factory-owners in all the most approved methods of butter and cheese manufacture. Graders are employed examining all butter and cheese for export, who brand each packet with its proper quality. Factory-owners now recognise the fact that it is folly to pay freight on any but the best quality; and this remark applies to grain and meat as well. We have to compete against Canada, the United States, Denmark, Australia, and the Argentine. New Zealand dairymen must, therefore, endeavour to raise dairy cattle which will yield the maximum of milk of the best quality; in fact, nothing but intense farming will pay in the future, applied to every branch.

The sterilising of milk to destroy the germs of diseases like tuberculosis is a wise precaution. The operation consists of heating milk up to a certain temperature, and cooling it rapidly, a process which has been found to destroy the bacillus of tuberculosis known to be present in the milk of affected cattle. The Government veterinaries are employed examining the cattle, and a large number are annually tested with tuberculin.

PIGS.

These useful adjuncts to the dairy should hold a very important position on almost all arable farms. The favourite breed in New Zealand is the improved Berkshire. The large and small breeds of White Yorkshire are also to be met with, but are not so generally approved of as the black pigs. The Tamworth pig has grown in favour with pig-breeders, as they answer admirably for crossing with black pigs. They are sought after for producing bacon pigs, making more lean meat and longer sides than the pure Berkshires. Pigs require no better attention than a good grass paddock, with a liberal supply of roots, and a little unthreshed pea-haulm for a few weeks before killing, with plenty of water, and shelter from the sun during the warmest summer months.

The breeding, rearing, and fattening of pigs is a source of wealth which is capable of considerable expansion. Several plants for the mild curing of bacon have been set up at the various freezing-factories, and by private persons and firms, many of whom are prepared to purchase an almost unlimited number of suitable animals, at prices which should prove remunerative to the grower. The establishment of properly appointed pig-farms is a somewhat costly undertaking, as all the fences must be pig-proof. Doubtless this consideration has had a deterrent effect upon some, while others find the breeding of lambs a sufficiently profitable undertaking, besides causing much less trouble. The industry is growing with the increased demand and the satisfactory prices offered for properly fed pigs. There is, however, room for an enormous expansion of this branch of rural industry.

POULTRY.

The efforts made by the Government to foster this industry are gradually producing the hoped-for results. The dissemination of a better class of poultry is showing good results already. Farmers are beginning to see that their poultry-yard should form no mean auxiliary to the general return from the products of the farm. With such a climate as we have, there need be no difficulty in raising hundreds where dozens are now produced. The department in Victoria has done much to foster this industry amongst their farmers. They receive the poultry in large numbers at the Government refrigerating stores, where they are sorted, packed, and frozen for shipment, with very good results.

THE FRUIT INDUSTRY.

From the North Cape to the Bluff Hill, in the extreme south of the Middle Island, the climate and soil are, for the most part, eminently adapted for the growth of a large variety of fruits. Generally speaking, pears, plums, quinces, apricots, figs, walnuts, cherries, gooseberries, currants, strawberries, and raspberries grow luxuriantly, producing abundant crops of fruit. In the Auckland District, oranges, lemons, and limes flourish: many groves are now bearing, and afford light and pleasant employment to a large number of persons. This employment will go on increasing as the trees become older. The olive flourishes in the North Island, bearing heavy crops, and the manufacture of oil will assume important dimensions at no distant date.

Vine-growing is also carried on with tolerable success in many districts; tons of fruit grown under glass are sold in the Auckland markets annually. Signor Bragato, an Italian wine expert, who visited this colony in 1895, gave it as his opinion that there are numerous localities in both Islands admirably suited for growing vines for the manufacture of wine and raisins.

Away in the far north the banana grows and ripens its fruit, but it is not thought that it will ever enter into successful competition with those imported at so cheap a rate from the Pacific Islands.

Extensive orchards of apples have existed in Auckland for many years, and are still capable of producing an abundance of fruit, if kept free from codlin-moth and other pests. Orchard-planting is progressing, and must one day be a very important industry. Central Otago will also become a large fruit-producing district, being free from violent and scorching north-west winds. All the fruits of the temperate zones flourish there; all that is required is a light railway to tap the district.

The manufacture of cider is already assuming considerable dimensions, opening up a ready market for surplus fruit. The colonial-made article is rapidly coming into favour with the general public.

The drying of fruit has been fostered by the Government, who sent an expert through some of the apple-growing districts, giving practical lessons in the art of artificial fruit-drying. A great deal might also be done in bottling fruits, and the manufacture of fruit-wine, if only for home consumption. These are industries hardly yet touched, but as the orchards mature they may be expected to expand.

The manufacture of jam is carried on with much success, but there is plenty of room for further development in this industry.

TREE-PLANTING.

With a view to encourage the planting of trees, the Government some five years ago introduced the popular American institution of Arbor Day. It is, however, a matter for regret that New Zealand settlers have not as yet entered into the spirit of the institution, as it was hoped they would. Millions of trees have been planted in this way in the United States. Our native forests are fast disappearing before the woodman's axe; it is only a question of time and supplies will have to be drawn from artificial forests, or from foreign sources. Deciduous trees, such as ash, elm, and beech, should be largely planted. A small quantity of ash grown in Canterbury has already come into use for coach building, and has been pronounced by competent experts to be of excellent quality. Plantations of larch might advantageously be made on the southern slopes of the foot-hills skirting the Canterbury Plains and elsewhere. There can be no doubt that a demand will arise for large quantities of larch-poles for mining purposes, &c. The much-despised Pinus insignis has a value far beyond what it gets credit for. Its timber is admirably adapted for the manufacture of fruit-cases. On fairly good land it will come into use in less than twenty years. It will also be found suitable for making butter-boxes. The wood, if selected would properly dried, is perfectly free from resin of any kind. A day of retribution will most assuredly overtake this colony for the persistent neglect to plant trees, to compensate in some degree for the wholesale denudation of our native forests. In Canterbury especially the work has been grossly neglected. The Government are, however, taking some steps to remedy the evil, and it is hoped that private enterprise will follow the good example. It is sad to reflect that long before the close of this century there will be a general dearth of timber throughout New Zealand. Our native forests are still being ruthlessly destroyed by the demon fire king, aided by a thoughtless generation. It remains to be seen what will be the climatic effect of the denudation of large areas of forest land. The result in other parts of the world has been to render rainless climates more moist by the extensive planting of trees, while other regions, which have been denuded of their forests, have become comparatively barren wastes for want of sufficient moisture. The present Government, apparently alive to the importance of this question, have established nurseries in the North and South Islands. The Tapanui State Nursery and Forest is well worth a visit, and the work done by the nurserymen is greatly to their credit. The nursery, some twenty acres in extent, and shortly to be added to and its area doubled, is at the foothills of the Blue Mountains. The whole of the land is tile-drained and in beautiful order, and, with the exception of a small area reserved for growing fodder, all planted out with seedling and yearling trees, mostly hard woods—oak, ash, and walnut—with hard-wood pines. Work in the nursery was only commenced by the State Forester, Mr. H. P. Matthews, in May, 1898, and it is wonderful to notice the amount of labour done in such a short time. There is no “Government stroke” in the State nurseries. The forest to grow the trees when they leave the nurseries is some 850 acres in extent, in the Upper Pomahaka Valley, and already some thousands of trees are growing there most luxuriantly. The forest is also to be a reserve for imported game-birds, but the weasels, stoats, and ferrets with which the country abounds will not allow them to increase. Black games have been turned out already, and other birds are to follow, and the nurserymen are to act as honorary rangers for the Acclimatisation Society.

The following interesting paper, written by Mr. T. W. Adams, of Greendale, Canterbury, is highly instructive, and should be noted by all those who propose planting on a large or small scale. The paper treats on the effects of the drought of 1897-98 on various species of forest trees. Mr. Adams's experience is for the most part based on his observations on the Canterbury Plains, and on his own estate at Greendale, where he has perhaps the most varied collection of trees owned by any person in New Zealand. He says:—

On several occasions dry summers have been succeeded by sharp winters. It was so in 1886. Both the summer and winter of that year were very disastrous to all vegetation on the Plains; in fact, more so than any other year, not even excepting the last. The drought was not so long continued in 1886 as on the last occasion, but the heat for a time was much more intense, and thousands of trees were killed. This drought was followed by a very severe winter, with long continued frosts, the thermometer registering on several nights from 15 to 20 degrees of frost; and a large number of plants were killed, Mr. Armstrong reporting 40 species of trees and shrubs as being killed in the Christchurch Public Gardens, and many others much damaged.

Although the extremes of heat and cold are probably greater in Canterbury than in any other part of New Zealand, yet I think we have a very fine climate here, with many bright sunny days, favourable both to animal and vegetable life; and when compared with many other portions of the globe it will be found that a larger number of plants will flourish here than almost anywhere else of the same latitude. While our summers are generally dry, a long continued drought is of rare occurrence. If we may draw an inference from the past, it would appear that we may expect a very dry summer about every eleven or twelve years, as the summers of 1863, 1874, 1886, and 1897-98 were very dry ones.

In speaking of the drought of 1886 I have said how well, comparatively, the trees went through the long drought of 1897-98, their shallow roots being able apparently to benefit from the frequent light showers that fell, and although many were killed, still the slaughter was not so great as on the former occasion.

Another thing may be noticed, and that is, that it depends somewhat on the time when the drought is most severe as to its effects on different species. Some species make an early growth, others are late in starting; and should the drought occur just when a species is making its most rapid growth, then is the time that it will be most fatal to that species. This will often account for the difference in the effects of drought on the various species in different years—some years one kind suffers badly and almost escapes the next. I may here again make a comparison between the effects of frost and the effects of severe drought on plants. Trees that will go through a winter unharmed if the wood is well ripened will be killed to the ground if the frost comes before their growth is finished.

Although first the drought and then the frost have blasted our hopes of success with many goodly trees, yet lessons have been learned and experience gained that will be of service in the future. It will probably be a long time before we are able to speak confidently as to the best and most profitable trees for the Canterbury Plains, but the experience gained has taught us that we cannot rely on the larch, Norway spruce, or Scotch pine for either ornament or profit here, except under exceptionally favourable circumstances, our climate being much too dry for them to succeed in. If we turn to Australia we find a number of speaks that are quite happy in our driest summers, but are altogether too tender to pass through our winters, and grow into useful or ornamental trees. So far, I think, our greatest success has been with Californian trees, and in California we have a wonderful wealth of forest to choose from, there being no less than sixty species of cone-bearers on the west coast of America, most of them in the State of California; besides these there are large evergreen oaks, and other trees. Of the successful introductions from California, the Pinus insignis and Cupressus macrocarpa are familiar to every one. Other pines from there that seem quite able to withstand such droughts as we are liable to are Pinus coulterii, P. sabiniana, P. ponderosa, and its varieties P. jeffreyi and benthamiana, also P. fremontiana, P. muricata, and P. tuberculata; of the cypresses, other than macrocarpa, C. benthami, C. knightiana, C. goveniana may be mentioned; benthami and knightiana growing faster than Cupressus macrocarpa. But all trees from the west coast of America will not succeed, those that have failed being almost as numerous as those that have succeeded, and of the failures those two grand trees, Wellingtonia gigantea and Sequoia sempervirens are conspicuous and much to be regretted, although they may be and should be grown for ornament where the necessary conditions are to be found. In the hot lake district of the North Island, judging from their appearance, they seem exactly suited, and will, someday, become a feature of the district. Two other beautiful Western American trees, Cupressus lawsoniana and Thuja gigantea; both good timber-trees in their native localities, and very ornamental here when grown under favourable conditions, but both failed badly to stand the severe weather in 1897-98, and many perished. Cupressus nutkaensis, a tree very closely allied to Cupressus lawsoniana, if one may judge from about a half-dozen specimens, seems likely to do well. Of the Piceas (Abies of the Americans), not one of them appears suitable for general planting, being killed by the thousand in 1886, and in large numbers by the last drought; in some cases after they had reached the height of 20ft. or more.

The Piceas have not been planted in sufficient numbers to enable one to form a correct estimate of their value as drought-resisters, but I believe they will, or several members of the family will, prove useful and very ornamental trees, particularly Picea concolor, P. nobilis, P. pinsapo, P. pectinata and P. nordmanniana. Of two or three hundred plants of Piceas of different species, not any of them were seriously injured by the drought, and in one case the P. pinsapo, growing with Cupressus lawsoniana, escaped, while most of C. lawsoniana were killed. Libocedrus decurrens is another tree of considerable promise for planting in dry places, as none were destroyed by the drought out of several hundreds in my plantations, but it will require a longer trial before their success is quite assured.

Of the Japanese trees, which are quite a success in some parts of New Zealand, scarcely one seems able to bear the burning sun and heat of the Canterbury Plains. A few plants each of many species have been tried, and always with the same result—that the drought kills them, unless they have the help of an artificial water-supply. The juniper family seems a hardy race, and few, if any, were destroyed by the long drought; they are generally only shrubs or small trees, yet I think they will prove of considerable service. Juniperus virginiana succeeds on the American prairies, and so far has succeeded well on these plains.

The three cedars—Cedrus deodara, Cedrus atlantica, and the Lebanon cedar—all thrive well; and out of a few hundreds planted by me all lived through the bad seasons, and give promise of success, particularly the African one—Cedrus atlantica.

I might mention several other species of the conifer family that have been tested in small numbers, but until they are more fully developed no satisfactory conclusions can be drawn as to their worth here.

In speaking of deciduous trees, I have already said that the larch is a complete failure, and that the oak suffered more in the drought of 1897-98 than it had on any previous occasion, although very few were actually killed. Of the other deciduous trees that have been extensively planted, I may first notice the willows. Most of the willow family require a considerable amount of moisture in the soil for their successful growth, and when month after month went by, and the rains were not sufficient to keep the streams running, the willows presented a very wretched appearance, and, if not actually destroyed, several feet, or even yards, of the upper part of the trees died back, and they only managed to live through the last summer without, in many cases, making any new growth. One species of willow and its varieties may be mentioned as an exception with regard to the amount of moisture required to grow them. I refer to the goat-willow, Salix caprea, and the variety Salix saxatella. These will grow where the elm, oak, and ash can be grown. Of this I had a good illustration, having planted a collection of species of willow in what was usually a moist place, but which became very dry; the only ones left alive were of the goat-willow family. I noticed, too, what I had noticed before, that the Huntingdon willow (Salixalba), was the first to suffer from the drought.

Of the poplar family, the Lombardy poplar is not only superior to all other poplars in its ability to withstand drought, but I believe is superior to any other deciduous tree yet introduced into cultivation, or at all events into common cultivation, to stand dry weather. The grey poplar, too (Populus canescens), seems capable of withstanding a considerable amount of dry weather; but the balsam poplar (P. balsamifera) is soon killed if the roots are not within the reach of water. On the American prairies a species of poplar known as cottonwood (P. monolifera) is very largely depended on for shelter; other deciduous trees that thrive on the dry plains of Kansas and Nebraska are the black walnut (Juglans nigra), the negunda and silver maples, the red elm (Ulmus fulva), the green ash (Fraxinus viridis), and the Catalpa specioso. Having had some experience of each of them, except the silver maple, I think they are equally suited for the Canterbury Plains; but it is too early to speak with perfect confidence. The Americans are nothing if they are not practical, and much valuable information may be gathered from their experience of tree-planting on the prairies, although the conditions differ somewhat, our winters not being so severe as theirs leaves us a much greater number of evergreens to select from suitable for planting here.

To mention all the species of trees growing in Canterbury is unnecessary, but of the common European trees we have the walnut, ash, beech, elm, Spanish chestnut, and maple, all growing with more or less success; but generally they are of very slow growth when compared with evergreens of the pine and cypress families; and less able to endure our very dry summers, particularly the hot winds, which break up and destroy their broad leaves, and thus the winds are more detrimental to their growth than even the dryness of the soil. Some of the maples give considerable promise of being successfully grown, as they have passed through the bad seasons with less injury than many others of the deciduous trees. Those suffering but little are the English maple (Acer campestre), the box elder (Acer negundo), and the silver maple (Acer dasy-carpum); these three species give good promise of success, and should they come to be at all generally planted they will add greatly to the beauty of the autumn by their bright tints. The sycamore and the sugar maple do not succeed at all well, and can only be recommended for planting when the position is near to water. Several other maples have been introduced, but are not in sufficient numbers to allow one to form any reliable opinion as yet of their fitness for general planting, or how they will bear the occasional droughts of our summers. Neither the walnut, beech, or Spanish chestnut grow satisfactorily on the Plains except where their roots are within reach of water. The leaves of the elm are not so much injured by the hot winds as many other trees, and it makes a better growth than the ash, which suffers very much from the loss of its leaves by wind.

To close: Briefly, the effects of the long dry seasons of 1897 and 1898, with our previous experience, has been to show that we cannot grow successfully the trees that are most depended on in Britain, such as the larch, spruce, Scotch pine, &c: that we have no native trees that give promise of success on the Plains; but in a number of species introduced from various parts of the world we have several trees that we may hope will prove able to withstand all the changes of our climate, and afford good timber, and give the necessary shelter, shade, and ornament.

PROSPECTS OF SMALL FARMERS.

Those who have watched the course of events in other countries, so far as they affect the agricultural interests of New Zealand, have come to the conclusion that New Zealand will have to pay greater attention to the quality of her agricultural exports than has been given to them in the past. Our farmers cannot hope to compete with such countries as Australia and South America, where land is so much cheaper, and where mutton and beef of good quality can be produced; for cheap meat these must command the markets of the world. Happily for New Zealand, our climate and pastures are such that we can not only produce mutton equal to the finest English or Scotch, but we can produce more per acre than can be done in Australia. Our dairy-produce is now second to none, which is largely due to the system of manufacture.

Owing to her humid climate and fertile soil New Zealand is peculiarly well adapted for small holdings. Men of slender means can easily make homes for themselves and their families, always provided they know something of the work they undertake, and are, with their families, willing to work hard and live frugally for a few years. It is quite possible for a man with a few cows and pigs, together with poultry and bees, to make a good living, as markets for these products are now being opened up in England, and there is a good local market if the goods are properly prepared. There is also a continuous demand for the supply of coastal and ocean-going steamers. The facilities now given for obtaining land and money at reasonable rates offer great inducements to persons to settle upon the land. This is amply illustrated at Cheviot, where a fine estate has been cut up into moderate-sized farms, and let to farmers on perpetual lease at a rental representing 4 percent, on the purchase-money. Prosperous homes are springing up all over the settlement. Its success will be assured when the proposed line is completed, connecting the settlement by rail with the local markets and the port of shipment. There are thousands of acres in the North Island adapted for farming, and much land there is being taken up.

Chapter 63. NEW ZEALAND HEMP.

Mr. JOHN HOLMES

FEW matters are of greater importance to a colony than the development of its natural resources

One of the advantages possessed by New Zealand as a producing country is the large area of Phormium tenax.

To those resident outside New Zealand it may be of interest to learn that this plant is indigenous to the country, and grows plentifully without cultivation both in the North and South Islands. The heaviest returns are obtained from the Manawatu district, about eighty miles from Wellington, where the swamp lands in and around Foxton have produced as much as 40 tons of raw material to the acre. The price paid by the hemp-millers varies from time to time in sympathy with the rise or fall of the fibre market. Owners of large blocks of land bearing the raw material have received very remunerative royalties for the right of cutting. These have averaged from 2s. 6d. to 5s. per ton, dependent upon the district from which the supply is obtainable, but the average price in the Foxton district during the past year represents about 3s. per ton on the raw material. Taking an estimate of 3s. per ton with an average crop of 25 tons to the acre, it will thus be seen that property-owners have in such cases netted £3 15s. per acre, while others have obtained as high as £6 per acre from land which for the most part is unsuitable for any other cultivation. It requires on the average between 7 and 8 tons of green blades to make 1 ton of dressed fibre.

The hemp industry has gone through various fluctuations since the Maoris first began to export to the Sydney market their hand-dressed fibre. Between 1828 and 1832 the Natives shipped no less than fifty thousand pounds' worth to New South Wales. It was not, however, until after 1861 that machine-dressed fibre began to be known.

The following statement shows the export of hemp from 1853 to 1899:—

Year.Weight. Tons.Value. £
1853461,046
1854481,563
18551504,674
185622552
185738710
1858641,516
1859771,593
1860611,240
1861243
186213261
186313251
18647170
1865375
186645996
18671264,256
18685348,137
18692,02745,245
18705,470132,578
18714,24890,611
18723,98699,405
18736,454143,799
18742,03937,690
187563911,742
187689718,285
18771,05318,826
187862310,666
18794457,874
188091515,911
18811,30826,385
18822,04041,955
18832,08437,586
18841,62424,500
18851,11216,863
18861,14816,177
18871,57825,094
18884,04275,269
188917,084361,182
189021,158381,789
189115,809281,514
189212,793214,542
189312,587219,375
18944,67766,256
18951,80621,040
18962,96832,985
18972,76930,674
18984,85074,556
189910,371184,411

It is remarkable that, so far, no process, mechanical or chemical, has been invented capable of preparing fibre equal to that produced by the Natives fully sixty years ago, but the Government has encouraged the industry by offering two bonuses of £1,750 and £250 respectively for—(1.) The best process (mechanical or chemical) for dressing which shall materially reduce the cost of production, improve the quality, and increase the quantity of dressed fibre produced from a given weight of the raw material. (2.) The best process for utilising the waste products of the hemp—viz., tow.

The Department of Agriculture at Wellington is always willing to supply the fullest information concerning the conditions of the above bonuses. The time for receiving applications expired on the 31st March last, and a number of applications have been received which are now under consideration. Should the Commissioners appointed not find any of the processes submitted fulfil the conditions laid down, in such case the Government will extend the time for a further period, to enable others who have spent years of valuable time and large sums of money in experiments to perfect their various processes. There are inventors and engineers resident in this colony worthy of the best consideration for the persistent efforts made by them to perfect their several plans with a view of still further improving the quality of the fibre for export.

With the wider knowledge gained during my investigation of the fibre markets of Europe, the United States of America, and Canada, when commissioned by the New Zealand Government and the producers, I am convinced that a large and profitable market can be found for New Zealand hemp. But compulsory grading under the careful supervision of absolutely independent and competent men is essential to secure the supply of a standard article of uniform quality.

Chapter 64. THE COAL-DEPOSITS OF NEW ZEALAND.

P. GALVIN, Secretary Mining Bureau.

ALL the formations in New Zealand which contain workable seams of coal belong to the Secondary or Mesozoic and to the Tertiary or Cenozoic epochs. The quality of the coal found in this colony is extremely varied, some of it being for all practical purposes equal, if not superior, to much of the coal used in other parts of the world; while, on the other hand, a great deal is of a comparatively inferior description, though it still has a great local value as a fuel in the districts where it occurs. The coals found in New Zealand have been divided into two groups, under the terms hydrous and anhydrous coals, or those which contain a large percentage of water chemically combined with them, and those which may be assumed to have been deprived of that water by a chemical change.

I. HYDROUS COALS.

The hydrous coals may be conveniently distinguished as lignites, pitch coals, and glance coals. A point worthy of remark is that where, as in Europe, the deposits of brown coal (or lignite, as it is usually termed) occur generally in beds of immense thickness, but confined to limited areas, those of New Zealand form regular seams of moderate thickness, and associated with alternating beds of clay, shale, and sandstone, somewhat as with the older coal formation of carboniferous age. As a rule, the hydrous coal-measures lie on the eastern slopes of the axial rocks in the South Island, and to the west of the main axis in the North Island; whereas the anhydrous coalfields are confined chiefly to the west coast of the South Island. The hydrous coal is of a brown colour, but hard and glossy, and frequently contains a quantity of fossil resin, this being due to the resin of an Araucaria somewhat allied to the kauri of the North Island.

The principal defect of the hydrous coal is its weight in proportion to bulk, and its tendency to crack and break into small fragments by desiccation and exposure to the atmosphere. The different varieties of hydrous coals, however, are not all equally subject to this defect, and some of the better qualities of glance coal are scarcely affected in this way. Partly on this account the hydrous coals may be divided into three sub-groups:—

  1. Lignite, or common brown coal, containing a high percentage of water, and in which a woody structure is very apparent.

  2. Pitch coal, in which there is still a high percentage of water, and frequently a woody structure is seen. Its aspect is glossy, dark-brown, or black, and does not soil the fingers. Usually, this coal desiccates freely on exposure to the atmosphere.

  3. Glance coal is hard and semi-laminated with bright and dull lamine, as in the case of bituminous coals; contains a smaller percentage of water generally than the other two sub-groups, and does not desiccate by exposure to the atmosphere; seldom shows woody structures; and constitutes an excellent steam-coal for stationary engines and railway purposes, but is inferior in this respect for oceangoing steamers to the anhydrous coals.

The hydrous coals are extensively developed throughout the coastal and interior regions of southern and eastern Otago, while an inferior quality of lignite is abundant in Central Otago. The better-known fields are Nightcaps, in Southland; Kaitangata, in Bruce County; Green Island, near Dunedin; Shag Point, in the Oamaru district, North-eastern Otago; the Waiau Valley, in Southern Canterbury; the Ashburton district and Malvern Hills, in Central Canterbury; on the west coast of the South Island, in the higher seams in the Brunner field; in the Inangahua Valley most of the seams must be regarded as pitch and glance coals; while the coals of Puponga and West Wanganui belong to these subdivisions, those of Puponga being a high-class glance coal.

On the west coast of the North Island the coals of the Mokau Valley are glance coals: the field extends east to the Wanganui River, in which part the coals are not of quite equal value. Pitch coals are found in the district of Kawhia, on the north-west side of the range from the Mokau Valley. In the Lower Waikato Valley there are extensive deposits of both glance and pitch coals, of which Taupiri exemplifies one form (glance coal) and Miranda and Surrey Hills the other (pitch coal). These coal-measures extend along the west coast of Auckland, between Kawhia Harbour and the Waikato Heads. Glance coals are found abundantly in the neighbourhood of Whangarei, and from thence to Hikurangi, where, and also at Ngunguru, glance coal of a superior description is found, and is sometimes classed as semi-bituminous. Lastly, the well-known coal of Kawakawa, which is semi-bituminous, in the most northerly of the hydrous coalfields of New Zealand.

II. ANHYDROUS COALS.

Under this group have been classed all the coals found in New Zealand which resemble in quality the coals imported from England and Australia. The composition of the coals comprised in this group is very varied, but is not more so than is usually found in different coal-seams in other countries. The only point in which as a class they are deficient in any of the characteristics which are laid down as requisite for a perfect steam-fuel is in the solidity and toughness which enables the coal to withstand the constant attrition it must experience from the motion of the vessel. This defect is, however, comparatively insignificant, and is more than compensated for (except in a few instances) by the purity of the coal, its tendency to cake, and the facility with which complete combustion can be effected; so that the loss by the formation of cinders will be much below the average.

The most important development of the coal-seams in this class is on the west coast of the South Island, where the formation occurs resting on a surface generally of metamorphic and crystalline rock. Beginning in the south, the first development of this coal is between the Haast and Paringa Rivers; next, the Grey Valley Coalfields, consisting of the Brunner area, Coal Creek, and Blackball, and an as yet unexplored area on the Paparoa Mountains, between Totara Flat and Bullock Creek on the westerly side; then the Mount Rochfort, Ngakawau, and Mokihinui coal areas, lying between the lower parts of the Buller and the Mokihinui Rivers. The Wall send and Pakawau Mines, in the Collingwood district, also contain bituminous coals, but the actual extent of the area has not yet been explored.

III. ANTHRACITE COALS.

In connection with both the hydrous and anhydrous coals there are developments of anthracite. Associated with the hydrous coals there are the anthracite coals of the Acheron River, within the Rakaia Valley, in Canterbury, and of the Broken River, in the Waimakariri basin; these are, however, local and unimportant. In connection with the bituminous coals there is a 6 ft. seam of anthracite in the valley of the Fox River, ten miles south-west of Charleston.

QUANTITY OF COAL RAISED IN NEW ZEALAND.

According to the coal-mining statistics, the total quantity of coal raised in the colony up to the 31st December, 1899, was 13,458,880 tons, of which 10,855,612 tons are credited to the South and 2,603,268 tons to the North Island.

The output of coal during the year 1899 was 975,234 tons, of which 588,036 tons were classed as bituminous or semi-bituminous coal, 37,835 tons pitch coal, 314,542 tons brown coal, and 34,821 tons lignite. Twenty-one years ago the total output was less than a quarter of a million tons; this year it will probably exceed a million tons. It will thus be seen that the development of our coal-measures has kept pace with the numerous and growing industries which are distributed throughout the colony.

Some particulars of the operations of two of the leading coal companies will not be out of place here.

THE WESTPORT COAL COMPANY (LIMITED).

This company's leases comprise 5,430 acres of the Buller Coal Reserve, held from the Crown for a term of ninety-nine years. One of these, the Coalbrookdale, is situated to the north-west of Westport, at a distance of about fourteen miles from that town, and lies between the head-waters of the Waratea Creek and the Waimangaroa River. The lease contains an area of 2,480 acres, the well-known Coalbrookdale seam, which has been traced through the property, varying in thickness from 15ft. to 20ft. The position of the workings, situated as they are at an elevation above the sea, renders special appliances necessary for bringing the coal down to the railway which conveys it to Westport. Within the distance of a mile the fall is no less than 1,700ft. The descent is accomplished by two inclines, the upper being 33 chains in horizontal length, with a total vertical fall of 830ft. on a grade of 1 in 1.3. The lower incline is 50 chains in length, with a fall of 864ft. in that distance, the maximum grade being 1 in 2.2. The inclines are worked by direct rope-haulage, and the descending weight is utilised to haul up the empty return wagons. A 4 in. steel-wire rope is used, to which the wagons are attached on starting down the incline, the gross weight of the load, wagon included, being about 11 tons. Special brakes are required for lowering loads of such weight over such a steep incline. The brake employed resembles a direct-acting horizontal winding-engine, but the action is exactly the converse. Water is used to check the action of the pistons instead of steam to give them motion. The water is drawn off at each stroke, and its place supplied by cold water, as the intense strain would otherwise raise it to boiling-point. The incline is laid with flat-bottomed rails, 40 lb. to the yard. At the top it is a three-railed line (a double line), where the ascending and descending wagons pass each other, and a single line on the lower portion. The average number of wagons lowered per hour is about fifteen. The wagons are lowered to the foot of the incline, and are then taken by locomotive over the company's railway-line as far as its junction with the Government line at Waimangaroa, thence over the last-mentioned line to Westport. The task of bringing the coal from the various workings to the head of the incline requires appliances of a different kind from those just described. What is called the endless-rope system is used. The main line of this is about two miles long, and is connected with two subsidiary lines. The line is worked by a 3.5 in. steel rope, coiled in four turns round a surging-drum, 6ft. 8 in. in diameter and faced with steel. The Coalbrookdale branch is over a mile in length, and follows the direction of the Waimangaroa Stream in a south and south-west direction. The other line, known as the Iron Bridge line, crosses the Waimangaroa and opens up the field to the south-east. On both lines the grades are somewhat steep in places. The stiffest grade on the main line is 1 in 10, on the feeding lines; it is 1 in 5 on the Iron Bridge line; and 1 in 14.7 on the Coalbrookdale. The Coalbrookdale line is all above ground. At the top of the incline is situated the Township of Denniston. Here are situated the screens for screening the coals, and the company's carpenters' and blacksmiths' shops, which are furnished with all the latest appliances. The incline was designed by and carried out under the supervision of Messrs. Young Brothers, engineers, of Westport.

The lease at Millerton, which is situated about ten miles northeast from the Coalbrookdale workings, contains 2,950 acres. The coal is of a uniformly good quality, the seam being from 8ft. to 24ft. thick. At this colliery a large endless-rope-haulage system has been adopted to lower the coal-tubs from the mine to the heapstead and screens at the foot of the hill, 1,500ft. below. The hydraulic brake at the top of the lower incline, which is probably the largest piece of machinery in the colonies, was constructed by Anderson and Co., of Christchurch. The centre shaft is 12 in. diameter and 9 ft. long; the surging-drum, round which the rope is coiled three times and a half, is 12ft. diameter. The rope was manufactured by George Cradock and Co., Wakefield, England, from Cradock's improved plough-steel, and has a breaking-strain of 101 tons. The cylinders and pass-pipes are tested to 500 lb. per square inch. In addition to the hydraulic brake, there is a powerful strap brake which can be applied in case of emergency, or when bringing load to a dead stop. The lower incline is 50 chains long, has an average grade of 1 in 3.75 over the whole length, and will, when fully loaded, have fifty full tubs and fifty empty ones on alternate sides. As the tubs carry 17 1/2 cwt. of coal each, and the rope runs from two miles and a half to three miles per hour, the output is expected to reach 1,600 tons in eight hours' work. The upper incline is 51 chains long, and extends 28 chains into the mine, making a total length of 79 chains. It is worked with a hydraulic brake made by A. and T. Burt, Dunedin. The average grade throughout the whole length is 1 in 15, and when fully loaded will have seventy-nine full and seventy-nine empty tubs on alternate sides: its capacity is the same as the lower incline. At the foot the screening plant is fully up to date. The shaking screen, with side tippler, was constructed by the Anchor Company, Nelson: its capabilities are 400 tons of screened coal in eight hours. There are two shoots for unscreened coal, with picking-tables complete; and storage-bins, capable of holding over 1,500 tons of unscreened and small coal, are in daily use. The hydraulic rams for opening and closing the bin-doors are also the product of the Anchor Company. The smithy is supplied with all the latest appliances for tub-making and for effecting heavy repairs without loss of time. The whole of the screening plant and smithy machinery is driven by water-power. On the whole, the installation at Millerton Colliery is perhaps the most perfect thing of the kind in the Australasian Colonies.

The annual output of coal from 1883 up to the present has been as follows:—

188334,997 tons.
188474,319 tons.
188547,748 tons.
188673,933 tons.
1887115,940 tons.
1888130,218 tons.
1889163,914 tons.
1890160,240 tons.
1891192,604 tons.
1892198,190 tons.
1893223,511 tons.
1894215,770 tons.
1895183,744 tons.
1896211,472 tons.
1897243,617 tons.
1898279,541 tons.
1899327,015 tons.

Total output from commencement, 2,876,773 tons.

It will be seen that the output has steadily increased. The capacity of the mines is now equal to an output of 1,500 tons in eight hours. The company has paid dividends as under:—

* Attributed to strike.

18872 1/2 per cent.
18885 per cent.
18896 per cent.
1890No dividend.*
18917 1/2 per cent.
18927 1/2 per cent.
18937 1/2 per cent.
18946 per cent.
18956 per cent.
18966 per cent.
18976 1/2 per cent.
18987 per cent.
18997 1/2 per cent.

Dividends paid equal 4 1/2 per cent, on capital from commencement of company in 1882.

At one time the company acquired colliers for transporting its own produce; but after a short trial it was found advisable to dispose of them, and to trust for transportation to local steamship companies. The company employs about four hundred and fifty hands in all. Since its formation the company has paid away in—

 £
Wages869,328
Royalty, railway-haulage, rates and taxes455,015
Freights to local carriers620,835
Stores75,333
New works221,005
Repairs and sundries23,214
Making a total of£2,264,730

The superiority of Westport coal has been proved by tests made at the Woolwich Dockyard, and the escape of H.M.S. “Calliope” from the disaster that befell the other warships during the hurricane at Apia in 1889 was attributable in some measure to the fact that Westport coal enabled her to steer clear of the reefs in the teeth of the hurricane. The extensive improvements carried out at the Port of Westport afford considerable shipping facilities, enabling the company to fulfil large orders in an expeditious manner, and to place superior coal in the market.

The area of coal in the company's leases has been accurately ascertained; explorations have been carried out in a thorough and exhaustive manner; numerous bores have been put down to the coal; the outcrops have been carefully explored, and the area clearly defined. The area of coal known to exist in the company's property will, it is estimated, enable the present output to be maintained during the next century.

TAUPIRI COAL-MINES, HUNTLY, WAIKATO.

The various coal-mines in the Huntly district are now amalgamated, under the title of “The Taupiri Coal-mines (Limited).” They comprise Ralph's Taupiri Colliery, Taupiri Extended Colliery, Taupiri Reserve, and Waikato Mines. The latter colliery is not working at present, but the other three are in full swing.

At Ralph's Minc there are two shafts, the winding one being 190ft. deep. The present workings are all either under the Waikato River or across it under the opposite side from the shafts. Where sunk through, the coal-seam was of exceptional thickness, being fully 60ft. Across the Waikato River, on its western side, various boreholes show a thickness of 30ft. to 40ft. The height of coal taken out in the present workings varies according to circumstances, but is not allowed to exceed 20ft. The pillars are left in permanently for the support of the roof, and are 20ft. in width, except under the river, where an additional 4ft. is left. The bords are 14ft. in width, and are broken away narrow from the levels for greater security to the roof. The winding is done by a small engine on the second motion, and the underground haulage by an engine placed at the top of the dip driven on the direct system—that is, the empty skips, in their running down the engine-plane, unwind the rope by which the full skips are hauled up. The pumping is done by two of Tangye's duplex pumps. The ventilation is natural, aided by the heat of the steam-pipes, by which a current of over 10,000 cubic feet of air per minute is circulated. It is intended to erect shaking screens and new poppet-heads, as the present surface fit-up is rather cramped.

Taupiri Extended Colliery.—The workings at this mine are in two districts, one of these under the narrow strip of land separating the Waikato River from Lake Hakanoa, and the other under that lake. Otherwise they are similar to those in Ralph's mine, and in both boreholes are put up in the roof-coal every 5 yards to insure a thickness of 9ft. of coal being left as a roof. There are two shafts, 170ft. and 204ft. in depth respectively, both lined with cast-iron cylinders, as there is a layer of quicksand above the fireclay, which in most places overlies the coal. A good current of air is circulated by a Waddle fan. The underground haulage is similar to that at Ralph's mine. The winding-engine has couple cylinders 18 in. diameter, and a 10ft. drum. The pumping is done by two double-action force-pumps. The combined output of these two mines is about 6,000 tons a month.

Taupiri Reserve Mine is worked from a dip drive 40 chains in length, starting near the edge of Kimihia Lake, under which are all the workings at present. Unlike the two other mines, there is no quicksand overhead, and the coalfield is more regular. The coal-seam is a thick one, also separated into two divisions by a band of “clod.” The ventilation is natural. The output is about 100 tons daily. This mine is about three miles from Huntly, and is connected with the Government railway by a branch line operated by the company's locomotive.

The class of coal in the three mines is alike—a bright-brown coal—which makes an excellent household fuel, as well as being a good steam-coal. In all, 180 men are employed at the three mines.

The total output from the coal-mines that have been worked in the Huntly district up to the 31st December, 1899, is stated approximately at 1,069,234 tons.

Chapter 65. PUMICE-STONE DEPOSITS OF THE MIDDLE PART OF THE NORTH ISLAND.

ALEXANDER MCKAY, F.G.S., Government Geologist.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE North Island of New Zealand is distinguished for the variety and extent of its igneous rocks. These are in great part eruptive and for the most part belong to a Late Tertiary period. Intrusive rocks are found on a large scale in the extreme north of the Auckland District, and there, as diorites, probably belong to a Palaeozoic age. More to the south igneous rocks appear in connection with Palaeozoic and Old Secondary rocks in the main chain of mountains commencing between East Cape and the Bay of Plenty, and continued south-west to the shores of Cook Strait. Tuffs and solid igneous rocks also appear in connection with the Younger Cretaceous strata of the East Coast of Wellington.

Cape Colville Peninsula, to the east of the Hauraki Gulf, in the Auckland District, presents a vast assemblage and a considerable variety of volcanic rocks, the oldest of which probably made their appearance in Cretaceous times. The youngest, belonging to the Pliocene period, are mostly acidic and are often pumiceous. The volcanic rocks of this region are characterised by the great preponderance of tuffs and fragmental ejecta.

Volcanic rocks supposed of Miocene age cover a considerable area of peninsular Auckland, south of Whangarei, and extend, though not continuously, along the West Coast as far south as Kawhia Harbour, but all these in area and extent fall short of the vast development of volcanic rocks to be met with, covering and obscuring the older sedimentary rocks of the central part of the North Island. The volcanic rocks of the central part of the North Island are in age from Younger Pliocene to Recent: some vents, such as Ngauruhoe and White Island, being active at the present time, while the terrible spasmodic eruption of Tarawera, in June, 1886, showed that the volcanic forces are far from being exhausted, and that mountains apparently extinct may burst forth afresh at any time.

In the matter of the classification of the volcanic rocks of the North Island, Hochstetter, who even now must be regarded the chief authority on this subject, distinguishes but two periods of volcanic activity: First, an old Tertiary period, and second, a younger (Recent) period.* With the older group he associated the volcanic rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula, and the bulk of opinion is still in favour of regarding all the igneous rocks of the Peninsula as Tertiary. Recent investigations tend to show that the younger acid rocks are of Pliocene age, and Park believes them to be contemporaneous with those of the Taupo zone. The writer believes them to be older, though not of a very different date. The oldest group of volcanic rocks in the Peninsula may also belong to the Cretaceous period.

*“New Zealand,” by Hochstetter, pp. 66-67.

† James Park, “The Geology and Veins of the Hauraki Goldfields.”

It has been shown that the earliest emanations of volcanic matter from the Taupo zone were of an acidic character, and largely consisted of pumice, great volumes of which were spread over the sea-bottom adjacent, and to very considerable distances from the points of eruption.

THE ABUNDANCE OF PUMICE.

During a journey through the central part of the North Island, if proceeding from the south by way of the Rangitikei Valley, pumice first begins to attract attention on arriving at the southern part of the Murimotu Plains east of the Wangaehu River. Here pumice-sands or coarser pumice much decayed first appear in the road-cuttings; at first the pumice forms but a thin layer resting on volcanic breccias or the slates and sandstones of the Kaimanawa Range. As the route of travel is followed north to Tokaanu the amount of pumice increases, but yet is not in such quantity as excites astonishment till Tokaanu is left, and the eastern margin of Lake Taupo is followed to the Township of Taupo at the northern end of the lake. At Tokaanu there is no pumice on the low swampy levels near the settlement or over the delta of the Tongariro River. Passing the Tongariro River the swamps and low flats bordering the lake are covered with blocks of pumice, and pumice fine or coarse as sand and gravel forms the lower hills bordering the lake, or caps the trachyte or rhyolite of which these may be mainly composed.

On reaching the Tauranga River, near its inlet to the lake, the pumice-formation begins to be of importance, and beyond this point to the north-east and east the pumiceous sands and gravels form high table-lands between the different streams falling into the lake. These table-lands terminate in steep cliffs overlooking the lake, or the low flats over which the lake once extended, and the sections that are thus exposed and seen in the like precipices that bound the narrow valleys of the different rivers finding their way from the eastward to the lake show equally well the great depth of pumiceous deposit.

North, north-east, and north-west of Taupo, with the exception of the higher ranges, the whole country is covered with pumice. Generally speaking, this forms terraces along the banks of the rivers or higher flats and table-lands, from which material is supplied to lower levels and a greater distance from the source of the pumice.

To the east of the Waikato, in the Kaingaroa Plain, the pumice-deposit is of great depth, and for many miles is unbroken otherwise than by deep canon-like gulches that run back some distance into the plain. North of Rotorua and Rotoiti Lakes, the pumice-formation is developed on a grand scale, and forms broken hilly country gradually descending to the shores of the Bay of Plenty. West of Rotorua, the Patetere plateau, in part, the extensive Waitoa Plains, and great part of the Middle Waikato basin show the presence of heavy deposits of pumice, and the volcanic plateau west and northwest of Lake Taupo is equally so characterised. This excessive abounding of pumice is the astonishment of every traveller.

CONCLUSIONS.

The vastness of all these deposits forbids the idea that all this pumice originated within a limited district, extensive even as that of Lake Taupo; and, as the southern end of the Taupo zone does not appear to have been a pumice-producing area, the district between Lake Taupo and the shores of the Bay of Plenty must be considered as having yielded the bulk of the pumice. The volcanic mountains of this district for the most part are formed of rocks of the acidic type, but it is very curious that pumice is rarely found on the slopes or higher parts of these; and this can hardly be explained away by supposing that the light pumice has been removed by gravitation to the lower grounds, seeing that loose pumice covers large areas of the slopes and higher parts of the Kaimanawa Mountains, of the mountains of the east coast within the Hawke's Bay District, and the Urewera Country. In the case of Tauhara, east of the lower end of Lake Taupo, this mountain, though surrounded on all sides by a great and unknown depth of pumice, holds no pumice on its slopes or higher part. Its rocks are formed of trachyte and porphyritic rhyolites, and though it might have been expected to show evidences of having thrown out pumice, as has been said, none are to be found on the mountain at the present time. This is also the case with several other mountains and ranges of volcanic rocks in the district to the north and west.

The conclusion seems to be warranted that the vents chiefly concerned in yielding pumice have been covered up; and of greater age in some cases, but generally younger, the more solid acidic rocks appear through the pumiceous deposits. It is only to the east, to the lower end of Lake Taupo, that solid pumiceous rocks are likely to be found. From what may be seen in the valleys of the Hinemaia and the Waitahanui this is rendered highly probable, but such rocks in situ have yet to be discovered. Whatever its source, the quantity of pumice distributed over the middle part of the North Island from Ruapehu to the shores of the Bay of Plenty and the upper end of the Hauraki Gulf, in the Middle and Lower Waikato, and east and west from the sources of the Waipa to the East Coast and Hawke's Bay is enormous, and may well excite curiosity and prompt speculation as to the origin of the same.

Chapter 66. KAURI-RESIN.

ALTHOUGH a true resin, this is usually miscalled kauri-gum. It is the solidified turpentine of the kauri, and occurs in great abundance in a fossil condition in the northern part of the Auckland Provincial District, from the North Cape to Middle Waikato, and is dug up alike on the driest fernhills and the deepest swamps. The purest samples are found on the Cape Colville Peninsula. A large quantity is also obtained from the forks of living trees, but is considered of inferior quality, and fetches a lower price. At the present time gum-digging employs nearly or quite 7,000 persons, including Maoris and aliens.

In the fossil state kauri-resin occurs in larger or smaller lumps, from the size of a walnut to that of a man's head. Pieces have been found weighing upwards of 100lb. When scraped, the best specimens are of a rich brown colour, varying greatly in depth of tint. Sometimes translucent or even transparent specimens are found, occasionally with leaves, seeds, or small insects enclosed. When obtained from swamps the resin is very dark-coloured, or even almost black, and fetches a low price. Waikato resin is the darkest of all. Transparent or semi-transparent specimens fetch very high prices, being used as a substitute for amber in the manufacture of mouthpieces for cigar-holders, pipes, &c. The great bulk is used in the manufacture of oil varnishes, and in all countries where much varnish is made it holds the chief place in the market. It is exported chiefly to England and the United States of North America. In 1860 the export was only 1,046 tons, valued at £9 per ton; in 1899 it amounted to 11,116 tons, valued at £54 13s. 9d. per ton. The following statement, taken from the Customs returns, shows the quantity exported in each year from 1891 to 1899, with the total value, and average per ton:—

Year.Quantity. Tons.Total Value. £Average per Ton. £ s. d.
18918,388437,05652 2 1
18928,705517,67859 9 4
18938,317510,77561 8 3
18948,338404,56748 10 5
18957,425418,76656 8 0
18967,126431,32360 10 7
18976,641398,01059 18 8
18989,905586,76759 4 9
189911,116607,91954 13 9

From the report of the Commissioners appointed in 1898 to inquire into the kauri-gum industry, are taken the following extracts:—

The gumfields north of Auckland City comprise 724,000 acres; those south and east of Auckland 90,000 acres; total, 814,000 acres: and this area consists of 435,000 acres of Crown lands, 166,000 acres of Native lands not yet adjudicated upon by the Native Land Court, and 213,000 acres of private lands held by Natives or Europeans. This total area of 814,000 acres comprises the land known up to the present to be gum-bearing, but may be greatly augmented by new discoveries, for lands in many parts of the district are being worked which some years ago were thought to be non-gum-bearing. There is also this peculiar feature about the gumfields of the north: that in many places two, three, and sometimes four layers of gum have been found, betokening the existence of two or three kauri forests, which on disappearing, or, as is probable, on being destroyed by fire in ages past, left in succession their quota or layer of gum in the ground. On this account it has frequently happened that fields which years ago have been pronounced worked out have been taken up again and profitably reworked, and this same process is going on at present.

In many respects the conditions which obtain with the gumfields of the Auckland District resemble to a remarkable extent those which obtained on the alluvial goldfields of the South Island: the richest deposits or layers in both Otago and Westland were discovered and worked first, and these were found near the surface. Subsequently the lower layers were discovered and worked, and thereafter ground was and is still profitably worked by combination of labour and improved means, which, owing to the small quantity of gold it contained, was declared worthless by experts a few years previously. Exactly so was it with the kauri-gum—the largest pieces, technically called “bold gum,” were found on the surface, or barely embedded in the soil. Next, the gum-digger bad to search for it 10 in. or 12 in. deep with the spear; then a second and third layer of gum was discovered on fields that were thought to be exhausted, and the large gum-spear, 8ft. to 12ft. long, was used to discover, and a hook to bring to the surface, the gum in the swamps, which a few years ago were not known to contain gum.

The gum industry, though in so many respects a blessing to the Auckland District, has had its abuses, and has in some ways acted detrimentally to that part of the colony; but for this, it must be admitted, those that have had the administration of affairs are to be blamed rather than the industry itself. Under judicious management it should have been made to yield the means requisite for supplying the arterial lines of communication for the whole of the North, and steps should have been taken to counteract, to some extent, the evil effects to the soil which are so apparent to any one traversing our gumfields. The ground has been roughly dug up wherever gum was suspected to exist, and the thin layer of top-soil, generally only a couple of inches thick, was buried a foot or more; deep holes were made, and left unfilled; and even the very roads were dealt with in the same way; but what has led to far greater destruction of the soil was the continual burning off of the tea-tree and fern. The gum-digger does not cut down and clear away the vegetation on the surface of the ground he wishes to work for gum. Doing so would be too much trouble to him, and he therefore has recourse to the simpler method of “putting a match into it,” and burning-off what there is of vegetation. If he were to adopt this method, and burn only the particular spot he meant to work, then no fault could be found with him; but invariably the fire is allowed to spread, and hundreds and often thousands of acres are burned, when the object was simply to work a few square yards, or, at the utmost, a few square chains of ground. This wanton burning-off is fearfully detrimental, even ruinous, to the ground, as the fire consumes the rootlets, pulverises the little soil there is, and then ashes and soil are carried away by the wind. There are stretches of gum land everywhere throughout the North where repeated burnings have caused every vestige of soil to disappear, and where there is nothing but the bare white pipeclay left. Not only has the soil been thus destroyed, but in many instances these gum-fires have caused great loss to the settlers—their fences have frequently been destroyed, their homesteads placed in imminent danger, &c. On our journey north we saw the effect of several of these fires; at one place we found four telegraph-poles burned to the ground, and at least eight others badly damaged.

It is true that until lately there never seemed to be much chance of grasses taking root and growing on these gum lands, but there is certainly far less chance of their doing so where the few inches of soil have disappeared altogether. This state of things is the more to be deplored, as experiments carried on during the last four or five years with the view of establishing grasses on poor gum lands have proved fairly successful in several localities. The grass named Poa brownii has spread remarkably well in different places, and seems even to drive the small tea-tree off the field. Although it is not a very nourishing grass, and is not one of which stock is particularly fond, it is better than the natural growth on these gum lands—viz., fern and tea-tree, which neither cattle nor sheep will eat. There are, besides the Poa brownii, several other grasses, such as rat-tail and buffalo grass, which are making fair progress in some parts of the gumfields.

While on this subject we may also direct attention to the very valuable experiments with gorse carried on by Mr. T. C. Williams, of Wellington, at Pakaraka, under the supervision of his son (Mr. Guy Williams), who kindly showed us over the estate and explained the cultivation and working of the gorse-culture for pasture. A perusal of his evidence attached to this report will no doubt be read with great interest. The procedure, in short, is this: The ground is ploughed, and gorse is sown either broadcast, or in drills or rows 3 ft. apart, leaving a space sufficiently wide to allow the sheep to pass up and down between the rows. When the gorse reaches a certain height, stock is turned in, and the gorse eaten down. The stock is then removed to the next paddock, then to a third and fourth, by which time the first paddock is ready again for pasturing. Experiments of various descriptions have been made by Mr. Williams as to gorse-culture, and the fattening of stock, into the particulars of which it would not be expedient to enter here. Suffice it to say that land which formerly would not feed a sheep to the acre has been made to carry and fatten five and six sheep to the acre when planted with gorse. It has been proved beyond a doubt that our gum lands are capable of being thus cultivated to good purpose, and, as this is a matter of such great importance to the country north of Auckland, your Commissioners would venture to suggest the advisability of Government following up these experiments by setting apart a portion of our poor gum lands as an experimental farm for gorse-pasture only, and by issuing pamphlets from time to time giving the best courses of procedure in order to instruct our settlers how to proceed to put these clay lands to a profitable use. It is in view of the prospect of this future usefulness of the poor gum lands that your Commissioners recommend that prompt steps should be taken to put a stop to the wanton burning-off of the scant vegetation thereon, and a heavy fine should attach to any digger burning more than about a chain square at a time. It would be still better if “burning-off” on gumfields could be prohibited altogether.

Another use to which our gumfields might be put is the planting of marketable and useful trees. On many parts of the gumfields—more especially those which have escaped the ravages from fires—the natural growth (tea-tree and fern) is sufficiently high and thick to make tree-planting rather precarious on account of fires; but no such objection could be urged to planting pipeclay lands, which carry only small stumpy tea-tree and fern of a foot or less in height, or those clay lands from whence the little soil has disappeared by reason of repeated burnings. It is strange, but true, that several of the European and Australian trees will grow where the top soil has disappeared, and where neither fern nor tea-tree seems able to start growing again. Judicious tree-planting, therefore, and more especially the sowing of seeds of suitable grasses, which on many parts of the gumfields have proved a success, would be of immense benefit to the North, and assist in gradually transforming the waste of clay and gum lands into useful country. The cost of any seed-sowing or tree-planting would, of course, be a legitimate charge against the export duty, which your Commissioners recommend further on.

Regarding the permanency of the gumfields, a mass of contradictory opinions was expressed by the various witnesses examined. In many cases the opinions given—that the fields would soon be exhausted—have reference only to the particular part of the gumfield on which the witnesses happened to live, or with which they were familiar: not a few of those best acquainted with our gumfields as a whole consider that the present generation will not see the end of the gum industry in New Zealand, and your Commissioners are strongly of opinion that this will be fully verified. Fresh fields and new layers of gum are being constantly discovered, and immense areas of the known old fields have only been touched here and there, or have practically been only “skimmed over.” It is all but certain that systematic and co-operative working of the fields will in years to come replace the present working by individual diggers, and fields now abandoned will be reworked. It has been urged that the gradual decrease of gum export since the time the first Commission reported in 1893 to the present time is a proof positive that the gum is getting scarcer. Such, however, is not the case.*

The persons engaged in procuring the gum from the soil may be divided into three classes, namely: the diggers proper, who entirely depend for a living upon the gum; the settlers, who, as a rule, only occasionally work on the gum-fields to supplement their earnings from the land; and the Maoris, who take to gum-digging only when their crops prove a failure or their stock of provisions gets exhausted. The mode of working is invariably that with spear and spade, and, except in the case of the Austrians, there is no combination of labour, but every man works for himself.

* This opinion of the Commissioners has been completely verified as correct by the fact that the quantity exported in 1899 (11,116 tons) is the largest yet recorded.

The men known as Austrians on the gumfields are visitors from Lower Austria. They are mostly natives of Dalmatia, but some are from Istria and Croatia, a few also being from the Balkan States—Montenegrins, Bulgarians, &c. They are a hardy, sober, industrious, law-abiding people. This character is given to them with one consent by all the witnesses, whether storekeepers, settlers, or British gum-diggers. In their own country they were mainly agriculturists, engaged at work in the vineyards, olive groves, &c.; but some are fishermen from the islands in the Adriatic. Many of them are very young men, and it is asserted that their desire to escape military service prompted emigration. Very few of them have wives or children in this country, but many of the older men have families in Europe. Those who have already put in part of their time at military service have every now and then to report themselves and get their passports visèd by the Austrian Consul in Auckland; but the younger men do not attend at the Consulate for this purpose, and hence there is no check upon the number arriving or leaving the colony. (Subsequent events have shown that check is possible.) They speak a Slavonic dialect, not German. The older men are not educated, but the younger men can all read and write, under the excellent system of education that now obtains in Austria. They appear to have strong family affections, much of the money sent home being for the purpose of aiding brothers and other male relatives to come out here also, or for the purpose of helping their families at home. They appear to have been attracted to this country by accounts sent from New Zealand some years ago by two sailors, but still more recently by the return of some lucky Austrian gum-diggers, who took home some £9,000 drawn in one of Tattersall's racing-sweeps. They began to appear on the gumfields in great numbers, and we consider that there are between fifteen hundred and sixteen hundred now in New Zealand, but they are so widely scattered, and their numbers are so constantly changing locally, that it is difficult to give the exact enumeration. It is said that there has been failure of the fruit-crop and general scarcity of late years in Dalmatia, and, if so, it would account for the necessity of many leaving home in search of work; but, as most of the men earned previously, on an average, only 1s. 2d. a day, it is easy to understand that the country in which some of them are gaining from £3 to £5 a week would have sufficient attractions, without even the spur of hunger behind them.

They generally camp together in twenties or thirties, digging in the swamps in summer and on the hills in winter. They work very long hours, often being in the field awaiting the first light of dawn to commence their labour, and ending only when darkness compels them to desist. The evenings and part of the night they spend in scraping the gum. Unlike the British gum-digger, who is generally a solitary worker, the Austrians seldom stray from each other, and upon a rich find of gum being made they all proceed to work it “on the face,” as it is technically called—that is, digging up and turning over the whole of the ground, sometimes for many feet in depth. This is, of course, the proper method to pursue if the whole of the gum in the ground is to be removed, but is one of the causes of offence alleged against them by the British digger and the settlers, as the thoroughness of the manner in which the ground is cleared leaves no hope of any gleaning after them. Formerly the digger or settler prodded here and there, dug a hole in a likely looking spot, and then wandered on: there was probably as good gum behind him as before him; but no one could hope to work after the Austrian digger with any prospect of success. The Austrians live frugally at first, and with due regard to their own slender finances; but after being here a little while, and earning money, they soon find that to continue labour in the exhausting manner they work, and for such long hours, a more generous diet is indispensable. Their food on the gumfield costs them generally 10s. to 14s. a week, and consists of tinned meat, potatoes, flour, lard, coffee, butter, &c., averaging quite as much as that of the British digger.

The trade in kauri-gum practically commenced in 1847, and its price continued from that date up to 1853 to be about £5 per ton. After the year 1853 the fluctuations, both in value and tonnage, of the gum were of an interesting character..... The quantity of gum exported increased from 1,440 tons in 1856 to 8,317 tons in 1893, and since that date has diminished to 6,641 tons in 1897.* The price has, however, steadily risen, till it now stands at the highest figure it has ever attained—that is, at from £60 to £70 for the best samples. Much less gum is now obtained by the individual digger than was formerly the case, some witnesses considering it as fully one-half, others one-third less. The steadily rising price enables a living to be obtained, even with the lesser quantity procured, and this increasing price justifies the idea that the rise in kauri-gum is not only because of the demand caused by the world's larger population, but also on account of the industrial virtues of the gum making it recognised as an indispensable ingredient in the manufacture of good varnish. It is true that there are other competitors with kauri-gum in the market; of these, the principal is that called Manilla, the Zanzibar and other African gums not being produced in sufficient quantity to offer effective rivalry. On this subject we will quote from the report of the former Commission the remarks made by Mr. Ingham Clarke, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., an eminent London varnish-maker. He says:—

* Subsequently 9,905 tons in 1898 and 11,116 tons in 1899.

“The total annual imports of varnish gums into England, a part of which is re - exported, amount to about 4,000 tons, nearly two-thirds being represented by the kauri-gum of New Zealand. About 400 tons come from our West African colony of Sierra Leone, 400 or 500 tons from the Philippine and adjacent islands (usually known as Manilla gum), and the remainder from various parts of the world. The “gum animè,” exported from Zanzibar, is a high-class gum, but very limited in quantity, and is worth, in London, from £200 to £350 per ton. Manilla gums are so like the kauri-gum in appearance that it is almost impossible at sight to distinguish them, the greatest adepts being able to do so by the sense of smell only. The Manilla gums have all some tricky characteristic, which causes trouble to manufacturers even months after the varnishes are made. Some qualities are used in the manufacture of certain grades of ordinary varnishes. Others are unfit for use in the manufacture of oil varnishes. The Damar gums are unsuitable for oil varnishes, being only employed in the manufacture of spirit varnishes, and do not come at all into competition with kauri-gum. Kauri-gum commands a supremacy in the market. There is, however, a shadow to this pleasant picture, for the excessive production, stimulated by the ever-increasing demand, is, without doubt, rapidly exhausting the known sources of supply. If it were not akin to heresy in these days to make such a proposition, one would be inclined to suggest that the New Zealand colonists should place an export tax on gum. No other gum could take its place, from a peculiarity which it possesses (entirely its own) of assimilating with oil more rapidly and at an easier temperature than any other gum. The Manilla gums, it is true, enter largely into competition with kauri; but, as we have already stated, they are treacherous in use, and mostly contain strong acids and other objectionable substances, thereby upsetting all theory and practice, and resulting often in injury to the manufactured article, and subsequent regret to those who use them. Kauri-gum is extensively employed by the leading manufacturers in every country where varnish is made. This universal favour we by no means attribute to the superior results to be obtained by its use, but rather to the fact that it is easier to manipulate—that is, it unites with linseed-oil quicker, and at a lower temperature, than any other gum. It is probable that the essential oil it contains acts in the fusing process as a solvent; hence, less heat being necessary, carbonisation is minimised, and a relatively paler varnish is the product.”

The result of the Commission was “an Act to regulate the Kauri - gum Industry,” which came into operation on the 1st January, 1899. It provides, amongst other matters, for the division of the North Island into kauri-gum districts; for kauri-gum reserves; two classes of licenses for digging—special and ordinary—and one for buying gum. There are qualifications prescribed as to who may hold licenses. Local authorities keep registers of licenses, stating names of licensees; and buyers, gum-purchase books. Rangers are appointed; and the police aid local authorities in carrying out the provisions of the Act.

Chapter 67. SECTION III. ROTORUA DISTRICT.

[For full details respecting the thermal springs and Sanatorium at Rotorua, see Dr. Ginders's article in the Year-book, 1899, also published as a separate pamphlet. The analysis and action of the mineral waters, properties of various bath springs, with medical information as to cases suitable for treatment, will be found therein.]

ROTORUA TOWN.

ROTORUA TOWN is situated on the southern shores of the lake of that name, at an elevation of 915 ft. above the sea. The climate is bracing, without being too cold. It is accessible by rail from Auckland or the Thames, by coach from Tauranga and Napier, by rail and coach from Wellington viâ Hunterville and Toka-anu, or by river - steamer from Wanganui to Pipiriki and on by coach viâ Wai-o-uru, Toka-anu, and Taupo. There is a post and telegraph and money - order office. The accommodation at the hotels and boardinghouses is excellent. The Government Sanatorium is a large building standing in its own grounds. It is well fitted with all requirements, and is in charge of a Resident Medical Officer.

BATHS.

The principal baths are at Rotorua. The “Blue Bath” is a hot swimming-bath, fitted up with commodious dressing-rooms, cold showers, and hot douches; its water is of a saline nature. There is also a sulphur and vapour bath in connection with the swimming-bath The “Priest's Bath” is in the main pavilion on the edge of the lake; its waters are acid and luminous, and its temperature 98° to 106° Fahr. There are large public baths—two for ladies and two for gentlemen—and private baths for special cases, with dressing-rooms, hot douches, and cold showers. In the same building is the “Rachel Bath,” the water of which is alkaline-siliceous, its temperature being 194° Fahr. It consists of large public baths for each sex, with private baths for special cases, and dressing-room accommodation and showers. The new “Ladies' Swimming-bath” is a well-appointed and large bath attached to the pavilion, its water being of the same quality as that of the “Blue Bath.” The “Postmaster Bath” is on the edge of the lake, but some distance from the other baths which are in the Sanatorium grounds. It is a hot bath, its waters being acid and supplementary to those of the “Priest's Bath” in their indications. It consists of six large public baths—three for men and three for women—with dressing- and waiting-rooms, cold showers, and hot douches. In addition to the baths mentioned, and not far from them, are such well-known ones as “Cameron's,” “Painkiller,” “Coffee-pot,” “Stonewall Jackson,” “Corlett's,” “Saddler's,” “The Gemini,” and “Vaux” baths. All these are curative, and are not yet closed in. At Whaka-rewarewa, about 2 miles from the Sanatorium, the two principal baths are the “Oil Bath” and the “Spout Bath,” both of which are hot and exceedingly good, being quite as efficient medicinally as any of the others.

The Sanatorium gardens and grounds at Rotorua are nicely laid out and planted, the native shrubs being preserved and tastefully trimmed so as to give shade and resting-places.

OBJECTS OF INTEREST.

Visitors to Rotorua can within a day make any of the following excursions by way of varying the usual monotony of sleeping, eating, and bathing, and having something else to talk of and listen to than “symptoms":—

Ohine-mutu and Whaka-rewarewa.

In the morning walk or ride to Ohine-mutu, the old Native village, where there are many hot springs and Natives, the Anglican Mission Church, and the Native meeting-house. On the way to Ohine-mutu, going by way of the lake, the Roman Catholic Church is passed. In the Native Pa there are many boiling pools and baths, and a considerable Maori population, whose ways and manner of life form an interesting study. From Pukeroa Hill, which is a recreation reserve overlooking Ohine-mutu, several excellent views of the old and new townships of Rotorua may be obtained. In the afternoon Whaka-rewarewa may be visited, where there are geysers and another Native village and some healing-baths. At both Ohine-mutu and Whaka-rewarewa the habits of the Natives and their method of cooking by steam form amusing subjects of observation. Coaches run between Rotorua and Whaka-rewarewa every forty-five minutes.

Hamurana and Tikitere.

Another enjoyable excursion for the day is to take to the water, and in one of the steam-launches visit the cold springs of Hamurana, situate on the northern shores of Lake Rotorua, then across to the Ngae on the eastern shore, where by arrangement one can be meet by a coach or buggy and driven to Tikitere. A stay en route may be made at the Island of Mokoia. From Tikitere the drive back to Rotorua is about 12 miles. Instead of doing this in one day and merely skimming over it, several enjoyable trips may be made out of it. The visitor may steam over to Hamurana, where he can get canoes and paddle up the river to the springs, then have lunch on the beach or river-side, eat as many cherries as he may, if in season, and generally enjoy the scenery, returning to Rotorua by launch in time for dinner; or he may land on Mokoia, famed for its scenery and its story of Hinemoa and Tu-tane-kai, and spend a pleasant day there, returning in the afternoon. Another day's outing may be had by driving to Tikitere the whole way from Rotorua, seeing its wonders, horrors, and beauties; then visiting the Blue Lake near there, and returning by road in the afternoon. The last-mentioned trip is a favourite one, for the route is by the new road from Rotorua to the Rotoiti Lakes, Tikitere being reached in about two hours and a half. To quote from a writer in Bond's Almanac, Tikitere is “in form a valley filled with solfanaras, mud-volcanoes, and boiling springs in a condition of fierce activity. In the centre are two boiling lakes, and the narrow strip of ground separating them is known as the ‘Gates of Hades. There are many interesting narrows of a like kind, and on the south side there is a valuable healing-spring.’ The hydro-thermal action is so great that the ground all round is in a continual tremble, making one half inclined to leave such dismal horrors far behind him. But this feeling soon wears off, and invalids, even ladies, live here for weeks in order to benefit by the valuable mud and other baths, which have effected so many cures. About half a mile north of the springs immense quantities of sulphur are dug by the Natives, and sent to Auckland for commercial purposes. Close by is the Blue Lake before referred to—a lovely piece of scenery—whilst a short climb up a small hill will reward the tourist by a view of Lake Rotoiti and surrounding country. The surrounding hills are still covered with erupted mud, now dry, but furrowed into many sharp crevices and gullies.

Te Wairoa and Tarawera.

An interesting excursion may be made to the site of the old village of Wairoa, which was destroyed by the eruption of Mount Tarawera in June, 1886. Arrangements can be made for crossing Lake Tarawera in boats, and ascending the mountain, when a good idea can be obtained of the immense forces that were at work on that occasion, and the awful experiences of those Europeans and Natives in its vicinity on that memorable night. Wairoa, nine miles from Rotorua, can only be reached on horseback or on foot, the road not having been reopened for wheel traffic since its destruction by the eruption. It is probable, however, now that the pumice dust has arrived at a state of rest, that the road will be again opened for wheel traffic. To do this trip in one day an early start must be made. Leaving Rotorua the traveller soon meets with the effect of the eruption—dry mud everywhere. The course of the old road is now a deep ravine formed by the water, which the mud prevents from soaking into the ground. A dreary piece of road follows, and ends at Tikitapu, which, though sadly disfigured, is still a beautiful piece of bush. Next comes Tikitapu Lake, 1,435 ft. above sea-level. Here Nature has done her best to cover her ugly work; hill and bush showing little of the mud that maimed the giant trees and crushed the scrub and fern. But, alas! the colour of the lake, once so lovely, is gone. Its milky water is, however, not unpleasant to the eye nor yet to the palate, and mixes fairly well with good whisky. Old travellers will miss the former exquisite beauty of the lake, but a ride along its shores on a pleasant day is a treat even now. Separated by a narrow neck of land from Tikitapu is Lake Rotokakahi, the next place of interest, 1,350 ft. above sea-level, a sombre-looking piece of water. Being near to Wairoa, it suffered severely from the eruption. A Native settlement on its southern shore was abandoned after the eruption. Here begins the Wairoa Creek, the outlet of the Rotokakahi Lake, and leading to Wairoa. One now sees the remains of bridges destroyed, heavy deposits of mud, and then Wairoa—truly a scene of desolation. Here are the ruins of an old mill, the tops of Native whares, remains of hotels and houses. The only surviving portions of a once pretty village are the trees, which seem to thrive in spite of their desolate surroundings. Fruit abounds in season. Tarawera Lake, 1,032 ft. above sea-level, is most melancholy in appearance. A sail across this lake is a welcome change from the saddle, the boats being good. The traveller is landed at the foot of the Tarawera Mountain. Peak Ruawahia, being 3,770 ft. above sea-level, compels an awful and painful interest. The lower part is easy of ascent, and the upper not difficult for active men; visitors may without much fatigue obtain a comprehensive view of this field of destruction. No verbal description can possibly convey an adequate idea of this scene of devastation and desolation. After lunch it is necessary to start on the journey home, in order to get there in time for dinner.

Wai-o-tapu Valley.

This valley is about 22 miles from Rotorua on the road to Galatea. The springs there are many, and calmly beautiful compared with Tikitere.

Leaving Rotorua, Whakarewarewa is soon reached, and, once through the Hemo Gorge, the deep blue of the Puarenga is seen. The road is monotonous enough, through a valley which apparently at one time was a totara forest, dead logs of that timber being strewn all over the country. The land belongs to the Natives at present. A ride of ten miles brings you to Pa-karaka, a Native settlement, from which a good view can be obtained of Mount Tarawera. Here a track leads to an old pa and an old Constabulary barrack at Kaiteriria, beautifully situated on the shore of Lake Rotokakahi, but abandoned by Natives after the eruption. Earthquake Flat—so called from the numerous cracks which are the result of earthquakes—is 12 1/2 miles.

Following the old road to Rotomahana, the site of the Pink and White Terraces, the top of the hill is soon reached, and looking towards the north-east Tarawera, with its enormous chasm and desolation, lies before you. Eastward and southward stands Mount Kakaramea as a sentinel at the entrance of the strange region, far to the east the Kaingaroa Plains, and beyond the Urewera (Tuhoe) country. Descending to the main road, a pleasing surprise awaits the visitor, for Mount Kakaramea stands in front—a most striking object, its sides covered with many-coloured earths, with puffs of white steam issuing here and there. Beautifully contrasting is the cool colour of Lake Ngahewa lying at its base. Soon the hotel at Wai-o-tapu is reached, where the traveller can lunch and visit the sights, and return to Rotorua. If, however, he has time, he had better stay the night and thoroughly explore the district.

Rotowhero—Wai-rakei Road.

The road from the Galatea—Wai-o-tapu-Rotorua junction at Rotowhero to Wai-rakei is passable for any kind of wheel traffic. It is newly formed, passing mostly through pumice country, and is dry and hard. The latter portion from the Waikato River to Wai-rakei is completed, but as yet there is no bridge crossing the Waikato River.

This road is an interesting one for sightseers. From Wai-o-tapu right along to the Waikato River, hot steam-holes and springs are to be found on the way. Then the mighty Waikato River rolls past. At Ohaki there is a spring, which for size and beauty is remarkable, besides other smaller ones. A divergence should be made to see the Aratiatia Rapids. On the drive to Wai-rakei a continuous view of Nga-uruhoe and Ruapehu, with the Te Mari Crater steaming its straight column into the sky, is obtained. From the saddle above Atiahaka there is a grand view of Lake Taupo and the mountains on a clear day.

From Wai-rakei the tourist should obtain horses and visit Orakeikorako, about 12 miles away. This spot, after Wai-rakei, is really the finest in the district; the Alum Cave alone is worth while going a long way to see.

The following are the sights on the drive from Rotorua to Wai-rakei: Wai-o-tapu Springs, 2 miles from junction, or 19 miles from Rotorua; Waikato River, 13 miles from junction; Ohaki Springs, 2 1/2 miles from river; Orakei-korako Springs and Alum Caves, 12 miles by track from river; Aratiatia Rapids, 17 1/2 miles from river, or 3 miles from Wai - rakei; Orakeikorako, 12 miles by track from Wai-rakei; Nga-uruhoe-Ruapehu and Tongariro Range, most of the way from Waikato to Wai-rakei; Lake Taupo and Mountains, from Atiahaka Saddle; Wai-rakei Geysers, 1 mile from Wai-rakei, or 17 1/2 miles from river.

The country is all open, except a little bush on the right hand from the junction to the river, above the Paeroa Settlement. On the north side of the Waikato River it is well watered, but on the south along the road only two small streams are passed. Generally the land is poor, mostly flat, occupied by Maoris here and there. The largest pa is at Ohaki, sometimes as many as a hundred Maoris being congregated there; the majority of the pas, however, range from thirty to fifty souls. Altogether there are about ten kaingas on the road from the Rotowhero Lake to Wai-rakei. At Wai-o-tapu there is a hotel, and at Wai-rakei a comfortable hostelry.

A good way of making the trip is for travellers to come to Wai-o-tapu from Rotorua, see the sights there, and stay the night. Next day drive on to the river and Ohaki, then on to Aratiatia Rapids; and thence to Wai-rakei, staying the second night there, and seeing the sights in the Geyser Valley, then to Orakei-korako another day. Orakei-korako can also be reached on horseback from Atiamuri or from Earthquake Flat, both distant about 10 miles, the latter by following the telegraph-lines; or on horseback from Ohaki, distance 12 miles, thus affording a choice of four routes. The Wairakei-Atiamuri route is the best, and travellers will find it very interesting; to those fond of shooting there are pheasants, ducks, and pigeons to afford sport.

The Lakes: Rotoiti, Rotoehu, Rotoma.

An excursion lasting from one day to a week, or even more, according to the inclination of the traveller, can be made to the lakes from Rotorua. The tourist goes by launch to Tapuae-haruru, a Native village at the eastern end of Lake Rotoiti, where arrangements can be made for staying under canvas for any length of time, and from whence excursions may be made to the other lakes, and the Hot Spring of Waitangi, between Lakes Rotoehu and Rotoma. The scenery along the shores of these lakes is beyond description, the only way to get any idea of it being to go and see it for one's-self. A road has recently been constructed from Rotorua past Tikitere, and along the shores of Rotoiti to Tapuae-haruru. It leads through the bush, following the course of the old Native track along the shores of Lake Rotoehu, past cherry groves and hot springs, to Lake Rotoma, so that the beauties of this district may be visited either by water or road. By a horse-track through the bush, leaving Lake Rotoiti at Te Ruato, a Native village, Lake Okataina can be reached in an hour's time. On Lake Rotorua pleasure-boats can be obtained, sailing or rowing; also tents and all necessary gear for camping.

ROTORUA TO TIRAU AND OKOROIRE.

If the visitor is tired of steam-holes, porridge-pots, geysers, and sulphur, and yearns to get the sulphury fumes from his nostrils and the uncanny sights from his mind, a drive to Tirau or Okoroire is the one thing needful to restore his faculties to their normal condition. Certainly at Okoroire one meets with hot springs and other thermal action, but they are small compared to those of Rotorua.

Leaving Rotorua, the coach travels on a good road along the western or prettiest side of Rotorua Lake, passing on the left Ngongo-taha Mountain, from whose summit a grand view may be obtained of the Bay of Plenty, including Mayor Island, Tauranga Harbour, Motiti, White Island, and Cape Runaway, together with other objects of interest and note.

At Tarukenga there is a plantation of 14 acres under Government control, where various trees are planted and grasses grown for the purpose of ascertaining which are most suitable for the district. Beyond this point lies Paradise Valley, a pretty secluded piece of bush scenery dear to picnic parties, not visible from the road or rail.

Tarukenga is 9 miles from Rotorua, its chief attractions being a Native pa on the high ground. Here the visitor by rail catches the first glimpse of the lakes, looking from an altitude of 1,000 ft. or 2,000 ft. above sea-level.

In the bush which is entered just beyond, nothing is more enjoyable on a fine day than a drive through its ever-changing hues of green, brown, and yellow. The prevailing trees are rimu, tawa, rata, and some totara and hinau, the mountain rimu especially recommending itself for building purposes.

Getting clear of the bush, the traveller soon comes in sight of cultivation, and reaches the Thames Valley, in which are situated Tirau and Okoroire. On the right is seen Matamata, the Te Aroha Ranges, and the Kaimai, on the left the valley of the Waikato, with the hills beyond. Still continuing the journey, the Wai-makariri River is crossed, where there is a trout-hatchery established. Two miles further on the hotel is reached and the journey for the day is completed.

A few miles from Tirau, in the Matamata direction, is the Okoroire Sanatorium and health resort, where many tourists break their journey to or from Auckland. It has many features of interest similar to Rotorua, but on a much smaller scale, although each place has some particular charm all its own. The hotel is built on rising ground on the banks of the Waihou River, and the building commands a wide range of landscape.

Spacious and convenient bath-houses have been erected, connected by a covered way with the river, where visitors may enjoy the luxury of a cold plunge after a warm bath. In their respective seasons, shooting and fishing engage the attention of the tourist, and good bags in both branches of sport are generally obtained. The railway station is about 5 miles from the Sanatorium, whither coaches convey visitors free of charge to the hotel door.

Chapter 68. TE AROHA THERMAL SPRINGS.

TE AROHA is one of the most favourite health resorts in New Zealand. It is very prettily situated on the Waihou (Thames) River, thirty-three miles southward from the Thames, and within easy reach of Auckland by rail. The township takes its name from the adjoining mountain, which rises to a height of over 3,000 ft., and contains numerous valleys and gullies filled with a great variety of tree-ferns and other forms of luxuriant vegetation. The climate is equable, dry, and salubrious. The accommodation for visitors is very good, and the natural attractiveness of the place has been largely added to by improvements carried out by the local authorities.

There are eighteen springs in the township under the control of a Domain Board; fifteen of the springs are hot or tepid. Seven large bath-houses have been comfortably fitted up; there is also a large building, containing a number of private single baths, and a summer-house, with fountain, providing the mineral water for internal use. The waters are, with the exception of the sulphur springs, saline and feebly alkaline, and strongly charged with carbonic-acid gas, which is constantly escaping from the springs in large quantities, rendering them effervescent and pleasant. These springs are very similar to those of Vichy (France), Ems (Germany), and Bilin (near Teplitz, Bohemia), and are quite equal to them in strength. Potash exists in all these waters, but only in very small quantity. Baths Nos. 1 to 15 inclusive, and No. 18, are colourless, with the exceptions of Nos. 4, 13, and 14, which are pale-yellow. No. 16 is turbid, owing to the presence of precipitated sulphur.

Bath No. 1, pleasantly situated up the hill, is set apart for ladies, and is much used.

Bath No. 2 is of large size, with waiting- and dressing-rooms attached. A short distance from it is a reservoir of hot water, containing 20,000 gallons. Three-fourths of the water from the springs supplying it is at a temperature of 90°, and the temperature of the rest from certain springs ranges up to 119°.

No. 3 bath-house is divided into private rooms, with a bath in each, fitted with hot- and cold-water valves to regulate the temperature as desired, and each provided with a shower.

Nos. 4, 5, and 6 are extensively patronised, and good bathing-houses are erected over the springs.

No. 15 spring is largely used for drinking, and, according to Dr. Alfred Wright, the late physician to the Thermal Springs Domain (from whose handbook on Te Aroha some of the particulars here given have been taken), its water is a valuable adjunct to the treatment of certain forms of dyspepsia and kidney affections. No. 8 is also a drinking spring, but of lower temperature. No. 16 (cold) has little overflow. Sulphur is found in small quantities in the surrounding clay, and there is emitted a strong sulphurretted-hydrogen gas. No. 17, also a cold spring, is used for application in cases of eye affections. No. 18 is a cold soda-water spring.

In order to meet the demand which has sprung up for a potable supply of Te Aroha mineral water for drinking elsewhere than at the fountain, the Government permitted the granting of sole rights for a term of years to a company formed for the purpose of working and distributing the mineral waters, and the Te Aroha Soda and Mineral Water Company (Limited) had a large exhibit of these waters in the New Zealand Court at the Melbourne Centennial Exhibition of 1888.

ANALYSIS OF EIGHTEEN MINERAL WATERS FROM TE AROHA.—No. 4423.
Alkaline Waters 1 to 15, 17, and 18.
No.Temp. in Deg. Fahr.Chloride of Sodium.Chloride of Potassium.Sulphate of Soda.Carbonate of Lime.Carbonate of Magnesia.Bicarbonate of Soda.Silica.Total Grains per Gallon.
110260.251.7238.3210.776.86461.567.56587.04
211260.451.9032.677.124.21426.297.12539.76
311260.51with the sodium chloride32.827.244.20429.197.21541.17
49234.24with the sodium chloride19.164.622.14246.495.17311.82
510068.77with the sodium chloride36.926.913.15476.586.10598.43
610466.23with the sodium chloride35.147.122.99499.757.14618.37
78667.13with the sodium chloride34.047.464.34444.207.01564.18
810966.141.9632.917.474.21451.978.60573.26
911241.29 22.164.942.61301.176.44378.61
109635.24 19.194.672.31276.196.00343.60
118834.69 20.125.112.56261.446.11330.03
128841.66 22.965.122.99300.977.11380.81
1312040.67 21.866.113.13301.646.86380.27
1412242.61 23.167.143.49321.646.66404.70
1513943.11 22.166.913.61331.767.05414.60
17 2.71 3.920.640.279.364.2121.11
18 16.12 8.161.971.01131.7213.14172.12

Nos. 1, 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 18 contain traces of alumina and iron-oxide.

Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 contain traces of alumina, iron-oxide, and potassium.

No. 17 contains 1.4 gr. of sulphuretted hydrogen.

Important additions and improvements have been carried out. A bath-house, 98 ft. long by 28 ft., with a centre corridor 8 ft. wide, laid with tile paving, and twenty-three rooms off it, nineteen of which are furnished with the best porcelain baths, has been completed, and was opened on the 24th May, 1898, by the Hon. A. J. Cadman, then Minister for Railways and Mines. To provide proper drainage and carry off all the water from the baths a pipe has been laid on from the Waihou River. Two concrete reservoirs, containing respectively 6,000 gallons and 20,000 gallons of hot water, have been laid down, and both are connected with pipes and valves. A large concrete swimming-bath, 40 ft. by 20 ft., and 3 ft. 9 in. to 5 ft. in depth, has been made at a convenient point to receive the overflows from these reservoirs. These and other additions were carried out at a cost of £3,860. After the completion of the railway to the Thames there was a large influx of visitors, and this caused a heavy drain on the supply of hot mineral water available for the baths. In order to obviate any possibility of a shortage, the Board decided to drive a prospecting tunnel, and the Government granted a subsidy of £150 towards this work. There is now every indication of an ample supply being available, several good springs having been tapped in transit, some registering 120°. This additional supply will enable the Board to fill the above hot-water swimming-bath, which has not been used because there was not enough hot water from overflows. A lawn-tennis ground has been provided, and a bowling-green will probably be added as soon as the funds of the Board permit. The growing popularity of Te Aroha may be gathered from the amounts received for baths during the past fourteen years:—

 £
1885387
1886539
1887503
1888487
1889463
1890366
1891411
1892427
1893466
1894406
1895421
1896603
1897729
1898769

Te Aroha is 115 miles by rail from Auckland, thirteen miles from Paeroa, and thirty-three miles from the Thames. Coaches leave Paeroa frequently for the important goldfields of Karangahake, Waihi, and Waitekauri, so that these districts are also placed within easy reach of the healing waters. It is customary for many of the miners and residents on these goldfields to go to Te Aroha on Saturday and return on Monday morning; cheap return fares are provided by the Railway Department with the view of encouraging this branch of the passenger traffic. It may therefore be surmised that the increase in the Domain Board's revenue which has taken place since the railway was opened to Paeroa and the Thames will go on steadily augmenting year by year.

Chapter 69. HANMER THERMAL SPRINGS.

R. BELL, with analysis of waters (HECTOR) and directions for use (Dr. LITTLE).

AMONG the many pleasure and health resorts in the Middle Island of New Zealand the Hanmer Thermal Springs District is justly very popular. As a health-recruiting ground, pure and simple, it undoubtedly holds the first place. There are various reasons for this preference for Hanmer. It is situated beyond the Leslie Hills in the Nelson Province, nearly a hundred miles from the hurry and bustle of a large city, and twenty-four miles from a railway-station. The healing natural waters are, of course, the great attraction. Their fame has gone abroad, and year by year brings an ever-increasing number of visitors. The climate must also be credited with its fair share of the attractiveness of the district. Although situated in latitude 42° 30' S., the heat, even in midsummer, is not oppressive. The height of the springs above the sea-level, 1,220 ft., and the distance from the coast, thirty-two miles, insures a dry heat during the day, with cool mornings and evenings. The air is bracing and salubrious, and allows feats of walking and hill-climbing to be performed with less fatigue than on the lower levels and in the more humid atmosphere near the coast.

Besides attracting the physically weak and the mere seeker after pleasure, Hanmer is yearly growing in favour with the fagged brain, worker, the nerve-worn man of affairs, and the mechanic who “needs a spell.” To them Hanmer is a veritable Elysium, where business is not thought of. The world with its distracting cares and life-shortening ways is shut out.

JOURNEY TO HANMER.

To get to Hanmer the train is taken from Christchurch to Culverden, the northern terminus at present of the Hurunui-Bluff railway system, a distance of sixty-nine miles. Leaving Christ-church at 7.35 a.m., Culverden is reached at 12.10 p.m. The railway runs through some of the most fertile country in the Middle Island. Along the route are the Townships of Kaiapoi, Rangiora, Amberley, and Waikari.

Culverden is the centre of the fine pastoral country which extends to the neighbourhood of Blenheim. At its yards the largest sheep sale in New Zealand took place in March of 1898, when 250,000 sheep were brought under the hammer. Having lunched here, the passenger transfers himself and baggage to the coach, and the remaining portion of the journey is performed in three hours and a half. The coach route runs through the picturesque valley of the Waiau. The road winds in and out among the hills until crossing the river by a fine iron bridge the plains are unexpectedly reached. This level plateau, which stands at an altitude of 1,220 ft., is about ten miles long by four miles broad, and is surrounded on all sides by mountains, some of which rise over 5,000 ft. high. About the middle of the plains are the hot springs. These are of an alkaline and saline character, with a strong escape of sulphuretted hydrogen, and they possess undoubted curative properties for certain diseases.

ACCOMMODATION, ETC., AT THE SPRINGS.

The springs are situated in an area of 13 acres, enclosed by live fences and trees, and laid out in pleasant walks and lawns, bordered by flowers, all neatly kept. A croquet-lawn, tennis court, and bowling-green have also been laid down. The hotel-accommodation for visitors is ample. The Government Sanatorium contains twenty-two bedrooms, two dining-rooms, smoking-rooms, drawing-room, sitting-room, doctor's consulting-room, &c. It is capable of accommodating about thirty persons, viz.: fourteen in the first-class compartments and sixteen in the second-class rooms. The Sanatorium is chiefly used by patients whose complaints require them to live near the baths.

“The Lodge” is a commodious two-story house within a few chains of the bathing-grounds. The Jollie's Pass Hotel (licensed) is situated two miles and a half from the baths, and was originally built by the Government as an accommodation-house for travellers crossing the Pass, the great highway between Nelson and Canterbury. Mrs. Lahmert has a Temperance Hotel near the springs, and there are several other boarding-houses.

During the 1899–1900 season 2,0416 people visited the springs, taking 15,891 baths.

The bath-houses contain in all twenty-two private baths, with massage-rooms and Turkish baths supplied with hot and cold mineral-water. The water is brought in pipes from the adjacent springs. The temperature ranges from 86° to 97° Fahr., and may be increased at will to 114°. Besides the private baths, there are a ladies' swimming-pool and a gentlemen's swimming-pool, both surrounded by high iron fences and covered by awnings. The average depth is 5 ft. The temperature of the pools is 85° Fahr., and is so comfortable that, once in, the bather hardly cares to come out again. The charge for the private baths is 1s. each or 8s. for twelve, while for the pool 6d. a bath is the price. Situated in the grounds is a pump-room used by patients drinking the waters which give relief in stomach, liver, and kidney troubles. The water is warm, and contains chloride of sodium and sulphurous acid, and many testify to its beneficial effect.

An arrangement of pipes enables the gases to be inhaled by the patient, and this, like the drinking of the waters, gives relief in cases of asthma and bronchial affections. Sufferers from these complaints find that the clear atmosphere of this upland valley has a wonderfully curative effect.

A comfortable reading-room has been provided in connection with the baths, on the tables of which may be found works descriptive of the scenery, resources, and history of New Zealand, also a few of the best monthlies, &c.

Natural gas is used to light and heat the baths, and to light, heat, and cook with at, the sanatorium.

A post- and telegraph-office supplies facilities for communicating with the outside world.

MASSEUSE AVAILABLE.

In premises fitted up for her use, Miss Edith Cook, certificated masseuse, practises her art. She has great experience, and those who have been under her hands testify to her skill as a manipulator. In fact, it has come to be recognised that the bathing and the massage treatment go hand in hand towards affecting cures in cases of muscular ailments.

MEDICAL ATTENDANCE PROCURABLE.

Dr. Little, of Culverden, visits the springs once a week during the season, and his services are at the disposal of the visitors at moderate fees. If urgently required he can be communicated with by telephone at any moment.

TOURIST SEASON, ETC.

The tourist season extends from the 1st November to the 1st May, and during those months coaches from Culverden to Hanmer run daily up and down. During the rest of the year coaches only run on Tuesday and Saturday from Culverden, and from Hanmer on Monday and Thursday. The baths are open throughout the year; but the massage treatment can only be obtained during the summer months. The Government Sanatorium and the hotels and boarding-houses, of course, provide accommodation all the year round.

Apart from the cost of getting there—the railway issue through return first-class tickets from Christchurch for £1 10s., and from Dunedin, £4 2s. 6d.—Haumer, unlike many other pleasure resorts, is not an expensive place to stay at. There are no “extras,” in the shape of boating and driving excursions, as in the cold lakes district, and no guide-fees, as in the alpine district. The only way one can make extra expense is to indulge in a superfluity of baths, and that is hardly likely.

To those capable of Alpine work there are Mount Perceval (5,335 ft.) and Mount Captain (6,600 ft.). On a clear day, from either of these peaks, the Port Hills, Lake Ellesmere, and the long sweep of the Canterbury Plains to the ocean, can be seen. Jollie's Pass to the Saddle affords a fair morning's walk, so also does Jack's Pass, and there are many other short excursions which may be made by those whom the baths have restored to vigour.

There is good fishing in the Clarence, the Waiau, the Hanmer, and their tributary streams; while for dog and gun there is such game as hares, rabbits, wild ducks, and swamp-hens.

The analysis of water taken from No. 1 Spring at Hanmer Plains, made at the Colonial Museum in 1891, gave these results:—

Chloride of sodium62.09
Chloride of potassium0.15
Chloride of lithiumTrace
Iodide of magnesiumTrace
Carbonate of lime0.55
Carbonate of magnesia1.77
Carbonate of iron0.05
Sulphate of soda7.48
Carbonate of soda2.66
Phosphate of aluminaTrace
Silica2.63
Total grains per gallon77.38
Gas—Sulphuretted hydrogen2.19

An analysis made ten years ago, prior to the earthquake which occurred in 1888, by Professor Bickerton, of Christchurch, is interesting from the fact that it includes an examination of the sediment and organic matter contained in the water. The sample was taken from Spring No. 8 before it was incorporated with No. 1. It is as follows:—

Sediment—Silica and free sulphur1.400
Nitrogen as free ammonia0.092
Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia0.048
Nitrogen as nitric acid0.047
Total nitrogen0.187
Sulphuretted hydrogen, free3.430
Sulphate of lime9.940
” potash1.960
” soda0.400
Bicarbonate ”7.770
Chloride ”56.230
Bicarbonate of magnesia0.640
Total fixed matter76.940
Total grains per gallon81.957

The total amounts of fixed salts in the two analyses correspond very closely. The sulphates and carbonates in either case are so small that the fact of their varying in the two analyses is a matter of no importance. The fact of the discovery of traces of iodine and lithium in the recent analysis is interesting.

DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE BATHS AT HANMER SANATORIUM.

CHARLES T. W. LITTLE, M.B., Ch.B., Visiting Medical Officer.

The temperature of the Hanmer Baths can be regulated from cold up to 114° Fahr. Patients are cautioned against using the baths at first at too high a temperature, and against remaining too long in them. The caretaker in charge will be glad to give information on this point. A cold shower is provided with each bath. Invalids and those unaccustomed to the shower must use it with caution. After leaving the bath, patients should cool gradually, and be careful to avoid exposure to cold.

The water of the springs is laxative and diuretic, and may at first nauseate. It should be drunk in moderation, not more than one or two glasses daily for a commencement.

During their stay at Hanmer, visitors are recommended to freely take exercise in proportion to their strength. The Sanatorium affords facilities for this. The walk from the accommodation-houses to the springs will benefit those in fair health. Those suffering from feeble circulation, and those convalescent from acute diseases, must be specially careful with regard to the temperature and the duration of their bath, and should first ask information from the caretaker.

Patients suffering from bronchial catarrh will find inhalation of the steam beneficial, but must carefully avoid cold after leaving the bath. For local affections of a chronic rheumatic nature, &c., patients will find the hot douche useful, but must persist in its use. Massage both during and after the bath is here very useful.

Experience has shown that the benefit derived in skin affections varies much with individual cases. Dry and scaly skin affections generally benefit by prolonged immersion. Irritable and moist skin affections, on the other hand, benefit more by a short immersion. Should such affections be aggravated by the treatment, the baths should be discontinued for a time at least.

The benefit derived by gouty patients has been found to vary with the case. Patients suffering from derangements of the alimentary system (constipation, torpid liver, &c.), asthma, whooping-cough, nervous debility, and insomnia have testified to receiving benefit from a stay at Hanmer.

Giddiness, bleeding from the nose, chilliness, nervous depression, increased irritability of the skin, are indications either that the baths do not suit, or that they have been too freely used and should be discontinued for a day or two at least. Visitors to the Sanatorium finding no appreciable benefit from the first few baths have often discontinued them altogether. Provided that the treatment is not aggravating the complaint, such action does not give the springs a fair trial. In chronic affections a long course of treatment is often required, and the immediate benefit is not seen.

Chapter 70. UP THE WANGANUI RIVER TO TOKAANU.

THE Town of Wanganui is situated on the right bank of the river of the same name, at a distance of four miles from the sea. It was founded in 1840 by the New Zealand Company, and now contains a population of nearly seven thousand persons. With the suburbs—Sedgebrook, Durietown, Putiki, Castlecliff, Mosstown, St. John's Hill, Aramoho, and Eastown—the population is over eight thousand. The town is accessible for sea-going steamers drawing up to 13 ft. of water.

The trains connect with New Plymouth and Wellington at Aramoho, Wanganui itself being on a branch line. There is also a private line to Castlecliff.

WANGANUI TO PIPIRIKI.

This trip is made by steamer, there being three on the river. Another steamer meets the lower-river steamers at Pipiriki, and runs up to Utapu and back. This allows the passengers to be carried on by steamer or coach to their destinations after having had a short glimpse of the beauties of the upper river.

An important native settlement, Parikino, is reached at 23 miles. Here a stop of a few minutes is usually made, in order to discharge supplies, &c. From Parikino upwards the bush is mostly down to the water's edge, except where cleared away round Native settlements. Immediately below and at several places just above Parikino may be seen stone walls or groins constructed in the river, for the purpose of improving it. From here, when the river is at summer level, the steamers are usually hauled up the rapids by means of wire ropes laid for the purpose. The ropes are passed round powerful winches on board the steamers, the ends being dropped over astern as the steamer works her way up. For ease in picking up, the ends of the ropes are supported by buoys. A thorough knowledge of the channels, combined with great skill and patience on the part of the crew, are necessary in order to pilot the steamers through these rapids, though there is no actual danger in the accomplishment of this.

At Atene (Athens), 30 1/2 miles, a picturesque kainga is passed. A very sharp bend in the river is here caused by the river at some long remote period having cut through a narrow ridge, thus shortening its course by over a mile.

Koriniti (Corinth), at 39 miles, is also prettily situated.

Karatia (Galatia), 43 miles, is just above the bad rapid, Matahiwi. Here the fall is 6 ft. in a quarter of a mile.

Ranana (London), 46 miles, was formerly an important place, but is now becoming very quiet. About half a mile above it is the island of Moutoa, on which, on the 14th May, 1864, was fought a pitched battle between the friendly Wanganui Natives and the Hauhaus. This fight probably saved the Town of Wanganui.

Hiruharama (Jerusalem), at 49 miles, is at present the most important native settlement on the upper river. It possesses a Roman Catholic church, convent, and orphanage. The considerable area of farm-lands attached to the establishment is worked almost entirely by the nuns or sisters. From here to Pipiriki, at 56 miles, the scenery is much finer than in the lower reaches, the channel being confined between high cliffs of limestone and papa rock, densely wooded to the water's edge.

Pipiriki is the terminus of the lower-river navigation. Here the coach-road turns off to Raetihi, Karioi, and the Lakes. A township was sold here in July, 1897.

PIPIRIKI TO TAUMARANUI.

This tour has hitherto only been possible by means of canoes. It is proposed in the future to clear the river for steamers to within about fifteen miles of Taumaranui, the balance of the distance being easy country, through which a good coach-road could easily be constructed to connect with the proposed Main Trunk Railway at Taumaranui.

As the canoe is propelled up the rapids by poles, it is absolutely necessary that skilled labour be employed; the attempt to ascend or shoot the rapids when only novices are on board would most probably end in a serious accident. Voyagers on the river will notice along the steep papa banks of the river large numbers of holes made by the hardened points of the poles used by the Natives in poling their canoes up-stream. If canoeing for more than one day is decided upon, a supply of tents, blankets, waterproof cloth, cooking utensils, and food will have to be provided, sufficient for the whole party, including the crew. These are obtainable at Pipiriki. The canoes are usually about 40 ft. long, by 3 ft. beam, with side-boards, and are furnished with seats, oars, poles, and paddles. In ascending, the average speed is about two miles an hour, and in descending about four.

From Pipiriki to Ohura, and a few miles beyond, the scenery on the river is very fine indeed, much finer than any to be seen below Pipiriki, the part between Pipiriki and Tieke being probably the best of all.

From Pipiriki, 56 miles, to Manganui-a-te-ao, 63 miles, there are a number of very swift rapids, the rise in this part being greater than on any other within the first 120 miles. The names of the worst rapids are Paparoa (immediately above Pipiriki), Te Aomarama, Autapu, Mangaio, and Ngaporo. These rapids are now being improved, and shortly will present no greater difficulties or dangers than those below Pipiriki.

About 5 miles up on the proper right bank there are two caves, through one of which a large creek rushes, forming a waterfall at its junction with the river. At this point there is a splendid site for a suspension-bridge at some future period.

The Manganui-a-te-ao is a large turbulent stream fed chiefly by the snows of the Ruapehu, but is only navigable by canoes for a few miles on account of the roughness of its bed and its great fall.

Tieke, reached at 70 miles, is pleasantly situated on some undulating and partly open country.

At 72 miles, another native kainga, Utapu, is passed. From here to Retaruke, at 108 miles, there is practically no settlement on the river.

At 80 miles the Wangamomona Stream, flowing from the western side, joins the river.

At 86 miles the Tangarakau River is reached. This is a long stream running in a deeply-cut gorge, abounding in fine scenery, rising nearly 100 miles to the north-west. The water is of a dark-brown colour, forming a striking contrast at the junction to the clear water of the main river. There are several coal-seams on the Tangarakau, but at present they are too inaccessible to be utilised. This river has been cleared for a distance of fourteen miles for canoe-traffic, to a point whither coach-traffic can be brought from Stratford viâ the East Road. Steamer traffic has not yet been taken past the Tangarakau, but no doubt in time it will be extended up, as previously stated.

At 98 miles there is an extremely bad rapid, called Tareipokiore, caused by a landslip.

Retaruke Stream, coming from the Waimarino country to the east, joins the river at 108 miles. This stream is navigable by canoes for about twenty miles.

At 111 miles the Ohura River, from the north-west, joins the main river, forming two waterfalls, one just at the junction, and the second about a quarter of a mile up. Above this waterfall the Ohura is navigable by canoes for a considerable distance, and traverses some fine grazing country as yet untouched.

About 120 miles up, the valley of the river begins to widen out, and the scenery becomes much less striking. From Jerusalem to this point, a distance of 70 miles, the river runs in a narrow, and often very deep channel, mostly between precipitous papa cliffs, every available foothold being covered with a more or less luxuriant growth of ferns, shrubs, or forest-trees. The numbers of waterfalls to be seen tumbling into the river on either side, especially after heavy rain, greatly enhance the beauty of the river scene.

At 136 miles Taumaranui is reached. Here the main river is joined by its most important tributary, the Ongaruhe, from the King-country. Down the valley of this river runs the Main Trunk Railway. There is a large Native settlement here. The country is fairly open, but of poor quality, pumice being everywhere visible. There is a horse-track from Taumaranui to Raetihi.

Canoes can ascend the Wanganui for a few miles beyond Taumaranui, but the rapids are numerous and swift and the settlement very small; also, the scenery is of a character not requiring any decription. Rumours have been floating about here for years as to the existence of gold in certain of the creeks above Taumaranui, but as yet none has been discovered.

PIPIRIKI-WAIOURU ROAD.

Distance, 41 1/2 miles. The journey is made by coach. From Pipiriki to Raetihi it is very desirable, if possible, to obtain a box-seat, in order to thoroughly appreciate the very picturesque scenery with which this part of the road abounds.

Leaving Pipiriki, a very long ascent is made for the first 7 miles up the valley of the Kaukore Stream. In two places the road is cut out of the solid papa precipices, forming what are now known as the “Dress Circles.” The creeks here run in perfect cañons, excavated by the erosion of the water during countless ages. All this valley is most beautifully forest-clad. In January the hill-sides are especially attractive, on account of the scarlet rata, then in full bloom.

At 8 1/2 miles from Pipiriki the Mangoihe Creek is crossed by a truss bridge. Just above this is a third “Dress Circle.”

At 11 miles the Waipuna Saddle is reached. This is the watershed of the Wanganui and Wangaehu Rivers. Its height is 1,791 ft. About a quarter of a mile past the saddle a very fine and extensive view is obtained of the Waimarino Plain, covered with dense forest, and backed by the snowy peaks of Ruapehu and the active volcano Ngauruhoe. Two miles' descent brings the coach to the Mangaetoroa Stream, which rushes through a tunnel excavated beneath the road.

At 17 1/2 miles Raetihi is reached. This township is six years old, and well situated for becoming an important place in years to come, though as yet it only contains a population of about one hundred people. The coaches change horses here, and the passengers have an hour for lunch. For many miles around here, in all directions, there is an extremely fine forest—rimu, or red-pine, being the most common tree. There is a large amount of settlement going on in this district, but the settlers have much to contend with in the expense they are put to in felling the heavy bush to improve their lands, and by the distance to markets.

From Raetihi, at 17 1/2 miles, past Ohakune, at 24 1/2 miles, to Waione, at 30 1/2 miles, the grand forest country still continues, with occasional small Native and European clearings. There are a few fine glimpses of Ruapehu, notably so at Ohakune, a small township on the Mangawhero River, and not far from the line of the proposed Main Trunk Railway. There is an old natural clearing at Ohakune, but as a township it has not prospered. The Manga-whero and Mangateitei Rivers are both crossed by good fords, but when the rivers are at all swollen it is preferable to make a detour at this part for about three miles, viâ what is known as the Rangataua Road.

At Waione, 30 1/2 miles, the open country is come upon quite suddenly. From here practically to Rotorua there is no more bush to be traversed, and throughout all this distance the land is of very poor quality, and is only fit for pastoral purposes in large areas. Except for fine views of the mountains and fine bracing air the coach drive from Waione to Waiouru is very monotonous.

At 32 1/2 miles Karioi is reached. There being no facilities for the accommodation of travellers at Waiouru, the night is usually spent at Karioi, the passengers staying at the accommodation-house. Stabling and paddocking can also be obtained here. The view from Karioi of the glacier on the southern slope of Ruapehu is very fine.

On the following morning Waiouru is reached early. Four miles further on the Wangaehu River is crossed by a good ford. The waters of this river are strongly impregnated with sulphur, and at times quite unfit to drink. Waiouru is merely a coaching station at the junction of the Ohingaiti, Tokaanu, and Pipiriki Roads. It is situated upon a bleak tussocky plateau 2,600 ft. above the sea-level, the only habitation near it, besides a small accommodation-house, being a shepherd's hut, an outpost of the Karioi sheep-station, though there will in time probably be an important coaching station here.

WAIOURU-TOKAANU.

This coach road was opened for traffic in 1894. It is all through open country, and in better condition in wet than in dry weather, for it is of pumice formation, which cakes hard in wet weather and becomes very dusty in dry. Rapid travelling, comparatively speaking, is made on this trip, especially from Waiouru to the Desert. The splendid mountains Ruapehu and Tongariro dominate the view on the left, and the fine range of Kaimanawa closes the view on the right, so that although the trip is otherwise monotonous, with only occasional mountain torrents and a view of Lake Taupo, the fine bracing air and clear cold water serve to make the journey pleasant.

Waiouru is left immediately after the arrival of the coach from Karioi. A level tussocky plain for 2 1/4 miles brings the traveller to the edge of the deep gully formed by the Waitangi Creek. On ascending from that another plain 3 miles long is traversed. The Paripokai Terrace is then climbed. From here the Wangaehu River can be seen wending its way for miles across the plains from its source in Ruapehu, till it enters the bush near Karioi. On top of this terrace the road runs perfectly straight along a plain covered with tussocks and snow grass for 4 1/2 miles. The elevation of Waiouru above sea-level is 2,570 ft. This upper plain is from 3,100 ft. to 3,300 ft.

Mamoenui Creek is crossed by a ford at 12 miles. This is a tributary of the Moawhango River. Just beyond this lies the Onetapu Desert, a region of loose sand and gravel brought down from the slopes of Ruapehu, and sparsely covered with stunted vegetation. It is to be noted that three small streams are here running almost parallel, within half a mile of one another. One goes to join the Wangaehu, another to join the Rangitikei, and the third to join the Waikato.

The head-water of the Waikato is crossed at 14 1/2 miles. Just below the bridge the stream dives into a deep cañon, in which it runs for miles.

At 15 1/4 miles the summit of the road is reached, the height being 3,410 ft. Here the first view is obtained to the north of Taupo Lake, over 2,200 ft. lower in elevation, and nearly 30 miles distant. From here there is a general fall all the way, but there are numerous ups and downs on the road, many of them being long and steep, though no steeper grades than 1 in 15 are met with.

The Kaimanawa Range, with bare tops and over 5,000 ft. high, with the lower slopes thickly covered with birch (beech) bush is seen to the right, and on the left are the Ruapehu and Tongariro Mountains.

The Mangatoetoenui Stream is crossed by a ford at 18 miles. There is at 19 3/4 miles a picturesque bridge situated in a wooded gully just below the confluence of the Ohinepango and Waihohonu Streams.

A birch bush, about a mile nearer the mountains, affords good camping places from which to make excursions to Ruapehu. This mountain is 9,008 ft. high, with perpetual glaciers on the summit and southern sides and snow on the other sides, except from January to March, when they are all bare except in shaded places. For the ascent a clear calm day should be selected, as on the summit the cold is very severe if there is any wind. A guide is advisable for strangers, but not absolutely necessary if members of the party are accustomed to mountaineering work, and if good directions are obtained before starting. The mountain was probably first ascended by Europeans in 1877, but since then it has frequently been climbed. In 1881 Mrs. W. Birch reached the summit and crossed the ice-field. The ascent may be made from Waihohonu to the north peak, Te Heuheu. This is the easiest climb. If horses are available they can be ridden from Waihohonu for two hours up the long stony lower slopes of the mountain, and then tethered to rocks in a sheltered gully. A long spur on the north-eastern slope of the mountain is then climbed, and after three hours' labour the summit should be reached. The ascent is not at all dangerous, but somewhat laborious on account of the loose surface stones, gravel, &c., being all on the move, though in the descent this can be taken advantage of to immensely quicken the pace. On the summit the views are very extensive and grand, nearly one-third of the North Island being spread out to view like a map, but the large extent of the top renders a simultaneous view of the whole impossible. The southern peak, Para-te-tai-tonga, may be ascended from the Karioi side, but near the summit the ascent is very steep and rather dangerous. In order to obtain an early start for this route, the camp should be pitched on the previous evening at the “Round Bush,” about 10 miles from Karioi.

Another route is by way of the Wangaehu River. By making a very early start from Waiouru, crossing part of the desert, and leaving the horses above the Black Rock, which divides the Wangaehu and Waikato Rivers, the ascent may be made to the summit, striking the plateau at its lowest point. But the climb this way is also much steeper and more dangerous than by the north-eastern spur. On the western and southern slopes there is bush to an altitude of 5,000 ft., but the other slopes are formed of long bare rounded stony spurs, gradually increasing in steepness towards the summit. On the summit there is a large ice-field, near the margin of which is the crater-lake. This lake is about 80 ft, below the general level of the ice-field, with steep walls, and is about 10 acres in extent. The temperature varies from tepid to boiling. Some mountaineers have reported it (1885) with no appearance of heat, while others state (1890) that it was in a state of intense activity. Specimens of water from the lake have been obtained and analysed. In March, 1897, the descent to a beach on the edge of the crater-lake was accomplished at one place with tolerable ease, but at all other places the sides were very precipitous. The water was then cool at the edges, but nearly boiling in the centre. Though the mountain was covered in ice and snow the temperature at the lake side was quite mild. The water from this lake flows by underground channels into the Wangaehu River, and in 1859, probably from a heating of the mountain, the lake-water was suddenly thrown over the adjoining ice-fields, causing an enormous mass of water, ice, and débris to tear down the mountain-side, sweeping down the Wangaehu, and destroying the traffic-bridge near the sea-coast.

At the 22-mile peg the half-way station is reached. Here a halt is made for an hour or so for lunch and horse-feed. Lunches have to be brought in the coach, as there is no one resident here, though probably in time this will form the starting point for the mountain tours. The coaches from Waiouru and Tokaanu meet here, and passengers change coaches.

A long descent into and out of Oturere Creek is made at 24 3/4 miles. About this point of the journey the creeks are nicely wooded, and occasional clumps of birch bush give the country quite a park-like appearance. Some deer were liberated here in the autumn of 1897.

From Oturere, where good camping-places are obtainable, the excursions to Ngauruhoe and Tongariro can be conveniently made. As before stated, Waihohonu is a good starting-point for excursions to Ruapehu, but Oturere is about four miles nearer to the mountains. An early start should be made up the long spur to the north of Oturere Creek. Horses may be taken for about 4 miles, and thus save a lot of exertion to the travellers. The horses being securely tethered in some sheltered gully, the course should be directed over the bleak waste of lava and ash to the saddle between Ngauruhoe and Tongariro. A lava ridge should be selected for the final ascent of the cone, for climbing up the cindery face is most fatiguing work. The ascent can be made on foot, and the camp again reached in ten hours, by moderate walking. The height of the cone is 7,515 ft. The crater is about a quarter of a mile in diameter, and the western wall is much lower than the rest of it. Great volumes of steam and sulphur-fumes are constantly issuing from this crater. Care should be exercised to keep on the windward side of the fumes. There was an eruption in 1868-69, and considerable extra activity in 1881 and 1892.

There is evidently intimate connection between Ngauruhoe, Ketetahi, and Te Mari, other volcanic vents in the Tongariro Range some miles to the north, for increased activity in one sometimes means increased activity in all, and sometimes almost a total extinction of all except the specially active one. On a clear day the view from the summit of Ngauruhoe is very fine, especially to the westward, over the Waimarino Plains and undulating bush-clad country right to the slopes of Mount Egmont, 8,280 ft. On the elevated plateau between Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe are two crater-lakes, known as Nga-Puna-o-Tama. From these lakes Native tradition says that Taranaki—i.e., Mount Egmont—was expelled by Tongariro on account of his having paid undue attention to Pihanga (a cone 4,000 ft. overlooking Tokaanu), wife of Tongariro. There is also a Native legend as to how Ngauruhoe first became active. Shortly after the Maoris first came to New Zealand from Hawaiki a great chief, Ngatoro-i-rangi, climbed this peak, and, requiring fire to perform certain rites, he called to his wife at Whakaari (White Island, in the Bay of Plenty) to bring him some of the sacred fire carried thither from Hawaiki. As this fire must not be seen by ordinary mortals, it was brought underground all the way. Here and there, however, as at Rotorua, Tarawera, Orakeikorako, Taupo, and other places, some of it was spilled, and sprouting up formed the thermal springs, &c., at these places. But the main portion of the fire was brought to Ngauruhoe, into the crater of which the chief then threw his slave wife Ngauruhoe. This mountain is called by some Auruhoe, but most commonly Ngauruhoe, though both names are considered correct.

The ascent of Tongariro may also be made from Oturere, but it is best done from Papakai.

At 25 miles the Mahikaikatoa Stream is crossed; then come the Mangatawhai and Mangamate Streams, at 27 1/4 and 27 3/4 miles respectively, all running in deeply-cut gorges fringed with birch bush.

At 30 miles the Moturoa Bush is seen to the right. From here there is a fine view of Taupo Lake, and from a little lower down Rotoaira Lake is seen to the left, lying between Tongariro and Pihanga.

At 31 3/4 miles the Puketarata Creek is forded. From this onwards the country consists of low undulating ferny ridges of very poor quality.

At 34 3/4 miles the road to Rotoaira turns off.

At 36 1/2 miles the Poutu River is crossed by a two-span bridge. This stream drains Rotoaira Lake, and has a very rapid fall. About half-a-mile down it joins the Waikato River, which has now become a large stream with shingle bottom, pumice banks, and beautiful clear rushing water.

The Waikato falls into Lake Taupo by a sort of delta, and in conjunction with numerous other streams flowing into the lake, finally emerges out of the lake at Taupo Township on its way to join the ocean on the west coast.

After crossing the Poutu River the road skirts the north-eastern slopes of Pihanga, with fine forest on its slopes, and an extinct crater on its summit.

At 39 3/4 miles one road turns to the right, going to the Waikato Bridge and onwards to Taupo, while the one to the left leads to Tokaanu.

The route now lies over low undulating ridges, flats, and swamps, covered with manuka, scrub, toetoe, raupo, or flax, into Tokaanu, which is reached after passing round the southern base of the volcanic cone, Maunganamu. The total distance from Waiouru to Tokaanu is 43 3/4 miles, the mileage being marked by red posts, with the numbers cut on them, on the western side of the road.

Tokaanu is situated on a stream of the same name, about a mile from the lake, and is 1,200 ft. above sea-level. The whole flat between the Tokaanu Stream and the volcanic range behind teems with thermal action of all descriptions. The hotels are cleanly kept, and can supply good meals, beds, horse-feeds, and paddocking. If the travellers prefer camping out there are plenty of good sites in the locality, though possibly the Natives will object to camps being pitched too close to their dwellings or to the puias which they frequent.

In order to see the chief attractions of the place, it is necessary to cross the Tokaanu Creek by a bridge formed by a hollowed-out tree. The geyser Te-korokoro-a-te-poinga is reached by taking a small path to the right, after crossing the bridge. It does not now throw out the water, but at intervals raises the water-level several feet. It is always in a state of turmoil, and emits a large column of steam. Across the bridge are several puias, in which very pleasant baths may be had. The temperature varies from time to time. A puia may be cold one year and boiling in the next, and vice versaâ; in fact, even from day to day there are great variations in temperature. It is, therefore, always necessary to try the temperature of the water before entering. It is dangerous to wander about in the locality of the puias anywhere off the beaten track without a guide, as the ground is notoriously treacherous, several painful accidents having been recorded. Hitherto these puias and the sights generally of Tokaanu have not been improved in any way by the formation of tracks, by shelter-sheds, dressing-rooms, regulation of the waters, or in any other way. A township has been laid off.

On the slopes of Kakaramea, to the south-west of Tokaanu, there is a regular line of steam-holes, supposed to indicate approximately the upper limits of the great landslip that overwhelmed many of the Native inhabitants in 1846, the chief, Te Heuheu, and fifty-four of the inhabitants of the kainga being killed, only three escaping.

Waihi, a Native settlement on the shores of the lake, 2 miles westward from Tokaanu, may be reached by a rough track, but it is much pleasanter going there by boat or canoe, provided that the lake is sufficiently smooth. The present chief, Te Heuheu, grandson of the chief of the same name who was killed in the landslip above mentioned, lives at Waihi. There is a Roman Catholic mission station and church here. The Waihi waterfall is situated close to the settlement. It consists of three drops, the upper of which is 25 ft. the middle 125 ft., and the lower 15 ft., making a total of 185 ft. There is a fairly large body of water, and its surroundings are very pretty.

Pleasant boating excursions along the western shores of the lake may be made from Tokaanu, but voyagers are warned of the sudden squalls that visit the lake, very soon raising a heavy sea. Excursions by land may be also made to Pihanga, Kakaramea, and Roto Aira. There is a Native bridle-track leading over the saddle to Roto Aira between these mountains. Pihanga, 4,000 ft., is on the left of the track, and Kakaramea, 4,259 ft., on the right. A guide through the bush is necessary to both of them. The views from the summit of either of them are very fine. Both are extinct volcanoes.

Roto Aira may be reached on foot or on horse in about three hours from Tokaanu by going over this saddle, or by driving along the Waiouru Road, turning off at the Roto Aira Road Junction. This track going over the saddle to Roto Aira may be continued in order to reach Papakia, from which the ascent of Tongariro is made. It is about 10 miles shorter than by following the main road.

Chapter 71. ASCENT OF MOUNT SEFTON AND ACCIDENT THEREON.

[From Fitzgerald's “Climbs in the New Zealand Alps.”]*

* Mr. A. E. Fitzgerald, accompanied by Matthias Zurbriggen, the Swiss guide, ascended Mount Sefton, 14th February, 1895.

ON the Copland side of Mount Sefton is a vast precipice, which descends perpendicularly to a glacier black with the débris fallen on its surface from that ever-crumbling mass. This precipice must be fully 5,000 ft. sheer drop, and is similar in some ways to the precipice on the south side of Mount Sealy, but considerably steeper. In places it seems to overhang, and its whole face is in a perpetual state of decay, the rocks breaking away in small pieces, usually about the size of an ordinary brick.

The weather now appeared promising, but with our previous experience we did not venture to count upon it, so halted for a moment only to eat our box of sardines and a few biscuits, and, although this was our first rest since leaving the bivouac, we at once made preparations for the final climb. We knew it would be difficult, and at that moment felt that it might even prove impossible, so perpendicular were the cliffs that rose up towards the goal we had in view. We agreed to leave behind us everything that we could possibly spare, and accordingly, at about a quarter to 7, set off in the lightest marching order, determined that—even if eventually defeated—we would at least have a hard fight for success. Zurbriggen insisted upon my carrying in my pouch a bottle of claret he had brought from the Hermitage, for, as he assured me, “When I have the peak in my pocket we shall wish to drink to its health, and I will also smoke half a cigar in honour of the occasion.” These were about the first words we had spoken since leaving the bivouac, for our moonlight journey through the glaciers had not been conducive to genial conversation. He also pointed out to me that if we did not have an empty bottle into which we could put our cards when we reached the summit it would be really no ascent at all; nor would it count in the annals of the Alpine Club as “recorded.”

Zurbriggen started first, and traversed a bit of rock arête leading to the base of the great cliff which we intended to scale. This arête was as rotten as it could well be, and the stones literally crumbled away beneath our feet at each step. We crawled along its summit, and found it so thin as to form a veritable knife-edge, actually leaning over on the Copland side. I could feel the whole mass tremble as Zurbriggen stepped along it. It was an intense relief to us both when we exchanged what seemed uncommonly like an experiment in tight-rope walking for an apparently more solid footing—solid by comparison only, for many people, I have no doubt, might have raised most reasonable objections to even this part of the mountain from the point of view of its stability. Now, instead of small crumbling stones, we were confronted by enormous boulders, which appeared to be solidly embedded in the mountain-side, but were in reality so delicately poised as to threaten to give way when touched. We were soon climbing cautiously up an almost vertical face of loose rock, clinging to it like flies, and trying each stone carefully with our hands before trusting our weight upon it. Zurbriggen especially had to be most wary, for unavoidably my position was vertically below him at every step, and the smallest stone falling from under his feet might have seriously injured me. How he managed this perilous task will always be a wonder to me, and a finer display of mountain craft and rock-climbing than he exhibited on this occasion is scarcely conceivable.

After about an hour of this sort of work we at last came to a place where the face of the mountain on the Hermitage side proved to be slightly less steep; crossing over to this we were able to make somewhat more rapid progress.

Directly in front of us now rose what we had always supposed, when looking at it from the Hermitage, to be the worst bit; from our present position it seemed, if possible, even more appalling. The rock was indeed better in some respects, and rather less crumbly than that which we had just traversed; but, on the other hand, there were many huge blocks of stone which would give way if the slightest weight came upon them. We kept, whenever it was possible, to the rocks that seemed most coated with ice, in the hope that they would be bound together by the frost, and thus afford a more secure foothold, though by so doing the difficulties of climbing were doubled. We advanced in this way a few steps, but only to find ourselves again forced to return to the crest of the arête, and thence proceed between two precipices descending to the Copland and to the Mueller Valleys—some 6,000 ft. sheer drop on either hand.

We had now to climb about 300 ft. of almost perpendicular cliff, apparently in the very worst condition possible. The rocks were peculiarly insecure, and we were obliged to move by turns, where possible, throwing down such rocks as seemed most dangerous; at times even this resource became impossible, so great was the violence with which these falling masses would shake the whole ridge on which we stood. I carried both the ice-axes, so as to leave Zurbriggen both hands free to test each rock as he slowly worked his way upwards, while I did my very utmost to avoid being in a position vertically under him.

Suddenly, as I was coming up a steepish bit, while Zurbriggen waited for me a little way above, a large boulder that I touched with my right hand gave way with a crash and fell, striking my chest. I had been just on the point of passing up the two ice-axes to Zurbriggen, that he might place them in a cleft of rock a little higher up, and thus leave me both hands free for my climb. He was in the act of stooping, and stretching out his arm to take them up from my uplifted left hand, the slack rope between us lying coiled at his feet. The falling boulder hurled me down head foremost, and I fell about 8 ft., turning a complete somersault in the air. Suddenly I felt the rope jerk, and I struck against the side of the mountain with great force. I feared I should be stunned and drop the two ice-axes, and I knew that on these our lives depended. Without them we should never have succeeded in getting down the glacier through all the intricate ice-fall.

After the rope had jerked me up I felt it again slip and give way, and I came down slowly for a couple of yards. I took this to mean that Zurbriggen was being wrenched from his foothold, and I was just contemplating how I should feel dashing down the 6,000 ft. below, and wondering vaguely how many times I should strike the rocks on the way. I saw the very block that I had dislodged going down in huge bounds; it struck the side three or four times, and then, taking an enormous plunge of about 2,000 ft., embedded itself on the Tuckett Glacier. I felt the rope stop and pull me up short. I called out to Zurbriggen and asked him if he was solidly placed. I was now swinging in the air like a pendulum, with my back to the mountain, scarcely touching the rock-face. It would have required a great effort to turn round and grasp the rock, and I was afraid that the strain which would thus necessarily be placed on the rope would dislodge Zurbriggen. His first fear was that I had been half killed, for he saw the rock fall almost on the top of me; but, as a matter of fact, after striking my chest it had glanced off to the right and passed under my right arm; it had started from a point so very near that it had not time to gain sufficient impetus to strike me with great force. Zurbriggen's first words were, “Are you very much hurt?” I answered, “No"; and again I asked him whether he was firmly placed. “No,” he replied, “I am very badly situated here. Turn round as soon as you can; I cannot hold you much longer.” I gave a kick at the rocks with one foot, and with great exertion managed to swing myself round.

Luckily there was a ledge near me, and so, getting some hand-hold, I was soon able to ease the strain on the rope. A few moments later I struggled a little way up, and at last handed to Zurbriggen the ice-axes, which I had managed to hold throughout my fall. In fact, my thoughts had been centred in them during the whole of the time. We were in too bad a place to stop to speak to one another; but Zurbriggen, climbing up a bit further, got himself into a firm position, and I scrambled up after him, so that in about ten minutes we had passed this steep bit.

Here we sat for a moment to recover ourselves, for our nerves had been badly shaken by what had so nearly proved a fatal accident. At the time everything happened so rapidly that we had not thought much of it, more especially as we knew that we needed to keep our nerve and take immediate action; but when it was all over we felt the effects, and both sat for about half an hour before we could even move again. I learned that Zurbriggen, the moment I fell, had snatched up the coil of rope which lay at his feet, and had luckily succeeded in getting hold of the right end first, so that he was soon able to bring me nearly to rest; but the pull upon him was so great, and he was so badly placed, that he had to let the rope slip through his fingers to ease the strain while he braced himself in a better position, from which he was finally able to stop me. He told me that, had I been unable to turn and grasp the rocks, he must inevitably have been dragged from his foothold, as the ledge upon which he stood was literally crumbling away beneath his feet. We discovered that two strands of the rope had been cut through by the falling rock, so that I had been suspended in mid-air by one single strand. The rope, however, was an excellent one, made by Buckingham, and held through this severe test. During this episode I lost my hat. At the moment of the accident my mind was perhaps equally divided between the effort of holding fast the ice-axes and the melancholy vision of this the last and only hat I possessed sailing gently down like a parachute towards the Copland Valley, never even once touching the face of the cliff. I was obliged now to have recourse to handkerchiefs as headgear, after the fashion of the bandanna; later on however, I succeeded in manufacturing a most excellent cap by stretching an old sock.

I was considerably hurt by the stone, for it had made a cut in my side, which bled a great deal and did not heal for a couple of weeks. We determined, nevertheless, to finish the ascent.

There was yet another very bad place a few steps higher up, but this we succeeded in scaling without serious incident. When we reached the top of it we saw that it would be possible to cross the face on the Copland side, and, getting on to a snow-slope that leads down towards the Douglas Glacier, to climb up some rocks there that seemed easier, and thus to gain the summit. We found the snow-slope, which we had to cross in a diagonal line, in a very bad condition, and much wrecked by falling stones; while traversing it we constantly feared lest we should start an avalanche, and were obliged to advance very cautiously, plunging our ice-axes in as deeply as possible at every step. When we reached the point where we intended to take to the rocks again it proved no easy task to get on to them, as they were quite smooth and rose perpendicularly for some distance. The only practicable method seemed to be that I should mount upon Zurbriggen's shoulders, and from there endeavour to gain a ledge, where I thought I might fix myself firmly with the rope, so that Zurbriggen should be able to scramble up after me. He suggested that he should get on my shoulders, but, strangely enough, this scheme did not appeal to me as much as the other. Zurbriggen weighs considerably over twelve stone! So I climbed up on his shoulders, and, after a great deal of stretching and of shoving from behind—for there was really no intermediate hand-hold—I wriggled up far enough to get my fingers on to the edge. Then, after a few more contortions, I succeeded in reaching the ledge itself, some 15 ft. above the snow-slope where Zurbriggen was standing. Here I planted myself firmly, and, winding the rope round a projecting point of rock, I managed to help up Zurbriggen, after a struggle quite insignificant in comparison to the one we had just gone through. It is wonderful how light he seems when climbing. The slightest assistance proves quite sufficient for him in the most impossible places.

In another twenty minutes we reached the arête again, and the last few yards before gaining the peak itself proved comparatively flat, so that we could walk along without difficulty. We were now able to look down again towards the Tasman Valley, and I wondered if our friends at the Hermitage would see us as we planted our ice-axes on the summit, tying to them a bit of red cloth which we had brought for the purpose that they might know we had won the day.

I learned afterwards that we were seen almost immediately, and that Adamson rode off at once to the nearest telegraph-office at Burke's Pass, some ninety miles away over a rough country and across many fords, so that the news reached Christchurch next morning at 11.

It was now 10.25. Zurbriggen was wild with delight, stamping triumphantly on the summit, and pouring out volleys of abuse at it for its long, stubborn resistance. I suggested that it might be as well to wait till we had made the descent before thus rousing its anger. The wind was very cold and had now risen to a gale, though the day remained otherwise fine. Descending for shelter to the side towards the north-west, we sat down facing Mount Stokes, and prepared to drink our bottle of wine, which, wonderful to relate, had not been broken in my fall. Zurbriggen now produced his cigar, which he carefully cut in two, reserving, as he said, the other end to smoke when we should have successfully traversed the range to the West Coast.

For the great question which had so long occupied our minds as to the possibility of finding some practicable route across the great mountain-range, thus rendering easy the journey from the arid plains of Canterbury to the fertile fields of Westland, seemed now at last on the point of solution. As we gazed down towards the head of the Copland and Douglas Valleys, we at once saw that there was a point where it would be possible to traverse the range without even touching snow on the west slope, while on the east, or Hooker, side we knew there were no glaciers of any importance. We promptly determined to seize the earliest opportunity to cross by this pass, and, descending the Copland and Karangahua Rivers, to push on until we reached some habitation on the West Coast. Thus we hoped thoroughly to explore the whole region, so that there should be no further doubt as to the possibility of building a track by the route we now perceived. We would then find some high alpine pass back between Haast and Haidinger which would enable us to return to the Hochstetter bivouac.

Thus we planned for the future as we gazed from this peak of ice, where no living being had ever preceded us, at the marvellous panorama unfolded before our eyes. It was now nearly 11, and the sky was blue and cloudless. The South Pacific Ocean lay calm and sparkling in the sunlight, with its long, white, intermittent streak of surf beating upon the smooth beach of the West Coast. Around and behind us the Alps rose range behind range, their vast glaciers and fields of everlasting snow shining bright in the clear morning air. For a short space of time we enjoyed to the utmost the sense of rest after all we had gone through.

Soon, however, our joy of conquest was overshadowed by the thought of the descent before us, and after a brief delay we set about preparing to make our way down. But before leaving we were careful to erect a great cairn or stone man near the summit, in such a position that it could be seen distinctly from the Hermitage, and would thus furnish a permanent proof of our ascent. We built it on the very edge of the arête next the snow, so that it would stand out on the sky-line from the Hermitage. Then scribbling our names on a sheet of paper, with the date (which, by the way, I put wrong, writing 15th instead of 14th February), we put it in the now empty wine-bottle, and, corking the latter securely, we placed it among some rocks close to our stone man for the next traveller to find who should ascend this inhospitable peak. Towards the west lay a great glacier that came nearly up to the peak on which we stood, steep indeed near the top, but below forming itself into a large plateau, and finally flowing over the edge of a vertical wall some 1,000 ft. in height in great avalanches which form themselves anew into a glacier and flow onward towards the sea. If some way were found to reach this plateau, I have no doubt that it would furnish a safe route up Sefton, but the valleys on that side are for the most part unexplored and uninhabited; provisions for many weeks would therefore have to be carried up over passes from the Hermitage before any attempt could be made to scale Mount Sefton from the west.

I chipped off a bit of stone from the topmost rock of the mountain, so that Zurbriggen's words, “We will have the peak in our pockets,” came true after all. We then roped ourselves for the descent, having remained on the summit an hour and a quarter.

Chapter 72. A NIGHT ON MOUNT COOK.

[From Green's “High Alps of New Zealand.”]

THE great problem we had hitherto longed to solve was: Could we get up Mount Cook? That question was now settled. A more anxious problem yet awaited solution: Could we get down?

On returning to the point where we had first struck the arête, we were obliged to turn with our faces to the ice and descend backwards, in order to keep a good grip. “Clink, clink,” went the axes into the hard ice with a constant rhythm, and we kept time with our feet, step after step—down, down, down! This is far more trying work on the nerves than going up, and though Kaufmann* urged me now and then to take the steps faster, on reaching the highest rocks we congratulated ourselves at having descended so far at a very rapid pace. Here we paused for a minute to loosen some stones; a couple of the topmost bits I put in my pocket, the others we piled in a little heap on my pocket-handkerchief and Kaufmann's match-box, which were the only articles we could afford to part with, as memorials of our ascent.

These rocks of grey quartzite, weathering to a reddish-yellow, afforded no shelter whatever from the heiter-wind, which was steadily increasing in violence. The golden tint of parting day gleamed for an instant through the storm-clouds, giving a warm blush to the snow. There was no time to lose, so scrambling for a short distance down the rocks, in order to avoid the very steepest bit of the ice-slope, which lay at such a high angle that we had been obliged, when ascending, to cut hand-grips in it as well as steps for our feet, we once more took to the ice-steps, and went down backwards as before, making use of any available chink in the rock to hold on by. Kaufmann had cut the steps very far apart, and it was often rather difficult to find the step below and keep a secure grip at the same time.

The lower termination of this ice-slope was the worst bit of the whole descent. The ice thinned off over a ridge of rocks with a vertical fall of about 6 ft., and bad holding-ground below. We could cut no steps, and had kicked away all the grips coming up, and there was nothing to which we could attach our spare rope. The thought of this spot bore heavily on my mind so long as we were above it, and there was only dim twilight when we reached its brink. Kaufmann and I placed ourselves as firmly as we could, while Boss slipped over the edge, and though he used his axe with great dexterity, I felt an unpleasant strain on my hips before he could check his descent. Then came my turn. Kaufmann held the rope tight, slacking me down slowly, till I got my feet on Boss's axe. Kaufmann had no one to slack him down, so Boss stood up to him as close as he could with security, and let him down gently, while I jammed myself into the only crevice available.

* The Rev. W. S. Green, M.A., had two companions—Ulrich Kaufmann and Emil Boss—both expert Swiss mountaineers.

To cross the couloir was the work of a few minutes, and as we gained the rocks on the opposite side night closed in. There was standing-room where we now were; but, exposed to the full brunt of the storm and the sheets of cold rain which beat down upon us, there was no likelihood of our being able to hold out for long. To descend the couloir and find some ledge within its shelter was imperative; but here a new difficulty presented itself: to avoid the danger of falling ice we had, when ascending, quitted the couloir near its upper termination and taken to the rocks, and now, in the dark, we could not find any rock-grips. Boss's mountaineering instinct came to the front, and, telling us to follow carefully, he went straight for the ice. There was no time now for us to make nice distinctions between degrees of danger. After cutting a few steps downwards he found grips on the rocks at the margin of the ice, and, when secure himself guided my feet. I must say, however, that once or twice I had absolutely no grip except by my hands; Kaufmann, I hoped, was keeping a good hold above, and though we could scarcely make out each other's figures against the rocks, so dark was it, we got down in safety and were once more in the ice-steps.

Our progress was now very slow, as it took all Boss's skill to find each step below him; yet we hoped soon to come to some crag upon which we might clamber, but for some distance the rock rose vertically. At last we found a ledge in the rock, and, climbing on to it, thought it might answer for our night-quarters. We took off our boots, and, wringing the water out of our socks, put them on again; and, refastening our gaiters, tried to feel as comfortable as circumstances would permit. But we soon began to shiver, for we were still exposed to the wind and rain, and my men said we hadn't a chance of holding out for the night in this situation. Kaufmann tried a little cleft near at hand, but a tiny cataract of melting snow pouring down the back of his neck did not seem to be a change for the better. The exploration of this ledge did not occupy many minutes, for a block of ice falling from above, and striking not three yards from where we stood, told us plainly it would not do, as at any moment an avalanche might come thundering down upon us.

By this time the moon, which was now near the full, had risen, and though we could not see it through the clouds, it gave us some faint light. Once more we took to the ice-slope, descended slowly to the lowest part of the rock-ridge, and, turning to the left beneath its shelter, succeeded in finding standing-room on a little ledge from which we scraped the snow. It was less than two feet wide, and sloped outwards, so that we had to hold on with our hands, and, as we were still over 10,000 ft. above the sea and about 5,000 ft. above the mean line of perpetual snow, it was not all that might be wished for a night's lodging. There was no choice, however, as for thousands of feet below there was nothing but steep and crevassed ice-slopes. Kaufmann went on to the ledge first, then Boss. I followed, and in this order we stood for the night. Sitting down, or even shifting six inches from the position we first occupied, was out of the question. Boss and I had one upward grip which served to steady us; Kaufmann found that he had none whatever, but now and then he rested his knuckles against the rock. There was no prominent crag to which we could hitch the rope and so make ourselves secure; but I dropped my axe into a cleft near my feet and let the bight of the rope hang over it. I could not tell whether it would bear any strain, so said nothing about it, wishing to avoid any false idea of security which would perhaps lead to a relaxation of vigilance—the great danger of our situation.

Producing a box of Brand's meat lozenges, which I had kept for a case of absolute necessity, I served one out all round three times during the night. More remained in the box, which we might have eaten, but I reserved them because of a horrible anxiety which was ever rising before my mind. The bergschrunds of the Linda Glacier had given us some difficulty. What if the thaw now going on should destroy the snow bridges and make them impassable?

Whatever ideas may exist as to the cessation of avalanches at night in the European Alps, all was different here; not a quarter of an hour elapsed without a distant rumble, or a thundering roar causing the rock on which we stood to vibrate. The warm northwest wind was of course the immediate cause; everywhere a rapid thaw was going on; the rain streamed down the rock and prevented the water with which our clothes were soaked from getting warm, and now and then a squall would swirl round the crags, bringing a deluge of rain with it. Strange though it may appear, our great hope lay in the continuance of the bad weather, for if the rain should cease and the sky should clear, radiation would set in and our chances of escaping frost-bite would vanish.

Through the early part of the night there was light enough to read a watch, but after finding how long the first hour seemed, on account of watching its flight, we agreed that we would not look at the watch again till we believed half an hour had gone by. We stamped one foot at a time to keep life in it, then slapped our legs and shoulders with one hand, holding on all the while with the other. At last the watch told us that four long hours had passed and that it was midnight. The storm howled among the crags as loudly as ever; the avalanches shook the mountain with their thunder; the hissing of the cold rain on the snow continued unceasingly; but all these sounds were blending into one monotonous hum in our ears. We were getting drowsy; it seemed impossible to keep awake. To give way to sleep for an instant would be to fall from the ledge; so our whole energies were devoted to trying to keep each other awake. We forced ourselves to keep on talking—we discussed politics, told stories; we sang songs; and though Boss regretted much that the tobacco was with the provisions, over 1,000 ft. below us, both he and Kaufmann congratulated themselves upon, at all events, having their pipes, which they sucked diligently at intervals, and, by sheer force of imagination, enjoyed several good smokes. In spite of all watchfulness, my feet would suddenly cease their stamping, when a poke from Boss would recall me to consciousness, and the arguments by which I cried to demonstrate that I was not asleep would completely awaken me and set me stamping more vigorously than ever. Then Boss would lean his forehead against the rock, and on getting a pinch from me in return would get through a good quarter of an hour in explaining how he had no notion of going to sleep. Boss and I stood facing one another, and over his shoulder I could see Kaufmann's dim figure marking time with such awful regularity that we once or twice suspected he was doing it automatically and might really be asleep, but he at once repudiated the base insinuation with contempt. In addition to my ordinary clothes I wore a sailors' blue guernsey, a warm muffler round my neck, a knitted cap or “Eugenie,” made by a friend at Home, drawn down over my face, and a second pair of socks on my feet. Boss was similarly clad, except that both he and Kaufmann were without their waistcoats, and as Kaufmann had no “Eugenie” his hat was tied down over his ears with his handkerchief. Of course we all had mittens on our hands; but as the night wore on we got stiff from the cold, and the effort to keep awake became more and more painful. About 4 a.m. it was so dark that we could not see the watch, and at 4.30, not one moment too soon, came the first glimmering dawn of the 3rd March.

The light seemed to come very slowly, as the rain-clouds hung in heavy masses on the ice-slopes. Now and then we saw the cliffs of Mount Tasman looming ghost-like for an instant, and again all would vanish. I might have made a little sketch, or I might have taken down the reading of the aneroid, but all such thoughts were absent from our minds. Could we get down? Could we reach our provisions? Would our limbs do their wonted service? Could our hands clutch our ice-axes, which would be our only means of gaining a grip once we stepped off the ledge? These questions were more than enough for our benumbed brains.

At last the long nine hours were past, and at 5.30 it was sufficiently light to make a move, and there was a little glow of heat from the rising sun, so we crept cautiously into the ice-steps and resumed our descent. We moved one at a time, still descending backwards, Kaufmann and I holding on while Boss cleared the steps below, then I moved down, and so on again. Kaufmann's hands were badly blistered from the long spell of step-cutting he had had during the ascent. Following our track downwards through the fog the wide bergschrund of the Linda Glacier at last yawned beneath us. The snow was now very soft, so we drove the handles of our axes deep down, and approached the brink of the abyss cautiously. We looked into the blue depths, but the bridge which we had crossed by when ascending was gone! Fortunately, a little to the right, near to where the glacier broke up into séracs, a possible route across the crevasse yet offered itself, and Kaufmann, now taking the lead, crept on all-fours on to this bridge, while Boss buried himself in the snow and kept the rope tight against me, as I had of course to hold the rope and slack it out as Kaufmann made his way across.

It was a very rotten bridge, the chasm below seemed fathomless, but Kaufmann reached the other side in safety; and, as the slope on the lower side was away from the crevasse, he was a secure anchor for us as we crept across in like manner; and so, one great source of anxiety being removed, we breathed more freely. We soon struck again into our old track, and though the snow was horribly soft we trudged along at a good swinging pace.

We had not gone far, however, before we came upon the débris of a huge avalanche which had completely obliterated our track. The ice-blocks which had fallen from one of the hanging glaciers on the Tasman arête, were piled in wild confusion, and their angles being rounded off testified to the banging about they must have got in their descent. We had heard the roar of this avalanche, and we could not help congratulating ourselves on having stayed for the night where we did; for had we had another hour's daylight we might have got thus far in our descent, and if not swept away by this avalanche, or several others of like dimensions which we passed in succession, we should have been so alarmed by feeling ourselves exposed to them that we never would have stood our ground, and, moving onward in the dark, would undoubtedly have fallen into a crevasse. A guide who had once been my companion on a most delightful expedition in Switzerland thus perished on the southern side of Mont Blanc; and more than once I thought of him when a night on Mount Cook became inevitable.

We scrambled over the avalanche heaps, crossed crevasses, and trudged on downwards through the deep snow for another hour. The surface of the glacier looked so different that we mistook the place where we had left the provisions, and coming to one huge avalanche we feared that it had swept the knapsack away. Our hearts sank at the thought, but as we gained the top of the avalanche heap we were quickly reassured. There it was, all safe on the level below us, just where we had left it; ten minutes more—at 8.30—Kaufmann was unbuckling the straps, and we lost no time in discussing some cold duck and bread, both of which seemed excellent, though the latter was now twenty days old, and our mouths were sore inside from sucking the snow. However, twenty-two hours without food would make anything seem good, and as we sat on our axe-heads we realised the fact that we had not once sat down for the same length of time.

Lest we should get stiff we made but a short halt, and, feeling much refreshed, we shouldered our traps and were soon amongst the séracs. Here, again, avalanches had obliterated our track; the débris of one of these covered an area of at least 200 acres, and conveniently filled one large crevasse, which had caused us to make a detour the day before. In an hour we reached the Great Plateau. The weather now showed signs of clearing up, and gleams of sunshine shot through openings in the clouds, calling the avalanches once more into renewed activity.

One grand fall took place from the Mount Tasman cliffs not far from us. A large piece of glacier cracked off with a loud report and slid, like a great ship being launched, amidst a quantity of smaller pieces to the edge of the precipice, then toppled over, coming down on the glacier below with a deafening crash. Just as some great roller from the ocean, thundering upon the rocks, shoots upwards in clouds of snow-white spray, so the ice-dust spouted upwards like the sea-foam, and from its midst great pieces of ice flew to long distances, and, falling, furrowed up the snow on the surface of the glacier. The first crash gave place to a continuous rumble, and then out from beneath the cloud of dust the great broken-up mass of the avalanche came on towards us with apparent slowness, though, from the way in which the ice-blocks danced and seethed on its surface, it was evident that distance alone made its motion seem slow; nearly half a mile was traversed ere its energy was wholly expended.

An hour's tramp across the great level snowfield brought us to the domes of ice overhanging the lower spurs of the mountain. We tried to avoid this ridge by turning its shoulder above the Hochstetter Glacier, but meeting with séracs which formed a complete barrier, we were forced to follow our former route, and, though having to ascend once more was not an agreeable sensation, we soon gained the top of the ridge, and looked out for our tracks, or a mark which we had made to guide us in our descent. All marks, however, were gone; and, after making one wrong move, we finally discovered the way down the rocks and got on to the glacier at the spot from which we had admired the sunrise during our ascent. The snow on the glacier was as soft as flour; we sank into it waist-deep, and, as it was lying on very steep ice, the danger of our going down in an avalanche made it advisable to abandon our former route, and seek a safer line of descent close to some very remarkable isolated rocks which stood like sea-worn pillars out of the snow. We then made a short glissade, and at 1 p.m. reached the rocks where we had left our rugs.

A halt of half an hour gave us time for a comfortable meal, and the tea which we brewed seemed the most delicious that I had ever drunk. As our clothes were still wet, and rain fell in frequent showers, we delayed no longer than was necessary, but, strapping up our wraps, resumed the descent. Tired as my men were, they would allow me to carry nothing, but loaded themselves with the rugs, &c. I suggested tumbling the whole pack down a snow couloir which led to the bottom of the Hochstetter Glacier, but they argued that they would lose more time in picking up the bits than in carrying the pack down. The rocks were in many places so loose and bad that we had to keep on the rope, and, as we had time enough, we halted occasionally to rest. On the way down I secured a photograph of Mount Cook, from which the clouds cleared between the showers. As this would probably be our last opportunity, we collected a goodly supply of edelweiss; it was growing in the greatest profusion, and I selected some tufts which had gone to seed, in hopes of propagating it at home. Kaufmann made up a large bundle of it in his handkerchief, but, unfortunately, he hid it so safely between the boulders at our camp, lest the keas or wekas should interfere with it, that when we looked for it on the day of our departure it could not be found. The ridge seemed to get longer and longer as we descended, and as it would not do to be again benighted, we took off the rope, having had it on for thirty-six consecutive hours, and reached the Tasman Glacier at 6 p.m. Scrambling over the moraine, we reached the ice, and then went along at a good four miles per hour.

It was getting dusk as we reached the moraine near our camp, but at 7.30 we were at the tent, and our long expedition of sixty-two hours was over.

Chapter 73. CHATHAM ISLANDS.

[Specially abridged for the New Zealand Official Year-book from an article by R. S. FLORANCE, Esq., Stipendiary Magistrate at the Chatham Islands.]

AMONGST the most important of the outlying islands under the Government of New Zealand is a group known generally by the name of “Chathams.” The Moriori people called these lands “Rekohu,” and the Maoris named the main island “Wharekauri.” They lie between the parallels of 43° 30' and 44° 30' south latitude, and the meridians of 175° 40' and 177° 15' west longitude. It is reckoned that they are distant about 415 nautical miles east-southeast from Wellington, and 466 from Lyttelton. Napier is the nearest port in a straight line drawn from land to land. Discovered on the 29th November, 1791, by Lieutenant W. R. Broughton, in command of H.M. brig “Chatham,” they have ever since been considered a British possession. This discoverer landed at Kaingaroa, on the northern side of the main island, and, after displaying the Union Jack and taking possession in the name of His Majesty King George III., named it after the Earl of Chatham. Pitt Island, called by the Natives “Rangiauria,” and Mangere, lie to the southeastward of the main island, and contain together about 16,000 acres, of which a very large proportion is first-class land. Besides these there are several unimportant smaller islands lying in the vicinity, which are periodically visited by the Natives for the purpose of getting birds.

The largest island contains about 222,490 acres, of which about one-third is covered by brackish water. Whanga Lagoon is estimated to cover about 46,000 acres by itself. Besides this there are at least six freshwater lakes, some of them being very beautiful, and ranging from 100 to 500 acres in extent, of which Huro, Rangitahi, Patariki, Marakapia, and Tenant's are the most noticeable and attractive from a picturesque point of view. Of the mountains, it must be said that they are not very high; Waihere, in Pitt Island, is the highest elevation, rising to 971 ft. Mount Pipitarawai, on the main land, rises to 930 ft., and is the highest point in a backbone bearing the same name, which runs in a north-westerly to south-easterly direction generally, and slopes gently northwards and eastwards. From Cape L'Eveque, in the extreme south of the island, to Cape Fournier, on the extreme south-east, the coast is very rough, having cliffs from 600 ft. to 700 ft. high, with deep gorges. The rest of the coast-line is either sandy or basaltic in its character. Here and there on the north rise hills to 500 ft. and 600 ft., covered with native forests on most parts. A large part of the uplands of the main and Pitt Islands is swampy in character, and the uncultivated open country is covered with fern, and here and there patches of sand. There is no doubt that these islands are capable of carrying a greater population than they now possess. Their salubrity cannot be gainsaid, and they should in the near future become a favourite health resort.

CLIMATE.

This is said to have changed considerably in modern times. The average annual rainfall taken at about 100 ft. above sea-level has been found to be 30.4 in. In the summer months a fair supply of rain generally falls, and in the winter, although it rains frequently, the fall cannot be said to be excessive. Taking a year through there are only very few days without sunshine. More rain falls at nighttime than in the day. The prevailing wind is from the south-west, which is rather violent during the equinoxes, and yet bracing and healthy at all times. Vegetation in unsheltered positions appears to suffer from the excess of salt borne in from the ocean by this wind. The north-west is, as on the mainland of New Zealand, slightly enervating, and the north-east chilly. Temperature ranges from 33° Fahr. in winter to about 75° in summer. No extremes of heat or cold are experienced, as on the mainland. Earthquakes, lightning, and tempest are almost unknown—no earthquake having been felt for many years, or earthquake wave since 1868. The slight fall of snow observed in the last two years has been considered phenomenal by the oldest inhabitants. Vegetables of all kinds can be grown winter and summer alike, as only very slight frosts are experienced. As a rule everything that will grow on the mainland of New Zealand will grow here, but tropical plants would not thrive, at any rate in exposed positions. There is very little difference in the north and south of the island. In Pitt Island the higher lands face the southward, and make the settlement on the north-eastern sides slightly warmer than Chatham Island. For water, the Pipitarawai Range supplies most of the streams, which flow easterly and south-westerly along the whole watershed. The water-supply on the slopes of this range is vastly superior to that in the north and north-west, where the land is much drier and more liable to summer drought. Roads have been and are still being surveyed and taken through both Chatham and Pitt Islands, though not metalled yet. Internal communication is assured on horseback at all seasons of the year.

HARBOURS.

The only port of entry at the present time is Waitangi, Kaingaroa not having been treated as such for years past. There is a small jetty here. Goods are landed by boat, the steamer being anchored a quarter of a mile off. The other port is known as Whangaroa, and is reported to be perfectly secure in all weathers. Besides these ports there are at least twelve boat harbours round the coast of the main island.

HISTORICAL.

There is a well accepted opinion that at one time the Moriori population of these islands amounted to no less than two thousand. Although it is the province of ethnology to treat of these ancient people, a few words may not be deemed out of place here. Their very early history is purely traditional, but much can be verified by their story as told by some of their living descendants, by remains, and by comparative philology. Suffice it to say they were anterior to the Maoris; submitted to patriarchial government; nomadic; subsisting chiefly on edible roots, fish, and birds; pantheistic; having one wife; fond of their offspring; peaceable in their nature; unskilled in the manufacture of weapons of war; not caring to cultivate their lands, and speaking an agglutinative language very inferior to the Maori. Their subjugation and subsequent reduction to slavery and death by the Maoris who were brought over from the mainland of New Zealand in large numbers in a brig they had seized at Port Nicholson, and which was commanded by Captain Harewood, about the end of the year 1835, is a matter of history.

Christianity was introduced into Chatham Islands, nearly sixty years ago, by two Moravian missionaries, of whom Mr. Engst still survives, and resides here, enjoying wonderful health considering his great age (eighty years). With the advent of the missionaries European occupation may be said to have begun, and continued slowly, till in 1864 the Census returns showed a white population of 61 at Chatham and 25 at Pitt Island. In 1896 there were 234 persons of European descent—192 on Chatham, and 42 on Pitt Island, with 179 Maoris and 20 Morioris. At that time the Natives had 14,350 sheep.

LAND.

A large part of the land is in the hands of the Natives. Apart from the lands held under Native custom, 2,000 acres have been reserved, and 2,000 given by the Maoris to the Moriori people, of whom about eighteen now remain, and only one family is full-blooded. Taking away from the 222,490 acres of Chatham, one-third (74,163 acres) of water, the balance of land remaining is 148,327 acres. Of this area it has been roughly estimated that 105,000 acres are occupied by Europeans, and about 43,000 acres by Natives, 34,800 of which is totally unimproved.

A valuation was made under the Government Valuation of Land Act in 1898. From this it would appear that there are about thirty holdings, covering 105,219 acres, of occupied lands, and of which 67,337 acres are held under freehold tenure under the Land Transfer Act, and 37,882 acres as leasehold, partly under the Act and partly under Native Land Court titles or otherwise. This would leave a balance of land unoccupied or untenanted of 43,108 acres, but many of the leasehold holdings will soon fall in, which will increase the total.

Subjoined is an approximate statement of the acreage of holdings and value of improvements:—

Tenure.Acreage. Acres.Improvements. £
Freehold67,33727,266
Leasehold37,8826,683
Native48,9904,734
Totals154,20938,683

INDUSTRIES.

Sheep-farming forms the leading industry of the Islands, but this is combined with the cultivation of cereal and root crops for winter feeding. It is estimated that Europeans possess about 70,000, and Natives 14,600 cross-bred sheep. The Romney sheep is supposed to be most suitable. Sheep thrive wonderfully, and the usual diseases cause little trouble. The annual production of wool may be put at 1,500 bales.

A cheese factory company has been formed, and will begin business at Waitangi shortly. This industry may, with increased shipping facilities, bring others, such as bacon-curing, and possibly the manufacture of butter.

No better dairying country exists than is to be found in some parts of Chatham and Pitt Islands, where mild climate and rich pasture are to be found.

Large beds of oysters and sponges lie near the shores, and an effort is being made to utilize the sponges.

The only means of communication with the mainland being the bi-monthly steamer, opportunities of disposing of the Island products are very limited.

FAUNA.

The very few animals peculiar to these islands have been long extinct, and their remains are eagerly sought for. The red deer introduced some years ago by Mr. L. W. Hood are reported to have betaken themselves to the recesses of the forest on the Pipitarawai Range, where their progeny have been seen by some of the settlers on the eastern coast. Wild horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs were once pretty numerous; those remaining have been driven back into the interior of the island. Mr. Hood imported skylarks, swans, and starlings. Blackbirds and thrushes are believed to have come unaided from the mainland. Game, in the shape of swan, duck, and Californian quail abounds. There are no rabbits nor hares, importation having been prohibited. All the native fish found in the seas of the mainland are to be got. Eels and flounders abound at Awapatiki, and in most of the inland lakes.

FLORA.

The vegetation very much resembles that found upon the mainland, but the height of the forest trees nowhere exceeds 50 ft. At one time great portions of the flat swampy land were covered with Phormium tenax, but the result of stocking has been to destroy this, and now only a few patches of flax remain where cattle and sheep find it difficult of access. The karaka or kopi grows very generally on both Chatham and Pitt Islands. The habit of many trees of these islands bearing identical names to those on the mainland is in many instances slightly different, as, for instance, the kowhai, matipo, koromiko, and whakataka. Many varieties of fern and lycopodium are to be found in the bush and on the clear land. In uncultivated places the piripiri, or burr, is very common and widespread, causing a great deal of trouble to sheep-farmers; but it can be easily eradicated by cultivation. The most beautiful of the indigenous island plants is commonly called by the Chathams people “the Chatham Island lily.” It is really a kind of Myosotis, and has dark glossy leaves and bright-blue flowers, which are in their greatest luxuriance about the months of October and December. A specimen of the plant has been seen bearing white flowers. A very handsome shrub is found which is supposed to be a sort of heath, bearing white and crimson berries. The nikau palm and kawakawa are widely distributed, more especially at Pitt Island, where the former attains large and grand proportions nearly all over the island. There are about twelve orchids, mostly terrestrial, some of them highly scented and delicate in form.

The native herbaceous plants suitable for fodder are fast disappearing, but readily take hold again if kept clear of stock. When the lake water evaporates and retires in the summer season a native herbage springs up immediately, upon which sheep feed and fatten readily.

The experience of the mainland is identical with that of these islands with regard to deforesting. As soon as the native bush is felled in patches, for cultivation or artificial grassing, the winds get in and the forest declines gradually from the base of operations. The timber is, when dry, used all over the islands for firewood. Coal is rarely, if ever, used. Akeake is the best timber for fencing purposes, but is being fast exhausted.

NOTICEABLE FEATURES.

In many places in the forest the older trees are found to be marked with rude figures resembling skeletons, which are not understood. On the shore of Whanga some very remarkable carvings in the solid limestone rock are to be observed, apparently hieroglyphical writings. They are supposed to have existed before the Moriori people arrived. On the south-east coast remarkable diorite columns tower above the observer to the height of 500 ft., like giants guarding that coast from invasion. The remains of past ages of peopling are to be found everywhere, and the skeletons of Morioris are very readily distinguishable from those of Maoris, on account of the positions of the bodies. Where sand has been chosen as a burying-ground the skeletons are to be found exposed in great numbers.

The country generally gives the appearance of being of volcanic origin. Sir James Hector says that several places on the main island show excellent quartz, which should be prospected for gold; but this has not been done. There are indications of coal deposits in the north and south of the island. Pitt Island can boast of scenery that may be described as grand compared with the scenery of Chatham, which is not nearly so imposing.

Chapter 74. A SKETCH OF MAORI MYTHOLOGY, COSMOGONY, ANTHROPOGENY, PERSONIFICATION OF HEAVENLY BODIES, ETC.

ELSDON BEST

ACCORDING to the ancient Maori belief, Rangi and Papa, or heaven and earth, and through them the heavenly bodies, trees, water, stones, and many other organic and inorganic bodies, are all descended from primal Chaos, which obtained long before man was, and before the genesis of the Maori cosmos.

The origin of the earth and sky, of man, of stars, &c., is given in the form of a genealogical table, the early names in which would appear to have been evolved by a forest-dwelling people of the remote past, inasmuch as many of them have been taken from expressions signifying the parts and growth of trees.

In this table we perceive how the growth of the universe has been likened to the growth of a tree. It is by no means safe to assume that this is an outcome of tree worship, but rather that the respect in which the more valuable trees were held by the Maori was the result of the belief that they are of celestial origin, the offspring of Tane, the son of Heaven and Earth. Other names in this table are: Te Kore (void, or nothingness), Te Po (darkness, or primal gloom which obtained before Light was).

Light and Sound strove against Darkness and Silence. The powers of Darkness were enfeebled, and Light shone across the world. Then the children of Rangi and Papa (heaven and earth) were born, but doomed to dwell in darkness, for at that period the sky lay flat upon the earth, and no light came between them. Even so the children of the Earth Mother arose and sought to force on high their sire, Rangi the lordly sky. It was Tane who succeeded in this great task, hence man dwells in the light of day.

Rent apart were our primal parents, but never have they forgotten their love for each other. When you see the rain falling from the heavens it means that Rangi is weeping for his wife. Papa. When the white mists arise from forest and range, that is our Earth Mother sighing for her old-time love.

And the children of Earth and Sky held the world. These were Tane, Tu, Rongo, Tangaroa, Tawhirimatea, Wainui, and Tango-tango. Tane is the parent, origin, tutelary deity, or personification of trees and of birds. Tu is the supreme god of war, the personification of war and evil passions. Male children were dedicated to the service of Tu. When Tu the Red Eyed turns his awful visage upon mankind, then war parties are abroad—wailing, desolation, and the fierce joy of slaughter fill the land. Rongo is the god of peace and of cultivation; he is invoked in peacemaking ceremonies. Tawhirimatea is the personification of gales; and Wainui is the mother of waters, the seas, lakes, and rivers—all these are hers. While Tangotango is the origin of night and day, he changes night into day and day to night.

Tangaroa is the origin of fish, the personification of the tribes of the ocean, and of lakes and rivers.

And the children of heaven and earth are still with us. For Tangaroa lies beneath the curling waves, and Tane dwells within lone forest depths. Tu turns his fierce eyes upon mankind, and war prevails; while Tawhirimatea wails upon the mountain peak, and Rongo directs the husbandman. To each his task, to each his realm.

In many of these cases the term “god” is not correct, and should not so be used. Primitive man ever seeks to personify everything that is brought before his understanding, but it by no means follows that he worships such personifications. The Maori assuredly did not.

Tane is the parent and guardian of forests. No tree may be felled for canoe or house timber until are performed the strange rites known as the ahi-purakau and tumuwhenua, and invocations are repeated in order that Tane may not resent the destruction of his children. Tane protects the forest and the denizens thereof, and preserves the mauri (sacred life principle) of the forest. Should the sacredness of the forest be desecrated by man in any way, then the talisman which is imbued with the life principle of the forest becomes virtueless, and birds will desert that forest.

It was the wife of Tane who descended to Hades, and there took the title of Hine-nui-te-Po (Great Hine of the night, or rather of the realm of darkness, or of oblivion). Te Po is the Maori Hades, where the spirits of the dead descend to. Thus Hine became Queen of Hades, a place occupied by Miru in Rarotongan mythology. Her task is to drag mankind down to the realm of death.

The heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, stars, as also phosphorescent light (hinatore), are the offspring of Tangotango and Wainui. These are known as the Whanau Marama, or Children of Light.

“Let there be Light!”

The gleaming of the Children of Light is ever seen in the heavens. Should it be quenched—that is the end of man; the earth shall no longer know man.

It was Tane who placed the sun, moon, and stars on high, in order to adorn the breast of his father, Rangi, and light the world both day and night. Tane searched far, and at last beheld the children of Tangotango; and, behold! they were the Whanau Marama, the shining ones. Then he came unto Tangotango and said, “How brightly gleam our children, the shining ones.” And Tangotango asked, “For what purpose?” Tane replied, “To adorn the breast of our father, to lighten us in our darkness, that light may ever shine upon the breast of our mother.” Even so Tane took Hinatore (phosphorescent light) and placed it on high, on the breast of Rangi. But the black night was unpierced and darkness held fast. He then procured Nga Whetu (the stars) and feeble rays glimmer across the world, but the broad light came not. Then the moon (Marama) was obtained, but still Tane was not satisfied. Once more he returned and said to Tangotango, “Give to me yet again: It is Ra (the sun) I would have, the greatest of the Children of Light.” But Tangotango was angered, and sent the fierce sun, bristling with glaring rays, that Tane might be destroyed. Tane warded off the fierce rays, and raised the sun on high. And the host of the Whanau Marama clung to the breast of Rangi the Father—and so Light was.

Tane had many wives, but they were not women of this ordinary world. They produced trees, birds, and insects. Then Tane found woman of this world who bore him, Hineahuone (the earth-formed maid), who had Hine-titama. Tane took the latter to wife, and when she discovered the relationship she fled to the underworld and became Queen of Hades. (See ante.) Tane sought her, but she sent him back to this world, saying, “Return, Tane, to the world of light, and rear our offspring in the light of day, while I remain here to drag them down to darkness and to death.”

Another legend states that Tane married a daughter of Tiki. It was Tiki who formed the first man, and having accomplished that task he sought to form a woman. He formed two mounds of earth. One was Tuahu-a-te-Rangi (the altar of the sky). It represented life. The other was Puke-nui-a-Papa (great hill of earth), and it represented sin and death. The tira ora (wand of life) was placed in the former mound, and the tira mate (wand of death) in the latter. Then Tiki, having performed certain rites, cast down the wand of death, and from Puke-nui-a-papa produced woman, who sprang from sin and death, and Te Po (Hades, the world of darkness).

Te Ra (the Sun).

The Sun has two wives, named Hine-takurua (takurua, winter) and Raumati (summer). These are the personified forms of summer and winter. To Raumati was born Tanerore (the quivering of heated air, as seen in midsummer). To Hine-takurua were born sea-birds. The task of Raumati is the cultivation of food; that of Hine-takurua the taking of fish. The Sun goes to the ocean and dwells with Hine-takurua during winter. In the month Otoru (of the Maori year) the Sun returns and dwells with Hine-raumati, who cultivates the kumara (sweet potato). It is then summer.

This article might be continued indefinitely by referring to the general personification or allegorization of natural phenomena, of fire, &c., which obtains in Maori mythology, together with the doings of the heroes or demigods of old and the innumerable sacred rites of the ancient Maori. As a mytho-poetic people the Maori can assuredly claim to rank with any nation, ancient or modern, of whose system of mythology we have any knowledge.

PART IV.—DESCRIPTIONS OF LAND DISTRICTS

Table of Contents

Chapter 75. THE AUCKLAND LAND DISTRICT.

G. Mueller, Chief Surveyor

Introductory.

THE Auckland Land District covers about four and a half degrees of latitude, extending from 34° 30' to 39° S., its greatest length being about 365 miles, from the North Cape to the 39th parallel, south of Lake Taupo, while its greatest width is about 180 miles. In the peninsula north of Auckland, indented as it is on either side by harbours and arms of the sea, and with a mean width between the Pacific Ocean and Tasman Sen of little over forty miles, the range of temperature is remarkably small. The thermometer seldom registers above 80° in the shade in the middle of summer, whilst the heat is always tempered by a cool breeze, bringing the mean summer temperature to under 70° in the shade. The frosts are hardly worth mentioning, as the minimum register is seldom below 40°; but south of Auckland sharp white frosts occur very often, more especially beyond 38° of latitude, and snow lies upon the summits of some of the highest hills or mountains in winter.

Physical Features.

This land district may be said to have no real mountains, as the most prominent peaks of the several scattered ranges or hills seldom exceed 3,000 ft. in height above the sea-level, an altitude just enough—south of 38°—to clothe the last 1,000 ft. with snow in the depth of winter. North of Hokiangu and the Bay of Islands there is one well-defined range of hills rising to a height of 2,463 ft.; whilst south of these places, and extending to the Wairoa River on one side and the Whangarei Harbour upon the other, the country is all more or less broken into ranges from 1,000ft. to 2,000 ft. in height, with valleys between. The next really well developed main range lies within the Coromandel and Thames Peninsula. With a length of over 150 miles, it has an average height, of over 2,800 ft., commencing with Moehau, or Cape Colville, 2,935 ft.; next, To Aroha, a peak of 3,176 ft.; and ending at Weraiti with a height of 2,527 ft. There are two other well-defined ranges—namely, Tawairoa and Hauturu—lying between the West Coast and the Waipa basin, with their highest peak at Pirongia, which rises to 3,156 ft., and is often snow-capped. There are other ranges forming the watershed between the basins of the Waikato and Waipa Rivers, and dividing both from the streams running into the western side of Lake Taupo. Their highest peak is Pureora, rising to 3,793 ft. The eastern side of the land district is occupied by a very broken, forestclad country, known as the Urewera country, the average height of which is about 2,500 ft. It is practically unexplored, and, being still in the hands of the Natives, is not as yet available for settlement. To the east of Lake Taupo lie the Kaimanawa Ranges, of about 4,500 ft., and generally open on the ridges, with valleys clothed in beech forests. Nearly the whole of the Auckland Land District is indented on both coasts with harbours and arms of the sea, forming a cheap and easy means of access. Of rivers, properly so called, there are only two of any great length—namely, the Wairoa and Waikato. The first empties itself into the Kaipara Harbour, a large arm, or rather succession of arms, of the sea, giving hundreds of miles of inland water-carriage to all parts of the Counties of Hobson, Otamatea, Rodney, and Waitemata. This river is navigable from its mouth to its junction with its tributaries Wairua and Mangakahia, a distance of ninety-one miles from the sea, and for forty miles it is navigable for ships of large burden. The River Waikato has a course of 200 miles, measured from its source in the Ruapehu Mountain through Lake Taupo to the sea on the West Coast. It is navigable for river steamers for seventy-five miles from its mouth, and its tributary, the Waipa, for twenty miles from its confluence with the Waikato at Ngaruawahia. Another river—the Thames, or Waihou—though of no great length, affords a valuable means of inland water-carriage, and is navigable for small steamers for twenty-five miles. Generally speaking, every part of the district has an abundant water-supply, now and then lessened for a short time at the end of a very dry summer.

Plains.

Of plains proper, this district has only the stretch of country called Kaingaroa, extending from the eastern side of Lake Taupo towards the Bay of Plenty, all more or less of a pumice formation; the valley of the Thames, and the delta between the Thames and Piako Rivers, which is generally level, the quality of the soil varying very much in different parts; and the Central Waikato basin, already thickly settled. Here and there in the North there are level plateaux of volcanic soil, more or less densely wooded, and along the main rivers there are stretches of level country, but there are no large plains of alluvial soil such as the Middle Island can show.

Lakes.

Of these, which add so much to the scenery of a country, this district possesses a fair share, there being eight principal lakes, with some twenty or more smaller ones. To the north of Auckland, in the Bay of Islands district, there is only one lake of any size, called Omapere, three miles by two miles, an old crater. In the Waikato are Lakes Waikare and Whangape, the first six miles and a half long by three miles across, and the second five miles by one mile. These lakes are generally covered with numerous wild swans and ducks, and, being both connected with the Waikato River by navigable creeks, form a convenient waterway for transport of goods to settlers living around their shores. All the remaining lakes of large size are within the watershed of the Thermal-springs District, and are mostly from seven to eight miles long, and from three to six miles wide, except Taupo Moana, the queen of the North Island lakes, which is twenty-five miles long and eighteen miles broad, with a depth of 500 ft. The scenery round its western shore is of the most romantic kind.

Forests.

The greater part of the Auckland Land District has been covered in the past with dense forests, which are now fast disappearing under the axe of the settler and being transformed into rich pasture-land. The only really good Crown lands fit for settlement in the North are still all covered with forest, and must be cleared and sown before any returns can follow. The area of forest land in the Auckland District at the present time is about 1,800,000 acres north of Auckland, and 3,420,000 acres south of it. The forests contain a mixture of trees of all kinds, from the giant kauri to scrubby tea-tree or manuka, but all the bush is useful for building, fencing, and household purposes, or at any rate may be converted into charcoal for sale. Of the giant kauri (the most valuable tree in New Zealand) great quantities, worth as much as £400,000 per annum, are being yearly cut, and exported or used for home consumption. To give some idea of the size of these trees, and the amount of timber contained in them, it is estimated that upon the Crown land to the north of Auckland, in the Counties of Hokianga, Hobson, Bay of Islands, and Whangarei, there are still remaining 498,000,000 feet, of a value, as the timber stands, of £498,000.

Soils.

With respect to the soils of Auckland, nowhere in New Zealand within such short distances is there such a diversity in the quality—a distance of half a mile often makes all the difference between rich alluvial and barren pipeclay. To the north of the Bay of Islands and Hokianga the lands are chiefly clay and sandstone, with here and there a volcanic area intervening. In and about the valley of the Mangonuiowae River, in the Hokianga County, there is some of the richest alluvial soil in the district; and, taking the whole Crown land remaining to the north of a line between the Hokianga and Bay of Islands Harbours, the really available good land fit for settlement would be about 40,000 acres. There are large areas outside of this which will carry good grass and feed one or two sheep to the acre, after clearing and laying down in grass; and there is also land highly suitable for fruit-growing. South of Hokianga, and between that place and the Wairoa River, the soil is, generally speaking, very good, being both volcanic and alluvial. Here the Crown has probably 150,000 acres of such land fit for settlement. Immediately south of the Bay of Islands, and extending thence to Whangarei, the soil is, for the most part, clay lying upon sandstone or marl, with alluvial flats in the bottoms of the valleys; but these are, as a rule, very narrow. Within the Puhipuhi State Forest there is an area, say, of 16,000 acres, more or less, of volcanic soil. Approaching Whangarei, at Hikurangi, the limestone crops out, overlying coal-deposits, and round Whangarei itself the soil becomes a rich volcanic, in a high state of cultivation. South of Whangarei Harbour, and from thence to Auckland, the Crown lands generally are of a broken character, with soil varying from alluvial swamps—as in the case of the Tokatoka Swamp of 16,000 acres- to the limestone areas round Maungaturoto, the sandstone and clay lands of Rodney County, and the poorer clay lands lying north of the City of Auckland, which have, however, proved eminently suitable for fruit-growing.

For about 200 miles south of Auckland the land (with the exception of the Cape Colville Ranges) is, generally speaking, far less broken, and gradually opens out into large tracts of level country in the Waikato and Waipa basins. Immediately south of Auckland the soil is rich volcanic until it is gradually superseded by the prevailing clays; the greater portion of Manukau County, for thirty miles south of Auckland, may be classed as pastoral, and is under occupation as such. The Crown areas available for settlement—say, 16,000 acres—are chiefly in the Otau Parish, varying from volcanic clay to ordinary clay land, forest-clad, and well adapted for pastoral purposes. In the Counties of Waikato, Raglan, Waipa, Piako, West Taupo, and Kawhia, there is a still greater diversity of soils; Raglan County contains large areas of good limestone country, broken, but with rich black soil, and carrying most luxuriant grass. The lower Waikato country consists of clay soil and extensive swamps, almost undrainable, but at a distance of eighty miles from Auckland is found a flat and undulating country, lying partly within the Waikato and Waipa basins, and partly within the valleys of the Piako and Waihou Rivers, formed mainly of alluvial deposits of rhyolite sands brought down from the volcanic districts. In the Kawhia County there are some 300,000 acres of excellent limestone land, a large portion of which is heavily timbered, with numerous warm valleys. Most of this land has now been acquired by the Government from the Native owners, and is being opened for settlement. Beyond this there is a large stretch of country consisting alternately of open valleys and forest-clad hills, a fair proportion of which is good land, both pastoral and agricultural. The County of Coromandel, with portions of Thames and Ohinemuri Counties, is chiefly devoted to the mining industry. The soil is nearly all clay, the land very broken, but suitable for pastoral purposes if cleared of the dense forest that now covers it. The western portion, however, of the Thames and Ohinemuri Counties contain large areas of alluvial and swamp lands, now in the hands of the Crown, but, through want of drainage, not yet available for settlement.

In the County of Tauranga, the clay lands extend from Te Aroha Mountain to Katikati entrance, changing, near Tauranga, to sandstone and black pumice soil of rich character, which improves towards Te Puke and Maketu, where the land is all good, and more or less volcanic. In Whakatane and Opotiki Counties there are very extensive swamps, of which large portions are drainable, and back from the coast seven miles or so are large areas of Crown lands, broken and forestcovered, opened ready for settlement. The soil is chiefly clay or light loam, with alluvial flats in the valleys, and all well watered. This kind of country extends to the boundary of the land district. The coastal lands are nearly all alluvial flats in a high state of cultivation, and the settlers mostly well-to-do.

Review of Soils: Uses and Returns.

Briefly to set forth the capabilities of the Crown lands in the district, it will suffice to say that north of the Bay of Islands and Hokianga the land is suitable chiefly for two classes of persons—the gum-digger, and the fruit-grower or small farmer. The former has the range over large areas of Crown lands upon paying a small fee, and his earnings average from 5s. to 10s. a day. As for the latter, in and around Hokianga, with its 250 miles of water-frontage, almost anything can be grown, from the tropical banana to the more prosaic potato, whilst oranges and lemons flourish side by side with all kinds of apples, pears, and plums. Wheat does fairly well, and maize gives a return of 50 to 60 bushels an acre. Sheep also thrive; and most of the lands, when properly grassed with artificial grasses, will carry two or three sheep to an acre, but ordinary rough-grassed lands only one and a half to two sheep per acre. The Messrs. Williams, at Pakaraka, are feeding four sheep to the acre upon land sown with furze. The clearing of forest lands, ringfencing and grassing them, will cost about £3 to £3 10s. per acre. The same remarks apply to the Bay of Islands and Whangarei, and to the country as far south as Auckland. Round about Whangarei district, and under similar conditions of culture, the average return for good agricultural or pastoral lands would be fully 12s. an acre per annum. South of Auckland, throughout the Waikato, Piako, Waipa, and Raglan Counties, and thence south to the district boundaries, the land is both agricultural and pastoral. All the cereals do well, wheat averaging 27 to 30 and up to 40 bushels per acre, and oats 26 bushels per acre. Potatoes average from 5 to 7 tons per acre. Dairy-farming is carried on, yielding (upon well-cultivated farms) a net profit of 15s. to 20s. an acre per annum; whilst sheep-farming yields a profit of from 5s. to 7s. 6d. a sheep per annum on very large estates; allowing for greater losses from disease, &c., the average return would still be 4s. per sheep. The cost of clearing fern and scrub is generally from 7s. to 10s. an acre, and laying down fern land by surface-sowing and harrowing, about 17s. an acre.

The seaward counties of Tauranga, Whakatane, and Opotiki are both agricultural and pastoral, growing wheat and maize alike to great perfection. In fact, these counties, upon their alluvial shores and uplands, grow the greater portion of the maize produced in the district, and from the ports of Whakatane and Opotiki in one year some 34,000 sacks have been exported. In these counties the average yield of wheat is from 22 to 25 bushels per acre, oats about 29 bushels per acre, and maize 45 to 60 bushels per acre. It is quite possible within this district to select land early in the winter, fell and burn off by the ensuing summer, sow in grass in the autumn, and put on stock within twelve months from selection.

Rainfall.

The rainfall during the year averages about 39 in., the greater portion of which as a rule, falls between the 1st of May and 1st of November, or during the winter and spring months. Owing to the constant changes of wind, caused by the configuration of the coast-line, the shortness of the distance between the two coasts, and the influence, greater or less, of the trade-winds, it is quite common for one neighbourhood to have double the rainfall of another, even though the two be only twenty miles apart. Droughts of more than a couple of months are practically unknown, and grass is always abundant.

Winds.

One of the chief means whereby the great healthiness of the climate is maintained is the constant presence of fine breezes, blowing both summer and winter, the prevailing winds being north-east and south-west, and very seldom passing into really heavy gales. In the middle of summer, the sea-breeze during the day and the land-breeze at night are almost unvarying.

General Products and Industries.

Timber.—The vast forests of kauri and other valuable trees have given this district the foremost place for production and export of timber. There are many safe and sheltered harbours for shipping, while streams and rivers without number form convenient highways for conveying logs to the mills or ports. Some idea of the extent of this industry may be given by quoting from the official returns made at the time of the last census. There were then forty-nine steam sawmills situated in various parts of the district, with engines of a total of some 2,000-horse power. These mills employed over a thousand men, and produced yearly some 80,000,000ft. of sawn timber, valued at £301,328; of timber resawn into flooring, skirting, &c., some 21,000,000ft., valued at upwards of £91,000, not to mention posts and rails, mouldings, sashes, and doors. Besides this output, in the remoter parts of the district large quantities of timber are hand-sawn. The durable puriri is converted into railway-sleepers, for which there is a great demand, and the totara is largely sought after for telegraph-posts and wharf-piles.

Kauri-gum.—The most unique production of this portion of the colony is kaurigum, obtained for the most part from the country north of Auckland. It is formed by the hardening of the exuded turpentine from the kauri tree, and is dug out of ground from which the forest has been burnt off. The Royal Commission appointed in 1893 elicited the fact that the procuring of the gum gave employment then to no less than 6,897 persons. Last year 11,116 tons were exported, valued at £607,919. The kauri-gum is extensively used in the manufacture of varnish, and also f or glazing calico. Nearly two-thirds of the varnishes in the market are produced from this gum. The average earnings of a digger may be taken as from £1 7s. to £1 10s. per week.

Flax (Phormium tenax).—An industry, which is now assuming large proportions, is the conversion of the broad leaves of the Phormium tenax into marketable flax suitable for the manufacture of rope, twine, mats, mattresses, and numerous other articles. The flax-mills are scattered over different parts of the district, as near rail- or water-carriage as possible, and employ a considerable number of men and boys, whilst the local rope-and-twine works give work to a good many more. The export from all parts of the colony of phormium for the year 1899 was 10,371 tons, valued at £184,411, besides 304 tons of tow, valued at £1,150.

Gold.—This district has in the past produced large quantities of gold, but the area over which auriferous quartz-reefs have been discovered is limited to the Counties of Coromandel, Thames, Ohinemuri, and a small portion of Piako. In 1899 the output of this neighbourhood was 43 per cent, of all the gold produced in New Zealand, the quantity (168,769 oz.) entered for duty for exportation having been valued at £624,737. From 1878 to 1892 the Thames Goldfield alone produced some 600,000 oz. Now that the area over which auriferous quartz-reefs have been discovered has increased, a much larger output may be expected in the future. The total estimated value of the gold was £625,207 for 1899-1900, against £545,463 in the previous year. All the gold won was obtained by battery amalgamation, and the bullion by the cyanide process. There is a large amount of English capital being expended in developing new discoveries in out-districts away from the goldfield, but it will be some time yet before these discoveries have reached their full development. At the Thames there is a School of Mines, well attended and showing good results.

Coal.—Coal is found in most parts of this district, and is being worked with more or less success at Kawakawa, Hikurangi, Kamo, and Ngunguru, to the north of Auckland; whilst in the south there are three mines at Huntly, all turning out a good household coal. The total output of all the mines in 1899 was 141,128 tons.

Fruit.—The climate of the Auckland District is well adapted for the growth of the orange, lemon, vine, and olive, as also for the fruits of England, America, and Japan. The subtropical kinds flourish about Hokianga, in the north; those of the temperate regions, in the Waikato and neighbourhood. Now that the problem of how to land fruit in good condition in the London market has been solved, orchard planting is rapidly progressing, and it has been found that the culture of the hard varieties of the apple will repay export to England. Of late years a demand has set in for the poor clay-land that used to contain gum, as it is admirably suited for fruit-growing. Orchards are now planted in neighbourhoods where the soil has lain idle for years, for it has been proved that apples grown on this poor soil keep longer than those grown on richer land. What can be done by cultivation and care on poor lands is evidenced at the Waerenga Government Experimental Plantation in the Waikato, where the two orchards of fruit trees and vines show most luxuriant growth. More attention is being just now paid to stone fruits, for which there is always a steady local market, than to apples, which have of late years been heavily handicapped by blight. The fruit industry in Auckland is yet in its infancy, and is capable of great extension. At present peaches are the only fruit canned, though there is also a good deal done in the way of drying fruits and vegetables by the process of evaporation.

Fishing.—The sea and harbours abound in fish. At least eighteen different varieties suitable for the table are caught with little labour, and settlers living near the sea-coast or any one of the many harbours and tidal rivers can always obtain enough for all necessities. At present the canning industry is confined to mullet, of which there is a large amount exported, and an equal quantity used for home consumption. The rock-oyster is found over a large area on these coasts, and large quantities are sent both to the southern ports of the colony and also to Australia.

Chief Centres and Surrounding Districts.

The City of Auckland lies on the southern shore of the Waitemata Harbour, one of the finest havens in the colony, on a narrow neck of land between the Waitemata and the Manukau. Alike from the sea and from the neighbouring hills the city and surrounding country present a charming picture. Especially fine is the view from Mount Eden, a low volcanic hill in the suburbs. Facing the town are the green hills and white houses of the North Shore, and the remarkable peak of Rangitoto; beyond lie the many islands of the Hauraki Gulf, with the blue hills of Coromandel and the Great Barrier in the far distance. Clustered near the foot of the hill, and scattered for many miles to the southward, are charming villa-like houses, with tasteful gardens and shrubberies, while to the north-west the view is closed by high wooded ranges. The city is unrivalled for its commercial position; it has communication by sea with both sides of the Island, while the Kaipara and Wairoa Rivers leading far into the northern peninsula, and to the south the Waikato and Thames Rivers leading into the heart of the Island, give it excellent natural facilities for inland communication. In April, 1896, the population of the city and suburbs amounted to 57,616 persons. The city is well supplied with gas and water, and amongst public buildings may be noticed Government House, the new Government Offices, Post and Telegraph Offices, Supreme Court, &c. There is a Free Public Library and Art Gallery, and a good Museum, containing what is probably the best Maori collection in the world. The Auckland University College is affiliated to the New Zealand University. The Victoria Arcade, the Exchange, Harbour Board Offices, hotels and clubs, as well as many commercial buildings, compare favourably with those in other parts of the colony. There are admirable recreation-grounds, including the Government Domain of about 180 acres, as well as the Botanic Garden and the Albert Park in the centre of the city. There is a tramway system extending through the suburbs. Auckland has numerous industries, including, amongst others, ship-building, sugar-refining, timber-converting, sash-and-door manufactories; rope-and-twine, pottery, brick-and-tile, and varnish works, printing-offices, &c.

The City of Auckland is the centre from which radiate all railways, road-, and steamer-routes. From it, by rail, lies the way to all Crown lands south of the Waitemata, while the Kaipara Railway connects it with the country north of Helensville. All lands to the north and along the Bay of Plenty are reached from its wharves by the Northern Company's steamers. The chief centres to the north are:—

Warkworth, on the East Coast, forty miles from Auckland, with communication by coach and steamer nearly every day. It is a thriving township, with post- and telegraph-office, public halls, hotels, &c. It is also the site of important hydrauliclime and cement works. A good deal of agricultural and pastoral farming is carried on in its neighbourhood.

On the West Coast an important centre is Helensville, on the Kaipara Harbour, distant thirty-six miles from Auckland, with which it is connected by rail. It has all the conveniences required by travellers in the shape of good hotels, stores, &c., and is the starting-point of the river-steamers running to all places in the Otamatea and Hobson Counties. It is also one of the main centres for the export of balk timber.

Dargaville, on the Wairoa River, is a town of about 400 inhabitants, with all conveniences for travellers. It may be reached by rail and steamer from Auckland three times a week. Dargaville is the starting-point of the Kaihu Valley Railway, which is open for traffic for twenty miles from the town, and from the terminus of the railway all the Crown lands in the neighbourhood are reached, even so far north as Hokianga. The town is also the centre of a very large timber export. There are only two townships of any importance north of Dargaville—Port Rawene, or Hokianga, and Kohukohu, about four miles further up. Both have post- and telegraph-stations, and comfortable hotels, with fortnightly steam-communication from Auckland.

Whangarei, on the East Coast, is distant seventy-five miles from Auckland, with which it has steam-communication twice a week. The town is a thriving and important place, having a population of about 2,000, and is the centre of a large agricultural and pastoral country. In the neighbourhood is also a large coal-bearing and gum-producing district, while the export of oranges and lemons, which thrive magnificently on the rich volcanic soil, is on the increase. From here a coach runs weekly to Kawakawa, upon the arrival of the Northern Company's steamer, and from it, by carriage or horse, all lands can be visited within a radius of thirty to forty miles.

Kawakawa, at the head of the tidal portion of the river of the same name, is connected by a short railway-line with Opua, the calling-place of steamers from Auckland. Kawakawa possesses good inns. From it coaches run weekly to Hokianga and Whangarei. It is the centre of a coal and gum industry, and a port of lading for those products. The old town of Russell is situated further down the bay, and has a good hotel, besides having a post- and telegraph-office. To Whangaroa and Mongonui the Northern Company's steamers run every week. Whangaroa is famed for its exquisite scenery, and is the centre of a large timber- and gum-export trade. Mongonui is the starting-point and centre from which to visit, by carriage or horse, all the Crown lands in the Mongonui County, and from it the steamer“Paeroa” runs to Awanui and ports beyond, in connection with the weekly steamer from Auckland.

South of Auckland, along the Waikato Railway, there are numerous townships of more or less importance, but no starting-point for Crown lands, until Mercer is reached at a distance of forty-three miles. It is situated at the borders of what is known as the Waikato Country, upon the Waikato River, which is tidal up to this point, and the township has a post- and telegraph-office and other conveniences. At sixty-five miles from Auckland by rail is Huntly, also on the Waikato River, a flourishing township, with a very large output of valuable coal. It has also pottery-, brick-, and tile-works. On the opposite side of the Waikato River large areas of Crown lands are being brought into use, and are carrying large quantities of sheep and cattle. The next town is Ngaruawahia, or Newcastle, seventy-four miles from Auckland, situated at the junction of the Waikato and Waipa Rivers, with hotels, bank, post- and telegraph-office. It is a centre from which portions of Crown lands in Raglan County are reached, and also from it river-steamers run north and south to the various settlements. Ngaruawahia has a flourishing creamery, a brewery, and a cooperage. At eighty-four miles from Auckland the train reaches Frankton Junction, where a line branches off to Hamilton, Te Aroha, Paeroa, Thames, and Rotorua, the main line going to Te Awamutu, ninety-nine miles from Auckland. The latter is a thriving town; but to reach available lands for future settlement the traveller passes on by rail to Oforohanga; Te Kuiti and Poro-o-te-Rau, fifteen and twenty-five miles further on respectively, are both of them places at which there are accommodation-houses, forming convenient centres for visiting the fertile undulating limestone lands in the vicinity. Hamilton is a busy, flourishing town, situated on both sides of the Waikato River, with a population of about 1,300 persons, and is the centre of a large agricultural and pastoral district. It possesses a creamery, flax-mill, brewery, and two soap factories, besides other local industries. Cambridge, about thirteen miles by road and fifteen miles by rail from Hamilton, has a population of about 900, and is the headquarters of the Farmers' Club. It is a busy, thriving township, surrounded by good farming country. Between Hamilton and Cambridge, and in the country round, there are numerous creameries, cheese- and butter-factories; wine- and cider-making is also successfully pursued, and there are several apiaries, from which large quantities of honey are produced. There are three flour-mills in the district, one at Cambridge, one at Hamilton, and the third at the terminus of one of the before-mentioned branch lines. One hundred and sixteen miles from Auckland by rail is Te Aroha, a quiet township, celebrated for its thermal springs and good hotels. Another thirteen miles brings the traveller to Paeroa, a centre of mining industry, and in another twenty-nine miles the Thames Borough is reached.

The settlements at the Thames and Coromandel are essentially mining townships. The first is situated thirty-tight miles by steamer from Auckland, on the Firth of Thames, and at the mouth of the Waihou River. It has a population of about 5,000 persons. There is daily rail- and steam-communication with Auckland, and a railway connecting it with Paeroa and Te Aroha. Coromandel is about thirty-five miles from Auckland, with which it has constant communication by steamer; it is another mining centre, situated at the head of a picturesque harbour. Tauranga, with a population of about, 1,050, is situated on the harbour of that name in the Bay of Plenty. Coaches run thither from the Thames, and from Rotorua; it has also constant communication by steamer with Auckland, and with Matata, Whakatane, and Opotiki. From the fact of the harbour being the only one on the East Coast capable of receiving large vessels the town is bound to be of importance in the future. Tauranga has a chemical and sulphuric-acid works, and a cheese factory.

Opotiki, the second town of importance in the Bay of Plenty, is situated about sixty-five miles by steamer or road from Tauranga. It has weekly steam communication with Auckland, and is connected with Gisborne by a bridle-track. It is the headquarters of the maize-producing district, and has rich alluvial lands, from which good returns are obtained. It is a good starting-point from which large blocks of Crown lands suitable for pastoral purposes may be reached.

The Township of Rotorua is situated on the shores of Rotorua Lake, at a distance of 172 miles from Auckland. Since the railway from Tirau was opened travellers can now reach Rotorua in one day from Auckland. It is the chief township in the hot-lakes district, and has also a large area of fairly good Crown land near, adapted for pastoral purposes. Considerable quantities of sulphur are obtained from the neighbourhood.

Crown or Native Lands available for Future Settlement.

In the Mangonui County the Crown possesses 31,000 acres of fairly good forest land, tolerably easy of access.

In the Bay of Islands County there are only about 38,000 acres of available Crown land, both forest and open, but the Natives still own some 152,000 acres, chiefly forest land, except about Kaikohe, where it is open and rich volcanic land, most of it broken, but fit for settlement.

In Hokianga County there are some 159,400 acres of available Crown land, of good quality, nearly all covered with forest, and fit for immediate settlement. The Natives still own some 104,650 acres, almost all good land, and fit for settlement.

In Whangarei County there are about 32,400 acres of available Crown land, mostly broken and forest-clad. The Natives still retain some 28,850 acres of land, part of it very rich.

In the Otamatea County the Crown retains only about 8,150 acres, a good deal of this being alluvial swamp, and now well drained. The Natives still own about 20,000 acres, but not much of it is fit for settlement.

In the Rodney and Waitemata Counties about 10,100 acres of Crown lands are left, most of it fit only for pastoral or fruit-growing purposes. The Natives still own about 14,000 acres in these two counties, some of it very good land.

In the Manukau County the Crown owns some 10,600 acres of broken forest land, fit for pastoral purposes. The Natives still own about 15,000 acres, a portion of which is fairly good.

In the Waikato and Raglan Counties the Crown lands amount to about 88,000 acres, all fairly good land, mostly forest, and easy of access. In Raglan County the Natives still own the freehold of 150,000 acres, all good land.

In the Coromandel, Thames, and Ohinemuri Counties there are about 337,000 acres of available Crown lands, a great deal of it too broken for settlement. In the last two counties a good deal of the land is swampy, and requires draining. The Natives still own 97,200 acres, much of which is very good.

In Tauranga, Whakatane, Opotiki, and Rotorua Counties the Crown owns 450,000 acres, nearly all forest-clad, and generally broken; but in the last-named county the Natives retain a very large area, the greater part too broken or too much covered with pumice or volcanic ash to be fit for settlement.

In the Kawhia and West Taupo Counties the Crown is acquiring from the Natives large areas of very good land, all fit for settlement and easy of access. About 300,000 acres are really first-class, land, and about 1,000,000 acres fairly good land, all suitable for pastoral purposes, and accessible from the Main Trunk Railway-line.

The Crown now hold about 250,000 acres in Kawhia County—100,000 acres surveyed and available for settlement—and 138,000 acres in West Taupo County.

Chapter 76. THE TARANAKI LAND DISTRICT.

J. Strauchon, Chief Surveyor

The Taranaki Land District is situated on the western side of the North Island of New Zealand, at about its widest part, and may be said to be the most compact and fertile district of the colony, for, with the exception of the upper half of Mount Egmont, and of the ranges adjoining, which absorb about 36,000 acres, the whole of the area—minus what is taken up by the rivers, streams, and lakes—is suitable for settlement, and certainly two-thirds of the district is good land. The gross area of the district is 2,430,000 acres.

Physical Features.

Of mountains, the principal one is the beautiful volcanic cone from which the district takes its name, Taranaki, otherwise called Mount Egmont, which has an altitude of 8,260ft. This mountain is the centre of distribution for a radius of twenty miles of the volcanic formation known as the“drift,” which covers the volcanic rocks below an altitude of 3,000ft. Hummocks composed of trachyte boulders and cement crop up here and there and make excellent metal-quarries.

Beyond the volcanic formation—that is, from about Urenui on the north and Hawera on the south—the country is generally broken, and the formation is known as papa, a calcareous blue clay, capped in many places by shelly limestone.

The northern portion, between the Tongaporutu and the Mokau Rivers, contains also limestone, greensands, and coal outcrops. At Panirau, a small tributary of the Mokau, about thirty miles from the sea, there is an isolated patch of volcanic agglomerate and tufas, and a similar formation is found at the north-eastern corner of the district.

Eastward of the base of Mount Egmont there are few, if any, mountains worthy of the name, although there are many ranges varying in height from 1,000ft. to 1,500ft. above sea-level, and, in a few instances—such as the Matemateonga and Waiaria Ranges—they run up to 2,500 ft.

The principal river is the Wanganui, which bounds the district on the east between Taumaranui and Pipiriki, a distance of about ninety miles. Its average width varies from 2 to 3 chains. For nearly the whole distance it is shut in by high precipitous hills, and in many places by perpendicular walls of rock. The scenery is very grand and beautiful. There are numerous rapids, but few of them are dangerous to skilful canoeists. A steamer runs regularly from Wanganui to Pipiriki, a distance of fifty-five miles, making occasional trips further up when sufficient inducement offers. A small steamer of light draught and considerable power is used for the tourist and trade traffic on the upper portions of the river between Pipiriki and Ohura, a distance of some sixty miles. A channel is snagged up the Tangarakau River as far as Putikituna, a distance of twelve miles. From this point a road (nine miles in length) is being constructed to join the Ohura (or East) Road at a point about forty-seven miles from Stratford, and in the middle of the Whangamomona Improved-farm Settlement, the settlers in which and surrounding blocks will thus have double communication, with Wanganui on the one hand and Stratford on the other. When the road is completed through to Auckland, tourists can enjoy a trip up the Wanganui River as far as Ohura, then back, and up Tangarakau River across to Ohura Road, then on to Auckland, or back to Stratford, as they desire. The principal tributaries flowing into the Wanganui on the Taranaki side are the Whangamomona, at eighty-two miles; Tangarakau, at eighty-five miles; Ohura, at 114 miles; Ongaruhe, at 143 miles respectively from the Town of Wanganui.

The next river in size is the Mokau, bounding the district on the north. It is navigable for small steamers of 70 or 80 tons as far as the coal-mines, about twenty miles from its mouth, and for canoes as far as Totoro, twenty-six miles further up. Several outcrops of coal are found on its banks, and, as limestone is also present, the river is likely to become an important waterway of the district. The scenery on either side, although not on quite so grand a scale as may be seen on the Wanganui, is very beautiful.

The other large rivers are the Waitara and Patea. The former has its source about midway between the coast and the Wanganui River, in an easterly direction from Pukearuhe, between New Plymouth and the Mokau. It is about a hundred miles in length, and runs out at the Town of Waitara, some ten miles north-east from New Plymouth. There is a bar at the mouth, but steamers of 300 tons can enter safely in calm weather, and, although there are numerous rapids on its course, it is navigable for canoes for about ninety miles.

The Patea River rises in Mount Egmont, and, after traversing a tortuous course of about 110 miles, runs out at the extreme southern end of the provincial district. It has a bar-harbour, with a depth of 13ft. to 14ft. at spring-tides. Steamers of from 40 tons to 50 tons trade regularly to the town of Patea, which is situated a mile or so north of the mouth. The Patea is navigable for canoes for fifty miles.

Besides these rivers there are many smaller ones, and streams innumerable—in fact, no district in the world could be better watered and at the same time be so secure from disastrous floods. It is estimated that between the Mokau and the Patea there are no fewer than eighty-five named streams emptying themselves into the Tasman Sea, fully sixty of which flow from Mount Egmont.

Excepting the Ngaere Swamp, a block of open land near Eltham, 3,700 acres in extent, now partially drained and recently disposed of for settlement purposes, there are no plains, properly so called, in the district, although the stretch of very fertile country lying between the Waingongoro and Otakeho Rivers, comprising an area of about 25,000 acres, is known as the Waimate Plains. Of this area 13,500 acres have been disposed of, and the remainder, 11,500 acres, has been handed back to the Natives as a reserve.

There are no lakes worthy of the name. The largest sheet of water is Rotokare, situate about twelve miles from Eltham; it is about half a mile in length, with an average width of six chains. There are also a few small lakes inland from Waverley, at the southern end of the district.

The whole of the district, with the exception of a fringe of open country along the coast from Pukearuhe to Patea, averaging three miles in width, and containing about 250,000 acres, and some valleys at the north-eastern corner of the district, about 150,000 acres in extent, was originally covered with heavy forest. Estimating the area already cleared for settlement at 240,000 acres, it will be seen that there still remain about 1,754,000 acres under bush.

The larger timber is chiefly rata, rimu, matai, tawa, kahikatea, kohekohe, pukatea, rewarewa, hinau, with a few totaras scattered here and there. Among the smaller trees may be mentioned the kotukutuku or fuchsia, karaka, and mahoe.

As regards the timber industry, there are altogether twenty-six sawmills, and the total quantity cut in 1899 was 15,199,000ft., chiefly rimu (red-pine), kahikatea (white-pine), and matai (black-pine). Most of these mills work together under Association rules and prices, their output for the year being 13,000,000 superficial feet. The others work independently, and their output amounted to only 2,199,000 ft. for the same period.

An area of 72,565 acres, measuring six miles on every side from the summit of Mount Egmont, has been set apart as a forest-reserve. At about three miles within the reserve the forest begins to get stunted; and at four and a half miles it gives place to low wiry scrub, which ceases at five miles, or an elevation of about 4,000ft. At 5,000ft. the moss ends; beyond this point to the summit the mountain is composed of loose scoria and lava.

A comfortable mountain-house has been built at an elevation of 3,200 ft. on the northern face of the mountain, at a distance of twenty miles from New Plymouth by the Junction and Egmont Roads. Eighteen miles can be driven over, and the remaining two ridden. This house is maintained by the North Egmont Forest Board of Conservators, and is open for the accommodation of visitors from the middle of December to the end of March in each year. The keeper acts as guide also. There are women's rooms at one end of the house, men's at the other, with large common living- and dining-room in the centre; considerable improvements have been made this year to the house and surroundings. Visitors have now the option of being supplied with meals at a cost of 1s. 6d. each, or they may provide and cook their own food. Horse feeds, 1s. 6d. each; paddocking, 6d. daily, or 2s. 6d. a week. A small charge is made of 2s. if stay is for one night only; if for longer, then 1s. per night throughout the visit. Guide's fee for mountain, £1 per party. During the past season there were 859 visitors, remaining various periods of from one or two days to as many weeks. The view from the top is superb, including as it does, the volcanic cones of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro, the whole of Taranaki, and a considerable portion of Auckland and Wellington Districts, also across Cook Strait to the mountains of Marlborough and Nelson Districts of the Middle Island. In fine weather, when the snow is off, the mountain can be ascended without risk. A considerable sum has been expended in improving the accommodation at the house during the past season.

The mountain can also easily be ascended from Stratford side, the return journey occupying about thirteen hours, including stoppages. Tourists can ride over the first thirteen miles to a rough shelter-shed above the grass-line, altitude 4,325ft.: time occupied, about three and a half hours. A new house is now in course of erection, and will be ready for next season. Here the horses are left, and the remaining climb has to be done on foot: time required for fair walker, a good three hours, although, coming down, the distance can be done in two hours. Six hundred persons visited the mountain by this route during the season. Good hotel-accommodation, guide, horses, and provisions, can be obtained in Stratford on reasonable terms. The return trip can be varied by visiting Dawson's Falls and Kendle's Cascade.

Another route now coming into favour is from Hawera or Eltham viâ Manaia or Kaponga and Dawson's Falls. At the latter place a comfortable shelter-house, capable of accommodating over forty people, has recently been erected, and is known as the Falls Mountain-house (altitude, 2,990ft.). This house, which is close to the Falls (65 ft.), is within an easy two hours' ride of Kaponga. During the season the house is in charge of a caretaker, and food, bedding, horse-feed, and paddocking can be obtained. The number of visitors to Falls and mountain by this route was 988 for the season. From the house to summit of Mount Egmont occupies from four to six hours' climbing at a moderate pace, the time being in accordance with strength and composition of party. From the top the tourist can, instead of returning by same route, drop down to the mountain-house on the north or New Plymouth, side of, and 3,000ft. up, the mountain. The walk would not occupy over two hours, easy walking, or he could go out viâ Stratford.

Soils.

The volcanic soil, the boundaries of which have been already described, varies a good deal in quality. The best is believed to be on the south side of the mountain, between Stratford, Hawera, and Opunake, but not less than two or three miles from the forest-reserve boundary. It is thought that the country now being opened to the north and east of the volcanic deposit—that is, the papa and limestone formation-will, from the presence of lime, be much richer and more lasting as pasture-land than that around the mountain. The carrying-capacity of the land is, on an average, three sheep to the acre.

Dairying, Grazing, and Agriculture.

Taranaki is essentially a grazing and dairying district, its chief products being butter and cheese.

There are 94 dairy factories, 60 skimming stations, and 1 condensed-milk factory scattered over the district. Of these factories, 80 produce butter only, 12 butter and cheese combined, while two produce cheese only. Seventy-seven factories and creameries are owned by proprietary companies, while 73 are run on co-operative principles. Besides the above are many small plants run on individual farms of which no record is obtainable.

In September, 1896, a new work in connection with the dairying and meat industries was started in the shape of the Taranaki Freezing Works. They are situated at Moturoa, near the breakwater, and close alongside the railway-line. Substantial buildings have been erected, and a railway siding laid down. The machinery consists of a“Paxman” compound surface-condensing engine of forty indicated horse-power, driving a“Livide” compressor, capable of freezing 400 sheep per diem: although up to the present time the company has confined its attention wholly to the freezing of dairy produce. During the past year the Company received at its works 13,220 cases of cheese and 153,268 boxes of butter, of which 12,305 cases of cheese and 136,117 boxes of butter were shipped to the Home market, the remaining 915 cases of cheese and 17,151 boxes of butter being shipped to Australian and local markets. During the hot season the factories and railway vans carrying butter have been supplied with ice from the works at a nominal cost.

At the Taranaki Bacon Factory, Fitzroy, substantial buildings have been erected, and a 6-horse-power“Livide” machine fitted up, and the owner, Mr. Drake. has the works in full swing. The pigs are purchased from the farmers in the district and delivered at the styes in connection with the factory, where they are topped off with corn-feeding for fourteen days before being slaughtered. The number of pigs put through during past season was 3,300, weighing 396,000lb., or an average dead weight of about 120 lb. each; price, 3½d. per pound dead weight. The hams and bacon exhibited by this factory have always taken first-class honours in the various agricultural shows. An industry like this cannot but prove of great assistance to settlers in the district, and should receive their most cordial support.

There are in the Taranaki District, 17,471 horses, 202,307 cattle, 508,665 sheep, and 37,337 swine. These figures include all kinds and ages.

Agriculture has not hitherto been carried on to any great extent in this district. The total area under corn-crops and cut for threshing during season 1899-1900 was 8,670 acres; corn- and grass-crops cut for hay, chaff, or ensilage, 9,922 acres; corn-and green-crops for feeding to, or down with, stock, 21,393 acres; sown grasses and elovers for feeding down, 687,968 acres; sown grasses for seed, 6,344 acres; potatoes, 1,964 ncres; beet, 77 acres: turnips, 7,607 acres; mangolds, 688 acres; rape, 1,613 acres; carrots, 577 acres; total area under crops of all kinds, including gardens, orchards, vineyards, 748,718 acres. Plantations, 954 acres; fallow, 454 acres.

The average yield of different grain-crops in bushels per acre for season of 1899-1900 is: Wheat, 40.59; oats, 47.21; barley, 37.00; rye, 12.50.

Mining.

The only mining going on at present is at the Mokau Coal-mines, which are situated on the Mokau River, about twenty-one miles from the sea, the river being navigable right up to the mines for vessels of 6 ft. 6 in. draught.

After a lapse of many years, boring for petroleum has been resumed. A new bore was sunk at Moturoa, close to the former bore, and at a depth of about 875 ft. oil was struck in considerable quantity. After fully testing this well, it was found that it was impossible to“shut off the water” from below, which seemed to rise and fall with the tide, thus indicating the existence of some fissure or other means of inlet from the sea. The result was that only about two or three barrels, of 42 gallons each, could be got per day, the oil rising at intervals only, and all efforts to pump having continuously failed. The company then chose a site about half a mile inland, and sank a bore to the depth of 1,534ft. without, however, obtaining any oil. A third bore, which is still open and cased, was then sunk about a quarter of a mile from the first, and in this gas in a great volume was struck at about 908ft., followed at 910 ft. by oil in great quantity and of excellent quality. Unfortunately, this was struck in soft papa, and after about twenty barrels had been pumped, and when the company was beginning to sell and to export its crude petroleum, the supply suddenly ceased. The gas, which had previously issued in sufficient quantity to enable the company to dispense with other fuel, ceased at the same time. The most probable explanation of this mischance is that the soft papa, of which the roof of the oil-seam is composed, having been deprived of the support of the formerly imprisoned gas and oil, has collapsed, and thus choked the oil-seam lying in the vicinity of the bore. After further efforts to pump out the mud filling the bore, the company resumed drilling with the hope of obtaining another oil-supply at a greater depth. At 1,384ft. oil was obtained in small quantities, and gas was thrown up in great volume. At 1,865 ft. the bore passed through the sedimentary papa rock and entered sandstone, which continued to the bottom at 1,976ft., where a large quantity of oil and gas was struck. The bore was cased with 6-in. casing down to 1,379ft., where a thin hard streak of sandstone was found embedded in the papa, and was taken advantage of to shut off the water from above; but, unfortunately, water was again met with below this, and as no other hard stratum was passed between that and where the oil was struck, it was found impossible to shut off the water, although a 5-in. casing was sent right to the bottom. Packing was also tried several times. Each time the packer succeeded in shutting off the water for a few clays, when oil was pumped at the rate of about eight barrels per diem; the sides of the bore around the packer, however, kept crumbling away each time, and the rush of water from above effectually prevented further pumping of oil, and the company was reluctantly compelled to abandon this their third bore, the plant being unequal to deeper boring. Undaunted by frequent failures, the plant was moved about 100 yards west, and a fresh bore commenced. This passed through similar but harder strata, and was drilled to a depth of 2,050 ft., but although gas and oil were met with at different levels, they were in small and unpayable quantities. During the year 1899 a new drilling plant was obtained from America. This was erected on the Frankley Road, some four miles south-east of former workings. Here, although drilling was prosecuted vigorously, several months lapsed before a depth of 300 ft. was reached, owing to an immense quantity of broken volcanic rock, gravel, and sand being encountered. Shortly afterwards it was found impossible to make any progress at all, the sand and gravel falling in faster than it could be pumped out, and often rising as much as 30 ft. in the iron casing. Another site was selected about half a mile nearer Moturoa and 331 ft. above sea-level, where, although similar difficulties were encountered, the papa formation was reached at 410 ft., after passing through 25 ft. of quicksand. This bore was continued to a depth of 1,335 ft., but no oil was struck. Seven bores having thus been tried to various depths without success, the company abandoned the enterprise, and sold all their property by public tender. A local gentleman became the purchaser, and he, after an interval, obtained the co-operation of a few other New Plymouth residents. A new site was selected near Moturoa, about 150 yds. south-east of the company's third bore, over which one of the plants has been erected, and from which oil still continues to flow in small quantities and mixed with water. The second plant has been erected at the site chosen for the new bore. The depth is now about 1,780 ft., and drilling operations are progressing satisfactorily, though only gas and slight indications of oil have yet been met with. The syndicate, having now two complete drilling plants on hand, with an experienced staff, is in a position, should the necessary capital be forthcoming, to thoroughly test the extent and value of the oil-deposits of the district.

An enterprise like this, if successful, would enrich and give an immense impetus to the trade and importance, not only of the district, but also of the colony generally. Should the efforts now being made be abandoned through lack of capital, it is unlikely that further steps will be taken for many years to further test the value of these deposits, of the existence of which there can be no doubt.

Ironsand is found in great abundance on the seashore from Mokau to Patea, a distance of 130 miles. It produces, when smelted, from 50 to 60 per cent, of iron of the finest quality. The first attempt to smelt this sand was made in 1848, and several trials have been made since, but the heavy cost of production and the absence of capital and modern appliances have, so far, retarded the industry. Strong efforts are now being made to remedy this by the introduction of outside capital, and it is hoped these will shortly be successful.

Climate.

The climate of Taranaki is remarkably healthy, without any extremes of temperature. Below is given a table of mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures in shade for each month of the year ending December, 1899:—

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.
Mean temperature63.4  61.9  63.2  64.2  57.0  57.9  60.5  53.5  54.5  56.1  59.8  61.1  
Mean max. temperature71.0  73.1  73.3  75.0  69.3  67.0  74.4  62.8  63.0  64.5  69.2  68.8  
Mean min temperature55.8  50.7  52.7  53.4  44.7  48.8  46.7  44.2  46.1  47.7  50.4  53.3  
Number of days on which rain fell  16   8      18   16   15   9      22   13   22   25   20   23 
Total rainfall per month in inches and decimals    9.99  3.95  3.65  6.49  9.42  3.84  6.53  3.96  2.84  5.86  5.21  2.98
Mean barometric reading for the month29.7030.0130.0230.1329.9830.1229.9930.2130.2530.0029.9830.03

The mean barometric reading was 30.04 in. for the year. Total rainfall, 64.73 in. on 207 days, the maximum fall being 2.40 in. on 23rd May. The rainfall varies considerably, as, for instance, at Norfolk Road, three miles south of Inglewood, the rainfall for the year was 99.82 in. on 181 days; the maximum fall was 4.34in. on 26th August. The average rainfall at New Plymouth during the past six years was 63.99in., and at Norfolk Road for same period 102.56in.

Chief Towns.

The principal town of the district is New Plymouth (population about 4,200), situate on the seashore, about two miles from and to the north-east of the picturesque rocky islets known as the Sugar Loaves. The general appearance of the town is very attractive, and it abounds in neatly-kept gardens. The Recreation Grounds, from which a good view of Mount Egmont is obtained, form a favourite resort.

New Plymouth is 252 miles by rail from Wellington, the railway running in a northerly direction through the district from Patea to Sentry Hill, where it turns at right-angles westward for eight miles to New Plymouth. From Sentry Hill there is a branch line to Waitara, four miles distant.

The Port of New Plymouth is situated at the Sugar Loaves, two miles from the town. Protection for shipping is afforded by a concrete mole or breakwater running in a north-cast direction for a distance of 1,900 ft. Under the lee of this there is wharf-accommodation provided for the coastal trade. Steamers of 1,000 tons can be berthed here in almost all weathers. The wharf is connected with New Plymouth by both rail and road. The breakwater was built at a cost of £200,000, borrowed under security of one-fourth of the land revenue of the Provincial District of Taranaki, and the right to levy a rate over certain lands. The present rate levied is ½d. in the pound on the capital value. The principal over-sea exports from breakwater for the year (exclusive of all coastal trade) were: Bacon and hams, 14 tons; butter, 3,547 tons; cheese, 812 tons; fungus, 169 tons; leather, 2 tons; hides, 17 tons; preserved milk, 3,752 lb.; tallow, 8 tons; wool, 32 tons;—total value £336,965. Imports (over-sea): Value, £59,515. Customs duties for the year, £20,350. During the year 400 steamers entered and left the port: tonnage, 150,531, with crews numbering 8,372. The number of passengers to and from the breakwater by sea, 14,074.

Manufactures in New Plymouth are represented by a sash-and-door, a boot, butter-keg, and three coach factories, a brewery, a cordial, and also a patent-stopper factory, a flour-mill, tannery, fellmongery, bone-mill, and iron-foundry, with freezing-works and bacon-factory in the suburbs. The town has both water and gas laid on.

Hawera, the next largest town, is situate on the eastern edge of the Waimate Plains. The population is stated to be about 2,700, and the town is lit with gas. The Wellington-New Plymouth Railway runs close to it, the distance by rail from New Plymouth being about forty-eight miles. Hawera is surrounded by a first-class dairying and grazing country, capable of carrying a very large population. On 1st December, 1898, an up-to-date bacon-factory, costing some £1,200, commenced the work of killing and curing in Hawera. During the past season it has put through 2,000 pigs, the average weight being 140 lb., and price paid 3d. per lb.

The Town of Patea is situated on the coast, at the extreme southern end of the district, and has a population of about 800. There is a splendid grazing district inland, with a large area of land yet to be opened up. The principal industry is the boiling-down and canning of meat, and the Western Packing and Canning Company during the past season slaughtered forty-three thousand sheep, averaging 54 lb. each, and one thousand head of cattle, averaging 550 lb. each, the output being nine thousand cases of tinned meats, and 640 casks of tallow. There is also a dairy factory, which has two branch creameries in the country. A bacon-factory has also been established. Exports for 1899 were. Wool, 4,819 bales; fungus, 107 sacks; tallow, 1,146 casks; pelts, 573 casks; hides (loose), 8,272; corn, 751 sacks; grass, 1,195 sacks; butter, 2,303 cases; cheese, 470 cases; flax, 131 bales; meat, 8,910 cases; cattle, 12; bonedust, 530 sacks; potatoes, 287 sacks; bacon, 282 cases; pigs' feet, 10 sacks; sundries, 608 packages; empties, 786; runners, 104 casks. Imports: 6,850 packages; coal, 450 tons. The wharf age dues collected amounted to £1,499; dumping dues, £345; tonnage dues, £267. The number of steamers in and out, 149. The Harbour Board has an up-to-date wool-dumping press and hydraulic pumps. A new wharf and sheds are now in course of erection. A new flagstaff has also been erected at a cost of £91. The guide-pier has now been finished with the exception of pier-head, the cost to end of year being £4,944 16s. 7d., and the pilot reports a quicker scour and more water than formerly, although the past season has been the driest known for many years. An event of considerable importance to Patea was the arrival of a Home steamer, which anchored in the roadstead and took in cargo without difficulty. The width between the east and west pier-heads is 260 ft.; width of channel about 180ft., gradually narrowing to 100ft. as the beacons are approached. The pilot reports the depth of water at not less than 12ft. at high-water springs, and 9ft. at high-water neaps, with a straight channel.

Stratford, a comparatively young town, lies about midway between Patea and New Plymouth. It has already a population of about 1,800, and is growing fast. The height above sea-level is 1,000 ft., and the climate is bracing though somewhat moist. The main road to Auckland—known as the Stratford-Ongaruhe (now Ohura Road)—starts here. It has been formed as a cart-road for fifty-five miles, and as a bridle-road to fifty-eight miles. If the work is continued energetically, communication with Auckland should be opened up in about three years' time. A bacon-factory has just been started at Stratford under very favourable circumstances, and is likely to prove a public benefit, and also a financial success to the proprietary company. The works are on a fair scale and up to date. The machinery is driven by a 30-horse-power Victor turbine, the power being obtained from the Patea River through a tunnel 865 ft. long, cut across a bend in the river. The refrigerating engine is a 6-ton British Linde, while hot water is supplied from a high-pressure boiler in an adjoining building. The chilling-chamber holds about 120 carcases (or one day's killing); here they remain overnight, and are then passed on to the curing-room, a spacious compartment of 80ft. by 26 ft., capable of holding 1,000 carcases; from here they pass to the drying-room, of same size and capacity, on the upper story. A brick smoke-house, capable of dealing with 600 pieces at a time, has also been erected. The piggeries and slaughter-house are about a mile from the works, and are connected by tramway; the former consists of twenty compartments holding ten pigs each, and are conveniently arranged for feeding, &c. the output during the past season being 3,532 pigs; average weight, 140 lb.; price, about 3d. per lb. On the Eltham-Opunake Road another factory, called the“Pioneer Bacon Factory,” was started by Mr. Buchanan in 1897, putting through this year 2,981 pigs; price given, about 3d. per lb.

Waitara, a seaport town of 760 inhabitants, is situated on the river of the same name, a mile up from the sea, and about ten miles north-east from New Plymouth. The Mount Egmont Freezing-works have passed into the hands of a new company, and continued running on the old lines from 1st January to 12th July, when they were closed down, and the place has been practically rebuilt and enlarged, the storage capacity now being for 25,000 carcases of mutton, together with five freezing rooms, capable of hanging 1,200 carcases, also a beef-chilling room and a mutton-chilling room. Provision is made at the slaughterhouse for accommodation of fourteen mutton and three beef butchers. The freezing-plant is a 60-ton Hercules, and is guaranteed to freeze 1,500 sheep per day. The boiling-down and tallow department is most complete and up-to-date, and a large manure plant is now in course of erection. The works are fitted throughout with electric light. The following produce was dealt with during the year: 11,648 quarters of beef, weighing 2,147,744 lb.; 10,721 carcases of mutton, weighing 599,178 lb.; Iamb, 6,307 carcases, weighing 199,232 lb.; 9,270 legs of mutton, weighing 85,831 lb.; pieces of mutton, 18,214, weighing 150,567 lb.; butter, 655 boxes, besides some 5,000 boxes exported from the works on account of the Taranaki Freezing Company. 673 pigs were also killed and frozen at the works on account of the Stratford Bacon Factory Company, but these were not exported. All produce is conveyed on board the New Zealand Shipping Company's ocean-going steamers (which anchor in Waitara roadstead) in specially constructed and insulated bags. These works are gazetted as Government grading and cool stores, which is a great convenience for outside dairy factories, as it avoids risk of injury to their produce after it has been graded. The exports from the port during the year were: 186½ tons grain, 187¼ tons tallow, 1,185 hides 80 bundles skins, 363 sacks potatoes, 2,026 bales wool, 305 sacks chaff, 29½ tons flour, 343 head of cattle, 433 sheep, 67 pigs, 14 horses, 124,584ft. timber, 195½ tons butter, 2,792,832 lb. of frozen meat, 563¾ tons of general cargo, 2½ tons pelts; total exports, 3,142 tons. Imports: 421¾ tons grain, 5 tons potatoes, 278¾ tons manure, 140¼ tons lime, 675,800 ft. timber, 4,452¾ tons coal, 228 bales wool, 24 bales fungus, 55 hides, 20 bundles skins, 1,162¾ tons flour, 4 horses, 370 sheep, 4,359¼ tons general cargo; total imports for the year, 12,225 tons. 180 steamers and 36 sailing vessels, a gross tonnage of 35,932 tons, entered and cleared for the year, besides seven ocean-going steamers, which anchored in the roadstead.

Inglewood, situated on the railway-line, sixteen miles south-east of New Plymouth, is a flourishing little town of some 810 inhabitants, rapidly coming to the front. During current season a bacon-factory has been started, and its three months' run has put through 1,200 pigs; average dead weight, 140lb.; price given, 3d. per lb. for pigs from 112lb. to 160lb., and 2¾d. from 160 lb. to 180 lb. dead weight. The factory is worked by a 24 in. turbine, the water being conveyed in a race 10 chains long. It is provided with a four-horse-power tubular boiler, a Lard jacket, and Californian pump. There is also a size D ammonia refrigerating machine.

The only other towns of importance are Eltham, population, 800; Opunake, population, 430; Manaia, population, 480; and Normanby, population, 410.

Roads and Railways.

The chief means of communication is the railway from Wellington, which traverses the district between Patea and New Plymouth—a distance of sixty-six miles. Trains run every day between New Plymouth and Palmerston North—164 miles—and on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays there are through trains between New Plymouth and Wellington—252 miles. The Main North Road rune from New Plymouth, passing through the Towns of Waitara and Urenui; it is formed as a cart-road as far as Pukearuhe, a distance of thirty miles. From here a horse track partly on the beach connects with the Mokau and Awakino Rivers, and from Mokau there is a road to Te Kuiti, in the Auckland District. At twenty-four miles and a half from New Plymouth and about three miles beyond Urenui a new main road has been formed up the Mimi Valley and over the main range east of Mount Messenger, thence down Tongaporutu Valley to near the sea, where it joins the old road. It is hoped that this road will be opened for traffic during the year, and, although some eight miles longer than the other, it will, when a bridge has been erected over the Tongaporutu River, always be available independent of tides. About midway between New Plymouth and Waitara on the above road the Mountain Road diverges and runs almost due south, and chiefly along the railway, for a distance of forty miles, connecting with the Main South Road at the Town of Hawera. This is at present the principal road in the district, tapping, as it does, large numbers of district roads, and passing through the Towns of Inglewood, Midhurst, Stratford, Eltham, Normanby, and Hawera.

The Ohura Road branches from the Mountain Road at Stratford. It is formed and open for traffic as a dray road for fifty-five miles from Stratford and for horsetraffic to fifty-eight miles. A coach runs in summer time every Tuesday and Friday (returning on following days) between Stratford and Whangamomona Village, a distance of forty-one miles, fare, 12s. 6d. each way; and the road is now being extended into the interior so as eventually to connect with Auckland, and will open up a large area of fertile country.

The Main South Road from New Plymouth follows the trend of the coast to the south, and was at one time the coach-road to Wellington. It passes through the Villages of Omata, Oakura, Okato, Rahotu, Otakeho, Manutahi South, and Kakaramea, and the Towns of Opunake, Manaia, Hawera, and Patea.

The Junction Road runs south-east from New Plymouth, and crosses the Mountain Road and railway at Inglewood, thirteen miles out; it is metalled for thirty-five miles, formed as a dray-road to forty-one miles, thence as a bridle-road to forty-seven miles, where it connects with the Ohura Road at a distance of thirty-one miles from Stratford. This road crosses a number of district roads; hence its name.

The Opunake Road runs from Stratford to Opunake, twenty-six miles, skirting the southern base of Mount Egmont. It is formed and metalled for twelve miles from Stratford; the remainder is open for horse-traffic only. Vehicular traffic turns down the Manaia Road to Kaponga, thence along the Eltham-Opunake Road to the latter place. This route is metalled throughout.

The Eltham Road runs from Eltham to Opunake, twenty-five miles, connecting with the Opunake Road at Punehu, seven miles from Opunake. This is formed and metalled throughout.

The other main roads in course of construction are the Awakino Road, branching from the Main North Road at the Mimi; the Rawhitiroa Road, leaving the Mountain Road near Eltham; the Waitotara Valley Road, starting from the Main South Road at Waitotara Township; and the Otaraoa, Moki, and Okoke Roads.

Crown Lands available for Settlement.

 Acres.
Native lands undealt with, 1899326,250
Native lands purchased, 1899-1900  56,000
 270,250
Crown lands available for settlement (as per annual returns)567,000
                                                   Total                        837,250

Of the above, about 150,000 acres are open valleys and hills in the north-east corner of the district; a good deal of it more or less pumice-land, but still suitable for grazing. From the rest may be subtracted perhaps 10,000 acres for area absorbed by rivers, gorges, &c., and there remain 677,000 acres of forest-land yet to be dealt with. Of this area perhaps 50,000 acres, made up of strips of flats and terraces, may be suitable for agriculture; while the balance—627,000 acres—will be good pastoral land.

It may be said, in conclusion, that there is every sign of genuine prosperity throughout the district, which has advanced rapidly during the last few years, and will no doubt continue to do so.

Chapter 77. THE HAWKE's BAY LAND DISTRICT.

E. C. Gold-Smith, Chief Surveyor

The Land District of Hawke's Bay comprises that portion of the east coast of the North Island from Cape Turnagain, in latitude 40° 30', northwards to Lottin Point, about thirty miles beyond the East Cape, and contains the Waiapu, Cook, Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, Waipawa, and Patangata Counties.

It has a seaboard of 300 miles, with an average depth from the coast of forty-five miles, and embraces an area of 6,063,000 acres. Its western limit is defined by the Ruahine, Kaweka, Ahimanawa, Raukumara, and other high ranges that form the watershed between the rivers flowing through it to the sea, and those that run to the west coast and the Bay of Plenty.

Physical Features.

The Ruahine Range extends northwards for about sixty miles from the Manawatu Gorge as far as the valley of the Ngaruroro River. Its altitude varies from 3,000ft. to 6,000ft., and for a considerable distance its summit is snow-clad during the winter months.

The Kaweka, a shorter range, divided from the Ruahine by the Ngaruroro River, attains an altitude of 5,650 ft., is very rugged and steep, and a prominent feature in the landscape in winter, covered as it then is with snow.

From these two ranges, which fall very abruptly on the Hawke's Bay side, the land slopes gradually to the sea, forming in some parts fine rolling hills—the essence of a sheep-country—in others extensive plains, with comparatively little poor soil.

Northwards from the Kaweka there is a series of forest-clad ranges of varying height, stretching away in the direction of the East Cape. Hikurangi, the highest point, is a bold peak with an elevation of 5,606 ft., rising so abruptly on all sides that the ascent can be made only at one point, and that with difficulty.

The only lake in the district of any extent is Waikaremoana, so famous for its magnificent scenery. It lies about thirty-five miles inland of the Wairoa (Clyde), and is eleven miles in length, with a breadth at the widest part of about eight miles. Nestled among precipitous mountain-ranges, wooded to the water's edge, with numerous bays and inlets, it has a natural beauty hardly to be surpassed.

From Wairoa there is a formed road to the lake, and sixteen miles round it, as far as the Mokau Falls and River.

The principal plains are: (1.) The Ruataniwha, some fifty miles south of Napier. This is 120 square miles in extent, is for the most part occupied as sheepruns, and carries a large quantity of stock. (2.) The Heretaunga Plain, with an area of ninety square miles, lying immediately to the south of Napier. This is rich alluvial land; a large portion is thickly settled, the remainder used for grazing and agriculture. The only other plain of any extent is at Poverty Bay. It has an area of sixty-five square miles, is very fertile, well cultivated, and bears a large population.

The land district is well watered throughout by numerous rivers and streams, but none are navigable except the Wairoa and Turanganui, and these only for vessels of light draught. They are both tidal, and serve as ports to the Towns of Wairoa (Clyde) and Gisborne.

Communication.

The chief outlets from Napier are three in number. Firet the Napier-Wellington Railway, which traverses the centre of the southern half of the district for its whole length of 100 miles, and may be called the main artery of communication. Parallel to it throughout runs an excellent gravelled road, which was made before the construction of the railway. On either side there are numerous branch roads, which act as feeders, making a very complete system of internal transit. Another main road runs in a westerly direction to Kuripapanga, distant forty-five miles, a favourite resort in the summer time, removed as it is from the heat of the country near the coast. A coach runs thither twice a week, and on thence to Inland Patea, where the Napier Road meets the roads to Hunterville, Tokaanu, and the Wanganui River.

The part, of the district served by these two main lines—viz., that between Napier and Woodville—contains the greater portion of the population, and from the extent of arable land within it is likely in the future to be very thickly peopled. Notwithstanding that so much of the Native land in this part is unoccupied and in its natural state, there are nearly a million of acres of land in sown grasses, carrying 2,750,000 sheep and 80,000 little, and the population, inclusive of towns and villages, is about 36,000 persons.

The only main road northwards from Napier is the coach route to Taupo, which, soon after leaving the fertile Petane Valley, begins to traverse poor country, and twenty-five miles out enters the light pumice soil.

From Napier to the Wairoa the journey must be done on horseback, as there is a break of twenty-three miles between Tutira and Mohaka unfit for wheeled traffic; but this is being gradually remedied. As a natural consequence, the traffic between these two places has to be done by small steamers.

From the Wairoa a main road runs northward, through the Village of Tiniroto and on to Gisborne, a distance of seventy-five miles. For a considerable distance it runs through hilly country, and, as it has not been gravelled, wheeled traffic is suspended during the winter months; but a coach runs weekly for nine or ten months out of the year.

Between Gisborne and Opotiki, in the Bay of Plenty, communication is not good. The road, which is 120 miles in length, has been formed only to the edge of the Motu Forest, a distance of fifty miles. In the neighbourhood of the forest a large area of Crown lands has been taken up and settled in the last few years. The rest of the journey must be done on horseback.

In the country north of Gisborne, formed roads for wheeled traffic are few in number, and not continuous; but small steamers trade regularly along the coast, calling in at Tolago and Tokomaru Bays, Waipiro, Tuparoa, Awauni, Kawakawa, and other small bays.

Pastoral Industries.

The Hawke's Bay Land District is pre-eminently a sheep-grazing country. The extent of land in sown grasses was, in November, 1899, no less than 2,320,505 acres, while 2,042,789 acres were in tussock or native grass. In April of that year there were 4,612,877 sheep, 141, 017 cattle, and 27,588 horses. The value of the wool exported from the district during the twelve months ending 31st March, 1900, was £895,934, and the quantity 31,860,943 lb.

Freezing-works are now established at Tomoana, Port Ahuriri, and Gisborue, and the export of frozen meat for the year ending 31st March, 1900, was 283,629 cwt., the value being £296,018. This industry gives employment to a large number of persons, both directly to those engaged in breeding, shearing, freezing, and shipping, and indirectly to those who labour at bushfelling, grass-seed sowing, fencing, and otherwise opening up new country. Nor must the cutting of the immense amount of firewood consumed at the works be forgotten. All this benefits the settler with limited means, by providing him with funds to improve his holding, and to this is due, in a great measure, the general prosperity.

Agricultural Pursuits.

Agriculture is not carried on to the extent it might be with so much land suitable for root- and grain-crops. No doubt this is due to the profits made in sheepfarming. It is chiefly confined to the Heretaunga Plains and the flat lands near Gisborne. The soil is favourable to root-crops; potatoes range from 12 to 15 tons to the acre, and in some instances exceed this amount. Only a moderate quantity of grain is grown; barley, for which the soil seems well adapted, returning from 20 to 60 bushels of good sample to the acre.

Dairying.

Settlers are now turning their attention to dairying, and lately factories have been established in the bush districts at Norsewood, Ormondville, Maharahara, and Woodville, whilst several others are in contemplation. At the last-mentioned town a cheese-factory has been in existence for some years, and turns out an excellent article much sought after in other parts of the colony.

Timber Industry.

The timber industry is considerable, numerous sawmills being in full work in different parts of the district. In the forest between Takapau and Woodville there are twelve, with an estimated yearly output of 10,000,000 ft. This tract of forest is the one most used for milling purposes, and will yield a plentiful supply for a long time to come, notwithstanding that for years past a large amount of totara timber has been taken out of it to send to other parts of the colony. Further north there is no totara to speak of, though rimu, white-pine, and other milling timbers are to be found scattered throughout the forests, and in the Poverty Bay District puriri is found in some quantity. There were 1,691,227 superficial feet of timber, value £5,652, exported from Napier during the year ending 31st March, 1900.

Other Industries.

Other industries, such as fellmongories, soap-works, boot, coach, and sash-and-door factories. &c., are established in the principal towns.

Climate.

The climate is generally of a mild character, and, though hot along the coastlands in the height of summer, it is, owing to the dryness of the atmosphere, not so relaxing as in parts of the island farther north. The rainfall is light, excepting in the bush districts and high inland country.

Napier itself is recommended by many medical men as a resort for invalids suffering from pulmonary complaints, chiefly on account of the mildness of its winter season. During the year ending 31st December, 1898, rain fell only on eighty-one days, the total fall recorded being 35 in., while the average rainfall for the last thirty-three years is 37.070 in.

Towns.

Napier is pleasantly situated on the peninsula known as Scinde Island, which is joined to the mainland by a narrow shingle-bank several miles in length. It is a busy town, with a population of 9,486. The business part is on the flat land at the foot of the group of hills that take up the greater part of the peninsula. These hills, formerly barren and waste, are now occupied by numerous private residences, and the very general tree-planting has given the upper town a distinctive and pleasing character. There is an excellent water-supply, derived wholly from artesian wells of large size, and pumped by machinery to reservoirs on the tops of the hills. The shipping trade, as the large exports show, is especially active during the wool and frozen-meat season. It is still carried on at Port Ahuriri, about a mile from the town; but has recently, in a large measure, been transferred to the fine breakwater which is now almost completed. During the year ending 31st December, 1899, the imports amounted to £212,875, and the exports to £988,466.

Gisborne, the trade-centre and port of what is known as the Poverty Bay District, is a prosperous town of about 2,500 inhabitants, rapidly increasing in size and importance, as the large quantity of unimproved land in the Cook County is fast becoming settled and made productive. There are 824,129 sheep now in Cook County, and Gisborne's exports amounted to £283,906 in 1899.

Clyde, the county town and port of the Wairoa County, is picturesquely situated on the Wairoa River, about three miles from the mouth. The river is navigable for small craft as far as the village of Frasertown, twelve miles further up.

With a few exceptions, the towns and villages to the south of Napier are all situated on the line of railway running from that city to Palmerston North. The principal are: Hastings, a rising town of 3,300 inhabitants, Waipawa, Waipukurau, Dannevirke, and finally Woodville, about three miles from the Manawatu Gorge, and distant ninety-eight miles from Napier. It is at this end of the district that the Crown has, in the last few years, successfully planted settlement, and, in place of the continuous forest known as the Seventy-mile Bush of earlier days, there are now prosperous townships, with various thriving industries established.

Crown Lands.

The land held by tenants of the Crown, of whom there are 790 in the district, under the various systems of tenure, amounts to 504,221 acres, and there remain about 400,000 acres not yet dealt with in any manner.

The latter is, for the most part, suitable for pastoral purposes only, any fit for agriculture lying in small, isolated spots, widely scattered, and such as could not be selected independently of the surrounding inferior land. Nearly the whole is broken forest country, fitted more for sheep than cattle, and having an average carrying-capacity, when cleared, of about one sheep to the acre, though the best of it might possibly graze from two to three. The land is chiefly in the Hangaroa, Koranga, Mangatoro, Norsewood, and Motu Districts, and the back-country of the Waiapu County.

About 11,260 acres are now open for selection, in addition to small grazing-runs to the extent of over 42,000 acres. In the Waiau Survey District, near Waikare-moana, there are over 8,000 acres, also hilly country, of limestone formation. In the Motu District, between Gisborne and Opotiki, there are about 16,000 acres open, and in the Mata and Hikurangi Survey Districts, situated from fifteen to twenty miles inland from Waipiro, there are 13,700 acres of rough forest limestone country, at the present time not easy to get at; but a road to the block will shortly be put in hand. There are also 1,000 acres open in the Pohui District, about twenty-eight miles north of Napier, and other blocks near Dannevirke.

Native Lands.

Of the Native lands in this district, a very considerable portion has been leased to Europeans, but there still remains in the hands of the Maoris a valuable estate, comprising both agricultural and pastoral country, and including some 800,000 acres of excellent land. This land lies for the most part in the Waiapu County, towards the East Cape.

Chapter 78. THE WELLINGTON LAND DISTRICT.

J. W. A. Marchant, Chief Surveyor

The Wellington Land District is bounded on the north by the Districts of Auckland and Hawke's Bay, on the west by that of Taranaki, on the east by the sea, and on the south and south-west by Cook Strait. The area contained within these limits is about 6,810,958 acres. It lies between the parallels of 39° and 41° 30' south latitude; its greatest length north and south is about 180 miles, and its mean width east and west about sixty miles.

General Physical Features.

The district is divided into two well-defined parts by a mountain range, which forms part of the backbone of the North Island. At its northern end this range—there known by the name of Ruahine, and averaging a height of about 4,000 ft.—divides Wellington from Hawke's Bay; but after passing the point where it is intersected by the Manawatu River, the range takes the name of Tararua for many miles, until, at about forty miles from the termination on the shores of Cook Strait, it divides into two main ranges, known respectively under the general names of Rimutaka and Tararua, both ranges averaging from 2,500 ft. to 3,500 ft. in height, the highest point being Mitre Peak, 5,154 ft. Parallel to the main range, and divided from it by the Wairarapa Plain and the undulating country to the north, is a series of ranges at a few miles inland from the East Coast, known as the Puketoi, Taipo, Maungaraki, and Haurangi Ranges. Lying on the northern border of the district are the Kaimanawa Ranges, offshoots from the Ruahine. They are for the most part open and grass-covered, rising to a mean height of about 4,500 ft. Westward from the latter mountains, and divided from them by a deep, broad valley, in which flow the Waikato and Wangaehu Rivers, is the volcanic chain of mountains containing Ruapehu, 9,008 ft., and Ngauruhoe, an active volcano, 7,515 ft. high. The long sweeping curve of Cook Strait, forming the south-western limit of the district, is bordered, from the Patea River to within thirty miles of Wellington, by a comparatively level and undulating country, now nearly all under cultivation, having an average width of about fifteen miles. This is one of the finest parts of the colony, and is celebrated for its stock-raising capabilities. It was originally in a great measure open, though the southern part, where the plain is narrowed in between the sea and the Tararua Range, has a good deal of forest on it, now fast disappearing under the axe of the settler.

Inland of this coastal plain, at varying distances from the sea, the country gradually rises to a mean height of about 1,500 ft. to 1,800 ft., and becomes a good deal broken in character. It was originally forest-clad almost throughout. It is much cut up by rivers and streams flowing from the interior to the sea, of which the principal, commencing from the north, are these: The Waitotara, the Wanganui, the Wangaehu, the Rangitikei, the Oroua, the Pohhangina, and the Manawatu, which last, after leaving the gorge in the Ruahine Ranges, runs through level land to its mouth in Cook Strait. This broken country, being everywhere composed of papa, or marly formation, which takes grass excellently, promises in the near future to be a large sheep-carrying district.

At about fifteen miles south of the volcanic peaks of Ruapehu Mountain the papa country terminates in a fairly well-marked escarpment, giving place to a more level and undulating country formed of volcanic matter, the greater portion of which is forest-clad, though on the south-east, east, and west sides of that mountain there are open grassy plains, of no great fertility, but yet suited to pastoral pursuits.

To the eastward of the main range formed by the Rimutaka and Tararua Ranges is the great depression known at its southern end as the Wairarapa Plain, which gradually rises northwards from the lake of that name into wooded, somewhat broken country, of no great height, at a distance of some forty-five miles from the sea. From here the country falls again slightly to the Upper Manawatu River, the depression in this part being marked by the extensive flats in the neighbourhood of Pahiatua, and by the shallow valleys of the Mangahao, Mangatainoko, and Tiraumea Rivers and their branches. For thirty miles from the sea this great valley is mostly open, with patches of forest here and there, but becomes more plentifully wooded at the base of the Rimutaka and Tararua Ranges. The quality of the soil varies from light and stony, on the Wairarapa Plains proper, to rich papa country, as the northern end is approached. The southern end of this country is watered by the Ruamahanga River and its tributaries. Generally the district is a pastoral one, though agriculture is also pursued successfully. The neighbourhood of the Puketoi Ranges is in many places composed of limestone, and promises in the future to become a very rich pastoral district, such as will carry a considerable population. In the forks formed by the Tararua and Rimutaka Ranges the Hutt River takes its rise, and runs in a southerly direction through an undulating or level country, finally falling into Port Nicholson. The valley contains some very fine land, generally held in small holdings.

Plains.

The two most important of these have already been mentioned. On the eastern side of the main range the Wairarapa extends northward from the lake of that name for about forty-seven miles, with an average width of about nine miles. In some parts, especially on the flats along the Ruamahanga River, the soil is alluvial and rich; in others, though stony and unfit for cultivation, it is nevertheless grassed, and carries stock well in the winter and rainy seasons. The plain is watered by the Waiohine, Waingawa, and Ruamahanga Rivers, and contains altogether about 200,000 acres, much of which is good agricultural land. On the other side of the district, west of the Tararua and Ruahine Ranges, there is a large block of land so nearly level that it may be called a plain, extending from Paikakariki (thirty miles from Wellington) to Marton (a few miles north of the Rangitikei River), and contains about half a million acres. Starting as a narrow strip between the hills and the sea, the plain widens out by degrees until at Fielding it is at least twenty miles in breadth. Along the beach runs a fringe of sandhills, but behind this is to be found some of the best farming and grazing land in the colony. There are two plains inland—Murimotu and Waimarino—both lying some 2,200 ft. above sea-level, in the neighbourhood of Mount Ruapehu, the former to the south and the latter to the north-west of the mountain. The soil is covered with a coarse native tussock, and, though capable of carrying stock, is of a light porous nature, and cannot be classed as agricultural land.

Rivers.

First among these is the Wanganui—“the Rhine of New Zealand”—with a length of over 110 miles from its source, near Mount Tongariro, to its outlet. The Rangitikei, the next in size, rises in the Ruahine Mountains, and flows through the Awarua country, where it is joined by the Hautapu and other large tributaries. After a course of over a hundred miles it reaches the sea some little distance below the Township of Bulls, on the West Coast. The Manawatu is third in importance. Rising in the Ruahine Range, it flows through the picturesque Manawatu Gorge, joining the sea at the port of Foxton. Lesser rivers on the West Coast are the Waitotara (north of Wanganui), the Wangaehu (which takes its rise in Mount Ruapehu, and from its source to its mouth is so strongly impregnated with sulphur that fish cannot live in it), the Turakina, and the Otaki. The only other rivers of any size are the Hutt (Heretaunga), emptying itself into the Wellington Harbour, the Ruamahanga, flowing through the Wairarapa Valley and lakes into Palliser Bay, and on the East Coast the Pahaoa, Aohanga, and Akitio.

Lakes.

The only lake of any size in the Wellington District is the Wairarapa, lying between the Rimutaka and Haurangi Ranges, towards the southern end of the Wairarapa Valley. It is about twelve miles long and four broad, and is connected by the Ruamahanga River with Onoke, a small lake separated from Palliser Bay by a narrow shingle spit only. A passage through the spit is opened from time to time when the lake rises above its natural level and overflows the low-lying flats along its margin. Water-fowl of every kind—among them numbers of black swans—are to be found round about these lakes.

Scenery.

The views obtained from the railway-line in the ascent and descent of the Rimutaka Range are among the best in the neighbourhood of Wellington, and the road through the Forty-mile Bush was long considered one of the most beautiful drives in the North Island; but much of its pristine beauty has been destroyed by the felling of the bush consequent on the increase of settlement. The same may be said of the Manawatu Gorge, famed in the old coaching days for its lovely scenery, but now sadly marred by the construction of the railway-line. The most beautiful drive now left is through the Awarua Bush, from Ohingaiti to Moawhango. From this road, as it winds round the spurs, most charming glimpses are obtained of the Rangitikei River and the blue hills beyond, and at other points the traveller looks up deep ravines where the graceful fern-tree stands out in bright relief against the dark green of the native bush. Another road from Pipiriki, on the Wanganui River, to the Murimotu Plain, traverses one of the most magnificent forests in the North Island. Here the bushman's axe has felled only the timber standing on the road-line, and the track runs beneath the shade of the largest and stateliest maire and rimu known. Beautiful as these drives are, the scenery on the Wanganui River is still more lovely. A few miles below Taumaranui the river enters a series of gorges, shut in by high precipitous cliffs. Sometimes the canoe glides slowly through quiet reaches, sometimes shoots rapids which make the traveller hold his breath till they are passed, and then again traverses places where the water is ever in turmoil, boiling and eddying in whirlpools, taxing the energies of the most skilful Native steersman, and testing the nerve of the most courageous tourist. These experiences, with the views obtained of the banks, densely wooded even where the papa rock rises almost straight from the water's edge, make the eighty miles journey from Taumaranui to Pipiriki an event not easily effaced from the memory. Between Pipiriki and Wanganui excellent steamers are now running, so that the beauties of the lower part of the river may be seen by all without trouble or discomfort.

Forests.

The Wellington District is essentially a forest country, for out of the 6,810,958 acres contained within its borders about 3,000,000 are still under bush. By far the largest forest is the Waimarino, having an area of at least three-quarter million acres, a large portion of it being nearly level land, containing magnificent timber, principally totara, maire, matai, rimu, and other pines. This forest is as yet hardly touched, though one sawmill has lately been started at Raetihi to cut timber for the settlers now making their homes in the neighbourhood. The distance from the settled districts or any port will render the timber in this part useless as a marketable commodity until the country is opened up by the proposed Auckland Main Trunk Railway.

The next in size is the Rangitikei-Hautapu Forest, containing an area of about 350,000 acres, a considerable portion in the Awarua Block being first-class milling timber, which will be available as soon as the extension of the Hunterville Railway-line taps it. Between this and the Waimarino Forest there is a large extent of bush-land, drained by the Turakina, Mangamahu, and Wangaehu Rivers, extending up to the Wanganui River, and containing about 300,000 acres. Very little of this, from its inaccessibility, will be utilised for sawmilling purposes, but a great deal of it, together with a further block of 230,000 acres on the west side of the Wanganui River, will be cleared by the settlers and sown down with grass. A further block of about 100,000 acres of forest-land lies in the Pohangina Valley and on the slopes of the Ruahine Range. A large portion of this has been taken up and is now being settled.

The forest-land on the West Coast extends from Pukerua to the Manawatu Gorge, on the west side of the Tararua Range, and contains an area of about 300,000 acres, the bulk of it being fit only for turning into pasture. The most available part of it, alongside the Wellington-Manawatu Railway, is being extensively cut into by sawmillers at Levin and other places on the line.

After this in size is the forest on the eastern slopes of the Tararua Ranges, extending from Featherston to the Manawatu Gorge, which includes what remains of the well-known Forty-mile Bush, containing probably about 175,000 acres. Portion of this area is being quickly denuded of timber by the sawmills established at Pahiatua, Newman, Hukanui, Eketahuna, and by settlers. A tract of about 50,000 acres lying to the east of the Puketoi Range cannot be utilised for milling purposes, as it is not tapped by any branch railway-line, and its distance from the main line would probably render the business unprofitable except for local purposes. Nor are there any suitable ports along the coast where timber could be shipped.

The other forests are, one near Lake Taupo, and the Haurangi Forest on the east side of the Wairarapa Lake. These consist for the most part of birch-covered hills, and cannot be considered as valuable for milling purposes.

Soil.

It may be said that the Wellington Land District contains within its borders a greater quantity of good land than any other in the North Island, very little, except the mountain-tops, being unfitted for use, while some of it is of very superior quality, suited for the growth of the productions of every temperate climate. As much of it is still forest-clad, settlers must look forward to having to make their farms by felling and burning the bush before grass can be sown, and, as it takes from ten to fifteen years before the plough can be used in bush-land, grazing, for which the climate and soil is admirably adapted, will be the principal industry for sometime to come. It is generally calculated that the cost of felling and burning ordinary bush varies from 25s. to 35s. an acre. To this must be added about 20s. for seed and fencing. It is no uncommon thing for a return to be received at from twelve to eighteen months after felling. The usual practice is to put sheep on to the new lands soon after the grass has obtained a good hold. The process of improving the lands by the gradual“logging up” and burning of the fallen tree-trunks is a long one, but it pays in the end, for in this way fine pasture-lands are obtained on the hills, and agricultural lands on the flats.

Climate.

The climate of Wellington District is healthy and mild, the mean annual temperature (in the city) being 55.4, whilst the mean rainfall is 48.49in. per annum. The rainfall differs, however, according to locality. Inland and near the ranges it is much greater. The top of Ruapehu Mountain is covered with perpetual snow, which lies also on the tops of Kaimanawa, Ruahine, and Tararua in the winter. Frosts are heavy in the interior.

Harbours and Ports.

The coasts of Wellington are not so well supplied in this respect as are some other parts of the colony; but what is lost in number is made up in a great measure by the excellence of the chief haven—Port Nicholson—which, from the position it occupies, at the meeting-point, as it were, of the coastal traffic of both Islands, and from its sheltered position and depth of water, may be considered one of the most convenient harbours in the world. The Wanganui River, which has been considerably improved by artificial means, is the second port in the district, and has a considerable trade carried on by coastal steamers. Patea and Manawatu Rivers are also used by coastal steamers, whilst several other places along the shore afford shelter and stopping-places, according to the direction of the wind. The extension of railways along both coasts has, in a large measure, done away with the inconveniences arising from want of harbours.

Towns.

The capital of the colony—Wellington—is situated in the south-west angle of Port Nicholson, on Lambton Harbour. The wharfage accommodation here is second to none in the colony, and the wharves present always a busy scene of life with the numerous steamers and sailing-vessels continuously loading or discharging. As many as four ocean-going steamers are not infrequently seen alongside, loading with wool, frozen meat, and other products, for conveyance to Europe. The port possesses a patent slip at Evans' Bay, within a short distance of the city. Founded in 1840 by the New Zealand Company, the city occupies the flats skirting the original shore-line, long since obliterated by the reclamation of the foreshore, which is now mostly covered with fine buildings. Rising close behind the old shore-line is a range of hills, the lower parts of which are all built over. The population of the city at the present time is about 43,000. Being the seat of Government, it contains the residence of the Governor and the headquarters of the Government departments, which are placed in what is said to be the largest wooden building in the Southern Hemisphere. There are several noticeable public buildings, amongst which must be mentioned the Parliamentary Buildings, containing a valuable library, General Post Office, Government Life Insurance Offices, Public Library, School of Art, and Harbour Board Offices. The Colonial Museum, under the management of Sir James Hector; and the Botanical Gardens, are also worthy of notice. The city is lighted by electricity, and its streets are well kept and clean, whilst an excellent supply of water is obtained from the Wainui-o-mata River, on the other side of the harbour. The principal industries are represented by iron and brass-foundries, sawmills, soap-and-candle works, boot-factories, aerated water, meat-freezing works, coach-building, rope-and-twine work, sash-and-door factories, brick, tile, and pottery-works, besides a match-factory and innumerable other smaller works of various kinds. The city is increasing with rapid strides; its excellent position, together with the fine back-country, places it in the front rank of New Zealand towns. Its principal suburbs are Onslow, Melrose, and Karori, each containing from 1,000 to 2,500 inhabitants.

The Township of Petone is situated near the mouth of the Hutt River, seven miles from Wellington, on the railway-line. It has a population of 3,250, and is a rising township, containing the Government Railway Workshops, a woollen factory, with a meat-freezing and preserving establishment. The Lower Hutt, almost immediately adjoining, has also a large population, and some well-built residences with beautiful gardens. The Upper Hutt, situated at the head of the valley, has many small farms, owned by some of the very early settlers. The railway here starts the ascent of the Rimutaka Range.

Featherston, situated at the foot of the Wairarapa Valley, fifty-one miles by rail from Wellington, is a small township, with butter-and cheese-factories in the neighbourhood. Roads lead from it to Martinborough and the East Coast, and also down the Wairarapa Valley to Palliser Bay.

Greytown North is situated three miles off the main line of railway, and near the middle of the Wairarapa Valley, fifty-three miles from Wellington. The chief industries are sawmilling and coachbuilding. The population is 1,100 persons.

A few miles further north is the Town of Carterton, where are to be found timber-mills, cheese-factories, &c., and a population of 1,300 persons. There is some splendid farming land in this locality on the banks of the Ruamahanga River.

Masterton is situated at the head of the Wairarapa Valley, on the Wellington-Eketahuna Railway, sixty-seven miles from the capital. It is the centre of an agricultural and pastoral country, and has a population of 3,800. It is lit by gas, and has several industries, such as fellmongery, rope-making, flax-mills, coach-factory, &c., and, in addition, has some excellent fish-breeding ponds, from which many of the rivers in the colony have been supplied with trout. An important coach-road leads from here through a fine pastoral district to Tinui, and on to Castlepoint on the East Coast, where a large quantity of wool is annually shipped to Wellington for export.

North of Masterton is the Opaki Plain, and beyond is the entrance of the once famous Forty-mile Bush, which is now fast becoming a thriving pastoral, agricultural, and dairying district. Butter-factories have been established at Hastwell and Mauriceville, where a large number of Scandinavians are settled, forming hardworking and thriving communities.

Eketahuna is, by rail and road, ninety-four miles from Wellington. From there a main road leads to Alfredton, and up the Tiraumea Valley, through the East Puketoi country, to Weber and Dannevirke, on the Napier Railway-line.

Pahiatua, a rising township about fifteen miles beyond Eketahuna, has a resident population of 1,200. It is the county and market-town of a large and improving district, and will probably also become the centre of a large dairying industry. Several branch roads run from Pahiatua into the adjoining country, the principal one leading to Makuri through a beautifully-wooded gorge. From there another branch road passes over the Makuri saddle into the East Puketoi country.

On the West Coast, Pahautanui, at the head of the Porirua Harbour, is the centre of a small agricultural community of early settlers, the old coach-road to Paikakariki running through it; and there is a branch-road leading over to Hayward's in the Hutt Valley. Paikakariki, twenty-seven miles from Wellington, may be considered the commencing-point of the West Coast settlements, which are springing up in every available valley along the coast. At Otaki, forty-seven miles from Wellington, by rail and road, there is a small township, and a large Native settlement. At Manukau, Levin, and Shannon, small townships have arisen since the Manawatu Railway Company opened up the land round about, much of it being rich farming and grazing country. Between Shannon and the Manawatu River there is a large raupo or flax swamp, named Makurarua, containing at least 15,000 acres of fine alluvial soil, which is being gradually drained by the company, and will probably at some future period become grazing-land.

Foxton, a township at the mouth of the Manawatu River, is a small shipping port, containing about 1,100 inhabitants. It is connected with Palmerston North by a branch railway, and is the outlet for a large area of good agricultural land.

Palmerston North is an inland town at the junction of the Wellington-New Plymouth and the Palmerston-Napier Railways, situated on a fine plain in the midst of a most excellent farming district at a point eighty-eight miles from Wellington, and 110 miles from Napier. Its population is now upwards of 6,300. It is lit with gas, and has a good water-supply. A fine bridge across the Manawatu River connects it with the Fitzherbert Block, a tract of rich agricultural land. Nine miles from Palmerston is the Township of Ashhurst, at the mouth of the Pohangina Valley, up which settlement has now extended for a distance of twenty-two miles. Several large farm-homestead association blocks have been selected up this valley.

Feilding, 104 miles from Wellington by rail, with a population of 2,150, is becoming one of the most important towns on the West Coast, as it is the centre of a very fine locality, and the outlet for a large tract of inland country, the forest on which is fast being felled. A coach-road connects it with Birmingham (Kimbolton) and Pemberton, about thirty-two miles distant. On the seaward side for a distance of twenty miles there is also much good agricultural land, extending on the north-west to the Rangitikei River, and including the Township of Halcomoe. There are several dairy factories established in the neighbourhood.

Marlon, 123 miles from Wellington by rail, with a population of 1,200, one of the earliest of the West Coast settlements, is also the centre of an agricultural country. The Township of Bulls, on the north side of the Rangitikei River, lies between Marton and the coast. From Marton Junction the southern part of the North Island Main Trunk Railway extends up the Rangitikei Valley to Hunterville, a good-sized township in the centre of a grazing district, and from thence as far as Mangaonoho, twenty-three miles from Marton; from there a coach-road has been made to Ohingaiti, beyond the Makohine, where a large viaduct is now being built so that the railway traffic can be continued. From Ohingaiti the coach-road has been made to Turangarere, and from thence to Tokaanu, on Lake Taupo, in the Auckland District.

Wanganui, situated near the mouth of the river of that name, is the oldest town after Wellington, from which it is 151 miles by rail—the distance by sea being only a hundred and twenty miles. It is the centre of an excellent farming district, and have trade, and several manufactories. Near the mouth of the river are freezing works, the meat from which is conveyed by lighters to the large English steamers which lie off the mouth of the river. The town is lit with gas, and has a good water-supply. Not far from it are some extensive railway workshops. Altogether it is a thriving place, with a population of about 6,800. The Wanganui River is navigable for a light-draught steamer up to Pipiriki, a distance of fifty-six miles, and for canoes a further distance of eighty miles to Taumaranui. A branch road extends from Pipiriki through the Waimarino Forest to Ohakune, and on to Karioi on the Murimotu Plains, thence by way of Turangarere and Moawhango to Napier.

Crown or Native Lands available for Future Settlement.

Kaitangata, Te Mara, and Kaiparoro Blocks.—These blocks, containing about 58,000 acres of second-class pastoral country, were opened for sale in September, 1893. The lower portions have been taken up and are being settled on, but the balance of the blocks, to the extent of about 35,000 acres, has lately been withdrawn from sale, with the object of having this area more fully explored, back lines laid off, road access provided for, &c. The remaining unsold portions of these blocks will be re-offered when a new scheme of subdivision has been approved by the Land Board.

Tauakira Block.—Situated near Athens, on the Wanganui River; about 26,700 acres. This consists chiefly of country suitable for second-class pastoral occupation, in areas of from, say, 1,000 acres and upwards.

Mangapapa Block.—This block is situated on the east side of the Waitotara River, and contains land suitable for pastoral purposes. An area of about 800 acres will shortly be offered.

Town Lend.—Further sections in Raetihi, Ohakune, Taihape, Makuri, and Levin Townships will probably be opened for sale at Wanganui, Pahiatua, and Wellington on dates due notice of which will be given in the local papers.

About 20,000 acres, known as the Retaruke Block, on the Wanganui River. It is proposed to open this under the small grazing-run system during next summer.

Motukawa Block.—8,180 acres, situated to the north-west of Taihape, is now under survey, and will shortly be in the market.

Horowhenua Block.—17,500 acres near Levin is now being subdivided, and will shortly be offered under village homestead and optional systems.

Forfeited Farm homestead Sections.—A number of farm - homestead sections which have reverted to the Crown in the different Association Blocks in the Wairarapa North and South, Rangitikei, Wanganui, and other counties, are now being prepared for sale, and will be re-offered at early dates under the optional systems of the Land Act.

Due notice of these dates will be given in local papers, and sale lithos, with full particulars, will be published.

Improved-Farm Settlement Lands.

All the available land suitable for holding under the improved-farm conditions has now been allotted, but if any of the sections now held under this system should be forfeited, they will probably be ballotted for amongst applicants in the district who are known to be of good character and likely to make good settlers. If further blocks of suitable land for this system are found, they will be cut up and opened on the same conditions.

Lands Open and Available for Ordinary Selection.

Awarua Block.—Out of the Awarua Block, lying north of Ohingaiti, several blocks, containing over 140,000 acres, have been purchased from the Natives by the Crown. A great deal of this land is of first-class quality, though other parts will be treated as second-class land only—not that the soil is inferior, but because the land is too broken to be worked otherwise than as pastoral country in good-sized holdings. Several blocks have been surveyed; one of 15,000 acres west of Mangaweka, or Three-Log-Whare Township, was opened for sale in 1895, and subsequently another, of 7,500 acres, between the Hautapu and Rangitikei Rivers. A further sale of quarter-acre sections in the Mangaweka Township has taken place, and the Taihape Township has been subdivided into town or suburban lots, of which some have been offered for sale. A block of 12,500 acres lying south-east of Moawhango was opened for application, and this has all been taken up. Further purchases in the Awarua Block, to the extent of about 97,000 acres, have been made, and the surveys are being put in hand.

North of the Kawatau, on the east side of the Rangitikei, a block of 17,173 acres of second-class pastoral country was opened for selection, 2,366 acres of which are still open for sale.

Waitotara.—The Te Ngaue Block, 1,546 acres of second-class pastoral land, is now open for selection.

Waimarino.—Three blocks, containing about 10,000 acres, have had road-lines laid out through them, and are now open for application. A further block of about 46,550 acres, on the Retaruke, Oio, and Kaitieke Rivers, has had roads surveyed through it, and is now open for selection. There is an additional block of 27,000 acres, which is being surveyed, and will be offered as grazing-runs. 32,000 acres at the head of the Retaruke and Makino Streams have also been roaded. The rest of the Waimarino country, containing about 250,000 acres, is more or less broken, and will probably be opened as second-class pastoral country or small grazing-runs, to enable it to be taken up in larger sections.

Rangiwaea No. 2 Block.—One section of an area of 580 acres is open for selection in this block, which is situated between Upper Wangaehu and Turakina Rivers.

A large number of forfeited Farm-homestead Sections are now open for selection in the following blocks: Gladstone, Hunterville No. 2, Sommerville, Palmerston North Knights of Labour, Marton Nos. 1, 2, and 3, Pohangina and Umutoi, Delaware, Onslow, Pahiatua Nos. 1, 2, and 4, Masterton Reform, Christchurch, Woodville, Mecalickstone, Waimarino, and Dannevirke Centennial.

Pipiriki Township.—Leases of forty-two allotments for the term of twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term of twenty-one years, are open for application by tender.

Tokaanu Township.—Leases of one hundred and one allotments for the term of twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term of twenty-one years, are open for application by tender.

Wharangi (Foxton Sanatorium).—Leases of twenty-three allotments for the term of fourteen years are open for application by tender.

Ohakea Settlement (Bulls).—Leases of three allotments are open for selection.

Tongariro, Rangipopo, and Kaimanawa Blocks.—105,000 acres have been acquired by the Crown, but none of it is likely to be taken up for settlement for a long time to come.

“Crown Land Guides” and sale lithographs, giving full particulars of lands open for selection in this Land District, will be forwarded to any one on application to the Commissioner of Crown Lands, Wellington.

Native Lands.

Townships are now surveyed at Pipiriki, Tokaanu, Parata, and Potaka; sections in the two former are open for leasing under“The Native Townships Act, 1895,” and the other two are being prepared for selection.

The allocation of the Crown's purchases in the Raetihi, Tauakira, Maungakaretu, Mangapapa, Raketapaupa, Rangiawaea, Ngaurukehu B., Motukawa Nos. 1 and 2, Te Tuhi Nos. 2 and 4, and Kahakaha Blocks, has been made by the Land Court; and the surveys of the land allotted are in hand, and they should be available for settlement soon after the surveys are completed.

The blocks under lease to Europeans contain about 475,000 acres, the principal being the Murimotu, Rangipowaiau, Owhaoko, Mangohane, and Ruanui, occupied by Mr. Studholme; and the Oroumatua, leased to Mr. Birch. Of others passed through the Native Land Court there are about 526,000 acres which are fit for settlement, the principal being the balance of the Awarua and the Motukawa, Raketapauna, Te Tuhi, and Rangiwera Blocks in the central district, Raetihi in the Waimarino district, Tauakira, and Ohotu, on the Wanganui River. Those not suitable for settlement at present are the Te Hautu, Ohuanga, and Kaimanawa, on the east side, and the Oahukura on the west side, of Tongariro Mountain, containing an area of about 345,000 acres.

The Native lands which have not passed the Native Land Court contain an area of about 140,000 acres, the principal being the Tupapanui, Mairekura, Tawhitinui, and Papahaua Blocks, on and between the Wangaehu and Wanganui Rivers, and some others on the west side of the latter river.

Pastoral and Agricultural Industries.

The pastoral industry is by far the more important, the total area in grass in 1900 being 2,416,232 acres as compared with 97,389 acres under crop. Of the area in crop, 9,829 acres were in wheat, 22,664 in oats, and 39,651 acres in turnips or rape, the rest being in potatoes or other crops.

The following figures will show the average return per acre of grain, for the year 1900: Wheat, 30.43 bushels; oats, 41.99 bushels; barley, 36.85 bushels.

The area in sown grass now exceeds that in any other district in the colony though the area under crop is very small as compared with either the Otago or Canterbury Districts. In April, 1899, there were 4,070,737 sheep; and in November, 1899, the cattle numbered 234,526, and horses 40,857. The total area in gardens is given as 2,524 acres; in orchards, 3,541 acres; and in plantations, 3,916 acres.

Dairy Industry.

Both soil and climate are well adapted for the production of butter and cheese, and hence we find creameries and butter-factories increasing in number very considerably each year, and the export constantly augmenting.

Twenty-nine butter-and cheese-factories were returned in October, 1899, as at work in the Wellington Provincial District.

Phormium Tenax.

The principal flax-mills working are at Featherston, Carterton, and Martin-borough, in the Wairarapa, and at Foxton on the West Coast. This industry fluctuates greatly, in accordance with the price ruling for the dressed article. In 1896 thirteen mills were at work, employing 207 men and 35 boys; the machines driven by water-wheel or engine working up to 124-horse power.

Timber Industry.

Sawmills are to be found in different parts of the district where the means of communication are sufficient, the timbers cut being principally totara and red pine, both of which are largely used in house construction and other works. Others of the native woods are very beautiful, but are utilised only to a small extent.

The principal mills are at Pahiatua, Eketahuna, Masterton, and Carterton, in the Forty-mile Bush and Wairarapa districts, and at Levin on the West Coast, besides which there are several mills in Wellington for dressing the rough material, In the whole district there were in 1896 sixty-four mills, of an aggregate of 1,117-horse power, engaged in this industry, employing 975 hands, the output of sawn timber being 34,605,504 ft., and the total value, including posts and rails, resawn timber, doors, sashes, &c., £157,107, which, next to Auckland, is the highest for any provincial district in the colony.

Chapter 79. THE MARLBOROUGH LAND DISTRICT.

C. W. Adams, Chief Surveyor

Boundaries.

The Marlborough Land District, occupying the north-east corner of the Middle Island, and containing about 2,635,000 acres of land, is bounded generally on the north and east by Cook Strait and the East Coast as far as the Conway River; thence by that river to its junction with the Towy River; from this point, by straight lines, rivers, and the summits of watersheds to the western side of Tennyson Inlet, Pelorus Sound. From the Conway to the Acheron River it abuts on to the Canterbury Land District, and from that river to Pelorus Sound it is bounded by the Land District of Nelson.

The widest part of the district is from Cape Campbell to Tophouse, a distance of about sixty-seven miles, and the extreme length from Cape Jackson to the Conway is 120 miles.

Physical Features.

The district throughout is generally mountainous, but none even of the highest peaks are covered with perpetual snow, although Tapuaenuku, the highest of the Inland Kaikouras, attains an altitude of 9,462 ft. Of the Seaward Kaikouras, or Looker-on Mountains, the highest points are Kaitarau and Whakari, which are 8,700 ft. and 8,500 ft respectively. There are several lesser peaks, from 4,000 ft. upwards.

The view from Kahautara Bluff, south of Kaikoura Settlement, looking northwards, when the Looker-on Mountains are snow-capped, is said to be one of the finest in New Zealand.

Geologically, the district may be briefly described as follows: North of the Wairau River the rocks belong chiefly to the Upper and Lower Devonian series, with a belt of Silurian between them, embracing the country along the west of Queen Charlotte Sound to Cook Strait. Within these series auriferous deposits are found, and at present worked at Mahakipawa, Wakamarina, and Wairau Valley. In Endeavour Inlet an antimony-mine has been worked for some time. The country south of the Wairau River may be said to belong chiefly to the Carboniferous Age, with patches, along the coast and up the Clarence Valley, of Cretaceo-Tertiary and Lower Greensand formations; while along and between the Awatere and Clarence Rivers volcanic formation and numerous intrusive dykes occur. The Red Hills also, at the head of the Wairau Valley, are of volcanic origin.

Coal has been discovered in the neighbourhood of Picton, and in the Clarence Valley, but none has been as yet successfully worked within the district. A narrow belt of Tertiary limestone, suitable for building purposes, extends, with small interruptions, from Cape Campbell to the boundary of the Canterbury Provincial District. The Marlborough land may be divided into three classes: Open land, generally covered with associated grasses; forest-land; and intermediate, or land partly forest, partly covered with scrub, fern, or other rank vegetation. This original condition of the soil naturally gave rise to a localisation of industries, and a very unequal distribution of settlement. Thus the open country was taken up for pastoral purposes; in the forest country the timber industry was developed, and the intermediate land passed into the hands of farmers. Though agriculture is now extending into the pastoral and forest country, and considerable areas of forest-land have been cleared and laid down in grass, the portions of the district characterized by these respective industries are still well defined.

In the northern part of the district, bounded by Cook Strait, numerous deep fiords and bays run far into the land. The principal of these are Pelorus and Queen Charlotte Sounds, Tory Channel, Port Underwood, and Port Gore.

These Sounds are very picturesque, but the hills surrounding them are not so rugged and precipitous as are those of the thirteen celebrated Sounds on the west coast of Otago and Southland.

Though generally steep, the land is not too rough to be used for pastoral purposes, and nearly all the land in the Sounds is occupied by thriving settlers.

Pelorus Sound, the most extensive and picturesque, is thirty-four miles long, following the course of the main channel, with the Town of Havelock at its head. There are many bays and inlets branching off in all directions; the largest of these is Kenepuru Sound, fourteen miles long. Pelorus Sound, including its branches, has a shore line of over 300 miles in length, not counting islands.

Queen Charlotte Sound is the next in length, being thirty miles from its entrance to its head; it also has many bays and inlets, one of which is Picton Harbour, twenty-five miles from the entrance.

Tory Channel is ten miles long, and forms the most direct line of communication between Picton and Wellington. The distance from Wellington Wharf to the entrance of Tory Channel is about forty miles, and about twenty more to Picton.

The shore-line of Queen Charlotte Sound and Tory Channel is over 200 miles in length. The entrance of Queen Charlotte Sound is about twenty miles distant from that of Pelorus Sound, and this latter is about twelve miles from the French Pass. Generally there is deep water in all the sounds and bays, and good anchorage can be found near the shore. The country is hilly everywhere in the neighbourhood of the Sounds, the highest point being Mount Stokes, 3,951 ft. above sea level.

Rivers.

Four considerable rivers, the Wairau, Awatere, Clarence, and Conway, rise towards the western boundary of the district; the two former, running east and north, fall into Cook Strait; the two latter, taking a southerly and easterly course, discharge into the sea on the eastern side of the Island. These rivers water large and fertile valleys, but none can be entered by vessels except the Wairau, which is navigable for small steamers for about ten miles from its mouth.

Plains.

The Wairau Plain, containing about 65,000 acres, on which stands Blenheim, the capital of Marlborough, is the principal block of agricultural land within the district. The soil, generally good, is, on the lower or seaward side of the plain, extremely fertile, especially in the neighbourhood of Tua Marina, Spring Creek, and near Blenheim, which is surrounded by numerous gardens, with rich deep mould, and well sheltered with trees. The average yield of wheat for the plain is about 25 bushels per acre; of oats and barley, 35; of peas, 30; and of potatoes, 10 tons per acre. Hops have been successfully grown for many years in the neighbourhood of the town, but, owing to the high price of labour, their cultivation has not extended. The plain, traversed in all directions by good macadamised roads, and dotted over with numerous comfortable homesteads, standing in clumps of trees amidst well-cultivated fields, has already an old-world appearance. More than half the population of the Marlborough Land District—12,677, according to the last census—is centred in the Town of Blenheim and on the Wairau Plain. Besides this plain there are several thousand acres of terrace flats and valleys along the larger rivers, notably at Starborough, on the Lower Awatere, all suitable for closer settlement, and capable of sustaining a large population.

Lakes.

There are not any lakes worthy the name. The largest is Kapara te Hau, more familiarly known as Grassmere, situate on the coast between the Awatere River and Cape Campbell. It is about three miles in diameter, and very shallow, being, indeed, no more than a lagoon, as during a dry season there is little or no water in it.

There are two other lakes of small size, viz.,—Lake Elterwater, four miles south of Lake Grassmere, and Lake McRae, situate in the open country between the Awatere and the Clarence Rivers.

Forests.

The portion of Marlborough north-west of the Wairau River, extending to the boundary of the Nelson Land District, and including the County of Sounds, in all about 280,000 acres, was originally covered with dense forest. In the valleys and on the lower hill-slopes, rimu, kahikaten, matai, totara, miro, and tawa were the principal forest-trees. The higher portion of the hills and steep spurs are clothed with the various species and variety of birch (beech), to which along the shores of the Sounds were added pukatea and kohekohe, the latter locally called cedar.

Since 1860 sawmills have been at work in various parts of the district. Thirty-two mills have been erected, and have worked for longer or shorter periods. Have lock, on the Pelorus Sound, is at present the headquarters of the timber trade.

The hills along the shores of the Sound will, for many years, furnish birch sleepers. There are other timbers left in places, but nowhere sufficient to justify the erection of a mill, unless pukatea wood, hitherto neglected, could be utilised. It is a light, tough timber, well adapted for boat-building and for packing-cases. The quantity of pine timber remaining in the Kaituna and Onamalutu Valleys is small, but there is a good supply of birch and other wood, suitable for fencing and firewood. On these valleys the Wairau Plain is mainly dependent for timber.

The Pelorus Valley, with its tributaries the Wakamarina, Rai, Ronga, and Opouri Valleys, still contain about 300,000,000 ft. of convertible timbers, exclusive of the birch, of which there is a large amount of the best quality on the hills and terraces. The Wairau, Blenheim, and other districts extending southwards must depend for the future on this source for all their building material.

In the neighbourhood of Kaikoura, along the base of Mount Fyffe, and in the Hapuku Valley, there is another small block of forest-land in which three small sawmills have been erected. The quantity of timber suitable for sawmill purposes in this block is very limited, but it will furnish the neighbouring country with firewood and fencing for many years.

Soils and their Uses.

The Wairau Plain, which is the principal block of agricultural land, has been already dealt with. The second agricultural centre is in the neighbourhood of Kaikoura. The land extending along the base of Mount Fyffe, between the Kohai and Hapuku Rivers, about 13,000 acres in extent, is held in small or moderate-sized farms; the soil is good, the block known as“The Swamp,” between Mount Fyffe and the Peninsula, being particularly rich. In the Pelorus, Kaituna, and Onamalutu Valleys, and in the Sounds, settlers following in the wake of the sawmills have already converted much of the land worked over into grazing-farms. The land is of three descriptions—alluvial flats, terraces, and hill-sides. On the flats in the larger valleys the soil is rich, producing heavy crops of oats, peas, beans, and potatoes, wherever it has been brought into cultivation. The terrace-land varies much in quality, but generally grows good grass, as do also the hills on which tawa formerly grew; the birch country being very barren. On the small bush-farms cattle-grazing is the chief pursuit. Out of 14,000 head kept in Marlborough, 7,000 belong to the forest country.

Grazing.

About 1,680,000 acres of the Marlborough Land District are at present devoted to keeping sheep. The leaseholds in the northern parts of the district contain a large extent of scrub-and fern-covered country, now producing little or no food for sheep, but capable of improvement. The total number of sheep depastured is 751,321, distributed as follows amongst the counties into which the land district is divided: Marlborough County, 472,006; Sounds County, 133,011; Kaikoura County, 146,304. On the natural pasture of the open country merino sheep are kept almost exclusively, the land carrying from half to one sheep per acre. In the forest country, on sown grass, the land keeps from two to four crossbred sheep per acre. Along the shores of the Sounds large areas of hill-land have been taken up on lease, and are now being cleared and laid down in grass expressly for keeping sheep, but generally throughout the forest country the holdings are small or of moderate size, hence this is, after the Wairau Plain, the most populous portion of the district. The export of wool during last year amounted to over 9,000 bales.

Industries.

Gold-mining has been carried on for some years, principally at Mahakipawa, Wakamarina, and Wairau Valley. At present not much gold is being obtained, although there are now strong indications of a great improvement in the gold-mining industry.

There is one dredge at work in the Wakamarina River, results not disclosed, and two others are in course of construction. Several companies have taken up dredging claims on the Wakamarina and Pelorus Rivers. Operations on the Canvastown Flat have been tried by prospecting only.

Eight sawmills are at work within the district: one at Kaikoura, and the others in the Pelorus, Kaituna, Onamalutu, and Pukaka Valleys, and in the Pelorus and Queen Charlotte Sounds. The principal one is Messrs. Brownlee and Co.'s, in the Pelorus Valley, their tramway being about thirteen miles long, the output last year being about 2,500,000 ft. Messrs. Brownlee and Co. have fifty men employed, and keep two vessels running between Havelock and Lyttelton.

During the year the flax industry employed eleven mills. The quantity of hemp shipped during the year was 1,800 bales and 450 bales tow.

In connection with one of the mills, a rope-factory has been established, in which binder-twine made of short flax or tow is the main product.

There are two flour-mills at work—one at Spring Creek, near Blenheim, owned by Messrs. Redwood Bros. This is a complete roller-mill, driven by water-power, and can turn out about 14 tons of flour in twenty-four hours. It is electric-lighted, and the sack-working machinery is driven by electric motor. The other mill, which is also worked by water-power, belongs to the executors of Mr. T. Carter, of Blenheim.

There is a dairy factory at Spring Creek which contains all the latest improvements in machinery; 13½ tons of butter were produced in 1899.

There is a first-class cheese-factory at Tuamarina. The output last season was 60 tons, but the factory is capable of turning out 80 tons. There is also a good cheese-factory at Kaikoura.

Climate.

Marlborough possesses one of the finest climates in the world; and at Blenheim it is fine weather nearly all the year round. There is almost a total absence of the boisterous winds that so frequently visit Wellington.

The original distribution of the open and forest lands was entirely due to climatic causes. At Cape Campbell, one of the barest places in the district, the annual rainfall is only 23.25 in.; in the Pelorus Valley, the centre of the forest country, it is over 65 in. This difference between the climates of the northwestern and south-eastern portions of the district explains why the artificial pasture-land, when compared with the natural pasture, supports such a large amount of stock. Winter and spring are the wettest seasons, hence the dry climate is not unfavourable for agriculture. Wherever the soil is suitable, crops sown in winter and harvested in early summer can be successfully grown. Everywhere near the coast the range of temperature, considering the latitude, is very small. The thermometer seldom falls below 30 deg., or rises above 78 deg. Along the shores of the Sounds the mildness of the winter, owing to the curious distribution of land and water, allows lemons, oranges, passion-fruit, figs, and other sub-tropical fruits to be grown in favourable situations. On the lower hills and terraces of the forest country the chestnut (Castanea vulgaris) grows rapidly, and commences to bear fruit in five or six years. A few trees planted in the Pelorus Valley some twenty years ago are now yielding annually about 2 cwt. of nuts a tree. In all parts of the low country the common English fruit-trees—apple, plum, pear, cherry, &c., yield abundantly, the fruit, owing to the clearness of the atmosphere, being of excellent quality. In the high country, where snow falls occasionally during winter, red, white, and black currants can be produced in such quantities that with little labour they might be made an article of export to the warmer parts of Australia.

Towns.

The chief town, Blenheim, is situate on the Wairau Plain, at the junction of the Opawa and Omaka Rivers—a third river, the Taylor, would join at about the same point were it not that when not in flood it disappears beneath the surface, about three miles south of the town. Blenheim has been termed a miniature Christchurch, doubtless from its extreme flatness. Considering this, its streets are not so straight and wide as they should be. The Government Buildings, which comprise the Post and Telegraph Offices, Lands and Survey Offices, Courts of Justice, &c., form a handsome edifice in the centre of the town, which is well planted with deciduous and evergreen trees. It is about eighteen miles and a half from Picton by rail, and about nine miles from the sea by the Opawa River, which is navigable for small steamers. Blenheim is lit with gas, and supplied with water, principally by artesian wells. The population is about 3,000.

The next town in importance is Picton, the principal port, only fifty-three miles by sea from Wellington. This little town, both in position and appearance, may be said to be the antithesis of Blenheim, being most picturesquely situated at the head of Queen Charlotte Sound, and nestling among hills, some of the higher ones still densely covered with birch and other forest. There is frequent communication with Wellington and Nelson by steamers averaging 500 tons, and vessels of the largest size can lie at the wharf at low-water. The direct exportation of frozen meat from Picton commenced in 1892, when 16,433 carcases were shipped. The Christchurch Meat Company exported from Picton for the year ended 31st March, 1900, mutton, 6,269 carcases, and lambs, 17,559 carcases. Picton possesses a malting establishment also, producing for export, as the excellent quality of the barley grown on the Wairau Plain insures a ready market. A small quantity of oysters, mostly procured in Queen Charlotte Sound, is annually exported from Picton; with culture the supply might be almost indefinitely increased, many of the sheltered bays in both sounds being well adapted for the purpose. What is now being done along the Marlborough coast is a mere trifle compared with what might be accomplished if capital and knowledge were brought to bear on the fishing industry. Around the whole coast, from the mouth of the Conway to near the French Pass, the sea abounds in fish. Within the Sounds and amongst the islands of Cook Strait, hapuku, snapper, moki, barracouta, raturi, kahawai, and rock-cod are extremely plentiful. Immense shoals of the southern herring (Clupea sagax) and of anchovies (Engraulis encrasicholus) frequent the inlets at certain seasons of the year, and quantities of fresh fish are exported from thence to various places within the colony. As steamers arrive at and leave Picton almost daily, shipments can be made without delay to all parts. Picton possesses a good gravitation water-supply. Its population is about 900 persons.

Havelock, situate at the head of Pelorus Sound, is, as has been already stated, the present headquarters of the timber trade, Messrs. Brownlee and Co.'s steam sawmill, at the mouth of the Pelorus River, being only a mile or so from the town. Between Picton and Havelock there is a mail service twice a week, vid Cullensville, on the Mahakipawa Gold-fields. The population of Havelock is about 300 persons.

The Town of Kaikoura, the greater part of which is built on a raised shingle-beach, is situate at Kaikoura Peninsula, near the southern boundary of the district. The town, with the adjoining settlement of small farms, forms one of the most picturesque spots in New Zealand, lying as it does under the Seaward Kaikouras, or Looker-on Mountains. At the back of the town the peninsula, which is composed of Cretaceo-tertiary limestone, rises abruptly for about 100 ft., and affords splendid sites for dwelling-houses. Kaikoura is connected with Blenheim by a weekly coach service, the distance being about ninety-five miles. There is also direct steamer communication with Wellington and Lyttelton. The population of the town is about 400.

Roads and Railways.

The only railway is that between Picton and Blenheim, about eighteen miles and a half in length. The train, starting from Picton, runs twice a day. The railway has been completed for a distance of three miles south of Blenheim, and its construction is actively in progress as far as the Township of Seddon, including a substantial railway and traffic bridge over the Awatere River, which will cost £22,500, and will be a very great boon to the district.

The Main North Road to Nelson, distant seventy-eight miles, is a good metalled road nearly the whole way. It runs up the Wairau Valley from Blenheim for about six miles, crosses the Wairau River into the Kaituna Valley, which it follows as far as Havelock—about twenty-eight miles. It then runs up the Pelorus and Rai Valleys, and ascends by easy gradients to the Brown Saddle, where it crosses the boundary into Nelson. An excellent coach-service—probably the best in the colony—has been established for some years, the coach running to and from Nelson on alternate days, covering the distance in eleven hours, and another coach-service twice a week has been established between Blenheim and Havelock.

The Main South Road, running over the Taylor Pass into the Awatere Valley, and through the Starborough, Flaxbourne, Kekerangu, and other properties, connects Blenheim with Kaikoura and the south, and is a good road during dry weather, although it might be much improved in places. Since the acquisition of the Starborough Estate by the Government the bulk of the traffic now goes vid the Redwood Pass, as it is a more direct route to the town of Seddon.

The portion between the Clarence River—over which a fine bridge was built some years ago—and the Hapuku River, runs along the coast under steep and picturesque hills covered with forest. During the last three years a road has been in course of construction to the south of Kaikoura, between the Kahautara and Conway Rivers. This road will be completed within the next few months, and when finished will form part of the main Cheviot-Kaikoura Road, and, besides its great usefulness in opening up the country through which it passes, will also become a favourite route for tourists, as in many places it passes through most picturesque scenery.

A good road has been formed up the Wairau Valley, passing through the Bank-house, Erina, Lansdowne, Hillersden, and Birch-hill properties, and connecting with Tophouse, just outside the boundary, and distant fifty-six miles from Blenheim. At Tophouse there is an hotel and a telegraph-station, and from thence a good road leads to Belgrove, the present terminus of the Nelson Railway.

A coach runs twice a week between Blenheim and Wairau Valley—twenty-five miles—where there is an hotel, a post-and telegraph-office, and one or two stores.

There is also a good eart-road running up the Awatere River—which it crosses and recrosses several times—as far as Moles worth Station, about seventy miles from Blenheim. Between these points there is a weekly coach-and mail-service.

There are other minor roads and bridle-tracks throughout the district too numerous to specify.

Crown Lands.

The area of Crown lands at present available for settlement is about 200,000 acres, but of this area 135,000 acres are of very poor quality, being chiefly the summits of high, rugged country. The balance of available area lies principally in the Pelorus, Rai, and Wakamarina Valleys, and in the Sounds, and will doubtless be readily taken up when thrown open for selection.

Chapter 80. THE NELSON LAND DISTRICT.

T. Humphries, Chief Surveyor

General Physical Features.

The Nelson Land District comprises the north and north-western portion of the Middle Island, the greater part being high and mountainous, and on the western and inland ranges covered with dense forest to the bush-limit, at from 4,000 ft. to 4,500 ft. Cape Farewell, the northernmost point, is situated at the western entrance of Cook Strait, on the south side of which lie Golden or Massacre Bay, and Tasman Bay, more commonly called Blind Bay. The former derives its name from the massacre of a boat's crew belonging to Tasman, who visited it on the occasion of his discovery of New Zealand in 1642. At the head of the latter, which has a depth of fifty-four miles from its entrance, stands the town of Nelson. From Separation Point, on the western side of Blind Bay, a range of mountains from 3,000 ft. to 4,000 ft. in height extends southward to Mount Murchison. It consists of a granitic formation, with slate, limestone, and sandstone belts. From Pelorus Sound, on the east, commences another range—a portion of which is serpentine, forming a mineral belt immediately south of Nelson City. It reaches an elevation of 6,000 ft., and runs in a south-westerly direction to the St. Arnaud Range, terminating in the Spencer Mountains, a large central mass attaining a height of 8,000 ft. above the sea-level. To the westward of the Spencer Ranges and those on the further side of Blind Bay are the Brunner, Lyell, Marine, and Tasman Mountains, from 5,000 ft. to 6,500 ft. in height. Still further westward along the coast are the Paparoa, Buckland Peaks, and Papahaua Mountains, about 4,500 ft. at their highest point, and the Whakamarama Range, extending from Rocks Point to Cape Farewell. There are also a number of isolated mountain-masses here and there through the district.

The inland Spencer Mountains are the source of the principal rivers of the district south of the Buller River, and are thus described by Sir Julius von Haast:“On the southern slopes of this wild alpine-stack we find the principal sources of the Grey, or Pohaturoha; on its north-east side the sources of the Wairau; on its eastern side those of the Acheron and Clarence; and in the deep recesses of these snow-clad giants those of the Waiau-ua, or Dillon: so we may say that, with the exception of the Takaka and Aorere, which fall into Massacre Bay, the Wangapeka and Motueka, which run into Blind Bay, the Karamea and smaller streams, which reach the sea on the West Coast to the north of the Buller River, all the rivers of any size in the northern part of this island take their rise in this magnificent chain.”

Rivers.

The Buller River (Kawatiri) has its source at a point about sixty miles southwest from Nelson, where it flows out of the beautiful alpine lake Rotoiti, lying 1,800 ft. above sea-level at the foot of the lofty St. Arnaud Range. This river breaks through the massive mountain chains of the interior in a transverse or easterly direction, forming, where it receives no tributaries, a succession of magnificent rocky gorges, and, after a course of about one hundred miles, finally discharges its waters into the ocean on the West Coast. The Gowan River, a tributary, has its source in another exquisite lake, Rotoroa, 1,623 ft. above sea-level. Other tributaries of the Buller are: the Matakitaki, Maruia, Owen, Matiri, and Inangahua, all of which take their rise in the snowy ranges.

The Grey River (Mawhera), also discharging its waters on the West Coast, takes its rise in Lake Christabel, near the western flank of the Spencer Range. It has a very large basin, and numerous tributaries, of which the Ahaura is the chief.

The rivers on the eastern side, named above as taking their rise in this district, flow for the most part through mountain ranges and open valleys utilised as pastoral land.

Lakes.

The lakes of the district are alpine in character, surrounded by grand mountain and bush scenery. The principal are: Rotoiti, lying east, and Rotoroa south-east, of Mount Murchison; Matiri, to the west of Owen Range, 980 ft. above the sea; Lakes Tennyson, 3,614 ft., and Guyon, 2,658 ft., on the eastern flank of the Spencer Mountains; Lake Christabel, on their western flank; Lake Hochstetter and Lake Sumner, the latter 1,725 ft. above sea-level, lying under Mount Emerson (6,000 ft.).

Plains.

The plains of this district are limited in extent, the principal being the Amuri, in the valleys of the Hurunui and Waiau-ua, in the centre of which rises a partly isolated mass of hills called the Percival Ranges, the highest peak of which is Mount Percival, 5,335 ft. These plains, being well covered with native tussock-grass, were either purchased or taken up with pre-emptive rights as pastoral land very soon after the commencement of the settlement. The Waimea Plains, near Nelson, with the Lower Motueka, Riwaka, and Takaka Valley lands, formed part of the original settlement of the New Zealand Company, and are occupied mostly by small settlers. Inland are the Tiraumea Plains, 1,100 ft. above sea-level, and the Maruia, 1,300 ft. These are, together, about 30,000 acres in extent. They are surrounded by high mountains heavily timbered, and the land is of only second-rate quality. On the West Coast the level lands are Totara Flat and Ikamatua Plains, in the Grey Valley, Mawhera-iti, and Inangahua Valleys, lying on the eastern flanks of the Paparoa coastal range. There are also open pakihis at Addison's Flat, on the south side of the Buller, and low swampy lands on the north side; northward is the heavily timbered country of the special settlement at the mouth of the Karamea.

Forest.

The area of the district is estimated at 5,430,000 acres, of which the open land under 2,000 ft. in altitude is, approximately, 930,000 acres; the area of forest-land under 2,000 ft., about 1,932,000 acres; and the open land above that altitude, about 760,000 acres, inclusive of bare mountain summits. The wooded country is estimated at 3,740,000 acres; of this area probably about 1,150,000 acres is scrub and stunted bush; and of the remainder, not 1,000,000 acres at the outside would be available for clearing. The timber on the western side consists of red-and white-pine, matai (or black-pine), totara, kawhaka (or cedar), rata, and occasional silver-pine, besides black-and red-birch (Fagus fusca). These varieties are also found, but in smaller areas, on the eastern side; birch preponderating. A large amount of timber is used in the mining industry for props and planking, and throughout the districts generally for shingles, fencing, firewood, sleepers, &c. There are forty-five sawmills at work, with an output of about 16,000,000 superficial feet per annum.

Agricultural.

Nelson has little land suitable for agriculture, most of it already taken up. On the Waimea Plains is grown excellent barley, a small quantity of which is exported. Oats and chaff are sent in large amounts to the West Coast and elsewhere. Hops also form one of the chief exports. Wheat, maize, rye, and root-crops of most varieties are grown, and fruit is plentiful. The weekly wage of a farm-labourer is 20s. with board; without board he would receive 5s. a day. Ploughmen can get 20s. per week with board; without, 7s. 6d. a day.

Pastoral.

The total area of pastoral lands held under the Crown by 95 tenants on the 31st March, 1900, amounted to 338,215 acres. As the agricultural land is limited, settlers are turning their attention to the timbered mountain-slopes for grazing purposes. These, when the timber is felled and burnt, and the ground sown with suitable grass, will, after three to four years, carry about two sheep to an acre on fair soil, and more on the limestone country. The cost of felling and burning green timber is from 15s. to 20s. per acre; cost of mixed grass-seeds and sowing, about 15s. per acre; and a good paling-fence on ordinary bush-lands with double No. 8 wires at top and bottom, with ½ in. palings and 7 in. posts sunk 2 ft. in the ground, can be erected at about 12s. per chain.

Mining.

The western side of the Nelson District was a terra incognita till about the year 1863, when gold was first discovered in large quantities. Miners flocked in at first from the other goldfields in New Zealand, then from Australia, California, and other parts of the world, until in 1865 the whole coast-line was peopled from Broken River in the north to Jackson's Bay in the south. Mining, at first altogether alluvial, developed into quartz-reefing, and hydraulic-sluicing of large areas. The agricultural lands about the Grey and Inangahua were taken up and cultivated; and, as mining became a more settled industry, the miners occupied and tilled the non-auriferous alluvial flats in the many valleys: hence at the present time a number of homesteads are scattered throughout the district.

Reefton and its neighbourhood forms one of the chief quartz-mining districts in New Zealand; and the West Coast, including Westland, has produced about 45 per cent, of the total gold raised in the colony. The oldest alluvial field is at Collingwood. Among other minerals found in the district are: silver, copper, chrome, antimony, manganese, and haematite. Extensive deposits of coal are found on the West Coast, within the areas of the Grey and Buller Coalfields Reserves. Coal is also found in Collingwood, in Blind Bay, and in West Wanganui Inlet; and there are numerous smaller areas of coal-bearing strata here and there throughout the district. The output from the mines at work within the district during the year ending 31st December, 1899, was 521,947 tons, of which 479,141 tons were shipped, 336,514 tons from Westport and 142,627 tons from Grey mouth Copper-ore is found in a serpentine rock-formation near Nelson, but the companies which have worked the ore have not hitherto been successful—the last one,“The Champion,” failing from want of sufficient capital. Deposits of chrome-ore are also found here. Silver ore has been worked in the Collingwood District; and at Parapara, in Blind Bay, there are widespread deposits of haematite-iron-ore, combined with limestone and coal, waiting only for capital to develop them. It will be readily gathered from the above brief description that mining is the chief industry of the Nelson District. A great impetus has been given to the mining industry on the West Coast, in a manner similar to that which has taken place on the Auckland goldfields. In the Reefton district a large English syndicate has bought out several properties of quartz-mining companies, which have been paying concerns, although worked with limited capital and old-fashioned machinery, with the view of introducing the newest methods of working and the most improved gold-saving appliances. A number of wealthy syndicates are now in the field, and a great revival has taken place in prospecting for new reefs, and in developing numbers of others known to be auriferous, the working of which has hitherto languished for the want of capital to develop them.

Sawmilling, &c.

The timber industry on the West Coast has now become a very important trade. During the past year about 12,000,000 ft. of various kinds of wood, principally red-and black-pine, have been cut in this district alone for export, and silver-pine has been largely in demand for railway-sleepers for home consumption. There are also ten sawmills working in the Golden Bay district, the export amounting to about 4,000,000 ft. for the past year. A small industry in flax is also carried on.

Towns.

The chief town is Nelson, situated at the head of Blind Bay, in 41° 16' S., and surrounded on all sides, except the north, by mountains reaching an elevation of 3,500 ft. With a mean temperature of 54.8° Fahr. it possesses a climate almost unequalled for its beneficial effects on invalids suffering from pulmonary diseases. There are many picturesque spots in the suburbs, and the city itself, with its cleanly-looking buildings and well-kept gardens, is one of the most charming spots in New Zealand. There is an old-established Boys' College, and a High School for Girls, besides Government and other schools. The Anglican Pro-Cathedral, built on the summit of a central hill, memorable as being the site of fortifications erected in the early days of the settlement for defence against an expected attack of the Natives, is a striking feature. The Roman Catholic Church, Convent, and school-buildings cover a large extent of ground. There is also at Stoke, a small village three miles from Nelson, a central Catholic Orphanage, surrounded by grounds of considerable area. There is a good supply of excellent water from a reservoir in the hills at the back of the town, and the streets are well lighted with gas. The several Government departments are housed in one roomy building, containing a large hall used for Supreme Court sittings and other public purposes. Nelson has a small natural harbour, formed by a boulder-bank running for eight miles parallel to the shore, deep enough at high tide to admit vessels of 1,000 tons burden. It is a port of call for the Union Steamship Company's coastal steamers, and has a small local fleet plying between the West Coast, Blind Bay, Picton, and Wellington. The town is reached from the eastward by a good main road from Marlborough. A railway-line has been constructed up country to the southward for thirty-three miles, passing through the farming villages of Stoke, Richmond (borough), Bright-water, Wakefield, Foxhill, and Belgrove. Leaving for the West Coast by a good main road, the traveller starts from the Motupiko Station on one of Cobb and Co.'s coaches, crosses Spooner's Range, the Clarke and Hope River saddles, and enters the Buller Valley at the junction of the Hope, about sixty-seven miles from town. He then enjoys a succession of views of mountain-gorge scenery, and, after traversing a gorge of seventeen miles in length, arrives at the Lyell, 107 miles from his starting-point. This is an alpine township, in a small quartz-mining neighbourhood. Here is a fine cast-iron girder bridge, spanning a rocky gorge of the Buller, and springing boldly from a bluff on the northern side. At 116 miles the junction of the Inangahua with the Buller is reached, the main road continuing to Reefton, with a branch road twenty-eight miles to Westport, which for twelve miles passes through some of the grandest river-gorge scenery in New Zealand.

Westport, the town next in importance to Nelson, is situated at the mouth of the Buller River. The harbour is sheltered from southerly gales by Cape Foulwind and its outlying rocks, and is accessible in nearly all weathers. A large sum has been spent on a system of harbour-works, designed by the late Sir John Coode. Westport is the place of shipment for the coal-mines lying northward as far as the Mokihinui River. The character of this coal for steam purposes stands almost unrivalled. The long line of coal-staiths on the northern bank of the river, with a fleet of steam-colliers loading alongside, does not fail at once to impress a visitor with a sense of the importance of the trade. Though much has already been done, yet the industry, from the extent of the coal-bearing strata, is capable of much larger expansion when the necessary capital can be found. The Westport-Ngakawau Railway to Mokihinui, connects with the mines and conveys the coal to the port. At the foot of the Mount Rochfort plateau, nine miles from Westport, is Waimangaroa, and on the plateau itself is Denniston—both coal-mining villages. The latter, built at an elevation of 1,960 ft., is said to be the highest township in New Zealand. On a clear day it is well worth a visit, for the sake of enjoying the magnificent panoramic view of the southern Alps, which reach their highest point in Mount Cook, 12,349 ft. high, about 100 miles south. South of Westport are the alluvial gold-mining centres of Addison's Flat, Croninville, Nine-mile Beach, and Charleston.

From the Inangahua Junction, the main road continues southward through the Inangahua Valley, passing through cultivated lands, which are being gradually won from the heavy bush, and at a distance of 136 miles from Nelson reaches the township of Reefton. Here, as at Westport, are good hotels, and, as in every one of the larger coast towns, a hospital receiving a Government grant-in-aid. This town was the first in New Zealand to be lighted by electricity. Through the Midland Railway Company's extension of the Grey-Brunner Government line, Reefton is now connected by rail with Greymouth, from whence it is for the most part supplied. About two miles inland from Reefton is Black's Point mining township, with several batteries at work in and about the place, a visit to which is generally paid by tourists wishing to see something of the gold-mining industry. Other small mining townships are: Boatman's, Capleston, Antonio's, Noble's, Orwell Creek, Hatter', Nelson Creek, and Twelve-mile.

Leaving Reefton by rail, and passing into the Grey Valley through a short tunnel, and by a bridge over the Grey River, Totara Flat is reached, nineteen miles distant. Here there is a considerable area under cultivation. Seven miles farther on is the decayed mining township of Ahaura. Small townships are springing up along the railway-line, and several large sawmills are working.

At the Grey River Gorge, eight miles from Greymouth, we enter the Borough of Brunner. This place is the oldest centre of coal-mining in the district. Owing to the effect of the coal-smoke from the coke-ovens on the surrounding cliffs and bush, and the appearance of the numerous miners' cottages nestling on the mountain-slopes, it has the look of a veritable“Black Country,” such as may be seen in some coal-districts in England.

Several large sawmills are at work between this place and Greymouth, which we reach at a distance of 180 miles from Nelson, the centre of the Grey River from its junction with the Arnold being the southern boundary of the district at this part. The Midland Railway line, to connect with Canterbury by way of Arthur's Pass in the Otira Gorge, has been constructed on the Westland side of the Arnold River to Lake Brunner, the eastern shores of which it skirts for some distance, and from thence to the Teremakau River.

The town of Greymouth is situated on the south bank of the Grey River, in the Westland District, and is the shipping-port for the products of the coal-basin included within the area of the Grey Coalfields Reserve, the larger portion of which lies on the north bank of the river in the Nelson District.

The small town of Cobden is situated opposite the town of Greymouth, and is connected with it by a substantial bridge.

Roads, Tracks, &c.

Situate on the coast, fifty miles north of Westport, is the Karamea Special Settlement, principally settled from the Nelson and Motueka Valley districts. This part of the district contains some excellent but heavily-timbered land, and is reached from Westport by a good road, connecting with the Westport-Ngakawau Railway at the Mokihinui River. A bridle-track, also, connecting with Collingwood and Golden Bay, is nearly completed by the Government. This track passes along the coast northwards, thence up the Heaphy Valley to the Golden Downs, and down the Aorere Valley to Golden Bay. Here again is another coal-basin, which, though of inferior value to the older deposits on the western side, is likely to become of importance having at the present time one mine in full work. Another coal-basin exists at West Wanganui and Pakawau.

In the Aorere Valley, of which Collingwood is the port, alluvial mining is still found to be payable, and the country contains some valuable timber in the upper part not yet utilised. Nineteen miles south, in Blind Bay, lies the small port of Waitapu, from which a considerable amount of sawn timber is exported, drawn from the Takaka Valley, and brought down by a steam tramway from the upper mills. From the head of this valley the main road is carried over a pass in the Pikikirunga Range, 3,476 ft. high, through the villages of East and West Takaka, Riwaka, Motueka, and Moutere to the town of Richmond, eight miles from Nelson. Inland are also the villages of Ngatimoti, Dovedale, Tadmor, and Sherry, each the centre of a number of small farms, and all connected by fairly-good dray-roads.

An inland road, partly bridle-track and partly dray-road, has been made from Nelson to Canterbury, by way of Tophouse, Wairau Gorge, Tarndale, Clarence Valley, Jollie's Pass, and the Waiau Plains. On the Hanmer, a tributary of the Waiau-ua, is a Government Sanatorium, at an elevation of 1,000 ft. above sea-level, and among hills 6,000 ft. high. Here there are hot mineral springs, much visited by persons suffering from rheumatism and skin-diseases. It is reached by coach and rail from Christchurch in ten hours. The main-trunk railway-line is constructed to Culverden, twelve miles north of the Hurunui, the southern boundary of the district. From Culverden a good coach-road passes through Rotherham and Waiau-ua to the East Coast at Kaikoura, connecting with Blenheim and Nelson.

Crown Lands.

About 3,000,000 acres of Crown lands still remain unoccupied in the northern part of the Nelson District; they consist principally of high bush-country, with occasional patches of good valley-lands, the greater part being classed as second-class land. Of these, the area open for selection to date comprises 29,068 acres of surveyed lands, and 259,550 acres unsurveyed lands, of which the location, nature of soil, &c., have been briefly described in the foregoing pages.

Chapter 81. THE WESTLAND LAND DISTRICT.

W. G. Murray, Chief Surveyor

The Westland District occupies the central portion of the western watershed of the Middle Island, joining Canterbury on the east; its north and south boundaries with Nelson and Otago being the Grey, Arnold, and Awarua Rivers. The mean length is 200 miles, and its average width 24 miles. The area is 4,759 square miles, composed, for the most part, of the great central snow-clad mountain chain and its out-running ranges, intersected by narrow bush-clad valleys, and subsiding westward into undulating plateaux, river-straths, and shelving coasts.

Physical Features.—Mountains.

The great dividing range which constitutes the eastern boundary from Harper's Pass to Mount Aspiring presents a magnificent facade of snow- and ice-clad summits, representing every aspect of mountain grandeur, such as spires and battlements of rock protruding from ice and snow; precipices of enormous height, with cascades; drifted expanses of snow-fields, feeding glaciers; cañons, and ravined foot-hills covered to the top with forest.

Rivers.

A few of these lead from the foot-hills, and are of small volume; the others are snow-born streams descending from the central range, at first in narrow gorges amongst the mountains, but spreading widely on reaching the sea-board country. They are shallow shingly streams in winter, but swift deep rivers in summer. In the northern district all the larger rivers are bridged; and southward, ferries are placed on all the main streams, which, from the melting of the snow, are practically unfordable from September to January.

Forests.

Generally speaking, the whole of the district is covered with dense forest, from the sea-beach to the grass-grown tops of the high ranges, even the gaunt, broken mountain-faces being wrapped with exuberant foliage. The varieties of trees differ considerably according to soil and altitude. Kamahi and rata are the chief timbers, very useful for firewood, and, spread over the whole country, constitute an almost inexhaustible supply. Rimu is the chief milling timber, and this also is widely distributed from the sea-board to the interior uplands. Valuable stretches of white-pine belt the low-lying depression of the coastal lands, and the same may be remarked concerning the imperishable silver-pine. Clumps of black-pine of good quality are met with, also rarer patches of marketable totara; while serviceable cedars are scattered along the flanks of the inland ranges and all over the lower hills and plateaux. The approximate area of forest equals 2,394,951 acres, of which about 940,500 acres carry timber fit for the sawmill, and some 903,785 acres dwarfed alpine varieties.

Lakes.

A considerable and varied number are dotted over the district, no two being alike, but varying in character: comprising mountain tarns; coastal tidal lagoons; shallow reedy sheets; deep mountain-girt waters—all more or less forest-locked, and presenting every form of lacustrine beauty. In conjunction with their effluents they form valuable water-ways for light transport to adjacent districts.

Soils.

The high pastoral uplands have a coating of rich moulds, and this continues fairly good down to the heavy timber lands. The alpine forest is readily cleared, burns clean, and imported grasses grow luxuriantly, cocksfoot being the best, as it withstands fire and frosts. The lower flanks of the mountains hold a thinner soil, which at present hardly repays the heavy labour of felling; while the lower heights are somewhat abrupt and unfitted for cultivation. A margin, varying in width, of fertile slopes and fans fringes the bases of the hills, and, having a natural drainage, constitutes an area of excellent agricultural land.

The upland soils of the coastal undulations and terraces are light loams of moderate fertility, which rest upon transported gravels, the drifted accumulations of eroded hills. On these plateaux are numerous“pakihis,” or natural clearings, which are mostly extensive tracts of swampy lands, with a peaty soil resting on thin layers of impervious clay, and non-porous gravels, or, in a few cases, on impacted glacial moraines: these formations all overlying loose drifts. The reclamation of these areas is only a matter of time, as the bulk of them are quite drainable.

Stretches of good alluvium border the rivers, streams, and sea-coast, and form the favourite location for settlers.

Climate.

The climate is equable and temperate, remarkably free from storms and fogs; and immediately after bad weather the clouds roll inland, and there is a prevailing clearness of sky. The rain-bearing winds are mostly from the north-west and north-east. The southerly winter gales usually coat the great ranges with snow, which, however, rarely falls below 2,000 ft.

Pastoral Lands.

The total area of pastoral lands amounts to 2,002,577 acres, 103,801 of which constitute high mountain grass districts, the balance, 1,898,776 acres, comprising the ordinary bush-clad country, much of which is quite inaccessible to stock. All over the coastal lands, along the slopes of the lower hills and in the bottoms of the valleys, large herds of cattle are bred and fattened on the dense undergrowth of the forest. The tussock herbage of the high lands is being gradually used by sheep-farmers, and in the near future these natural pastures will support large flocks.

Agricultural Lands.

The agricultural lands comprise some 307,344 acres of forest and 16,440 acres of open surface, such as swamps, grass-grown river-beds and fringes, &c. The bulk of these lands, when cleared of bush, grow abundance of root-crops, especially turnips, which are much used for fattening purposes. The even and moist temperature encourages the almost uninterrupted growth of grass and clover, which are very luxuriant, and favour stock-raising. Oats are also grown abundantly for local consumption, and for the most part are cut into chaff. Year by year the imports of potatoes, fruits, butter, and fat stock are decreasing, owing to increased local production.

Means of Communication.

The district is fairly well provided with means of communication. The railway now extends from Hokitika, viâ Greymouth, to Reefton, branching at Stillwater to Jackson, in the Upper Teremakau; and a further extension to Otira is now constructed. Coaches twice a week connect with Canterbury, viâ Arthur's Pass, and ply daily between Ross, Hokitika, Kumara, Greymouth, and the neighbouring towns: while once a week a mail is conveyed on horseback southward to Gillespie's Beach, and once a fortnight to Jackson's Bay. A subsidised steamer runs between Hokitika and the numerous southern ports as far as Jackson's Bay, plying every two months, thus enabling settlers to obtain supplies and to ship their cattle and produce to market. The Government steamer also calls at Big, Jackson's, and Bruce Bays on her quarterly trips from Dunedin. Steamers also trade regularly between Hokitika and Greymouth, and other parts of the colony. The Main South Road, which for many miles skirts the foot of the main range, has been so greatly improved of late years that the traveller can now ride comfortably and safely viâ Haast Pass right through into Otago. Numerous bridle-tracks branch from the trunk line to various points, while the large open river-beds likewise give access to the country on either hand. From Jackson's Bay horse-tracks have been made, viâ Cascade River and Barn Bay, to open up the southernmost country. Sundry cols, varying in height from 1,800 ft. to over 7,000 ft., leading down the central range, have been explored, mapped, and during the summer months are crossed from time to time by experienced mountaineers. Of these depressions, the only sub-alpine saddle is Haast Pass, all the others being liable to blocks by winter snows. A coach-road over Arthur's Pass and a horse-track through Haast Pass have been made. Another bridle-road is also in course of construction across Whitcombe's Pass, but between these points no trans-insular road exists. Tracks have also been constructed giving easy access to the Franz Josef and Fox glaciers, and in the future, as population increases, doubtless tourist and stock tracks will be constructed along many of the intervening routes. From Okarito northward the district is in direct telegraphic communication with the rest of the colony.

Harbours and Ports.

The harbours and ports of Westland are the following:—

Greymouth, twenty-four miles north-east of Hokitika: Extensive harbour-works have been carried out. A breakwater or sea-wall extends some 3,392 ft. seaward from the mouth of the river on the south side, and on the north side 1,125 ft., with internal half-tide training walls, the result being an average depth of water on the bar of 20 ft. 10in. at high water and of from 8 ft. to 16 ft. at low water. Vessels of 1,000 tons can now come alongside the wharf. There is berthage accommodation of 1,824 ft., with a minimum depth of 12 ft. to 16 ft. at low water. The principal exports are gold, coal, coke, and timber. The number of vessels that entered the port during the year 1899 was: 535 steamers, tonnage 164,629; 30 sailing-vessels, tonnage 3,704: being a total tonnage of 168,333 for the year. The train runs down the wharf, and the coal-trucks, specially made for the purpose, are lifted and emptied into the vessel's hold by means of powerful cranes, of which there are six, with capacities of from 1½ tons to 12 tons, so that every encouragement is given to quick despatch. 142,627 tons of coal and 10,327,465 superficial feet of sawn timber were exported during the year.

Hokitika: Two training-walls have been constructed, the one on the north side being about 2,000 ft. long, while that on the south is 670 ft. The bar is one of shifting sand, and the depth at high water varies from 9 ft. to 15 ft., while inside the depth is from 6 ft. to 22 ft. for three-quarters of a mile up from the entrance. For ten months out of the twelve the port is usually safe for vessels drawing 8 ft. to 10 ft. of water. The berthage space amounts to 1,000 ft., with from 18 ft. to 22 ft. of water. The principal exports are gold and timber.

Okarito, fifty-five miles south-west of Hokitika: A bar harbour, sometimes completely blocked by a high sand-bank thrown up by heavy seas. When open, the entrance is good, with a maximum depth of 10 ft. There is a small jetty about half a mile from the entrance.

Bruce Bay, ninety-five miles south-west of Hokitika: An open roadstead, well sheltered from the south and south-westerly winds by Heretaniwha Point, which juts out fully a mile to the northward. Good anchorage in 18 ft. of water opposite the Green Rock, which stands up out of the water. Good boat-landing with above winds on a smooth sandy beach.

Paringa River, 104 miles south-west of Hokitika: Open roadstead. Vessels coming in and out should give Hauata Reef (off the north head) a wide berth. There is also a sunken reef, awash at low water, in the middle of the bay, and a dangerous sunken rock just off the south head, two or three chains away, facing a small sandy bay, and right abreast of the trig station. Vessels lie inside and a little to the northward of this rock, about a quarter of a mile from shore, and are quite safe with southerly winds.

Haast River, 118 miles south-west of Hokitika: A constantly-shifting bar at entrance, which is nearly opposite and a little to the southward of the Alhambra Rock. This rock stands well out of the water, and vessels entering can go on either side with safety. Average depth of water on bar from 6 ft. to 8 ft.

Okuru and Turnbull Rivers, 138 miles south-west of Hokitika: These rivers join just inside the entrance. Good, straight channel; average depth, 8 ft. to 10 ft. The port is well sheltered by Open Bay Islands, which lie about three miles away, just opposite the entrance, bearing a trifle west of north. A dangerous reef lies about two miles and a half from the south-west point of the smaller island, and immediately to the north-west of a line drawn from the last-named point to the extreme end of Jackson's Head.

Jackson's Bay, 153 miles south-west of Hokitika: Good shelter and anchorage, open only to north-east, with 12 ft. of water within a few chains of shore. Jackson's Head runs out about one mile and a half in a north-easterly direction from the southern end of the bay. This is the only ocean harbour on the coast of Westland, and could be converted into a first-class port at comparatively small cost. No doubt Jackson's Bay will eventually form a great coal port, as indications of coal are found from the bay to Tauperikaka, a distance of thirty miles. Moreover, the recent discovery of a practicable pass through the main range, viâ the Waiatoto and Axius Rivers, will make it in the near future the natural outlet for the Lake Wanaka country.

Big, or Awarua Bay, 200 miles south-west of Hokitika: At the extreme south-west corner of Westland. An open roadstead, sheltered from east and south-west winds; 24 ft. of water on south side anchorage and 30 ft. on north side, just opposite Crayfish Rock, in a spot sheltered from northerly winds.

Steamers have also, in past years, entered the Teremakau, Waitaha, Wataroa, Wanganui, Waiatoto, and Arawata Rivers, all of which have bar-entrances. The Cascade River is likewise navigable, though no steamer has as yet been in; and goods and passengers are also landed at the roadsteads of Saltwater, Gillespie's Beach, and Abbey Rocks.

Towns.

Brunnerton: A borough of about 1,200 inhabitants; is a coal-mining centre. Coke and fire-clay bricks are also manufactured. Railway communication with Greymouth Port, Reefton, and Upper Teremakau.

Greymouth Borough: Population, 3,423; the shipping port for Grey Valley. Railway communication with Reefton, Upper Teremakau, and Hokitika. Railway workshops, foundry, and quarries. The principal business portion of the town is built on Native land, rents being paid to the Public Trustee, who distributes them to Natives entitled thereto.

Kumara: Borough, of 1,150 inhabitants. This is a brisk mining town, and is probably the largest hydraulic-sluicing mining centre in New Zealand. It has two suburbs—Dillmanstown and Larrikin's—with populations of 467 and 162 respectively.

Hokitika: Borough, of 2,463 inhabitants. This is a pretty town, the political capital of Westland, the port for shipping and centre of supply for a number of little townships, and for the whole district south of Teremakau.

Ross: Borough, population 750. A clean and neat little town, the centre of a considerable mining district, with a few good sluicing claims on a large scale.

In addition to the above, there are several small mining centres, such as Stafford, Kanieri, Woodstock, Rimu, Blue Spur, Okarito, and Gillespie's.

Mining and Minerals.

The District of Westland contains the greatest area of alluvial auriferous ground on the West Coast.

All the Westland rivers carry more or less gold, but the two great golden rivers are the Arahura and Waiho, the bars and ripples in which appear to be replenished with fresh deposits of gold after each flood. Standing on the summit of Mount Turiwhate, the ancient beds of the Arahura can be easily traced northward to the Kumara and southward to the Rimu diggings. Similarly the Waiho has, in olden times, flowed both northward down the course of the Okarito River and southward to the Omoeroa River, the lateral terraces in both directions being well defined and gold-bearing.

There are three main gold-bearing deposits in Westland: the first, which may be called riverine leads, run generally westward. These are ancient river-beds, often lying at considerable elevations, of which the bulk has been washed away, leaving detached portions, as at Kumara and Rimu; the second are beach leads, both those along the present coast-line, and others running parallel thereto at distances varying from one-quarter to four miles inland, and at levels from a few feet below to a couple of hundred feet above sea-level; the third are extensive masses of gravel, &c., occurring in large isolated patches, as at Big Dam Hill, Humphrey's Gully, and Bald Hill, north of the Haast. These drifts have all one notable peculiarity, viz., that they invariably coat the seaward faces of the hills, and neither gold nor drift is to be found on the inland slopes. Gold-bearing fans from Mount Greenland have been found at different levels on Ross Flat, having probably been deposited in deep water by successive land-slides.

Hydraulic sluicing on a large scale is successfully carried on in various portions of the northern district, and is rapidly being extended to many other localities. Kanieri Lake is being re-utilised, and an abundant quantity of water is now available for the sluicers in the Kanieri Valley. The extension, now proposed, of that race to Back Creek would develop a very large field. The tapping of the Arahura River will, when completed, enable the miners at Blue Spur to obtain an unfailing supply of water, and command a large area of auriferous country, at present unworkable from want of water at a sufficient altitude. Numerous and costly experiments have been made with dredges of different types in the endeavour to work economically the gold-bearing sands which lie along the sea-beaches for a distance of over 140 miles; but none have proved a success as yet. A considerable number of miners (black-sanders) work on some of these beaches, and seem to make a fair living, many of them having been so employed in one neighbourhood for over twenty years.

Gold-bearing quartz has been found throughout the district, the most promising finds being at Taipo Range, Browning's Pass, and Cedar Creek. Silver ores, associated with gold, have also been found, notably at Rangitoto. Copper lodes have also been discovered throughout the country, the finest outcrop being on the western slopes of the Matakitaki Range, with good seams and beds of coal and limestone adjacent.

Chapter 82. THE CANTERBURY LAND DISTRICT.

Sidney Weetman, Chief Surveyor

Boundaries—Physical Features.

The Land District of Canterbury comprises the central portion of the Middle Island, and lies between the Conway River, Barefell Pass, and Mt. Franklin on the northward; the Spenser Mountains, Travers Peak, Mt. Barron, the Amuri, Hope, and Hurunui Passes, the summit of the Southern Alps, and the western watershed of the River Hopkins and Lake Ohau on the westward; the Rivers Ohau and Waitaki on the southward; and the South Pacific Ocean on the eastward. It lies between south latitudes 42° 5' and 44° 55', and east longitudes 169° 45' and 173° 30s'. The length of the district north-east and south-west is about 220 miles; the breadth W.N.W. and E.S.E., from the summit of the Alps to the sea, averages seventy miles. The sea-board has a length of about 300 miles, consisting generally of low-lying beaches, broken by the projection eastward of Banks Peninsula, which contains the only large natural harbours. That portion of the district which fronts the ocean between the Ashley and Opihi Rivers is flat land, about 2,500,000 acres in extent; north and south of those limits the plain is interspersed with undulating and hilly country.

This great plain stretches westwards, rising and merging into downs and hills, which again extend westward and merge into the Southern Alps and the offshoots therefrom. Banks Peninsula, which has an area of about 250,000 acres, is wholly composed of ridges and hills, deeply intersected by basins and gullies, the result of volcanic action.

The Southern Alps, which form the backbone of the island, are a continuous chain of mountains, with a succession of magnificent peaks, attaining their culminating point in Mount Cook, or Aorangi, 12,349 ft. above sea-level; there are, besides, numerous peaks ranging in altitude between 7,000 ft. and 10,000 ft. Offshoots, extending to great distances eastward and south-eastward from the main range, attain elevations of 6,000 ft. to 9,000 ft. On these mountain-ranges are numerous and extensive glaciers, from which emanates the river-system of the district, comprising the Waiau-ua, about 100 miles in length; Hurunui, 85 miles; Waimakariri, 90 miles; Rakaia, 85 miles; Ashburton, 64 miles; Rangitata, 74 miles; the Waitaki and its main feeders, 140 miles. These rivers rush down from the mountain-gorges, through the intervening ranges and hills, and traverse the plains to the sea. The channels on the plains are shallow, and extend in some instances over a mile in width.

These rivers serve as outlets for a portion of the Lake system of the Middle Island, Lake Sumner being connected with the Hurunui, Lakes Coleridge and Heron with the Rakaia, and the Mackenzie Country lakes—Tekapo, Pukaki, and Ohau—with the Waitaki. Another important lake is that known as Lake Ellesmere, west of Banks Peninsula; it is separated from the ocean by a narrow shingle-spit only 5 chains across at one point, through which, at certain seasons, the flood waters force a channel to the sea.

Climate.

The climate of Canterbury is well suited to Europeans. It resembles that of Great Britain, but on the plains is far more equable, the mean daily range of temperature being 17.10° Fahr. Observations taken at Lincoln (fourteen miles from Christchurch) for a period of ten years, ending December, 1892, give the following results: Barometer, reduced to 32° Fahr. and sea-level, 30.06 in.; mean maximum daily temperature, 61.47°; mean minimum daily temperature, 43.27°; mean average temperature, 52.37°. The extremes of temperature were 92° and 22° Fahr. The rainfall for the same period averaged 26.809 in. per annum, the extremes being 35.287 in. in 1886 and 14.836 in. in 1890. The average annual number of days on which rain fell was 123, the extremes being 149 in 1887 and 98 in 1891. Snowfalls are very light on the plains, but in the high uplands the climate is much colder and more severe. The changes of weather and temperature are sudden, calms and gales, rain and sunshine, heat and cold alternating. The prevailing winds are north-east, south-west, and north-west—the last a hot wind. The climate, as a whole, is splendidly healthy, bracing, and most enjoyable.

Foundation and Settlement.

The district was occupied, in the first instance, by settlers sent out by the Canterbury Association, which was formed in 1848, and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1849, under the auspices of prominent men in England, including the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Lyttelton. The step was not taken until after due inquiry as to the most suitable part in which to establish a settlement. Captain (afterwards Sir George) Grey, at that time Governor, recommended the Wairarapa, but it was finally decided to take over from the New Zealand Company a tract of the Canterbury Plains, in the neighbourhood of Port Cooper. Captain Thomas, the agent of the association, who had advised the selection, superintended the surveys and the preparations for receiving intending settlers. The original intention of the founders was that the settlement should be independent and complete in itself, and should embrace only such persons as were members of the Church of England and were approved of by the association. This was frustrated by the influx of numbers of persons of all classes and beliefs. The first body of emigrants arrived at Port Cooper on the 16th December, 1850, and the settlement remained under the control of the association, as directed by a committee of management in England, and under the active personal supervision of Mr. John Robert Godley, until 1853, when the whole of Canterbury became a province of New Zealand by the provisions of“The Constitution Act, 1852.”

Thenceforward the control of the settlement was vested in the Superintendent and the Provincial Council. The first Superintendent was Mr. James Edward FitzGerald, who held office till 1857; he was followed in succession by Mr. William Sefton Moorhouse, 1857-1863; Mr. Samuel Bealey, 1863-1866; Mr. Moorhouse again till 1868; and Mr. William Rolleston till the abolition of the provinces in 1876, when the district came directly under the control of the General Government.

Internal Communication.

In no part of New Zealand are the means of communication better than in Canterbury. The natural facilities of the country have been abundantly supplemented by railways and roads. Lyttelton, the chief port, is connected by rail with Christchurch, the heart and centre of the whole district. From Christchurch the main line extends northwards to Culverden, a distance of 69 miles; southward the main trunk line runs to Waitaki, 138¾ miles. These lines tap and serve the whole coastal district, and the lands adjoining on the western side. As feeders to these trunk lines, eight branch lines have been constructed westward, and two lines south-eastward; the former, in most instances, extending to the foot of the hills.

Combined with the railway system is a complete network of main, district, and subsidiary roads, extending into all parts of Canterbury. The total length of railways is 455 miles, and the roads probably exceed 10,000 miles in the aggregate. The completion of this splendid system is due, partly to the foresight of the original settlers, partly to the exertions of the Provincial Government, and partly to the railway and public-works policy of the late Sir Julius Vogel.

Geological Formation.

According to Sir James Hector, the main western ranges are composed of Upper Palaeozoic rocks, having at their base extensive plains of Tertiary fluviatile formation, with occasional protruding ridges of Upper Mesozoic, forming low mountain-ranges subordinate to the main axis. Banks Peninsula consists of basic volcanic rocks.

Area, Nature, and Disposition of Lands.

The area of the Canterbury Land District is 9,604,045 acres, of which the estimated area of forest-land is 516,030 acres. Forest-lands are found in Banks Peninsula and in the Mount Peel and Waimate districts, where the timber consists chiefly of rimu, totara, and matai; at the sources of the Waiau-ua, Ashley, Waimakariri, Rakaia, and Hopkins Rivers, at Lakes Ohau and Sumner, and near Springfield and Methven, the timber in these localities being mostly native beech; and near Oxford, where the beech is interspersed with rimu, totara, matai, &c.

The lands of Canterbury may be classed approximately as follows: First class, 2,046,071 acres; second class, 5,207,173 acres; third class (barren lands and lands of small value), 2,350,801 acres: total, 9,604,045 acres.

The disposition of lands was in 1900 as follows:—No. of Holders.Area in Acres.
1. Crown lands disposed of for cash (including land granted under Midland Railway Act, 398,475 acres, but deducting lands repurchased for settlement—119,630 acres) 3,866,456
2. Lands held on deferred payments     27     11,940
3. Lands held on perpetual lease   120     13,008
4. Lands held as leaseholds in perpetuity1,000   191,150
5. Lands held in occupation with right of purchase     19       1,413
6. Lands held as village-homestead special settlements   367     12,049
7. Lands held as small grazing-runs     68   137,583
8. Lands held as grazing-farms (on Cheviot Estate)     39     45,691
9. Pastoral licenses   1213,429,919
10. Special-settlement associations     36       4,420
11. Reserves and Crown lands held under temporary occupation licenses (area, 91,805 acres, included in 12 and 16)   503 
12. Area of land reserved and granted under various Acts (exclusive of Midland Railway land, included in 1)    777,556
13. Land purchased and disposed of under Land for Settlements Acts (included in 4, 7, 10, and 11; 696 holders, 116,468 acres)  
14. Crown lands open for selection        9,020
15. Crown lands being prepared for selection  
16. Barren lands, and lands for future disposal 1,103,840
                              Total2,3009,604,045

In explanation, it may be noted that No. 1 comprises the freehold lands conveyed, and that tenants of Nos. 2, 3, and 5 have the right of acquiring the freehold, which is not the case with tenants of Nos. 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, and 13. Crown lands proper are: 14, open for selection; 15, being prepared for selection.

Soils.

The Southern Alps and mountains adjoining are, owing to their great altitude, subject to disintegration, and form for the most part rocky barren wastes.

The lower ranges and hills, the high tablelands, and the light stony portions of the plain form the pastoral areas.

In the northern and southern districts and in the great central plain are the agricultural areas. This latter class of land comprises rich alluvial tracts about Cheviot, Rangiora, Kaiapoi, Lincoln, Ellesmere, Longbeach, Temuka, and Waimate, and the splendid plain- and down-lands which extend from Cheviot to the Waitaki.

Banks Peninsula, where the soil is of a rich volcanic nature, though exceedingly hilly, has alluvial areas in the valleys and about the bays.

Pasturage and Crops.

Below a certain level, the mountainous and hilly regions, and the high upland country in the western and northern part, are covered by native grasses, with an admixture of English forage-plants where the character of the soil and other circumstances are favourable.

The pasturage, which is very suitable for sheep-farming, is taken full advantage of by the pastoral tenants of the Crown, and is used to some extent by freeholders. The light stony portions of the plain also contain native grass lands, well adapted to merino sheep.

The lower hills, downs, and better kinds of plain-country have been widely cultivated, and have proved well fitted for the production both of cereals and of grasses.

The chief crops grown in Canterbury Provincial District are wheat, oats, barley, turnips, rape, clover- and grass- seed; while amongst other crops produced are rye, peas, beans, mangolds, beet, carrots, and potatoes.

Of the cereals, wheat is the most largely grown, and was for many years a large item of export. In the season 1899-1900 the area under crop for threshing was 181,648 acres, yielding an average of 29 bushels per acre, or 5,304,506 bushels in all, equal to a little over two-thirds of the whole yield for the colony.

Oats also are very successfully grown, the figures for the same period being 137,429 acres, which yielded 4,993,740 bushels; or an average of 36 bushels per acre, or over one-third of the total yield for the colony.

Barley of superior quality is also produced, the figures being 18,060 acres, 605,187 bushels: average per acre, 33 bushels, or nearly two-fifths of total yield.

Grass-seeds are abundantly grown, cocksfoot mainly on the splendid Banks Peninsula country, and ryegrass throughout the land district.

Potatoes, which yield crops of excellent quality, were grown in 1899-1900 on 12,366 acres; turnips and rape were grown on 202,776 acres, and the combined area of other crops grown, including rye, peas, beans, mangolds, beet, carrots, and onions, was 11,444 acres. The area of wheat, oats, and barley for fodder was 52,404 acres. The area ploughed and laid down in English grasses was 1,419,466 acres. Surface-sown lands comprised 350,405 acres. The total area under crop was 617,315 acres, and the area broken up but not in crop, 14,249 acres. Plantations, exclusive of private gardens, occupied an area of 22,874 acres. The aggregate area of private and market gardens, orchards, and vineyards over quarter of an acre in extent was 7,471 acres.

Stock.

The pastoral and agricultural lands provide grazing and fodder for a large number of sheep, cattle, horses, and other stock. Of late years the value of the plains has been much enhanced and the carrying-capacity thereof greatly increased by the water-race system, which supplies water throughout the length and breadth of the dry areas, and enables the country to be occupied in smaller holdings than would otherwise be possible.

The following table shows the extent, cost, and other particulars regarding the water-race system in the several counties in 1900:—

County.Area watered.Miles of Races.Total Cost.Cost per Acre watered.Amount of Water distributed every Twenty-four Hours.Annual Charge for Use of Water.
 Acres £s. d.Gal. 
Selwyn326,3881,09970,6164        480,940,9608s. 4d. to £1 5s. per 100 acres.
Ashburton586,0001,28033,6001      1¾86,000,000About £3 per mile of race.
Geraldine  71,212   260   9,0102      6½29,520,000About 7d. per acre, including a rate for payment of principal and interest on loans, and a rate for maintenance.
Waimate35,700   157  8,1254        7  8,500,000Races are maintained by an annual charge on the value of lands watered.

The sheep in the Provincial District of Canterbury, in April, 1899, numbered 4,040,456. In November, 1899, there were 47,104 horses, 89,242 cattle, and 38,367 pigs.

The district has a well-deserved reputation for the classes and splendid quality of its sheep. On the mountains and higher lands the merino still predominates; but on the richer low-lying ranges, hills, and plains the prevailing types are crosses between the merino and Leicester, Lincoln, Romney Marsh, and other breeds. In proof of the superior character of the flocks, pasturage, and climatic conditions in the Middle Island, the following percentages of lambing returns are quoted—these are“fair average returns, but much higher might have been exhibited”: Mountain native pasture—pure merino, 75.36; pure merino and Border Leicester, 88.94: English-grass pasture—crossbred and Border Leicester, 80.8; half-bred Border Leicester, 82.79; Border Leicester, 90.77; Lincoln, 88.08; Romney Marsh, 111.46; English Leicester, 93.34; Shropshire, 97.41; Southdowns; 96.87. It must be borne in mind that the flocks and herds are supported by the natural and artificial pastures without housing.

Owing to the development of the frozen-meat trade a great impetus has been given to sheep-breeding. The bulk of the primest meat exported from the colony is supplied by this district, with Marlborough, and commands the highest price in the London markets. In the year ended 30th April, 1900, the number of carcases frozen was 1,883,556, valued at £961,541. There were also produced preserved meats to the value of £17,211; 16,098 casks of tallow, valued at £159,585; 5,000 tons of bonedust and manures; besides neatsfoot-oil, oleo, &c.

The total quantity of frozen meat exported from Canterbury during the year ended 31st March, 1900, was 704,672 cwt., valued at £852,684. At Belfast, Fairfield (near Ashburton), Islington, and Timaru, freezing-works are established, each containing a complete plant for carrying on the industry, as well as departments for curing, preserving, boiling-down, tallow rendering, fellmongering, and the manufacture of manures. The Belfast Freezing Works, owned by the Canterbury Frozen Meat and Dairy Produce Export Company, contain engines of 710-horse-power, and employ 300 men. They have storage for 90,000 carcases, and can put through 5,000 carcases in a day. The same company has recently established a new factory at Fairfield (near Ashburton), where 40,000 carcases can be stored and 2,200 dealt with in a day. The Islington and Timaru works, which are owned by the Christchurch Meat Company, employ in all about 700 men, and have engines representing 430-horse-power. The former can put through 6,000 carcases per diem, and have storage for 120,000 carcases. The latter can deal with 4,000 carcases in a day, and have storage for 120,000 carcases. At Hornby there has been established by Messrs. Nelson Brothers (Limited) a well-equipped factory for freezing only, with engines of 300-horse-power, and a capacity of dealing with 1,000 sheep per diem. The factory has storage-room for 50,000 sheep.

Wool.

During the year ended 31st March, 1900, there were shipped at Lyttelton and Timaru 36,659,783 lb. wool, valued at £1,525,093; and to this must be added the amount (about 1,000,000 lb.), bought for manufacture by the woollen-mills in the district. The staple of the New Zealand wool, especially the long wool and crossbred, is remarkable for its freedom from breaks and other imperfections. The average clips are approximately as follows: Merino, 4 lb. to 7 lb.; quarter-breds, 6½ lb.; half-breds, 7½ lb.; three-quarters, 8½ lb.; Leicesters, 10½ lb.; Lincoln, 11 lb. From special flocks clips up to 25 lb. and 30 lb. are obtained.

Butter and Cheese.

Banks Peninsula and the rich tracts of country previously mentioned are excellently suited for dairy farming. The pasturage and climatic conditions are favourable, and a great increase in the production of butter and cheese may be looked for, more especially as housing and hand-feeding are in some districts unnecessary. A central co-operative dairy factory has been established at Addington, served by twelve creameries, situate at Marshlands, Oxford, Halswell, Springston, Doyleston, Little River, Ladbrooks, Lakeside, Kaiapoi, Green Park, Brookside, and Ashburton, each capable of dealing with the milk of 1,000 cows. There are also very complete dairy factories at Taitapu, Sefton, Temuka, Southbrook, Belfast, Tinwald and Le Bon's Bay, as well as a cheese-factory at Flemington.

Timber.

The sawmilling industry finds its development chiefly in the Oxford, Little River, Mount Somers, and Waimate districts. The number of mills in Canterbury in 1896 was twenty-two, employing 232 hands, the horse-power being 318. The output in 1895 was 3,697,230 ft., valued at £17,608. The number is, however, diminishing, owing to the working-out of the available timber. The timber comprises birch, totara, red- and white-pine. The first-named is used chiefly for sleepers and fencing, the totara and pine for building purposes. Including the work done by the planing-and moulding-mills the value of all the manufactures under this head was £26,154.

Fruit.

The district is eminently adapted for the growth of a large variety of fruits, especially all that flourish in Great Britain. Attention has recently been directed to landing supplies of fruit in London; the attempts so far have proved satisfactory, and point to the possibility of a large trade being established.

Coal.

Brown coal is found at the Malvern Hills, Homebush, Whitecliffs, Springfield, Mount Somers, Albury, and various other places. Lignite is also commonly distributed. For the year 1899, the output from 15 colleries, employing about 50 hands, was 14,192 tons, bringing the total amount raised from 24 collieries up to the 31st December, 1899, to 379,881 tons. The seams worked vary from 16 ft. to 2 ft. 3 in., the average width being 8 ft. At Acheron, near Lake Coleridge, a true anthracite is found, the other pits in the district being of brown coal or lignite.

Building-stones.

The building-stones of Canterbury comprise some excellent varieties. The Halswell quarries produce an exceedingly hard and close-grained stone of a dull leaden-grey colour. Granular trachytes are obtained from Governor's Bay, Lyltelton; porphyrites at Malvern Hills; good limestone at Malvern Hills, Waikari, Mount Somers, and various other places; bluestone rock is found at Timaru suitable for millstones. There is abundance of limestone in North Canterbury, Mount Somers, Castle Hill, and various other parts, which is well adapted for making lime.

Fisheries.

Deep-sea fishing is carried on from Lyttelton and Akaroa, the kinds of fish chiefly caught being groper (hapuku), ling, conger, moki, butterfish, barracouta, soles, whiting, red-cod, herrings, and garfish. From Lake Ellesmere and the river estuaries excellent flounders are obtained. In 1896 there were employed on the lake and along the coast 68 boats, manned by 105 men.

Trout thrive amazingly in the rivers and fresh-water lakes, affording excellent sport.

Manufactories.

Excluding mines and quarries, the total number of manufactories in Canterbury at the date of the last census in 1896 was 448, employing 4,944 males and 1,110 females.

Included in the above were 20 printing, 9 agricultural-implement, 27 coach-building and -painting, 29 fellmongering, tanning, currying, and wool-scouring establishments, 5 ship- and boat-building works, 12 sail- and oilskin-factories, 3 woollen-mills, 5 clothing, 17 boot-and-shoe factories, 4 rope-and-twine works, 5 flax-mills, 5 boiling-down, meat-preserving, and freezing works, 14 cheese- and butter-factories, 32 grain-mills, 3 fruit- and jam-making works, 16 breweries, 10 malt-houses, 30 aerated waters and cordial works, 6 sauce- and pickle-making factories, 5 soap- and candle works, 22 sawmills and sash-and-door factories, 4 gas-works, 15 brick, tile, and pottery manufactories, and 10 iron- and brass-foundries.

The census returns also showed that in 1895, the value of land, machinery, and buildings used for factory purposes was £1,178,112, and the total value of manufactures £2,629,822.

Libraries and Churches.

As an indication of the progress of the district, it may be noted that there were in April, 1896, seventy-three public libraries, mechanics' institutes, and scientific institutions, with a membership of 3,647; and 277 churches or chapels, attended by 42,615 persons.

Educational Institutions.

Primary Schools.—The district is divided into two parts, termed North and South Canterbury, each presided over by an Educational Board. Under the control of the Boards schools have been established throughout the whole country wherever population warrants their erection.

The number of children attending the public primary schools in Canterbury, on 31st March, 1900, was 25,392. Average daily attendance, 21,343. Number of teachers—males, 275; females, 420: total, 695. Number of schools, 268.

There is a Normal School at Christchurch for the training of teachers.

Secondary Education.—For the further education of children ample provision has been made by the establishment of secondary schools. The principal schools of this class are the Boys' and Girls' High Schools at Christchurch, Rangiora, Ashburton, Timaru, Waimate, Akaroa, and Temuka. For more advanced students Canterbury College, Christchurch, is available. This institution was founded and endowed by the Provincial Government in 1873. It is presided over by a Board of Governors. The teaching staff comprises twelve professors and lecturers, and the number of students attending lectures is over 300.

It should be recorded here that the Provincial Government of Canterbury was fully alive to its duties as regards higher education. It made reserves for the purpose of endowment for the following objects: (1) College, 101,640 acres, reserved June, 1873; (2) technical science, 103,000 acres, reserved July, 1873; (3) School of Agriculture, 100,950 acres, reserved June, 1873; (4) Boys' High School, 9,220 acres, reserved at various dates; (5) Classical School, 8,953 acres, reserved at various dates. To these were subsequently added the following: (6) Girls' High School, 2,578 acres, reserved January, 1878; (7) Medical School, 5,000 acres, reserved December, 1877.

Primary Schools.—There are numerous private schools, independent of the State, the chief amongst them being Christ's College, Christchurch, connected with the Church of England. The Roman Catholics support schools of their own in Christchurch, Pleasant Point, Lyttelton, Timaru, Addington, Papanui, Ashburton, Akaroa, Rangiora, Sheffield, Temuka, Leeston, and Waimate. There are besides, in Christchurch, some excellent private boarding- and day-schools for both boys and girls.

Other Institutions.

Canterbury has the advantage of possessing many flourishing public institutions. The School of Art, Christchurch, was established by the College Governors in 1882; the Art Gallery owes its origin to the Art Society, the site being the gift of the Government. The Canterbury Agricultural College, Lincoln, also founded by the College Governors, is surrounded by 660 acres of land. The commodious buildings, which cost over £20,000, provide accommodation for the Director and teaching-staff, and for forty-five students. The fees are on a low scale. The farm buildings are complete, and include a well-equipped dairy. Instruction is given in agriculture, chemistry, botany, mechanics, physics, surveying, &c.

The Public Library, Christchurch, under the control of the College Governors, contains reading-rooms, a circulating library of 18,431 books, and a reference library of 12,368 volumes. Numbers of magazines and newspapers are provided. The number of subscribers is 1,800, and the average daily attendance between 700 and 800.

The Museum, Christchurch, is a handsome pile of stone buildings; the collections are large and varied. They are separated into two groups: (1) Those from New Zealand; (2) those from foreign countries. In the New Zealand department the skeletons of whales and moas, as well as the collections of shells (tertiary and fossils) and rocks, are specially good; and the Maori collection, exhibited in a Maori house, is also of considerable interest. In the foreign department, the geological, mineralogical, and ethnological collections are the most extensive, but there is also a good illustrative series of Egyptian and Roman antiquities, as well as of the remains of prehistoric man in Europe and America.

This institution owes its origin and success to the foresight, skill-, and energy of the late Sir Julius von Haast, and to the munificence of the Provincial Government.

The philanthropic institutions embrace the Christchurch, Akaroa, Ashburton, Timaru, and Waimate Hospitals; the Sunnyside Asylum for the Insane; the Rhodes Convalescent Home; the Memorial Home for the Aged at Woolston; the City Mission and Destitute Men's Home, Christchurch; the Deaf-and-Dumb Asylum at Sumner; the Orphanage, Lyttelton; the Industrial School at Burnham; and the Mount Magdala Asylum, Samaritan Home, and St. Mary's Home, in the vicinity of Christchurch.

Towns.

Christchurch, the capital city of the Canterbury District, is situated on the plains. It is practically level, laid out in rectangular form, two miles by one mile and a quarter, and is intersected diagonally by a street. The streets are 66 ft. in width. There are numerous open spaces, including the Cathedral Square in the centre, and Cranmer and Latimer Squares. The Avon, a pretty stream, overhung by willows, runs through the town, presenting from all points charming vistas. The city is surprisingly English in its appearance, architecture, and surroundings. The central portion, where stands the Cathedral, Government offices, and other substantial structures, has a handsome, well-built look. Other parts contain fine public buildings, such as the Museum, Canterbury College, High Schools, &c. The whole is admirably set off by Hagley Park, 400 acres in extent, the Domain and Botanical Gardens, 79 acres, Lancaster Park, the Town Belts, and other public and private gardens and plantations. The suburbs can show many handsome houses and beautifully kept grounds.

The city is surrounded by the populous boroughs and districts of Sydenham, St. Albans, Linwood, Papanui, Woolston, &c. The population of the city was at the last estimate (March, 1900) 18,500, in about 4,000 houses; including the adjacent boroughs and other suburbs the population amounts to about 55,441. Tramways connect the city with the suburbs of Addington, Sydenham, the Port Hills, and Papanui, and with the seaside villages of New Brighton and Sumner. The city has been drained at considerable expense, the sewage being conveyed three miles and discharged on the sand wastes near the sea. A pure and copious water-supply has been provided by nature, and is obtained by artesian wells. The affairs of the municipality are controlled by the City Council, presided over by the Mayor. Christchurch is the centre of trade and commerce for the North Canterbury agricultural and pastoral country, and the headquarters of many manufacturing industries, including carriage, boot, and clothing-factories, flour-mills, breweries, meat-preserving and -freezing, biscuit, planing and moulding, bicycle, and other works.

There are large and well-equipped show-grounds at Addington.

Recreation and amusement are provided for by the Theatre Royal, Opera House, and various public halls, the famous Riccarton racecourse, the numerous cricket and football grounds, &c., while boating men have the River Avon and the Heathcote estuary.

Christchurch is connected with the outside world by Port Lyttelton, seven miles distant. The railway-tunnel of 1⅝ miles in length, through the Port Hills, is on this line. Christchurch is not only the centre of the splendid Canterbury Plains, but is also one of the chief railway centres of the colony. Addington railway-workshops are extensive and fully equipped.

Lyttelton, the chief port of the district, is situated on the northern shores of the Inlet of that name, sometimes called Port Cooper. The surrounding country consists of high precipitous hills, which separate the harbour from Christchurch and the plains; but by the construction of the railway and tunnel the natural difficulties have been overcome, with the result that the whole of the imports and exports of northern and central Canterbury pass through Lyttelton. The origination and accomplishment of this great engineering work is due to the late William Sefton Moorhouse, at that time Superintendent of the Province. The natural advantages of the port have been enhanced by reclamation and harbour-works, which include two breakwaters, 2,010 ft. and 1,400 ft. in length respectively, extending from Officer and Naval Points, enclosing about 107 acres; long lengths of wharf accommodation, 10,041 ft.; a patent slip for ships up to 400 tons; and a splendid graving-dock 450 ft. long, width on top and bottom 82 ft. and 46 ft. respectively, the entrance being 62ft. wide, well equipped with machinery and all requisites for repairs. Ships drawing up to 25 ft. can berth alongside the spacious wharves and sheds. The railway, electric-light, machinery, and appliances are available throughout, which renders loading and unloading practicable both by day and by night. As an indication of the volume of trade dealt with at the port, it may be noted that for the year ended March 31, 1900, the imports were valued at £1,550,702 and the exports at £2,603,111. The town nestles on the side of the range, the streets being generally steep, flanked by solid stone buildings; and a background of green spurs and bold rocky faces gives to the whole a charming and picturesque appearance. The water-supply is obtained from artesian wells on the Christchurch side of the hills. To Christchurch there is a bridle-track over the range, and a carriage-road viâ Sumner. The harbour is well defended by fortifications and batteries on Ripa Island and the mainland. The population in 1899 was 4,026, with 825 houses.

Timaru, the third town in importance, is situated on the coast and railway line between Christchurch (100 miles) and Dunedin (131 miles). The boundaries of this borough were extended in 1898, the estimated area, including town belt, being now 1,100 acres. It has a well-constructed artificial harbour, the port of shipment for the agricultural and pastoral districts of Geraldine, Timaru, and Waimate. The harbour is enclosed by a breakwater built of blocks of concrete; a rubble wall—the North Mole—starts from the shore a quarter of a mile away to the north, and extends easterly to a point 350 ft. from the breakwater. The enclosed space is 50 acres. During the year ended March 31, 1900, the value of goods imported here was £126,937 and of produce exported £944,492. The town is picturesquely situated on rolling hills overlooking the sea. The streets are irregular, but the public and commercial buildings, churches, and private houses are generally well and handsomely built of stone. The chief industries are meat-freezing, saw-milling, flour-milling, &c. The town has a good high-pressure water-supply, and is connected by well-made roads with the surrounding districts, and by rail with Fairlie, the route to the Mackenzie Country and Mount Cook. The population in 1899 was 5,795, with 1,190 inhabited houses.

Of other towns in Canterbury the following deserve mention: Rangiora, population, 1,900, with 397 houses, twenty miles from Christchurch by northern line of railway, is situated in the centre of a fine farming country, and possesses manufactories, including seven flax-mills, flour-mill, and brewery. The town and neighbourhood are much benefited by plantations.

Kaiapoi, on the Waimakariri, population 2,000, about fourteen miles from Christchurch by the northern railway-line, lies in a rich farming country, rendered pleasing and attractive by the extent and variety of plantations and gardens. There are factories and various industries, including ham- and bacon-curing, saw-mills, brewery, and agricultural-implement works. Here also is the famed Kaiapoi Woollen-mill, which employs 600 hands when trade is brisk. The Waimakariri is navigable for small vessels to the centre of the town.

Ashburton, the newest of the towns, has a population of 2,100, with 490 houses, and is fifty-three miles from Christchurch on the southern trunk line. It is a well-built town, with extensive and beautiful recreation-grounds and gardens. It owes its existence to the settlement of the plains, the surrounding country being well adapted for farming. There are two breweries, meat-freezing works, a cordial-factory, three flour-mills, gasworks, ironworks, woollen-mill, brickworks, &c.

Geraldine, population 950, is situated on the Waihi River, four miles from Orari Railway-station, about eighty-six miles south-west from Christchurch. It is a neat and pretty town, in a first-class farming district, and has a beautiful park of native forest-trees.

Temuka, eighty-eight miles from Christchurch, on the southern railway-line, is a well-built town, with good agricultural land all round. It possesses three flour-mills, a butter- and cheese-factory, brewery, foundry, fellmongery and paper-mill. There is a beautiful park and domain. The population of the borough is 1,550 persons.

Waimate, population 1,500, is situated on the Waihao Forks Railway, about four miles from Studholme Junction, some 111 miles from both Christchurch and Dunedin. This town is the centre for an extensive back-country, and a splendid agricultural area. It owes its origin to the sawmill industry of the Waimate bush. Industries: saw-milling, flour-milling, &c.

Akaroa, population 630, situated on the noble harbour of that name, was founded in 1840, in the first instance by the French. It is a quiet, picturesque little place, much patronised by Christchurch residents and others as a summer resort and watering-place. It was here that Captain Stanley hoisted the British flag on 11th August, 1840, when he took possession of the Middle Island on behalf of the Crown, forestalling the French by a few hours only. A suitable obelisk commemorating this event has recently been erected on the spot.

Chapter 83. THE OTAGO LAND DISTRICT.

J. P. Maitland, Commissioner of Crown Lands.

John Hay, Chief Surveyor.

Boundaries and Area.

The Otago Land District lies between the 44th and 47th parallels of south latitude, and extends from 167° 20' to 171° 10' of east longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Canterbury Land District; on the south-east and south by the ocean; on the west and south by the Waikawa, Mokoreta, Slopedown, Waikaka, Chatton, Wendon, Waikaia, Gap, Rockyside, and Kingston Survey Districts, the western and southern shores of Lake Wakatipu, the Mid-Wakatipu, Mavora, Swinton, Eglinton, Arran, and Doon Survey Districts, and a straight line from the north-east corner of the last-mentioned district to the nearest arm of George Sound, and by George Sound to the ocean; and on the north-west by the ocean to Big Bay.

The district measures about 160 miles from Milford Sound on the west coast to Waikouaiti Bay on the east coast, and the same distance from north to south. Its area is 9,482,800 acres.

Physical Description.

The country generally is mountainous, the highest land being to the north-west, and culminating in Mount Aspiring, 9,960 ft. above the level of the sea.

The west coast mountains are remarkably rugged and grand; and of the thirteen sounds that pierce this coast, three are within the limits of the Otago Land District, the remaining ten being on the west coast of the Southland District. These three are Milford Sound, Bligh Sound, and George Sound. Milford Sound, though only eight miles in length, contains some of the grandest scenery in the world; and fourteen miles inland from its head is the great Sutherland Waterfall, 1,904 ft. high, possibly the highest waterfall known. Bligh Sound is smaller than Milford, and not nearly so interesting; but George Sound is larger, and very picturesque.

A tourist track has been opened from the head of Te Anau Lake to Milford Sound, and a practicable route has also been discovered, and a track formed, from the north-west arm of the middle fiord of Te Anau Lake to the head of George Sound.

Te Anau Track.—A guide works on this track from December to April. He carries a fortnightly mail between Lake Te Anau and Milford Sound, and also meets each trip of the“Waikare.” There is ample accommodation for tourists who wish to make the journey in short stages, as there are huts erected at six different places on the track.

For nearly one hundred miles inland from the west coast the country is very mountainous, but at a distance of sixty or seventy miles from the south-east coast-line it begins to get gradually lower, taking the form of rolling hills and downs along the sea-shore.

Rivers and Lakes.

The largest rivers are the Clutha, Taieri, and Waitaki: the first-named drains Lakes Wakatipu, Wanaka, and Hawea; the last, Lakes Ohau, Pukaki, and Tekapo, in the Canterbury District. Te Anau, the largest lake in the Middle Island, lies partly in the Otago and partly in the Southland District. The dimensions of these lakes are as follows:—

Lakes.Length in Miles.General Breadth in Miles.Area in Square Miles.Height above Sea-level in Feet.
Te Anau381 to 6132   694
Wakatipu501 to 3½1141,069
Wanaka291 to 3   75   928
Hawea19    3    481,062
Ohau111 to 3  231,720
Pukaki112½ to 5 311,588
Tekapo151 to 3½32½2,325

These lakes are situated in mountainous country; they are of glacial origin, and all very deep.

The Clutha River is the largest in New Zealand, and is estimated to discharge over 1,000,000 cubic feet per minute. It has a rapid current, but is navigable for small steamers for a distance of forty miles from its mouth. The Waitaki is not a navigable river. For some seventeen miles from its mouth the Taieri River is affected by tides, which run up one branch into Waihola Lake, and up the other branch as far as Allanton (Greytown).

There is a small steamer on Waihola Lake, and another on the Taieri River at Henley. During the summer season both run excursion trips to the mouth of the river when required. The distance in each case is about eight miles.

Plains.

There are some considerable areas of tolerably level land in the interior, the largest being the Maniototo Plains, the Idaburn, Manuherikia, and Upper Clutha Valleys. Their dimensions are approximately as follows: Maniototo Plains, length, twenty-eight miles; average breadth, ten miles; Idaburn Valley, twenty-five miles by four miles; Manuherikia Valley, thirty-five miles by four miles; Upper Clutha Valley, thirty-three miles by five miles.

The Taieri Plain, nearer the coast, is about the same size as the Idaburn Valley, and is very fertile. Other plains are the Waitaki in the north, the Tokomairiro, the Strath-Taieri, the Tapanui, and the fertile Inch-Clutha, lying between the two branches of the Clutha River, and consisting entirely of alluvial deposit. There is also a good deal of low country, chiefly rolling downs, on the south-west side of the Clutha near the sea.

Forests.

The forest-land lies mostly along the sea-coast, the largest area of bush being Tautuku Forest, about forty miles in length and fifteen miles in breadth. The western part of this forest is in the Southland District. The other principal forest areas are in the following localities, viz.: north of Dunedin, east of the Tapanui mountains, in the upper valley of the Waikaia River, and towards the north-west coast.

The forests of Otago contain a large variety of useful timber, both hard and soft wood; some being suitable for building purposes, while other varieties are highly ornamental, and much prized for cabinet-work.

Building Stones.

Building-stones of good quality are found in various places throughout Otago. The Port Chalmers quarries afford an inexhaustible supply of bluestone, a basaltic stone of great hardness and durability; and the neighbourhood of Hindon furnishes a bluestone of superior quality. A hard freestone of excellent quality is found at Waikawa, where there is a large hill of it close to the water's edge. Blocks of very great size can be obtained. There is also a freestone of superior quality on the late Hon. W. J. M. Larnach's property on the Peninsula. A dense dark granite is obtainable on Ruapuke Island; specimens, both tooled and polished, may be seen in the base and pilasters of the new Government Life Insurance Buildings at Dunedin. A soft white building-stone—the well-known Oamaru limestone—is found in large quantities along the railway-line near Oamaru, from whence a good deal is exported to other parts of New Zealand and to the neighbouring colonies. A similar kind of stone is found at Otekaike, about two miles from the railway-station, and it may be interesting to note that during the years 1891-93 about 3,000 tons of stone were sent from the Otekaike quarries to form the facings of the Melbourne Fish-market.

Limestone for Burning.

Limestone is found in the following places: Oamaru, Otekaike, Otepopo, Waihemo, Maniototo Plains, Waikouaiti, Lower Harbour, Peninsula, Waihola, Millburn, and Wakatipu.

The Millburn Lime and Cement Company burn large quantities of lime at their Millburn works, from whence it is sent to all parts of Otago, for building purposes, gasworks, &c. It is also largely used in farming, and the productiveness of the Tokomairiro Plain has been greatly increased of late years by its application to the soil. Large cement-works belonging to the same company have been open for some years on the reclaimed land in Otago Harbour, near Dunedin. The cement manufactured at these works is considered fully equal, if not superior, to the best imported, and is largely used in building and other constructive works.

Coal and Lignite.

No first-class coals have yet been discovered in Otago suitable for ocean-going steamships. In the southern portion of the district and in part of Southland thin seams of coal of a bituminous character exist, but so far nothing of a commercial character has been found. These coals are of Mezozoic age. First-class brown coals are worked in several parts of Otago and Southland, the principal seats of the industry being Shag Point, Green Island, Kaitangata, and Nighteaps. Considerable quantities of coal are now being mined in Central Otago, the dredging requirements having directed the attention of miners and others to the deposits of brown coal found in almost every district.

Beds of lignite are also found in numerous localities, chiefly round the margins of the old lake-basins and along the courses of the older river-valleys, and are worked on a small scale to supply local demands.

The output of coal and lignite in Otago and Southland for 1899 was 297,967 tons.

Climate.

The climate of Otago varies greatly in different neighbourhoods, and sometimes a distance of a few miles only separates districts very dissimilar in this respect. A large area in the interior of Otago has what may be called a dry climate. This area includes the Maniototo Plains, the Idaburn and Manuherikia Valleys, and extends to Lakes Wakatipu, Wanaka, Hawea, and Ohau on the west and north, and to the Waitaki River on the north-east. From Oamaru the direction would be across country to the Lammerlaw Ranges, and thence to Mount Benger and the southern end of Lake Wakatipu. This part of the country is well adapted for sheep of all kinds, especially merinos. Some of the runs in the hilly country are capable of carrying 20,000 sheep.

West Coast.

In marked contrast to central Otago is the West Coast District, which may be described as having a wet climate. Not that the number of wet days in the year is very great, but it is subject to very heavy rains from the north-west, the fall generally exceeding 100 in. per annum. But, although wet, the climate is mild, and the vegetation is consequently luxuriant. The only settlers of this part of the country are Mr. and Mrs. Sutherland, who keep a house of accommodation for tourists at the head of Milford Sound. There are very few visitors to the Sounds during winter, but in summer the tourist traffic is considerable. Towards the south-east and south coasts of the district the climate is moist, being somewhat similar to that of Dunedin, where the average rainfall is 35 in., distributed over 163 days in the year.

Fruit.

There are some fine fruit-growing districts in the valley of the Clutha, from below Roxburgh right up to Lake Wanaka. The summers are dry and warm, and the soil suitable. Apricots, peaches, &c., come to maturity fully a month before they do at Dunedin, and grapes ripen in the open air. There is a great future for this neighbourhood in the growing of those varieties of fruit which agree with and thrive in a dry climate. The grape might be cultivated either for wine-making or for the table, and some varieties could be made into good raisins. The dryness of the atmosphere is favourable for preserving all kinds of fruit, while the Otago Central Railway will bring the neighbourhood into direct communication with a market.

Crops.

Cereals of all kinds do very well over nearly the whole of the provincial district, which includes Southland. The following are the agricultural statistics:—

Total area under cultivation in the provincial district, including sown grasses and fallow land, 2,335,910 acres. Corn crops sown or intended to be sown this season for threshing, comprising wheat, oats, barley, rye, maize, peas, beans, 285,804 acres; land broken up and grassed, 1,434,025 acres, and 2,673 acres in clover, while 293,177 acres have been surface-sown with grass without the land being first broken up; green-crops, comprising potatoes, turnips, mangolds, rape, beet, carrots, &c., 221,511 acres; plantations, &c., including private gardens, market gardens, orchards, and vineyards of a quarter-acre and upwards, 10,644 acres, and 32,643 acres ploughed but not planted. The area in tussock, or native grass, is 7,860,880 acres.

       Acres.                  Estimated Yield per Acre.        Total.
Wheat for threshing  61,460                      29 bushels    1,782,340 bushels.
Oats for threshing210,043                      36 bushels    7,561,548 bushels
Barley for threshing12,977                      33 bushels      428,241 bushels
Rye for threshing    1,265                      23 bushels        39,095 bushels

Stock.

The total number of sheep in Otago Provincial District, which includes Southland, on the 30th April, 1899, was 3,715,485, of which number about 700,000 were merinos. On an average, about one-third of the flocks consist of breeding-ewes. The shearing is mostly done by hand, but the Wolseley shearing-machines have been introduced on about ten stations, the number of machines in each wool-shed varying generally from ten to fifteen, though there is one shed at Benmore, near Lake Ohau, where there are twenty-eight machines driven by a turbine.

The above-mentioned district had also, in November last, 53,711 horses; 35 mules and asses; 186,991 cattle; and 31,353 pigs.

The rabbit-pest is still a severe tax on the stockowners; the number of skins exported last year for the whole colony being 7,891,648, nearly the whole of which came from Otago; the monetary value being £81,118.

Freezing Establishments.

There are nine meat-freezing and preserving-works in Otago. The principal freezing establishments are at Oamaru, at Burnside, and at Port Chalmers. At Oamaru there are two Bell-Coleman machines, and a 60-ton Hercules refrigerator, capable of freezing 1,200 sheep a day, and there is storage-room for 20,000 carcases. At Burnside there are two Haslam machines, both driven by steam. One can supply 40,000 cubic feet of cold air per hour, and the other 60,000. Also a 70-ton Hercules machine, capable of freezing 2,000 carcases per day, and having storage-room for 30,000 carcases. The Port Chalmers freezing-works, erected in 1896 by the Otago Dock Trust, cost £4,500. They are used principally for the storage of butter prior to shipment, but the freezing-chambers have also been used for sheep, rabbits, and fish. The refrigerating machinery includes a 12-ton Hercules refrigerator. The capacity of the building is 30,000 cubic feet, and 50 tons of butter can be handled per week. The capacity has lately been nearly trebled, at an additional cost of £8,500. These additions include a 35-ton Hercules refrigerator.

Woollen-mills.

There are five woollen-mills at work in Otago, employing some 800 hands. The amount paid in wages is about £51,300 per annum, and the machinery is 800-horse-power. £80,000 worth of wool and other materials are used per annum, and the turn-out of manufactured goods exceeds £175,000 yearly. The woollen industry in Otago is of greater magnitude than in any other district of New Zealand.

Besides supplying local needs Otago Provincial District exported last year 23,508,204 lb. of wool, having a value of £707,707.

Clothing-factories.

In clothing-factories, also, Otago takes a prominent place, having nine, employing 700 hands, whose wages amount to £28,000 per annum.

Dairy Factories.

The dairying industry is steadily increasing in Otago. Several new factories have been erected, and the Taieri and Peninsula Factory has extended its creameries to various outlying districts, down to Inchclutha in the south, in Otago central, and right up to the Oamaru District. Their supply is increasing. The company shipped this season to London 450 tons of butter up to the end of February. Through the flush of the season they make seven to eight tons of butter per day, and through the rest of the season never much less than two tons a day. The bulk of the butter in Otago is theirs, and the quality is very highly appreciated in the London market. The export of butter from Otago this year is about nine hundred tons, and of cheese two thousand five hundred tons, showing a considerable increase. Prices have ruled high, and dairymen have been much encouraged, and next year several new cheese-factories will be in operation. Most of the dairy factories, indeed nearly all, are co-operative, the whole proceeds, less expenses, being divided among the milk-suppliers. The Taieri and Peninsula Milk-supply Company is a most admirable example of well-managed and therefore highly successful co-operation.

Gold Production.

Otago produces about one-third of all the gold taken out in New Zealand. The number of Europeans engaged last year was 3,895, and number of Chinese, 912.

Gold is found very generally distributed throughout Otago, except in the southern portion of the district. The principal localities are: Clutha Valley, Tuapeka, Shotover, Cardrona, Tinker's, St. Bathan's, Mount Ida, Nevis, Bannockburn, and Maerewhenua.

Last financial year the Otago Provincial District produced 126,706 oz. of gold, having a value of £513,001.

Chief Towns.

The following are the chief towns of Otago, with their population, including all having 1,000 inhabitants and upwards: Dunedin, and suburbs, 49,791; Oamaru, 5,411; Port Chalmers, 2,100; Mosgiel, 1,500; Milton, 1,500; Kaitangata, 1,400; Lawrence, 1,050.

City of Dunedin.

Dunedin, the capital city of Otago, is situated at the head of Otago Harbour, which is divided into two parts—the upper and lower. The lower harbour is six miles long from Taiaroa Heads to Port Chalmers. The upper harbour, from Port Chalmers to Dunedin, is seven miles in length. Dunedin and Port Chalmers are also connected by railway.

Although the hills surrounding Dunedin are rather tame in character and outline, the city itself is picturesquely situated. The business part of it is on level land near the harbour, and the residences occupy the sloping hills which rise on the west side of the city. The city proper is about two miles and a half long by seven-eighths of a mile wide, and is bounded on the land side by what is called the Town Belt. This reserve averages one-fifth of a mile in width, and comprises 500 acres, a great part of which is virgin bush. A pretty road, called the Queen's Drive, has been laid out through the Belt from end to end, from which many fine views of the town and harbour can be obtained.

It is thirteen miles down the harbour to the Heads in a north-easterly direction, but the Ocean Beach, lying to the south-east, is only two miles from the centre of the city, and the favourite seaside resort—St. Clair—is about three miles. Trams run to both these places at short intervals. The city is also connected with the suburban boroughs, lying on the hills overlooking the town, by excellent cable-tram-ways. The Botanical Gardens to the north of the city are well laid out, the native bush contrasting with the cultivated parts. The Reservoir also, which is within easy walking distance, and the drive to Blueskin Bay, have many beauties.

Dunedin is well supplied with elementary schools, there being six large schools in the city proper, with an attendance of 3,400 pupils, and eight more in the suburbs, with 3,631 pupils.

There is also in Dunedin a training-college for teachers. The students in training number nine men and thirty-four women. They devote every fifth week during the session to practice in teaching and management of classes in the ten associated schools of the city and suburbs.

The School of Art and Design is in the same building as the Normal School, and has a staff of five teachers and a pupil-teacher. In 1899 there were 386 students in attendance.

The Otago Boys' High School stands on a commanding plateau 300 ft. above the business part of the city and the harbour. The school was opened on the 3rd August, 1863, in the building in Dowling Street now occupied as the Girls' High School. The new buildings were opened by the late Sir William Jervois, Governor, in February, 1885. The teaching staff, including the Rector, numbers ten; the attendance is about 200.

The Otago Girls' High School was opened on the 6th February, 1871, with a roll of 78 pupils. The present attendance is 136, with a teaching staff of nine. Otago holds the proud distinction of having established the first Girls' High School in the Australasian Colonies. Among the earnest band of workers who laboured to establish this first High School for girls the name of Miss Dalrymple stands preeminent, and will ever be held in grateful remembrance by the people of Otago.

The Otago University was founded in 1869, and opened in 1871. It is well housed in a handsome pile of buildings in the domestic Gothic style. There are four separate faculties in the University—viz., arts and science, law, medicine, and mining. The School of Medicine provides the full course for a medical degree of the University of New Zealand. There is a Medical Museum in the University buildings containing anatomical, pathological, and other preparations and models. The teaching staff numbers at present twenty-three professors and lecturers. The School of Mines occupies a separate (temporary) building. There are at present

about sixty students going through the prescribed courses for the diplomas and certificates in the Mining, Metallurgical, Geological, Mine and Land-surveying and the Assaying Divisions. Of undergraduates keeping terms there are 253—viz., 219 men and 34 women. The University Library contains over 5,000 specially selected volumes, andis open to the public under certain conditions for purposes of reference. The Chemical and Physical Laboratories are well fitted up, and furnished with all necessary instruments and appliances. There are six scholarships tenable at the University, ranging in value from £15 to £30 per annum.

The public Museum, of which the Professor of Biology is Curator, is under the control of the University Council. It is situated in Great King street, about five minutes' walk from the University. There is an art gallery attached, which contains some good works of art. Up to the present time only the central portion of the original design for the Museum building has been erected.

The Dunedin Athenæum and Mechanics' Institute possesses a fine library of over 17,000 volumes, and a membership of over 950 subscribers. Besides the Circulating Library there is a Reference Library, and two good reading-rooms, well supplied with newspapers and magazines.

There are some fine specimens of architecture in Dunedin, the buildings for the most part having an air of permanence and solidity. Some of the churches are very handsome. The First Church, in Moray Place, and Knox Church, in George street, are both handsome stone structures, and St. Joseph's Cathedral (Roman Catholic) is built of stone in the decorated Gothic style. The portion at present constructed will seat 1,000 persons, and has cost £23,000.

The Cargill Monument, which was erected to the memory of the late Captain Cargill, the founder of the Otago settlement, stands in the Triangle, between the Customhouse and the Bank of New Zealand. It is an ornate specimen of early decorated Gothic.

Towns and Surrounding Country.

Port Chalmers (eight miles from Dunedin) situate on Otago Harbour, midway between the Heads and Dunedin, has a population of 2,100 inhabitants. It is the chief port of Otago, and possesses every accommodation for Home vessels, including dry dock, 80-ton sheer-legs, steam-hammer, and other appliances, besides several private foundries, cool-storage chamber, &c. The Port Chalmers graving dock is described in the article on page56.

Leaving Dunedin by the northern railway, winding in and out through the hills which surround the town, and skirting the precipitous cliffs of the coast-line, the first station of importance reached is Waitati, a favourite seaside resort in Blueskin Bay; distance, seventeen miles. Fifteen miles beyond is Waikouaiti; population, 760; pleasantly situated on the Hawksbury lagoon, the centre of a flourishing farming country. The next place of note is Palmerston, forty-one miles from Dunedin, with 775 inhabitants. A branch-line leaves Palmerston and runs nine miles up Shag Valley to Dunback. Six miles further on the main line there is a branch to Shag Point, a coalfield, with two pits being actively worked.

Oamaru (seventy-eight miles) is the second town in Otago, having a population of 5,411. It is the centre of a large farming district, and has a good harbour, formed by a concrete breakwater, for the reception of ocean-going ships. The chief exports are wool and grain. A branch-line runs from the junction near Oamaru up the Waiareka Valley to Ngapara, seventeen miles, and Tokaraki, twenty-six miles from Oamaru, and another seven miles by road brings us to Livingstone.

Starting from Oamaru, and proceeding to Central Otago, viâ the valley of the Waitaki River, the first part of the journey is accomplished by rail across the fertile Papakaio Plains to Awamoko (ninety-six miles), and thence following up the Waitaki River past Duntroon to Kurow (120 miles). At Kurow the traveller leaves the railway and follows the course of the Waitaki through pastoral country to Rugged Ridges Station (133 miles); a little beyond Rugged Ridges the road leaves the Waitaki River, and crossing the Ahuriri Pass (141 miles), strikes the Ahuriri River, which it follows up past Omarama Station (158 miles) to the junction of Longslip Creek; it then ascends this creek until Lindis Pass saddle is reached (172 miles), at a height of 3,185 feet. Here begins the descent to the Clutha Valley viâ Morven Hills Station (181 miles) and Tarras Station (200 miles). From Tarras-Station the road runs through settled farming country up the Clutha River, which is crossed by means of a punt at Newcastle (219 miles), and four miles more brings-the traveller to Pembroke, on the southern shore of Lake Wanaka.

From Dunedin the main trunk railway runs southward to Invercargill, a distance of 130 miles. Passing through the Caversham Borough and tunnel the traveller reaches Burnside (five miles) and Abbotsford (six miles), industrial centres, with coal-mining, tanning, iron-smelting, and other works. Farther on is Wingatui, the junction of the Otago Central Railway; and ten miles from Dunedin is Mosgiel, a rising township with 1,450 inhabitants, noted for its woollen-mills. The railway-line now skirts the Taieri Plain, an alluvial flat eighteen miles long by five miles broad; the most fertile portion of Otago. A branch-line from Mosgiel junction runs to Outram (nineteen miles), on the farther side of the Taieri Plain. Passing the smaller Townships of Allanton (Greytown) and Henley, and Lakes Waihola and Waipori, the line strikes Milton (thirty-six miles). Milton, in the middle of the Tokomairiro Plain, is a town of 1,500 inhabitants, with flour-mill, dairy factories, flax-mill, pottery works, and tannery. The next place of importance is Balclutha (fifty-three miles), on the banks of the Clutha River, with flax-mills, dairy factories, and chicory works; population about 1,000. Kaitangata, situated lower down the Clutha River, and connected by a branch-line, has extensive coalfields, and a population of 1,400. Leaving Balclutha, the main line runs through the Clutha downs, passing the small centres of Waitepeka, Warepa, Kaihiku, and Waiwera, and reaches Clinton (seventy-three miles), on the Waiwera stream, a favourite resort of anglers. The next station of note beyond Clinton is Waipahi Junction (eighty-three miles), on the Waipahi River, likewise a favourite fishing-ground. Further on is Gore (ninety-nine miles), on the Mataura River, in the Southland District. Gore is a fast-rising township of 2,800 inhabitants, with paper-mill, flour-mill, freezing-works, dairy factory, coal-mines, &c.

A branch-line from Waipahi follows up and crosses the Pomahaka River and connects Tapanui (ninety-six miles), Kelso (ninety-eight miles), and Heriot (one hundred and two miles).

The Otago Central Railway starts from Wingatui, crosses the Taieri Plain, and then winds round to the Taieri River, which it follows up to the present terminus at Wedderburn. In its course along the river it runs for some distance through a rocky gorge, but after crossing the Sutton Stream enters Strath-Taieri—a comparatively flat, open country. Near Hindon Station (twenty-five miles), in the Taieri Gorge, and Barewood (thirty-six miles), there are quartz-reefs being worked. In traversing the Strath-Taieri the line passes the Blair-Taieri Village Settlement (forty-four miles), Middlemarch, a rising township (forty-eight miles), and reaches Hyde (sixty-four miles). The present limit is Wedderburn, although the formation is well advanced as far as Hamilton's. When this section is complete the Maniototo Plain will be tapped, and the extension of the line to Clyde presents no engineering difficulties. Central Otago has a great future before it, as in the opinion of experts it is naturally adapted for producing fruit of all kinds in perfection.

Another means of access to Central Otago is by the Clutha Valley.

Two miles beyond Milton the Lawrence branch leaves Clarkesville Junction, runs up the Tokomairiro River and the gorge of Manuka Creek, and down to Waitahuna (fifty-three miles), and Lawrence (sixty miles), gold-mining centres, with an aggregate population of 1,500. Gold was first discovered here in 1861, and the mines are still yielding freely. From Lawrence a coach runs to Beaumont (seventy-two miles), on the Clutha River. Crossing the Beaumont Bridge the road follows the west bank of the Clutha, passing numerous dredging-claims. At eighty-nine miles is Ettrick, and seven miles further on is Roxburgh—the Teviot—(ninety-six miles), a town of 450 inhabitants. Recrossing the Clutha River by the Roxburgh Bridge, and proceeding up the east bank, the traveller reaches Alexandra South (124 miles), at the junction of the Manuherikia River with the Clutha, and Clyde—the Dunstan—(130 miles), the chief town of Vincent County. The next place of importance is Cromwell (143 miles), at the junction of the Kawarau River with the Clutha. Cromwell is a small town of 580 inhabitants, and has a good bridge over the Clutha River. If the traveller wishes to pursue his journey farther he can either follow the road up the Clutha to Newcastle and Pembroke, on Lake Wanaka, or take the Kawarau Gorge road by way of the Crown Terrace to Queenstown, on Lake Wakatipu.

Queenstown, a picturesque township situated on the shores of Lake Wakatipu, has a population of 750, and is the centre of a large gold-mining district. The chief feature of Queenstown is the grand mountain and lake scenery in the neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers of tourists every year. There are two ways of reaching Queenstown—the one by the Clutha Valley and Kawarau Gorge, as above described, and the other by rail to Kingston, at the foot of Lake Wakatipu, and thence by steamer, which runs to suit the trains.

The Tautuku bush, in the south of Otago, has only lately been opened up, but already a large number of settlers are making their homes there. Starting from Balclutha the Catlin's River branch-line runs southwards to Romahapa (sixty miles) on the crossing of the main road to Port Molyneux, thence to Glenomaru (sixty-four miles), and Owaka (seventy miles from Dunedin). The Catlin's-Waikawa main road is formed the whole way through, as are also numerous district roads, and the adjacent lands are being taken up as fast as they are thrown open.

Railways.

The principal lines are as follows: (1.) The main trunk line from Dunedin to Christchurch, with branches from Oamaru to Hakatammea, forty-three miles; and Oamaru to Ngapara and Tokoraki, twenty-five miles; also, Palmerston to Dunback, nine miles. (2.) The main trunk line, Dunedin to Invercargill, with branches, Mosgiel to Outram, nine miles; Milton to Lawrence, twenty-four miles; Stirling to Kaitangata, five miles; Balclutha to Owaka, eighteen miles; and Waipahi to Heriot, twenty miles. (3.) The Otago Central, from Wingatui to Wedderburn, eighty-five miles fifty-three chains. Formation from Wedderburn to Manuherikia River is well advanced.

Statistical.

The total estimated population of the Otago Provincial District on the 31st December, 1899, was 174,664.

Area of Otago Land District: Open land below 2,000 ft., 5,300 square miles; forest-land below 2,000 ft., 1,960 square miles; open land above 2,000 ft., 6,777 square miles; forest-land above 2,000 ft., 500 square miles; area of lakes, &c., 280 square miles: total, 14,817 square miles.

The following table shows the disposition of the land in the Otago District on 31st March, 1900:—

 Holdings.Acres.
1. Lands finally alienated, comprising freehold land and vested reserves 2,191,164
2. Lands held on deferred payment, rural  66    18,767
3. Lands held on perpetual lease, rural301    58,538
4. Lands held under occupation-with-right-of-purchase clause115    20,515
5. Lands held on lease in perpetuity, ordinary Crown lands, rural604  156,641
6. Lands held under agricultural lease on goldfields  19      632
7. Lands held under Mining Districts Land Occupation Act105      4,260
8. Lands held under village settlement, deferred payment    3        130
9. Lands held under village settlement, perpetual lease  39        872
10. Lands held under village settlement, lease in perpetuity128      1,921
11. Lands held under villagehomestead special settlement, perpetual lease  84      1,341
12. Lands held by special-settlement associations, lease in perpetuity  15      2,955
13. Lands held as improved-farm settlements  54      7,464
14. Lands held as small grazing-runs249  504,836
15. Lands held under pastoral license, not including bush2484,389,812
16. Lands held under lease and license for miscellaneous purposes, exclusive of gold-mining452    66,021
17. Lands acquired and disposed of as lease in perpetuity under Land for Settlements Act, rural325  40,880
18. Lands acquired and disposed of as small grazing - runs under Land for Settlements Act    3         3,667
19. Lands acquired and disposed of as miscellaneous licenses under Land for Settlements Act  40            631
20. Crown lands open for selection (including 5,779 acres under Land for Settlements Act)   115,848
21. Crown lands being prepared for selection (including 7,035 acres under Land for Settlements Act)     15,900
22. Land open for application under pastoral licenses11    78,637
23. Lands held by aboriginal natives     16,500
24. Balance of Crown lands, including mining reserves, public reserves not vested, bush-lands, roads, barren country, &c. 1,605,668
25. Lakes, and Clutha and Taieri Rivers   179,200
                                              Total area of district (14,817 square miles), 9,482,800  

Tenants of lands included in 2 and 4 have the right of acquiring the freehold, as have tenants of 3 up to twelve years from the date of issue of the lease, and of 6 in the case of leases issued prior to the Act of 1891. There is no right of acquiring the freehold for tenants of lands included in 5, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, and in the case of No. 13 the right of acquiring freehold applies to portions only.

Local Industries.

At the census of 1896 the following existed in Otago and Southland. Four bone-mills and artificial-manure factories, where substances that might otherwise go to waste, or pollute the air and water, are turned to profitable account, and made to increase the fertility of the soil. The lime- and cement-works at Dunedin have already been mentioned. There were thirty brick-, tile-, and pottery-manufactories, the largest pottery-works being at Milton, where all kinds of useful household crockery-ware are made. Twelve agricultural implement factories were in operation, turning out annually a large supply. Also, fourteen boot- and shoe-factories; six boat-building, eighteen coach-building, twenty-eight fell-mongering, tanning, and wool-scouring establishments; twenty-two aërated-water and cordial manufactories, seventeen breweries, five coffee and spice works, three fruit- and jam-factories, one ink-making establishment, three paper-mills, six rope-and twine works, one soap- and candle-making establishment, six gasworks, and fifty-one sawmills and door- and sash-making factories. Also, twenty-four foundries, including brass-founders and coppersmiths, beside stove and range manufactories, iron-rolling works, and works for making every description of engineering and mining machinery and appliances; and a piano manufactory in Dunedin, which has been open for the last thirteen years. The types manufactured are cottage pianos and upright grands, at prices ranging from thirty to sixty guineas. The present output is from twenty-five to thirty per annum.

Besides the above there were eighteen bacon-curing establishments, eight fish-curing and preserving works, two rabbit-preserving works, twenty-three grain-mills, six sugar-boiling and confectionery works, six malt-houses, two colonial wine-making establishments, three sauce and pickle factories, one vinegar works, one glue factory, two boiling-down works, three cooperages, four woodenware factories, six chaff-cutting establishments, one paper-bag and -box factory, one tobacco-pipe factory, six tinware factories, twenty-nine printing offices, four basket and perambulator factories, two brush and broom factories, one cutlery factory, four cycle factories, two saddlery and harness factories, one portmanteau factory, eight sail and oilskin factories, thirteen furniture factories, four Venetian-blind works, two starch manufactories, four chemical works, one haematite paint factory, one sheep-dip factory, one match factory, two flock-mills, three cleaning-and dyeing-works, two waterproof factories, three hat- and cap- factories, three stocking-weaving factories, one bag- and sack- factory, seven flax-mills. And the following, which have been more fully described in preceding paragraphs—namely, nine meat-freezing and -preserving works, four woollen-mills, nine clothing factories, forty-four butter- and cheese-factories: making a total of 516 industrial establishments, employing 7,055 persons. Approximate value of manufactures yearly, £2,153,473.

Chapter 84. THE SOUTHLAND LAND DISTRICT.

D. Barron, Chief Surveyor.

Physical Features.

The Southland District, comprising the Counties of Southland, Wallace, Fiord, and Stewart Island, bounded on the north and east by the Otago District, and on the south and west by the Tasman Sea, may be roughly said to lie between south latitudes 45° and 47° and east longitudes 166° 15' and 169° 15'. For administrative purposes, however, the Snares, Auckland, Enderby, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty, and all other islands within the limits of the colony south of the 47° parallel of south latitude are included in it.

Area and Nature of Lands.

The total area of the district, including Stewart Island, but exclusive of Solander, Ruapuke, and the other small islands enumerated above, is 6,966,592 acres, of which 500,000 are covered with bush. The bulk of the bush-land lies between the lakes and the south and west coasts, in the neighbourhood of Forest Hill, Hokonui, Waikawa, &c. The timbers of commercial value are totara, rimu, miro, matai, rata, and kamahi, in mixed bushes; but Fagus fusca and other beeches predominate on the high lands between the lakes and the fiords on the west coast.

The open land in its natural state carries tussock and snow-grass, fern, flax, and manuka, &c., and there is a very considerable area of marsh-land, interspersed here and there with peat bogs.

The most striking feature of this district is the number of well-defined rivers and valleys, the latter often widening out to such an extent as to form very extensive plains. Commencing with the eastern side, the Mataura, Oreti (or New River), Aparima (or Jacob's River), and Waiau are the most prominent illustrations of this; but these rivers by no means exhaust the list, as they all have numerous tributaries, which exhibit the same features on a smaller scale.

Speaking generally, the watersheds of these rivers do not attain any great height until followed far inland, and near the great lakes to be presently noticed. From what has been said above it follows that the extensive plains and valleys referred to are of alluvial formation, in many places of very rich and fertile quality, and capable of raising crops of every known product, subject, of course, to climatic limitations. Generally these plains and valleys rise from the river-levels in a very gradual slope, sometimes into a series of terraces from 10ft. to 50ft. in height, and sometimes into undulating hills, intersected at frequent intervals by lateral gullies, affording natural drainage and an abundant supply of water.

These hills are covered with an indigenous growth, consisting of tussock and other grasses, fern, flax, &c., and even in their native state afford excellent grazing for sheep.

Appendix A. APPENDIX.
PRINCIPAL EVENTS.

DATES OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

Dec. 13, 1642.—Discovery of New Zealand by Abel Jansen Tasman.

Oct. 8, 1769.—Captain Cook landed at Poverty Bay on his first visit.

June 30, 1788.—Macauly and Curtis Islands, of the Kermadec Group, discovered by Captain Sever, of H.M. transport “Lady Penrhyn.”

Nov. 29, 1790.—Chatham Islands discovered by Lieutenant Broughton, in H.M.S. “Chatham.”

Nov. 17, 1793.—Captain d'Entrecasteaux, with the “La Recherche” and “L'Espérance,” discovered Raoul or Sunday Island. (The latter name was given by Captain Raven, of the transport “Britannia,” who visited the island 6th Nov., 1796.)

Nov., 1793.—Lieutenant-Governor King's (of Norfolk Island) visit to Doubtless Bay.

1795.—The ship “Endeavour,” Captain Bampton, sunk at Facile Harbour, Dusky Sound.

1800.—Antipodes Island discovered by Captain Pendleton.

1806.—Auckland Isles discovered by Captain Briscow, ship “Ocean,” one of Enderby's whalers.

1806.—Ship “Venus” visited East Coast of New Zealand. She was taken by convicts at Port Dalrymple, Tasmania. Their visits gave rise to the Nga-Puhi southern expedition.

1807.—Defeat of Hongi and Nga-Puhi tribe at Moremonui, 10 miles south of Maunganui Bluff, Kaipara.

1809.—The taking and burning of the transport “Boyd” at Whangaroa.

1810.—Campbell Island discovered by Captain F. Haselburg, of brig “Perseverance.”

1814.—First arrival of the Rev. Mr. Marsden at Bay of Islands, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, oxen, sheep, and poultry first brought to the colony.

Aug., 1815.—Attempted capture of the “Trial” and “Brothers” at Kennedy Bay.

1818.—Hongi's and Te Morenga's great expedition to East Cape.

1819-20.—Patuone, Nene, and Te Rauparaha's raid on Taranaki and Port Nicholson.

1820.—Hongi visited England; returned to New Zealand July, 1821.

1820.—H.M. store-ship “Coromandel” visited Coromandel.

1820.—Rev. S. Marsden travelled from Wai-te-mata via Kaipara to the Bay of Islands—the first white man to do so.

Aug., 1820.—The “Prince Regent” entered Auckland Harbour—the first vessel to do so.

Nov., 1821.—Fall of Mauinaina Pa, Auckland Isthmus, to Hongi.

Nov., 1821.—Ngati-Toa migration from Kawhia to Otaki under Te auparaha.

Dec., 1821.—Fall of Te Totara Pa, Thames, to Hongi.

May, 1822.—Fall of Matakitaki Pa, Waikato, to Hongi.

May, 1823.—Fall of Mokoia Pa, Rotorua Lake, to Hongi.

1823, 1828.—Acts passed by the Imperial Parliament extending the jurisdiction of the Courts of justice in New South Wales to all the British subjects in New Zealand.

1824.—Fall of Te Whetumatarau Pa, near East Cape, to Pomare.

1825.—First attempt at colonisation by an expedition under the command of Captain Herd, who bought two islands in the Hauraki Gulf.

Feb., 1825.—Great defeat of Ngati-Whatua at Te Ikaaranganui, Kaipara, by Hongi.

1827.—Destruction of mission-station at Whangaroa by Hongi's forces.

Feb., 1827.—Admiral (then Captain) Dumont D'Urville anchored in Auckland Harbour.

1828.—Hongi died at Whangaroa, from wounds received at Hokianga.

1828.—The “Maquarie,” Captain Kent, the first vessel to enter Kawhia.

March, 1829.—Brig “Hawes” captured at Whakatane by Maoris.

1830.—Battle of Taumata-wiwi, near Cambridge.

1830.—Fall of Kaiapohia Pa, Canterbury.

March 6, 1830.—Battle of Kororareka, between two Nga-Puhi tribes.

Dec., 1830.—Death of Tama-i-hara-nui at the hands of Te Rauparaha's people. He was brought from Port Cooper by Captain Steward, brig “Elizabeth.”

1831.—Tory Channel whaling-station established.

1831.—Application of thirteen chiefs for the protection of King William the Fourth.

Dec., 1831.—Pukerangiora Pa, Waitara, fell to Waikato.

Feb., 1832.—Repulse of Waikato at Nga-motu Pa, under Dicky Barrett.

1833.—Mr. Busby appointed British Resident, to live at the Bay of Islands.

1834.—Battle of Haowhenua and Pakakutu, near Otaki.

1834.—Bishop Williams's first visit to East Cape.

April 29, 1834.—“Harriet” wrecked at Cape Egmont.

Oct. 1, 1834.—H.M.S. “Alligator” shelled and took Waimate Pa, near Opunake. First occasion of H.M. troops being employed in New Zealand.

1835.—Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with the title of “The United Tribes of New Zealand.”

Nov. and Dec., 1835.—Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered the Chatham Islands.

March 28, 1836.—Maketu Pa, Bay of Plenty, fell to Waikato.

May 9, 1836.—Te Tumu Pa, Bay of Plenty, fell to Te Arawa.

Aug. 5, 1836.—Battle at Matai-puku, Rotorua—Waikato beat Te Arawa.

Oct., 1836.—Siege of Toka-a-kuku, Te Kaha, Bay of Plenty.

1838.—The Roman Catholic Bishop Pompallier, with several priests, arrived at Hokianga.

Sept. 1, 1838.—H.M.S. “Pelorus” discovers Pelorus Sound.

April, 1839.—Taking of the French whaler “Jean Bart” at Chatham Islands by Maoris.

May 12, 1839.—Departure of the preliminary expedition of the New Zealand Company from England.

June, 1839.—Issue of Letters Patent authorising the Governor of New South Wales to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand.

Sept. 16, 1839.—First body of New Zealand Company's emigrants sailed from Gravesend.

Sept. 20, 1839.—Arrival in Port Nicholson of the preliminary expedition of the New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield.

Oct. 16, 1839.—Battle of Te Kuititanga, Otaki.

Jan. 20, 1840.—First steamer arrived in New Zealand.

Jan. 22, 1840.—Arrival of first body of immigrants at Port Nicholson.

Jan. 29, 1840.—Captain Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands. On the following day (Jan. 30) he hoisted the Union flag, and read the commission, under the Great Seal of the United Kingdom, which extended the boundaries of the Colony of New South Wales so as to embrace and comprehend the Islands of New Zealand; also his own commission as Lieutenant-Governor over territory that might be acquired in sovereignty.

Feb. 5, 1840.—Treaty of Waitangi signed.

May 21, 1840.—Date of Proclamations of sovereignty over the Islands of New Zealand.

June 17, 1840.—The Queen's sovereignty over the Middle Island formally proclaimed at Cloudy Bay, by Major Bunbury, H.M. 80th Regiment, and Captain Nias, R.N.

Aug. 11, 1840.—The British flag hoisted at Akaroa by Captain Stanley, R.N., and British authority established. The French frigate “L'Aube” arrived there on the 13th August, and the vessel “Comte de Paris,” with fifty-seven immigrants, on the 16th August, in order to establish a French colony.

Sept. 18, 1840.—The British flag hoisted at Auckland. The Lieutenant-Governor's residence established there.

1840.—Formation of Wanganui settlement under the name of “Petre.”

Feb. 12, 1841.—Issue of charter of incorporation to the New Zealand Company.

Mar. 31, 1841.—Arrival of first New Plymouth settlers.

May 3, 1841.—New Zealand proclaimed to be independent of New South Wales.

Oct., 1841.—Selection of site for settlement at Nelson.

Feb. 1, 1842.—Settlement founded at Nelson.

May 29, 1842.—Arrival of Bishop Selwyn in the colony.

Sept. 10, 1842.—Death of Governor Hobson. Lieutenant Shortland, R.N., Colonial Secretary, became Acting-Governor until the arrival of Captain Fitzroy.

June, 1843.—Affray with Natives at the Wairau, and massacre by Rangi-haeata of Captain Wakefield, R.N., agent at Nelson of the New Zealand Company, and others, who had surrendered.

Dec. 1, 1843.—Arrival of Captain Fitzroy, R.N., as Governor.

July 8, 1844.—The Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

March 10, 1845.—Attack on and destruction of Town of Kororareka by Heke.

Oct. 1, 1845.—Receipt of despatch notifying recall of Governor Fitzroy.

Nov. 14, 1845.—Arrival of Captain Grey, as Lieutenant-Governor of the colony, from South Australia.

Jan. 11, 1846.—Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka, Bay of Islands, and termination of Heke's war.

Mar. 3, 1846.—Commencement of Native hostilities in the Hutt Valley, near Wellington.

May 16, 1846.—Attack by Natives on a military outpost in the Hutt Valley.

July 23, 1846.—Capture of Te Rauparaha at Porirua, near Wellington. He was detained for a year as a prisoner on board a ship of war.

Aug. 28, 1846.—The New Zealand Government Act passed by the Imperial Parliament, under which a charter was issued dividing the colony into two provinces, and granting representative institutions.

May 19, 1847.—Attack by Natives on settlement of Wanganui.

Jan. 1, 1848.—Captain Grey sworn in as Governor-in-Chief over the Islands of New Zealand, also as Governor of the Province of New Ulster and Governor of the Province of New Munster.

Jan. 3, 1848.—Major-General Pitt appointed by Governor Grey to be Lieutenant-Governor of the Province of New Ulster.

Jan. 28, 1848.—Assumption by Lieutenant-Governor E. J. Eyre, at Wellington, of the administration of the Government of the Province of New Munster.

Feb. 21, 1848.—Peace ratified at Wanganui.

Mar. 7, 1848.—Suspension by Imperial statute of that part of the New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions.

Mar., 1848.—Otago founded by a Scotch company under the auspices of the Free Church of Scotland.

Oct., 1848.—Severe earthquake at Wellington.

July, 1850.—Surrender of the New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests in the colony reverting to the Imperial Government.

Dec., 1850.—Canterbury founded by the Canterbury Association in connection with the Church of England.

Jan. 8, 1851.—Death of Major-General Pitt, Lieutenant-Governor of the Province of New Ulster.

April 14, 1851.—Lieutenant-Colonel Wynyard appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Province of New Ulster.

1852.—Discovery of gold at Coromandel by Mr. Charles Ring.

June 30, 1852.—The Constitution Act passed by the Imperial Parliament, granting representative institutions to the colony, and subdividing it into six provinces.

Jan., 1853.—Promulgation of the Constitution Act.

Mar. 7, 1853.—Assumption by Sir George Grey, K.C.B., of the duties of Governor of the colony, in terms of the appointment after the passing of the New Zealand Constitution Act, and cessation of the duties of the Lieutenant-Governors of New Ulster and New Munster.

Dec. 31, 1853.—Departure of Governor Sir George Grey.

Jan. 3, 1854.—Lieutenant-Colonel Wynyard assumed the administration of the Government.

May 27, 1854.—Opening at Auckland of the first session of the General Assembly by Lieutenant-Colonel Wynyard, Administrator of the Government.

Jan., 1855.—Very severe earthquake on each side of Cook Strait.

Sept. 6, 1855.—Arrival of Governor Colonel T. Gore Browne, C.B.

Nov. 12, 1855.—First members elected to House of Representatives under system of Responsible Government.

Aug. 8, 1855.—General Assembly opened.

Sept. 15, 1855.—General Assembly prorogued.

May 7, 1856.—Appointment of the first Ministry under the system of Responsible Government, under Mr. Sewell, Colonial Secretary.

May 14, 1856.—Defeat of Mr. Sewell's Ministry.

May 20, 1856.—Appointment of a Ministry under presidency of Mr. W. Fox, as Attorney-General.

May 28, 1856.—Defeat of Mr. Fox's Ministry, by a majority of one, on a direct vote of want of confidence.

June 2, 1856.—Appointment of a Ministry under the presidency of Mr. E. W. Stafford.

1857.—First payable goldfield in the colony opened at Collingwood, in the Nelson Province.

Aug. 21, 1858.—New Provinces Act passed.

Nov. 1, 1858.—Establishment of the Province of Hawke's Bay.

March, 1859.—To Teira offered land at Waitara for sale to the Government.

Nov. 1, 1859.—Establishment of the Province of Marlborough.

Mar., 1860.—Commencement of hostilities against Wiremu Kingi te Rangi-take at Waitara.

Mar. 18, 1860.—Capture of Maori pa at Waitara.

Mar. 28, 1860.—Engagement at Waireka.

June 27, 1860.—Engagement of Puketakauere at Waitara.

Nov. 6, 1860.—Defeat at Mahoetahi, with heavy loss, of a force of Waikato Natives, who had crossed the Waitara River to join Wiremu Kingi.

Dec. 31, 1860.—Capture of the Matarikoriko Pa, and defeat of a large body of Waikato Natives.

Jan. 23, 1861.—The Natives made a determined attack on the redoubt at Huirangi occupied by Imperial troops, and were repulsed with heavy loss.

April 1, 1861.—Establishment of Province of Southland.

May 21, 1861.—A truce agreed to.

May, 1861.—Discovery of gold at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

July 5, 1861.—Defeat of Mr. Stafford's Ministry, by a majority of one, on a vote of want of confidence.

July 12, 1861.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. Fox.

July 29, 1861.—Incorporation of the Bank of New Zealand.

Sept. 26, 1861.—Arrival of Sir George Grey, K.C.B., at Auckland, from the Cape Colony, to succeed Governor Gore Browne. Sir George Grey was sworn in as Governor on the 3rd October.

Oct. 2, 1861.—Departure of Governor Gore Browne.

June 28, 1862.—Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield.

July 28, 1862.—Defeat of Mr. Fox's Ministry by the casting-vote of the Speaker, on a proposed resolution in favour of placing the ordinary conduct of Native affairs under the administration of the Responsible Ministers.

Aug. 6, 1862.—Appointment of a Ministry under the leadership of Mr. Alfred Domett.

Feb. 7, 1863.—Wreck of H.M.S. “Orpheus” on Manukau Bar; 181 lives lost.

Feb. 26, 1863.—Definite relinquishment by the Imperial Government of control over administration of Native affairs.

May 4, 1863.—Treacherous assault near Tataraimaka by Natives on a military escort. Murder of Lieutenant Tragett, Dr. Hope, and five soldiers of the 57th Regiment.

June 4, 1863.—Defeat of Natives at Katikara, by a force under Lieut.-General Cameron.

July 17, 1863.—Action at Koheroa, in the Auckland Province. Commencement of the Waikato War.

Oct. 27, 1863.—Resignation of the Domett Ministry, in consequence of difficulties experienced in connection with arrangements for finding a fitting representative of the Government in the Legislative Council.

Oct. 30, 1863.—Appointment of the Ministry formed by Mr. Fox, under the premiership of Mr. F. Whitaker.

Nov., 1863.—Acceptance by the General Assembly of colonial responsibility in Native affairs.

Nov. 20, 1863.—Battle of Rangiriri. Defeat of Natives and unconditional surrender of 183.

Dec. 1, 1863.—The first railway in New Zealand opened for traffic by W. S. Moorhouse, Superintendent of Canterbury. The line was from Christchurch to Ferrymead Junction.

Dec. 3, 1863.—The New Zealand Settlements Act passed, giving the Governor power to confiscate the lands of insurgent Natives.

Dec. 8, 1863.—Occupation of Ngaruawahia. The British flag hoisted on the Maori king's flagstaff.

Feb. 11, 1864.—Engagement with Natives on Mangapiko River. Major (then Captain) Heaphy, of the New Zealand Forces, won the Victoria Cross for distinguished bravery on this occasion.

Feb. 22, 1864.—Defeat of Natives at Rangiaohia.

April 2, 1864.—Attack on and capture of pa at Orakau, Waikato.

April 21, 1864.—Engagement near Maketu, Bay of Plenty. Tribes of the Rawhiti defeated by Arawa Natives, under Captain McDonnell.

April 29, 1864.—Assault on Gate Pa, Tauranga, Bay of Plenty, and repulse of large British force by the Maoris. The pa was abandoned by the Natives during the following night.

April 30, 1864.—Repulse of attack by rebel Hauhau Natives on redoubt at Sentry Hill, Taranaki.

May 14, 1864.—Battle of Moutoa, an island in the Wanganui River, between friendly and rebel Hauhau Natives. Complete defeat of rebels.

June 21, 1864.—Engagement at Te Ranga, near Tauranga, by Lieut.-Colonel Greer, 68th Regiment. Severe defeat of the Natives.

1864.—Discovery of gold on the west coast of the Middle Island.

Sept. 10, 1864.—Escape of Maori prisoners from Kawau.

Oct. 3, 1864.—Wellington chosen as the seat of Government.

Nov. 24, 1864.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. F. A. Weld, the Whitaker-Fox Ministry having resigned during the recess.

Dec. 17, 1864.—Confiscation of Native lands in Waikato by Sir George Grey.

1865.—Wreck of s.s. “White Swan” on East Coast (with loss of many public records, in transit from Auckland).

Feb., 1865.—Removal of the seat of Government to Wellington.

March 2, 1865.—Barbarous murder of the Rev. Mr. Volkner, a Church of England missionary, at Opotiki, by Hauhau fanatics, under Kereopa.

June 8, 1865.—Submission of the Maori Chief Wiremu Tamthana te Waharoa (William Thompson).

June 17, 1865.—Murder of Mr. Fulloon, a Government officer, and his companions, at Whakatane, by Hauhau fanatics.

July 22, 1865.—Capture of the Wereroa Pa, near Wanganui.

Aug. 2, 1865.—Assault and capture of the Pa Kairomiromi, at Waiapu, by Colonial Forces under Captain Fraser, and Native Contingent under the chief Te Mokena. Eighty-seven rebels killed.

Sept. 2, 1865.—Proclamation of peace issued by Governor Sir George Grey, announcing that the war, which commenced at Oakura, was at an end.

Sept. 30, 1865.—Murder by Hauhaus, at Kakaramea, of Mr. Broughton, when sent as friendly messenger to them by Brigadier-General Waddy.

Oct. 12, 1865.—Resignation of Mr. Weld's Ministry, on account of a resolution adverse to the Government policy, having been defeated only by the casting-vote of the Speaker.

Oct. 16, 1865.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. E. W. Stafford.

Dec. 25, 1865.—Defeat of rebel Natives at Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, by Colonial Forces and Native Contingent.

Jan. 4, 1866.—Defeat of Natives at Okotuku Pa, on the west coast of the North Island, by force under Major-General Chute.

Jan. 7, 1866.—Assault on and capture of Putahi Pa, by force under Major-General Chute.

Jan. 13, 1866.—Assault on and capture of Otapawa Pa, by force under Major-General Chute.

Jan. 17, 1866, to Jan. 25, 1866.—Period of Major-General Chute's march through the bush to New Plymouth.

Jan., 1866.—Escape of a large number of Native prisoners from the hulk at Wellington; many were drowned in trying to swim ashore.

March 29, 1866.—Submission of the rebel chiefs Te Heuheu and Herekiekie, of Taupo district.

Mar., 1866.—A detachment of Maori prisoners sent to the Chatham Islands.

June 15, 1866.—Commencement of Panama steam mail-service.

Aug. 26, 1866.—The Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

Oct. 2, 1866.—Engagement with rebel Natives at Pungarehu, West Coast, by Colonial Forces, under Major McDonnell.

Oct. 8, 1866.—First Act passed to impose stamp duties.

Oct. 12, 1866.—Defeats of rebel Natives at Omaranui and at Petane, Hawke's Bay, by Colonial Forces.

Oct. 10, 1867.—An Act passed to establish an institute for the promotion of science and art in the colony.

Oct. 10, 1867.—An Act passed for the division of the colony into four Maori electorates, and the admission of four Maori members to the House of Representatives.

Jan., 1868.—Establishment of the County of Westland.

Feb. 5, 1868.—Arrival of Governor Sir George F. Bowen, G.C.M.G.

July 4, 1868.—Seizure by Maori prisoners, under the leadership of Te Kooti, of the schooner “Rifleman,” and their escape from the Chatham Islands.

July 12, 1868.—Night attack by Natives on redoubt at Turuturu Mokai. Sub-Inspector Ross and seven Europeans killed. Natives driven off by the arrival of a force under Major Von Tempsky.

Aug. 8, 1868.—Pursuit by Lieut.-Colonel Whitmore of escaped Chatham Island prisoners, and indecisive engagement in the gorge of the Ruake Ture.

Aug. 21, 1868.—Attack on Ngutu-o-te-Manu by force under Lieut.-Colonel McDonnell. Defeat of Natives; four Europeans killed and eight wounded.

Sept. 7, 1868.—Engagement in bush at Ngutu-o-te-Manu. Major Von Tempsky, Captains Buck and Palmer, Lieutenants Hunter and Hastings, and fourteen men killed.

Oct. 19, 1868.—Bishop Selwyn left New Zealand.

Nov. 7, 1868.—Attack on Moturoa. Repulse of Colonial Forces, with severe loss.

Nov. 10, 1868.—Massacre of thirty-two Europeans at Poverty Bay by Te Kooti's band of Natives, who had escaped from the Chatham Islands.

Nov. 24, 1868, Dec. 3, 1868, Dec. 5, 1868.—Engagements between friendly Natives and rebels under Te Kooti, at Patutahi, Poverty Bay district.

Jan. 5, 1869.—Assault on and capture of Ngatapa Pa, Poverty Bay district, after a siege of six days, by the Colonial Forces of Europeans and friendly Natives under Colonel Whitmore and Major Ropata. Dispersion and pursuit of Te Kooti's band. More than 136 rebel Natives were killed.

Feb. 13, 1869.—Treacherous murder of the Rev. John Whitely and seven other Europeans at the White Cliffs, Taranaki.

Feb. 18, 1869.—Attack by rebel Natives on a foraging-party at Karaka Flat; one sergeant and six men killed.

Mar. 3, 1869.—Termination of Panama mail-service.

Mar. 13, 1869.—Attack on and defeat of Titokowaru's force at Otauto.

April 10, 1869.—Native pa at Mohaka taken by Te Kooti, who killed forty friendly Natives and several Europeans in the neighbourhood.

April 12, 1869.—First arrival of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh in Wellington, in H.M.S. “Galatea.”

May 6, 1869.—Surprise and capture of Ahikereru and Oamaru Teangi Pas, Waiwera country. Defeat of Te Kooti.

June 13, 1869.—Surrender to Major Noake and Mr. Booth, R.M., of the chief Tairua, with 122 men, women, and children of the PakakoheTribe, near Wanganui.

June 24, 1869.—Defeat of Mr. Stafford's Ministry on a want-of-confidence motion.

June 28, 1869.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. W. Fox.

Sept. 3, 1869.—An Act passed providing Government life insurance and annuities.

Oct., 1869.—Seventy-four prisoners from the bands of Te Kooti and Titoko-waru sentenced to death, after trial, for treason. The sentences of seventy-three were commuted to penal servitude for various terms.

Oct. 4, 1869.—Pourere Pa stormed and taken by Lieut.-Colonel McDonnell, with a mixed force of Europeans and Natives.

Jan., 1870.—Three hundred friendly Natives under Topia, and three hundred under Major Keepa (known as Kemp), started up the Wanganui River in pursuit of Te Kooti, who retreated into the Urewera country.

Jan. 25, 1870.—Capture of Tapapa Pa, occupied by Te Kooti.

Feb. 24, 1870.—The last detachment of the Imperial troops left the colony.

Mar. 25, 1870.—Major Keepa, with Native force, captured the position held by Te Kooti at Maraetahi, in Urewera country; nineteen rebels killed and seventy-three of Te Kooti's men taken prisoners. Te Kooti escaped with twenty followers.

Mar. 26, 1870.—Commencement of San Francisco mail-service.

June 28, 1870.—Enunciation in the House of Representatives of the public-works policy by the Colonial Treasurer, Mr. Vogel.

July, 1870.—Thirty prisoners of Te Kooti's band sentenced to death. The sentences were commuted to penal servitude.

Aug. 27, 1870.—Arrival in Wellington of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh in H.M.S. “Galatea.” Second visit.

Sept. 12, 1870.—An Act passed to establish the New Zealand University.

Sep. 12, 1870.—The Land Transfer Act passed, to simplify the title to land and dealings with real estates.

Oct. 6, 1870.—Southland Province reunited with Otago.

Dec. 5, 1870.—Honiani te Puni, the chief of the Ngatiawas, a staunch friend of the Europeans, died at Pitone, near Wellington, aged ninety years.

Mar., 1871.—Commencement of railway-construction under the public-works policy.

Aug. 4, 1871.—Death of Tamati Waka Nene, the great Ngapuhi chief and friend of the Europeans.

Nov., 1871.—Capture of the notorious rebel Kereopa, the murderer of the Rev. Mr. Volkner, by the Ngatiporous.

Jan. 5, 1872.—Execution of Kereopa at Napier.

Jan., 1872.—Remission of sentences on fifty-eight Native prisoners then undergoing imprisonment for rebellion.

Feb. 22, 1872.—Visit of William King, the Maori chief of Waitara, to New Plymouth, and resumption of amicable relations with the Europeans.

May 9, 1872.—A general thanksgiving-day for the recovery of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales.

Sept. 6, 1872.—Defeat and resignation of Mr. Fox's Ministry.

Sept. 10, 1872.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of the Hon. E. W. Stafford.

Oct. 4, 1872.—Defeat of the Stafford Ministry on a vote of want of confidence moved by Mr. Vogel.

Oct. 11, 1872.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of the Hon. G. M. Waterhouse, M.L.C.

Oct. 11, 1872.—First appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to be members of the Legislative Council.

Oct. 25, 1872.—The Public Trust Office Act passed.

Jan., 1873.—Establishment of the New Zealand Shipping Company.

Mar. 3, 1873.—The Hon. W. Fox appointed Premier on the resignation of that office by the Hon. G. M. Waterhouse, the other members of the Ministry being confirmed in their offices.

Mar. 19, 1873.—Departure of Governor Sir G. F. Bowen, G.C.M.G.

Mar. 21, 1873.—Assumption of the Government by Sir G. A. Arney, Chief Justice, as Administrator.

April 8, 1873.—Resignation of the premiership by the Hon. W. Fox, on the return of the Hon. J. Vogel, C.M.G., from Australia. Appointment of Mr. Vogel as Premier, the other Ministers being confirmed in their offices.

June 14, 1873.—Arrival of Governor Sir J. Fergusson, P.C.

Aug. 22, 1874.—The Imprisonment for Debt Abolition Act passed.

Nov. 27, 1874.—Sir James Fergusson left New Zealand.

Dec. 3, 1874.—Arrival of Governor the Marquis of Normanby, P.C.

1874.—31,774 immigrants were introduced this year under the immigration and public-works policy.

Jan. 3, 1875.—Visit of Sir Donald McLean to the Maori king; resumption of amicable relations.

July 6, 1875.—Resignation of the Ministry, in consequence of the absence of Sir J. Vogel, K.C.M.G., in England, and his being unable to attend the session of Parliament. Reconstitution thereof, under the premiership of the Hon. Dr. Pollen, M.L.C.

July, 1875.—Establishment of the Union Steam Shipping Company of New Zealand.

1875.—18,324 immigrants were introduced this year under the immigration and public-works policy.

Oct. 12, 1875.—The Abolition of Provinces Act passed.

Feb. 15, 1876.—Resignation of the Hon. Dr. Pollen's Ministry, and reconstitution under the premiership of Sir J. Vogel, K.C.M.G.

Feb. 18, 1876.—Completion of the work of laying the telegraph cable between New Zealand and New South Wales.

June, 1876.—Death of Dr. Isaac Earl Featherston, while acting as Agent-General for the colony in England. He was the first to hold that office, and had previously been Superintendent of the Province of Wellington from the time of the first establishment of provincial representative institutions.

Sept. 1, 1876.—Resignation of Sir J. Vogel's Ministry in view of the appointment of Sir J. Vogel as Agent-General. Formation of a Ministry under the premiership of Major Atkinson.

Sept. 13, 1876.—Resignation of Major Atkinson's Ministry in consequence of doubts being entertained as to the constitutional position thereof. Reconstruction of the Ministry under the premiership of Major Atkinson.

Nov. 1, 1876.—“The Abolition of Provinces Act, 1875,” came into full operation. Complete abolition of provincial institutions. The colony subdivided into counties and municipal boroughs.

Oct. 8, 1877.—Defeat of the Atkinson Ministry on a vote of want of confidence moved by Mr. Larnach.

Oct. 15, 1877.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Sir George Grey, K.C.B.

Nov. 29, 1877.—The Education Act, providing for the free and compulsory education of children, passed.

April 11, 1878.—Bishop Selwyn died, in England.

Oct. 29, 1878.—Sir George Grey's first land-tax passed.

Feb. 29, 1879.—Departure of Governor the Marquis of Normanby, P.C.

Mar., 1879.—Removal of surveyors from the Waimate Plains by Natives acting under Te Whiti's orders.

Mar. 27, 1879.—Arrival of Governor Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, G.C.M.G.

May 25, 1879.—The Natives from Parihaka, by order of Te Whiti, began ploughing up lands occupied by Europeans.

June, 1879.—Arrest and imprisonment of 180 of these Natives for causing disturbances.

July 29, 1879.—Defeat of the Grey Ministry on an amendment to the Address in Reply, moved by Sir William Fox, followed by a dissolution of Parliament.

Oct. 3, 1879.—Defeat and subsequent resignation of Sir George Grey's Ministry.

Oct. 8, 1879.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of the Hon. John Hall.

Dec. 19, 1879.—An Act passed to assess property for the purpose of taxation.

Dec. 19, 1879.—The Triennial Parliament Act passed.

Dec. 19, 1879.—An Act passed to qualify every resident male of twenty-one years of age and upwards to vote.

June, 1880.—First portion of the Parihaka Maori prisoners released by the Government.

July 9, 1880.—Bounty Island taken possession of by Captain George Palmer, H.M.S. “Rosario.”

Sept. 8, 1880.—Departure of Governor Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, G.C.M.G.

Oct. 1880.—Release of the last portion of the Parihaka Maori prisoners.

Oct. 26, 1880.—Sir Francis Dillon Bell appointed Agent-General.

Nov. 29, 1880.—Arrival of Governor Sir A. H. Gordon, G.C.M.G.

April 29, 1881.—“Tararua,” steamer, wrecked; 130 lives lost.

June 26, 1881.—Severe earthquakes in Wellington.

Nov. 5, 1881.—March of force of Constabulary and Volunteers on Parihaka, and arrest of Te Whiti and Tohu, without bloodshed.

Feb. 15, 1882.—First shipment of frozen meat made from Port Chalmers. (See Year-book, 1893, p. 192.)

April 21, 1882.—Resignation (during the release) of the Hon. J. Hall's Ministry, and its reconstruction under the premiership of the Hon. F. Whitaker, M.L.C.

June 23, 1882.—Departure of Governor Sir A. H. Gordon.

June 24, 1882.—Assumption of the Government by Sir J. Prendergast, Chief Justice.

Jan. 20, 1883.—Arrival of Governor Sir W. F. D. Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B.

Jan. 26, 1883.—A direct line of steam-communication between England and New Zealand inaugurated by the New Zealand Shipping Company.

Feb. 13, 1883.—Proclamation of amnesty to Maori political offenders.

Feb. 19, 1883.—Liberation of Te Whiti and Tohu.

Sept. 25, 1883.—Resignation of the office of Premier and his seat in the Ministry by the Hon. F. Whitaker, and the appointment of the Hon. Major H. A. Atkinson to be Premier, the members of Mr. Whitaker's Ministry being confirmed in their offices.

June 11, 1884.—Defeat of Major Atkinson's Government.

June 27, 1884.—Dissolution of the General Assembly.

Aug. 16, 1884.—Resignation of Major Atkinson's Ministry in consequence of the result of the general election. Formation of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. Robert Stout.

Aug. 20, 1884.—Defeat of Mr. Stout's Ministry by an amendment, expressive of want of confidence, to the Address in Reply being carried.

Aug. 28, 1884.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Major Atkinson.

Aug. 29, 1884.—Defeat of Major Atkinson's Ministry on a vote of want of confidence.

Sept. 3, 1884.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. Robert Stout.

Nov. 8, 1884.—An Act passed to enable certain loans of the New Zealand Government to be converted into inscribed stock and the accrued sinking funds released.

Aug. 1, 1885.—The New Zealand Industrial Exhibition opened at Wellington.

June 10, 1886.—Volcanic eruptions at Tarawera, and destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces; 101 lives lost.

May 28, 1887.—Defeat of Sir Robert Stout's Ministry.

July 15, 1887.—Dissolution of the General Assembly, after prorogation, on the 10th June.

July 21, 1887.—A Proclamation issued declaring the Kermadec Islands to be annexed to and form part of the Colony of New Zealand.

Aug. 17, 1887.—Kermadec Group annexed to New Zealand. Flag hoisted and proclamation read at Sunday Island.

Oct. 8, 1887.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Major H. A. Atkinson, Sir Robert Stout's Ministry having resigned in consequence of the result of the election.

Dec. 19, 1887.—An Act passed to reduce the number of members of the House of Representatives, after the expiration of the General Assembly then sitting, to seventy-four, including four Maori representatives.

Dec. 23, 1887.—The Australian Naval Defence Act, being an Act to provide for the establishment of an additional naval force on the Australian station, at the joint charge of the Imperial and the several Colonial Governments, was passed by the New Zealand Legislature.

Oct. 27, 1888.—Formal Proclamation of British Protectorate of Cook group of islands, by Captain Bourke, R.N., of H.M.S. “Hyacinth.”

Mar. 22, 1889.—Departure of Governor Sir W. F. D. Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B., from the colony.

Mar. 23, 1889.—Assumption of the Government by Sir James Prendergast.

May 2, 1889.—Arrival of the Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G.

Sept. 2, 1889.—Electors prohibited by statute from voting in respect of more than one electorate at any election for the House of Representatives.

Nov. 26, 1889.—Opening of South Seas Exhibition, Dunedin.

Dec. 5, 1890.—First election of members of the House of Representatives under a practical manhood suffrage, and on the one-man-one-vote principle.

Jan. 24, 1891.—Notification by Governor of acceptation of resignation (during the recess) of the Hon. Sir H. A. Atkinson's Ministry. Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of the Hon. John Ballance.

April 22, 1891.—Proclamation by Governor of New Zealand to inhabitants at Rarotonga of appointment of British Resident for the Protectorate of the Cook Islands.

May 25, 1891.—Adhesion of Australia to Postal Union.

Aug. 19, 1891.—Labour-laws: Passing of Employers’ Liability Act 1882 Amendment Act.

Aug. 29, 1891.—Labour-laws: Passing of Truck Act, to prohibit payment of wages in goods or otherwise than in money.

Sept. 8, 1891.—Passing of Land and Income Assessment Act for purposes of taxation, and repeal of property-tax.

Sept. 21, 1891.—Labour laws: Passing of an Act for supervising and regulating of factories and workrooms. [Repealed by Act of 1894.]

Jan. 19, 1892.—Electoral districts of the colony based on population as ascertained by the results of the census of 1891 proclaimed.

Feb. 2, 1892.—Departure of Governor the Earl of Onslow.

Feb. 25, 1892.—Assumption of the Government by Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice.

June 7, 1892.—Arrival of Governor the Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.

June 28, 1892.—Death of Sir H. A. Atkinson, K.C.M.G., Speaker of the Legislative Council, and previously four times Premier.

Oct. 1, 1892.—Labour-laws: Passing of Contractors’ and Workmen's Lien Act.

October 8, 1892.—Passing of Dairy Industry Act. [Repealed by Act of 1894.]

Oct. 11, 1892.—Passing of first Land-tax and Income-tax Act on the basis of the Assessment Act of previous year.

Oct. 11, 1892.—“Land Act, 1892”: Lease in Perpetuity without revaluation system introduced: occupation with right of purchase: optional method of selection: small farms associations.

Oct. 8, 1892.—“Land for Settlements Act, 1892,” authorising purchase of lands from individuals for purposes of subdivision. [Repealed by Act of 1894. See post.]

April 19, 1893.—Cheviot Estate taken over by Government under the Land and Income Assessment Act.

April 27, 1893.—Death of Hon. John Ballance, Premier of New Zealand.

May 1, 1893.—Resignation of the Ministry in consequence of the death of the Hon. John Ballance, and appointment of a new Ministry under the premiership of the Hon. R. J. Seddon.

June 23, 1893.—Death of Sir William Fox, K.C.M.G.; four times Premier of New Zealand.

Sept. 2, 1893.—Passing of Bank-note Issue Act, to make bank-notes a first charge on assets and to enable the Government to declare them to be a legal tender, &c.

Sept. 8, 1893.—The Legislative Council of New Zealand passed, by a majority of two, the Bill conferring the franchise on women.

Sept. 14, 1893.—Banks and Bankers Act Amendment Act passed, to permit of increase of capital by issue of new shares.

Sept. 19, 1893.—“The Electoral Act, 1893,” extending franchise to women.

Oct. 2, 1893.—Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act passed: New licenses to be granted subject to the votes of the electors: reduction or abolition of licenses if desired.

Oct. 6, 1893.—Passing of “Criminal Code Act, 1893.”

Oct. 6, 1893.—Labour-laws: Passing of “Workmen's Wages Act, 1893.”

Oct. 6, 1893.—Native Land Purchase and Acquisition Act.

Oct. 20, 1893.—Sir James Prendergast appointed temporarily Deputy of the Governor.

Nov. 28, 1893.—A general election took place, being the first occasion on which women exercised the franchise.

Dec. 28, 1893.—Death of Right Rev. Dr. Henry John Chitty Harper, formerly Bishop of Christchurch and Primate of New Zealand.

Mar. 19, 1894.—Sir James Prendergast appointed temporarily Deputy of the Governor.

June 30, 1894.—Passing of Act to extend operation of Bank-note Issue Act, and another Act to control the transfer of bank shares.

June 30, 1894.—“Bank of New Zealand Share Guarantee Act, 1894,” to guarantee special issue of shares to amount of £2,000,000, and purchase of Assets Estates Company by Assets Board. [Amended on July 20.]

July 20, 1894.—Passing of an Act to limit number of bank directors and power of shareholders to transfer their shares.

Aug. 21, 1894.—Labour-laws: Passing of Conspiracy Law Amendment.

Aug. 31, 1894.—Labour-laws: Passing of an Act to encourage the formation of industrial unions and associations, and to facilitate the settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration.

Oct. 18, 1894.—“New Zealand Consols Act, 1894.”

Oct. 18, 1894.—“Government Advances to Settlers Act, 1894,” for relief of settlers burdened by high charges of interest, &c.

Oct. 18, 1894.—Passing of “Land for Settlements Act, 1894,” authorising acquisition of private lands for purposes of settlement, with compulsory powers, and repealing Act of 1892; also “Lands Improvement and Native Lands Acquisition Act, 1894.”

Oct. 18, 1894.—Labour-laws: Passing of “Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1894,” for limiting hours of business in shops.

Oct. 23, 1894.—Passing of “Banking Act, 1894.”

Oct. 23, 1894.—Dairy Industry Act, to regulate manufacture of butter and cheese, with inspection and grading for export, and provide for purity of milk.

Oct. 28, 1894.—Wreck of s.s. “Wairarapa” at Great Barrier Island; 135 lives lost.

Mar. 29, 1895.—Death of Right Reverend Andrew Burn Suter, D.D., formerly Bishop of Nelson, and Primate of New Zealand.

May 27, 1895.—Government assumed management of the Midland Railway.

Aug. 3, 1895.—Death of C. W. Richmond, Puisne Judge of Wellington.

Aug. 20, 1895.—Trustees cemeteries authorised to provide for cremation of dead.

Sept. 4, 1895.—“Bank of New Zealand and Banking Act, 1895,” providing for writing off paid-up capital with proceeds of first call on reserve liability. Also for new capital and Assets Realisation Board, &c. Also to purchase business of any other bank.

Sept. 20, 1895.—Labour-laws: Passing of an Act to regulate attachment of wages.

Sept. 20, 1895.—Labour-laws: Passing of Servants’ Registry Office Act.

Sept. 20, 1895.—“Family Homes Protection Act, 1895,” to secure homes for the people and to prevent them from mortgage or sale for debt.

Oct. 18, 1895.—Amended tariff passed.

Oct. 31, 1895.—Bank of New Zealand and Banking Act Amendment Act: Sale of Colonial Bank business to Bank of New Zealand.

Dec. 20, 1895.—Appointment of Sir P. A. Buckley, K.C.M.G., as a Judge of Supreme Court.

Jan. 10, 1896.—Hon. W. P. Reeves appointed Agent-General in London.

Mar. 26, 1896.—Brunner Mine explosion; sixty-seven deaths.

April 12, 1896.—General census of colony taken for Sunday night.

May 18, 1896.—Death of Sir Patrick Buckley, K.C.M.G.

July 11, 1896.—Appointment of Mr. W. B. Edwards as a Judge of the Supreme Court.

July 19, 1896.—Death of Hon. Robert Pharazyn, M.L.C.

Aug. 2, 1896.—Death of James Edward FitzGerald, C.M.G., Controller and Auditor-General.

Oct. 16, 1896.—Land for Settlements Act amended: Special provision made for disposal of highly improved lands acquired: preference given to landless people: Boards may select applicants, &c.

Oct. 17, 1896.—Alteration of franchise by abolition of non-residential or property qualification.

Oct. 17, 1896.—Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

Dec. 4, 1896.—General election of members of House of Representatives for the new districts as fixed by the Representation Commissioners on basis of Census, 1896.

Feb. 6, 1897.—Departure of the Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.

Feb. 8, 1897.—Sir James Prendergast Administrator of Government.

June 22, 1897.—Diamond Jubilee of reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria. Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier of New Zealand, called to Privy Council, on occasion of his visit to England with contingent New Zealand Forces.

July 29, 1897.—Wreck of s.s. “Tasmania” at Mahia Peninsula; ten lives lost.

Aug. 10, 1897.—The Earl of Ranfurly assumed office as Governor.

Dec. 22, 1897.—Act to establish at Wellington the Victoria College, in connection with the New Zealand University.

July 15, 1898.—Hon. Sir Francis Dillon Bell, K.C.M.G., C.B., died.

1898.—Death of Sir George Grey, K.C.B.

1898.—Death of Bishop Selwyn, of Melanesia.

Oct. 15, 1898.—The Municipal Franchise Reform Act passed.

1898.—The Divorce Bill passed both Houses. Her Majesty's assent thereto gazetted 13th April, 1899.

Nov. 1, 1898.—An Act to provide for Old-age Pensions passed.

Feb. 10, 1899.—Rev. William Colenso died at Napier.

March 13, 1899.—Sir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G., died.

April, 1899.—Victoria University College opened in Wellington.

May 25, 1899.—Resignation of Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice.

June 1, 1899.—“The Divorce Act, 1898” (assented to by Her Majesty the Queen), came into operation.

June 22, 1899.—Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G., appointed Chief Justice.

Oct. 19, 1899.—Act passed constituting Labour Day. The second Wednesday in the month of October in each year to be a public holiday.

Oct. 21, 1899.—N.Z. Contingent (the first) consisting of 215 officers and men, left in s.s. “Waiwera” for Algoa Bay to assist the British in the Transvaal war.

Nov. 16, 1899.—General Assembly dissolved.

Dec. 6, 1899.—General Election of Members of House of Representatives.

Jan. 21, 1900.—The second N.Z. Contingent (258 officers and men) left for South Africa in s.s. “Waiwera.”

Feb. 5, 1900.—Hon. Thomas Dick died.

Feb. 17, 1900.—The third N.Z. Contingent (264 officers and men) left for South Africa in s.s. “Knight Templar.”

March 24 and 31, 1900.—The fourth and fifth Contingents (1,060 officers and men) left for South Africa in s.s.'s “Monowai,” “Gymeric,” “Waimate,” and “Maori.”

June 28, 1900.—“Bubonic Plague Prevention Act, 1900,” passed.

Aug. 8, 1900.—“Immigration Restriction Act, 1899,” assented to by Her Majesty in Council, came into operation.

GENERAL INDEX

“Accident Insurance Act, 1899” 304
Acclimatisation. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 431.)
Accumulation, Prices and Wages 294
Development of Banking 294
Acres and Yield in Corn-crops 351
Acres of Land under Crop 352
Addenda—see back of Half-Title.
Administration of Land-laws, &c. 413
Advances to Settlers 426
Loans for 426
Table showing how repaid 430
Titles eligible 427
Valuation-fees 429
Agents for the Colonies, Crown 26
Agent-General in London 25
Ages at Death 132
“ Average 132
Average, of Persons married 125
Of Prisoners 251
Agricultural College, Lincoln 224
Agricultural Statistics 350
Agriculture and Live Stock 340, 350, 451
Acreage under Wheat, Oats, &c., in Provincial Districts 351
Artificial Manures 462
Barley 360, 456
Cape Barley and Winter Oats 465
Cattle 345, 466, 469
Cereals 351, 455
Composition of Roots 461
Consumption of Wheat 357
Cost of growing Oats 456
Cost of working a Farm 465
Dairy Industry, The 470
Dairy Stock 346, 470
Fertilisers 462
Fruit Industry, The 472
Gardens and Orchards 361
Grass-seeds 361, 464
Hops 361
Horses 347, 466
Lambing Returns, Averages 345
Mangolds and Carrots 460
Maize 359
Oate 359, 456
Pigs 348, 471
Potatoes 360, 457
Poultry 472
Rape 459
Root-crops 457
Sheep 342, 167
Tree-planting 473
Turnips 360, 458
Wheat-crop of Australian Colonies 357
Wheat-crop of the World, 1893 and 1897 357
Wheat for Threshing 356
Wheat held by Farmers, 1899 356
Wheat, Seed per Acre 456
Wheat, Yield per Acre 351, 456
“Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1896” 389
Alcoholic Liquors, Consumption of, 1894 to 1898 247
Aliens Naturalised 121
Alluvial Mining 327
Animals (see Live-Stock) 340, 466
Annual Pensions paid by Government 60
Antipodes Islands 6
Apples, Export of 472
Appendix—
Dates of certain Principal Events in the History of New Zealand 609
Apprehensions and Summonses 245
Area of New Zealand 7
Of North, Middle, Stewart, Chatham, and other Islands 7
Of United Kingdom compared with New Zealand 7
Areas of Australasian Colonies 6
Compared with European Countries 7
Area under Cultivation in Counties 353
Arbor Day, Tree-planting 473
Arms, Ordnance, &c. 52
Arrests for Drunkenness 247
Arrivals and Departures 102
Chinese 102
Departures, how Numbers ascertained 102
Excess of Arrivals over Departures 104
Articles on Special Subjects 413
Artificial Manures 462
Artillery, Naval, Field, and Garrison 51
Ascent of Mount Sefton 519
Assembly, General 28
Assets Realisation Board 298, 407
Associations, Special-Settlement 422
Assurance, Industrial Life 304
Asylums, Benevolent 152
Lunatic 152
Orphan 152
Auckland Docks 54
Graving-dock Charges 54-57
Auckland Islands 6, 14
Auckland Land District—Introductory, Physical Features, Plains, Lakes, Forests, Soils; Rainfall; General Products and Industries; Chief Towns; Crown or Native Lands available for Future Settlement 541
Auckland Provincial District, Progress of Eight Years 409
Auckland Sailors' Home 152
Australasian Railways 367
Australasian Stock, Prices of 402
Australian Colonies, Area of 6
Debt of 402
Friendly Societies in 321
Mineral Production of 323
Railways in 367
Live-Stock in 342
Oat-crop of 359
Population 101
Taxation in 394
Trade 217
Wheat-crop of 357
Average Quantity of Milk to 1 lb. Butter 470
Average Yield of Butter or Cheese 470
Bachelors and Spinsters in New Zealand 123
Banking, Development in 294
Banking Legislation, Special 296
“Bank Directors and Shares Transfer Act, 1894” 297
“Bank-note Issue Act, 1893” 296
Bank of New Zealand and Banking Acts, 1895 and 1898 297, 298
“Bank of New Zealand Guarantee Act, 1894” 296
“Banks and Bankers Act Amendment Act, 1893” 296
“Bank Shareholders Act, 1894” 297
Bankruptcy 242
Petitions, &c., Five Years 243
Private Deeds of Assignment 243
Transactions in 1898 242
Banks of Issue—
Advances and Discounts 295
Assets and Liabilities 294
Deposits 294
In all Classes of Banks, Average per Head 300
Notes in Circulation, &c. 294
Banks—
Post-Office Savings 299
Deposits, Withdrawals, Open Accounts, Amounts to Credit 299
Securities held 299
Deposits, Withdrawals 300
Private Savings 300
Deposits, Withdrawals 300
Barley, Acreage and Actual Yield of, in Provincial Districts 351
Yield in Bushels 351
Export of 202
Beer, Consumption of, per Head, Five Years 247
Beer, Excise Duty on 85
Benevolent Asylums and Charitable Institutions 152
Birth-rates per 1,000 of Population in Australasian Colonies 115
Decline of, in New Zealand 114
Births 114
Declining Rate, &c., in Australia, Remarks on 154
Illegitimate 117
Illegitimacy in Australasian Colonies 117
In Australasian Colonies, Proportion of Illegitimate 117
Legitimation Act 119
Of Twins 117
Proportion to Population, 1882-99 114
Rates in Australian Colonies 115
To Marriages, Proportion of 114
Blind, The. (See Year-book, 1899, p. 136.)
Blind, Institution for the 238
Boroughs—
Expenditure of 265
Auckland, with suburbs 94
Christchurch, with suburbs 94
Dunedin, with suburbs 94
Wellington, with suburbs 94
In Colony 93, 261
Auckland, with suburbs 94
Christchurch, with suburbs 94
Dunedin, with suburbs 94
Wellington, with suburbs 94
Indebtedness of 267
Population of 93
Rateable Value of Property in 270
Revenue of 265
Value of Land and Improvements in 259
Boundaries and Area of the Colony 5
Bounty Island 6
Breadstuffs in various Countries and Colonies, Consumption of 357
Building Societies 301
Amounts deposited with 301
Income, Assets, Liabilities, Reserve Funds 301
Butter and Cheese 203, 470
Export to United Kingdom, Twelve Years 203
Factories and Creameries 363
Grading 363, 471
Industry 362
Cadet Corps 52
Cadets in Government Service to be Volunteers 47
Campbell Islands 6
Cancer, Deaths from 144
Decennial Return 147
Increase in 145
Part of Body affected 146
Proportion of Deaths per 10,000 living, 1890-99 145
Canterbury Agricultural College 224
Canterbury Land District—Boundaries and Physical Features, Scenery, Climate; Internal Communication; Geological Formation; Area, Nature, and Disposition of Lands; Soils; Pasturage and Crops; Stock, Wool, Butter and Cheese, Timber, Fruit; Coal, Building-stones; Fisheries; Manufactories; Libraries and Churches; Educational and other Institutions; Towns 586
Canterbury Provincial District: Progress of Eight Years 411
Cape Barley and Winter Oats 465
Capital City, Population of 94
Capitation to Efficient Volunteers and Cadets 53
Carrots 462
Cattle 345, 466
In Provincial Districts 346
Causes of Death 133
At Four Centres 130
Cancer 144
Developmental Diseases 149
Local Diseases 149
Measles 138
Old Age 149
Percentage of Deaths from each 133
Phthisis 140
Typhoid Fever 138
Violence 150
Cavalry Volunteers 51
Cereals 455
Charges, Survey, on Unsurveyed Lands 425
Charitable Institutions, Benevolent Asylums and, &c. 150
Chatham Islands 6, 13, 531
Cheese and Butter 203, 470
Factories, Number of 363
Cheviot Estate. (See Year-book, 1895, p. 264.)
Children to a Marriage, Number of 114
Chinese—
Conjugal Condition 106
Immigration and Emigration of 105
Number in Colony 89
Occupations of 106
Poll-tax on 105
Churches 239
Attendance at 239
Denominations of 240
In Provincial Districts 239
Schoolhouses and Dwellings used as 239
Cities 94
Civil Cases 242
Civil Establishment at Seat of Government 33
“Civil Service Insurance Act, 1893” 63
Classification of Lands, &c. 420
Climate—
Temperature in New Zealand, Australia, and other British Possessions 332-335
Clips, Average Wool- 467
Clothing, Imported, Value of 168
Coal 328
Classes of, in New Zealand 480
Consumption of 328
Export of 328
Found in Colony, Analysis of 330
Import of 328
Output of 328
Coal Deposits of New Zealand 479
“Coal-mines Act, 1891” 320
Colleges and University 230
Colonial Office, The 25
Colonies, Area of the Australian 6
Colonisation of New Zealand 3
Colony, Boundaries and Area of the 5
Crown Agents for the 26
Population of the 89
Progress of, Eight Years 409
Communication and Transport 364
Consols, New Zealand 389, 446
“Conspiracy Law Amendment Act, 1894” 319
Constitution 14
Government 15
Consumption of Beer 172, 247
Consumption, Principal Articles of 310
Consuls, Foreign (see also Addenda) 24
Contingents for South Africa 449
Convictions 245
For Drunkenness 247
Summary 245
Convictions of Maoris 249
Cook Islands, Description of (see Year-book, 1895, p. 456.)
Cook Strait 10
Corn-crops, Acreage, and Actual Yield of 351
Cost of Living in New Zealand and in Various Countries 309
Management of Local Governing Bodies 266
Railways 406
Working a Farm in New Zealand 465
Council, Executive, 1843-56 20
Council, Executive, January, 1900 27
Legislative, Roll of Members of the (see also Addenda) 29
Successive Speakers of the Legislative 23
Counties, Population of 92
Land under Cultivation in 353
Value of Land and Improvements in 257
Court, Validation 36
Courts, Bankruptcy 242
Civil Cases, Supreme and District 242
Charges for Offences before 245
Committals 245
Punishment on Summary Convictions (five years) 247
Summary Convictions before 246
Divorce and Separation 243
Charges for Offences before 245
Committals 245
Punishment on Summary Convictions (five years) 247
Summary Convictions before 246
Magistrates', Civil Cases 242
Charges for Offences before 245
Committals 245
Punishment on Summary Convictions (five years) 247
Summary Convictions before 246
Sentences, Supreme and District (five years) 246
Supreme and District, Convictions 245
Cows, Average Annual Yield of Milk 470
Creameries and Butter Factories 363
Crime, Law and 242
Cross-breeding of Sheep 467
Crown Agents for the Colonies 26
Crown Lands occupied 336
Mode of acquiring 420
Crown Lands of New Zealand 336, 413
Cultivation. (See also Agriculture.)
Barley 360, 456
Under Crops in Provincial Districts 352
In Australasian Colonies 359
In Australasian Colonies 357
Cereals, Remarks on 457
Under Crops in Provincial Districts 352
In Australasian Colonies 359
In Australasian Colonies 357
Cost of Working a Farm 465
Under Crops in Provincial Districts 352
In Australasian Colonies 359
In Australasian Colonies 357
Extent of Land in 352
Under Crops in Provincial Districts 352
In Australasian Colonies 359
In Australasian Colonies 357
Fertilisers 462
Under Crops in Provincial Districts 352
In Australasian Colonies 359
In Australasian Colonies 357
Gardens and Orchards 361
Under Crops in Provincial Districts 352
In Australasian Colonies 359
In Australasian Colonies 357
Hops 361
Under Crops in Provincial Districts 352
In Australasian Colonies 359
In Australasian Colonies 357
Land in Sown Grasses in Australasian Colonies 362
Under Crops in Provincial Districts 352
In Australasian Colonies 359
In Australasian Colonies 357
Maize 359
In Australasian Colonies 359
In Australasian Colonies 357
Oats 359, 456
In Australasian Colonies 359
In Australasian Colonies 357
Orchards and Gardens 361
In Australasian Colonies 357
Peas and Beans 360
In Australasian Colonies 357
Potatoes 360, 457
In Australasian Colonies 357
Root-crops 457
In Australasian Colonies 357
Rye 360
In Australasian Colonies 357
Seeds and Sown Grasses 361, 464
In Australasian Colonies 357
Tobacco 361
In Australasian Colonies 357
Turnips 360, 458
In Australasian Colonies 357
Wheat 356, 455
In Australasian Colonies 357
Customs Duties, Rates levied 71
Revenue from 191
Proportion of Taxation in Australasian Colonies derived from, 1898-9 394
Cyanide Process, The 325
Cyanide Process Gold-extraction Act 327
Dairy Factories 363
Dairy Industry 362, 470
Government Aid to 363
Produce, Export of 203
Stock 346, 470
Dates of Principal Events 609
Deaf and Dumb. (See Year-book, 1899, p. 134.)
Deaf-mutes, Institution for 238
Death, Average Age at 132
Causes of 133
Death-rates in various Countries and Colonies, 1890-99 127
From Cancer 145
Congenital Defects 135
Nervous Diseases 135
From Phthisis 140
From Typhoid Fever 138
In Four Principal Cities 130
In Principal Cities of Australasia 132
Deaths 127
At various Age-periods 132
Inquests on 253
Number of, in 1899 127
Of Infants 132
Of Infants to every 1,000 Births 132
Of Publicans, &c. 140
Violent 150
Debt, General Government (see Public Debt) 395
Of Local Bodies 265, 267
Deceased Persons' Estates 305
Duties Payable on 88
Declining Birth-rate, &c., in Australia, Remarks on 154
Defences, Military and Naval—
Administration; Artillery, Permanent Militia; Bearer Corps, Volunteers; Cadet Corps, Volunteers; Capitation; Cavalry, Volunteers; Cycle Corps, Volunteers; Engineers, Volunteers; Enrolment, &c.; Expenditure and Maintenance; Field Artillery, Volunteers; Instructors; Militia and Volunteer Districts; Mounted Rifles, Volunteers; Naval Artillery, Volunteers; Ordnance, Arms, &c.; Rifle Corps, Volunteers; Torpedo Corps, Permanent Militia 50
Deferred-payment System, Land taken up on 372-375, 421
Degree of Education 220
Departures, Arrivals and 102
Deposits in Banks 294
Depots for Shipwrecked Mariners 53
Despatch of New Zealand Troops to South Africa 449
Diarrhoea Diseases, Deaths from 138
Digest of the Land-laws 419
Diphtheria, Deaths from 138
Discovery and Early Settlement 2
Discovery of Gold in New Zealand. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 343.)
Diseases, Various, Deaths from 133
District Court, Civil Cases 242
Districts, Militia and Volunteer 50
Divorce, Petitions and Decrees, 1893-1898 244
Divorce and Separation 243
Grounds for 243
Docks, Graving, and Patent Slips 54
Drainage Board, Revenue, Expenditure, and Loans 265
Drunkenness 247
Persons convicted of 248
Duties and Functions of Representation Commissions 156
Duties on Estates of Deceased Persons 88
Early Settlement, Discovery and 2
Earnings of the People 308
Wages 313-316
Ecclesiastical 48
Education (see Public Instruction, also Schools) 220
Public (Government) Schools 222
School of Engineering and Technical Science 224
Technical 224
University, New Zealand 230
Victoria College 231
Education Boards, Income and Expenditure of 235
Education, Degree of 220
Improvement in 220
Egmont, Mount 9
Election, General. (See Representation.)
Electoral. (See Representation.)
“Electoral Act, 1893,” extends Franchise to Women 16, 157
“Electoral Act Amendment Act, 1896,” abolishes property qualification 16, 157
Electric Telegraph 369
Emigration. (See Immigration and Emigration.)
“Employers' Liability Act, 1882” 319
Engineering, School of 224
Engineers, Volunteers 51
Enrolment of Permanent Militia 52
Estates of Deceased Persons, Value of 305
Duties Payable on 88
Estates offered for Selection under Land for Settlements Act, during Year 1899-00 378
European Population of Colony 89
Excise Duty on Beer 85
Executive Council, 1843-56 20
1900 inset facing pp. 26, 27
Expenditure, Revenue and 380
Charges of Public Debt 399
General Government 380
Local Bodies 265
On Railways 380, 406
Out of Public Works Fund by General Government 405
Exports 193
Butter and Cheese to United Kingdom, for Twelve Years 203
Coal 193, 328
From different Ports 204
From United Kingdom to various Countries and Colonies 219
Frozen Meat 201
Quantity, Eighteen Years 201
Value, Twelve Years 197
Gold, Silver, and other Minerals to 31st December, 1899 322
Gold, 1899 202
Grain 202
Home Produce 193
Increase and Decrease on Principal Articles 197
Kauri-gum 204
Of Australasian Colonies 217
Phorimium 204
Quantities of Principal Articles, 1898 and 1899 196
Rabbit skins 200
Re-exports, exclusive of Specie 198
Of New South Wales compared with New Zealand 198
Sheepskins and Pelts 201
Tallow 201
Timber 194, 196
To United States 217
Value of principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 193
Wool, Twelve Years 199
External Trade of Australasia 218
Factories, Butter and Cheese 363
Factories Act, 1894 318
Factories Acts. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 220.)
Farming, Dairy 470
Farming, Ostrich 349
Farm in New Zealand, Cost of Working a 465
Features of the Middle Island, Physical 10
Of the North Island 7
Fees Payable under Land Transfer Act 86
Finance 380
Fire Inquests 254
Fish Acclimatised. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 431.)
Fish and Fisheries. (See Year-book, 1895, p. 373.)
First Offenders' Probation Act 253
Flax, Export of (see Phormium tenax) 204
Flocks of Sheep, Number and Size of 200
Foreigners Naturalised during last Eighteen Years, Number of 121
Foreign Consuls (see also Addenda) 24
Foster Homes, Remarks on 237
Foveaux Strait 13
Franchise 15
Municipal 271
Freezing Establishments in the Colony. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 314.)
Friendly Societies 301
In Australasia 321
Lodges, &c., Assets, Receipts of Sick and Funeral Funds, Expenditure, Sick Pay, Management Expenses 301
Frozen-meat Industry (see also Year-book, 1894, p. 311) 201
Fruit Culture 472
Drying 472
Industry, The 472
Fungus, New Zealand, Export of 194, 196
“Gaming and Lotteries Act, 1881,” Permits issued under 412
Gaols, Prisoners in 250
Gardens, Plantations, and Orchards, Total Acreage in 361
General Assembly, The 28
General Election, 1899 157
Glaciers in Middle Island 11
Gold, Coal, and other Minerals 322
Coal-mining 328
Composition of 330
Consumption of 328
Output of 328
Total Quantity and Value entered for Exportation 202
Gold exported 193
Total Quantity and Value entered for Exportation 202
Gold produced 322
Gold produced in Australia 323, 325
Gold-mining, Result of—Hands, Output, &c. 322-327
Remarks on 323
Saving Gold by Cyanide Process 325
Governing Bodies, Local 261
“Government Loans to Local Bodies Act Amendment Act, 1899” 269
Government Advances to Settlers 426
Advances authorised 434
Business of Office 426
Conditions of Advance 428
Costs and Fees 429, 433
First Meeting of Board 434
Fixed Loans 429
Half-yearly Repayments, Table of 430
Instalments of Loans payable at Post-offices 433
Instalment Mortgages 429
Officials bound to Secrecy 433
Terms of Loans 429
Titles eligible for Advances 427
Government Aid to Dairying 363
Government Life Insurance Department 303
Government Schools 222
Government, the Seat of 16
Government Valuation of Land and its Improvements 255, 438
Capital Values, North and South Islands 256
Comparison of Capital Values, 1888 and 1898 256
Cost of making Valuation, How Borne 255, 439
Increase in Values 256
Objection, Right of 255, 439
Purposes for which Valuation-rolls used 255, 438
Values in Boroughs 259
Values in Counties 257
Governor of New Zealand 27
Governors, Successive 17
Grading of Dairy Produce 363
Grain exported 202
Grown in each Provincial District (see also Cultivation) 351
Grass Lands, Acres of 352, 361
In Australasian Colonies, 1898-99 362
Grass-seed 464
Sown, per Acre 362
Graving-docks and Patent Slips 54
Auckland Docks 54
Lyttelton Dock and Patent Slip 57
Port Chalmers Dock 56
Nelson Cradle 58
Timaru Slip 58
Wellington Patent Slip 56
Grazing-runs, Small 372-375, 423
Green Crops, Acreage under, in Provincial Districts 352
Gum, Kauri 204, 489
Area of Fields 490
Earnings of Diggers 493
Export of 204, 490
Number of Diggers 489
Price of 331, 490
Remarks on 490
Hanmer Thermal Springs—Accommodation, &c.; Analysis of Springs; Benefit Derived from using Springs; Charges, &c.; Climate; Directions for using Baths; Journey to Hanmer; Masseuse available; Medical Attendance; Tourist Season 504
Harbour Boards Revenue, Expenditure, and Loans 266
Harbours. (See Year-book, 1894, pp. 389-408.)
Hawke's Bay Land District—General Description; Communication; Pastoral Industries; Agricultural Pursuits; Dairying; Timber and other Industries; Climate; Towns; Crown Lands; Native Lands 558
Hawke's Bay Provincial District: Progress in Eight Years 410
Hay, Acres in 352
Hemp, New Zealand (Phormium tenax) exported 204
Holdings, Number of occupied 336
Hollerith Electrical Tabulating Machine 106
Home Produce exported 193
Honours held by Colonists 26
Hops, cultivated, imported and exported 361
Horse-breeding 469
Horses in New Zealand, Number of 347
In Provincial Districts 347
Hospitals 150
Accommodation and Indoor Patients 151
General Management 151
Number of Districts 151
Revenues of Boards, how raised 150
Hot Springs (see Thermal Springs) 495, 501, 504
House of Representatives (see also Corrigenda) 15, 30
Speakers of the 24
Houses, Licensed 288
Illegitimate Births in Australasian Colonies 117, 154
In Maternity Homes 119
Immigration and Emigration 102
Each Australian Colony 105
From United Kingdom, Australian Colonies, and other Places 103
Gain by net Immigration from United Kingdom in Ten Years 104
Nominating Immigrants discontinued 102
Of Chinese 102
Poll-tax on Chinese 105
To United Kingdom, Australian Colonies, and other Countries 103
Imports and Exports 166, 193
Each Australian Colony, 1898 217
Imports—
Beer, Spirits, and Wine, Consumption of 172, 247
United Kingdom 172
United Kingdom to Australasia 219
United States, Ten Years 217
Clothing, &c. 168
United Kingdom 172
United Kingdom to Australasia 219
United States, Ten Years 217
Coal 169, 328
United Kingdom 172
United Kingdom to Australasia 219
United States, Ten Years 217
Free and Dutiable Imports, Value of 170
United Kingdom 172
United Kingdom to Australasia 219
United States, Ten Years 217
From different Countries, 1898 and 1899, Values of 173
United Kingdom 172
United Kingdom to Australasia 219
United States, Ten Years 217
Inclusive and exclusive of Specie, Twelve Years 166
Into Australasia 217
Per Head of Population 167
Consumption of, per Head of Population 171
Spirits 171
Consumption of, per Head of Population 171
Sugar and Tea, Imports of 171
Consumption of, per Head of Population 171
Tobacco, Consumption of 172
Trade per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 218
Improved-farm Settlements 372-375, 423
Improvement in Education of the People 220
Income-tax, Land and 434
Exemptions 435, 436
Rates of Tax 437
Yield of Tax 437
Income-tax levied 392, 436
Growth of Amount Paid 394
Incomes and Earnings 308
Indebtedness of the Australasian Colonies 402
Of Local Bodies 265-269
For Nineteen Years 262
To Persons outside Colony 268
Industrial Schools 236
Industrial Life Assurance 304
Inebriates Institutions Act 249
“Infant Life Protection Act, 1896” 119
Influenza, Deaths from 138
Inquests, Death 253
Fire 254
Instruction, State 222
Insurance, Life 303
Companies in New Zealand 303
Government Life 303
Introductory 1
Area of the Australasian Colonies 6
Colony of New Zealand 7
Middle Island 10
Boundaries and Area of New Zealand 5
Middle Island 10
Colonisation 3
Middle Island 10
Constitution 14
Middle Island 10
Cook Strait 10
Middle Island 10
Discovery and Early Settlement 2
Middle Island 10
Foveaux Strait 13
Middle Island 10
Glaciers in Middle Island 11
Middle Island 10
Government 15
Middle Island 10
Maoris, The 4
Middle Island 10
Outlying Islands 13
Middle Island 10
Physical Features of the North Island 7
Middle Island 10
Public Works 17
Seat of Government 16
Iron, Machinery, &c., imported, Value of 168
Islands, Description of the—
Antipodes 6
Auckland 6, 13
Bounty 6
Campbell 6
Chatham 6, 13, 531
Cook. (See Year-book, 1895, p. 456) 6
Kermadec 6, 13
Middle 6, 10
North 5, 7
Stewart 6, 13
Joint Stock Companies 301
Jubilee Institution for the Blind 238
Judges, Supreme Court 19
Kauri District 490
Kauri-gum Digging 489
Area of Fields 490
Earnings of Diggers 493
Number of Diggers 489
Remarks on 490
Kauri-gum (Exported) 204, 490
Average Price of 204, 490
Quantities and Values exported 204, 490
Kermadec Islands 6, 13
Labour—
In New Zealand. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 362.)
Prices of Provisions, Live-stock, &c., 1899 311
Wages, Average Rates of 313
Labour Department, Men assisted by 321
Labour-Laws. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 220.)
Labour Legislation—
Acts of Parliament composing 317
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration 318
Coal-mines Act 320
Conspiracy Law 319
Employers' Liability 319
Factories Act 318
Master and Apprentice 319
Mining 320
Servants' Registry Offices 319
Shipping Acts 319
Shops and Shop-assistants 318
Trades-Union Act 319
Wages Attachment 319
Remarks on 317
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration 318
Coal-mines Act 320
Conspiracy Law 319
Employers' Liability 319
Factories Act 318
Master and Apprentice 319
Mining 320
Servants' Registry Offices 319
Shipping Acts 319
Shops and Shop-assistants 318
Trades-Union Act 319
Wages Attachment 319
Lakes 9, 12
Lambing Averages 345
Land—
Acreage of, under Crop 352
And Income-tax 392, 434
Crown, open for Selection (See Land Districts)
Fit for Agriculture and Pasture 8
Government Valuation of 255, 438
Grass-sown 361
Held as Pastoral Runs 372, 373
Held as Small Grazing-runs 372-375, 423
Held under Pastoral and Miscellaneous Leases 372, 375
Holdings in Provincial Districts 338
Holdings taken up 336
Holdings taken up, Sizes of 336
Improved Farm Settlements 372-375, 423
Occupation of 336, 372, 420
On Perpetual Lease, Lease in Perpetuity, and Occupation with Right of Purchase 372-375, 421
Rating on Unimproved Value 271, 439
Revenue from 381
Sold for Cash 372-375, 421
Sold on Deferred Payments 372-375, 421
Taken up under various Tenures, Eleven years 374, 375
Taken up in each Land District 376
Tax 392, 434
Graduated 392, 437
Village Settlements, Land held 372-375
Village Settlements, sold on Deferred Payments and for Cash 372-375
Land and Improvements, Government Valuation of 255
Land Districts in the Colony, Description of—Auckland, 541; Canterbury, 586; Hawke's Bay, 558; Marlborough, 570; Nelson, 576; Otago, 595; Southland, 605; Taranaki, 549; Wellington, 561; Westland, 581.
Land for Settlements Acts 416
Annual Rental under 378
Estates offered for Selection during Year ended 31st March, 1900 378
Transactions under 378
Land-Laws, Digest of 419
Administration 419
Classification of Lands, &c. 420
Grazing-runs, Small 423
Improved-farm Settlements 423
Land Districts and Principal Land Offices 420
Mode of Acquiring Crown Lands 420
Cash Tenure 421
Leases in Perpetuity 421
Occupation with Right of Purchase 421
Optional System of Selection 421
Cash Tenure 421
Leases in Perpetuity 421
Occupation with Right of Purchase 421
Pastoral Runs 424
Residence and Improvements 421
Special-settlement Associations 422
Survey Charges on Unsurveyed Lands 425
Village-homestead Settlements 423
“Land Settlements Act, 1896, Aid to Public Works and” 389
Land System of New Zealand 413
Land-tax 392, 434
Land Transfer Act, Fees payable under 86
Lands—
Native, Purchase of, by Government 418
Survey Charges on Unsurveyed 425
Land under Cultivation in Counties 353
Land, Valuation of—
In Boroughs 259
In Colony 256
In Counties 257
Land-values—
Results of Assessments, 1888 and 1898 256
Total Valuations in Counties and Boroughs 257
Law and Crime 242
Laws, Difference of, between England and New Zealand. (See Year-book, 1896, p. 281.)
Legislation, Special Banking 296
Legislative Council 28
Native Members of the 15
Roll of Members of the (see also Addenda) 29
“Legitimation Act, 1894” 119
Letters delivered and posted 369
Libraries, Public 240
Licenses and Licensed Houses 288
Licenses—
Issued under “Gaming and Lotteries Act, 1881” 412
Number and Fees paid 288
Proportion to Population 288
Licensing Laws 290
Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act 290
Annual Fees 289
Result of Polls taken in December, 1899 291
Revenue from Licenses 288
Life Insurance (see also State Insurance), Year 1898 303
Lighthouses, Names and Number of, Colour, Order, &c. 58
Lincoln Agricultural College 224
List, Official 33
Literary and Scientific Institutions 240
Live-stock. (See also Sheep and Cattle) 340, 466
Average Prices of 311
Expect of 194, 196
In Australasian Colonies 342
In each County 340
Living, Cost of 309
Average Consumption per Head of Foods, &c. (See Year-book, 1898, p. 289.)
In various Countries 309
Loans—
Expenditure, 1899-1900 384
For Advances to Settlers 387
General Government. (See Public Debt) 395
Of Local Bodies, Outstanding, at various Rates of Interest 268
Of Local Bodies, Net Indebtedness 267
“Loans to Local Bodies Act Amendment Act, 1899” 269
Local Bodies—
Cost of Management 266
Expenditure of 265, 266
Indebtedness: Nineteen Years 262
Number of 261
Outstanding Loans at various Rates of Interest 268
Property in, Value of 259
Rates collected in Nineteen Years 262
Revenue and Expenditure of Boroughs, Counties, Drainage Board, Harbour Boards, River Boards, Road Boards, Town Boards 263, 266
Taxation by 263, 394
Local-Option Poll (1899) 290
Lucerne 465
Lunacy 153
Lunatic Asylums 152
Lunatics, Proportion of 153
Magistrates' Courts, Apprehensions, Convictions, &c. 245
Mail-services between England and New Zealand, Cost of 370
Maize, Area under 359
Manawatu-Wellington Railway 367
Mangolds and Carrots 460
Manual and Technical Instruction, 1898 228
Manufactories and Works 220
Manures, Artificial 462
Maoris, The 108
Ages of, compared with European Population 113
Charged with Offences 249
Children attending Schools 234
Contribute towards Revenue 393
Convicted of Offences, 1887-98 249
Distribution of 113
Enumeration of 110
Half-castes 112
Health of 111
Mythology 536
Population at Last Census 89, 112
Probable Origin and Numbers 108
Representation 15, 30, 163
Marlborough Land District—Physical Features: Rivers, Plains, Lakes, Forests, Soils, Grazing; Industries; Climate; Towns; Roads and Railways; Crown Lands 570
Marriage, Births to every 114
Decrees for Dissolution of 244
Decrees for Judicial Separation 244
Rates in New Zealand, Australian Colonies, and European Countries 122
Marriages 122
Ages at which Marriage may be contracted 126
Ages of Persons Married 125
Of Aborigines 123
Percentage of Persons under 21 Years 126
Proportion by each Denomination 124
Proportion of each Sex signing Register by Mark 125
Marlborough, Nelson, and Westland Provincial Districts: Eight Years' Progress 411
“Master and Apprentice Act, 1865” 319
Measles, Deaths from 138
Meat, Frozen, Total Export of 201
Medical Practitioners 150
Medicine, School of, Otago 600
Members of House of Representatives, Roll of (see also Corrigenda) 31
Legislative Council, Roll of (see also Addenda) 29
Members of House of Representatives, Occupations of 163
Metals and Minerals 322
Meteorological Observations 332-335
Miasmatic Diseases, Deaths from 135
Midland Railway 367
Miles of Railway open for Traffic 366
Military and Naval Defences 50
Milk—
Average Yield of Butter from 470
Average Yield per Cow 470
Mineral Production of Australasian Colonies 323
Minerals, Gold, Coal, and other 322
Mineral Waters of New Zealand (see Thermal-springs Districts)
Mines, Schools of 224
Mining Produce 322
Remarks on 323
Ministers, Officiating, under Marriage Act 127
Ministers, Cabinet 27
Ministries, Successive 22
Miscellaneous Statistics 409
Money-orders and Postal-notes 370
Morioris, The 112
Mortality in Liquor Trade (England) 140
Mortgages 301
Amounts borrowed at various rates of interest 302
Mountains 9, 10
Mount Cook 10
Egmont 9
Ruapehu 9
Tongariro 9
Mount Cook, A Night on 525
Mount Sefton, Ascent of 519
Mounted Rifles, Volunteers 51
“Municipal Franchise Reform Act, 1898,” Qualifications for Enrolment under 271
Mutton. (See Frozen Meat.)
Consumption per head. (See Year-book, 1898, p. 289.)
Mythology, Maori 536
Native Lands purchased by Government 418
Native Schools 234
Naturalisation 121
Nelson Land District—General Description; Rivers, Lakes, Plains, Forests; Agricultural, Pastoral, Mining; Towns; Railways, Roads, Tracks, &c.; Crown Lands 576
Nelson, Marlborough, and Westland Provincial Districts: Eight Years' Progress 411
Nervous System, Diseases of, Deaths from 135
Newspapers 64
Posted 369
New Zealand—
Abolition of Provincial Governments in 15
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
“Accident Insurance Act, 1899” 304
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Area of, Boundaries and 5
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Arrival of Missionaries in 3
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Captain Cook's Visits to 2
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Coal Deposits of 479
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Colonisation of 3
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Colony divided into Six Provinces 15
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Company 3
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
County Government in 15
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Discovery and Early Settlement of 2
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Electoral Division of 156
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
General Assembly of 28
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
General Election 157
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Government Advances to Settlers 426
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Government Life Insurance 303
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Governor of 27
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Governors of, Successive 17
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Land System of 413
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Lieutenant Hanson's Visit to 3
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Made a Separate Colony 4
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Manufactories and Works 220
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Newspapers 64
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Permanent Militia 50
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Premiers of 23
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Provincial Governments abolished 15
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Progress, Eight Years 409
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Rainfall in 332
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Representative Government granted in 14
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Settlement at Port Nicholson 3
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Sovereignty of Queen proclaimed 3
Stock, Quotations of (Twelve years) 402
Surville, and Marion du Fresne, Visits of 2
Tasman's Visit 2
Temperature 332
Treaty of Waitangi 4
University of 230
New Zealand Consols—
Currency of Deposits 447
Forms of Application 447
Rate of Interest 447
Regulations 446
The purpose of 446
Ngauruhoe 516
Night on Mount Cook, A 525
Oats—
Acreage and Actual Yield in Provincial Districts 351
Export of 202
Oat-crop of Australasian Colonies, 1899 359
Occupation of Land 336
Occupations of Members of House of Representatives 163
Offences—
Charges for, before Magistrates' Courts 245
Convicted before Supreme and District Courts 245, 249
Summarily convicted 249
Committals for 245
Convicted before Supreme and District Courts 245, 249
Summarily convicted 249
Convictions for 246
Convicted before Supreme and District Courts 245, 249
Summarily convicted 249
Maoris charged with 249
Convicted before Supreme and District Courts 245, 249
Summarily convicted 249
Office, The Colonial 25
Official List 33
Officiating Ministers 127
Old-age Pensions—
Amount of Pension 443
Applications, how made 443
Deductions 443
How, when, and where paid 443
Number granted to 31st March, 1900 444
Qualifications 442
Optional System of selecting Land 421
Orchards 361, 472
Orphan Asylums 152
Ostrich-farming in New Zealand 349
Otago Land District—Boundaries and Area; Physical Description; Rivers and Lakes, Plains, Forests; Building-stones, Coal, Limestone; Climate; West Coast; Fruit, Crops, Stock; Freezing Establishments, Woollen-mills, Clothing-factories, Dairy-factories; Gold Production; Chief Towns; City of Dunedin; Towns and surrounding country; Railways; Statistical; Local Industries 595
Otago Provincial District: Eight Years' Progress 411
Outlying Islands of New Zealand 13
Parcels Post 369
Value of Imports by 191
Parliament, Members of (see also Corrigenda) 31
Parliaments, Successive 21
Passengers, Railway 366
Pastoral Leases—
Lands held under 372-373, 424
Receipts from 373
Tenants of 372, 373
Patent Slips and Graving Docks 54
Pensions, Annual Paid by Government 60
Pensions, Old-age 441
Permanent Militia (Artillery) 50
Submarine Miners 50
Permits issued under “The Gaming and Lotteries Act, 1881” 412
Perpetual-lease System, Land held under the 272, 273
Perpetuity, Leaseholds in 272, 273
Petroleum 553
Phormium tenax (New Zealand Hemp) 204, 447
Export of 204
Phthisis, Death-rates from 141
Deaths from, 1890 to 1899 141
Physical Features of the North Island 7
Middle Island 10
Pigs 348, 471
In Counties 340
In Provincial Districts 348
Plantations, Gardens, and Orchards, Acreage in 352
Ploughing, Cost of 456
Population of New Zealand 89
Arrivals and Departures 102
From and to United Kingdom 103
Of Chinese 102
Census, 1896 91
Chinese 89
European 89
Increase in each Quarter, 1899 89
In adjacent Islands 100
In Principal Cities and Suburbs 94
In Provincial Districts 90
Maori 89, 112
Of Australasian Colonies 101
Of Boroughs 93
Of Capital City 94
Of Counties 92
Of Town Districts and Small Centres 95
Of Townships, Villages, &c. 96
Post-offices 369
Average Number of Days within which Mails from London delivered 371
Books and Parcels, &c. 369
Increase of Correspondence 369
Letters posted, per Head of Population 369
Mail-service, England and New Zealand, Cost of 370
Money-orders 370
Newspapers 369
Parcels 369, 370
Postal Notes 370
Post-cards 369
Savings-banks 299
Securities 299
Potatoes, Acreage under 360
Cost of Growing 457
Cultivation of 458
Export of 194, 196
Seed per Acre 458
Yield of 457
Practitioners, Medical 150
Premiers of Successive Ministries 23
Preserved Meats exported 194, 196
Prices and Wages 310-316
Prices of Australasian Stock 402
Prices of Provisions, Averages, 1878, 1888, 1898, and 1899 310
Prices of Provisions, Live-stock, &c., Averages 311, 312
Prices on the Goldfields 311, 312
Principal Events, Dates of 609
Prisoners in Gaol—
Ages of Distinct, convicted 251
Birthplaces of 251
Convicted, Number of 250
Cost of maintaining 252
Distinct convicted, Classified 251
New Zealand-born, convicted, 1898 252
Previously convicted 250
Religious Denominations of 251
Private Railways, Length, Cost, Revenue, and Expenditure 367
Private Schools 232
Private Wealth, Increase of 307
Probation Act, First Offenders treated under 253
Probate, Estates admitted to 305
Produce, Agricultural, Pastoral, and Dairy 203, 351-363
Average Prices of 311, 312
Mining 322
Progress of New Zealand, Eight Years 409
Property, Private 306
Property, value of, Rateable 270
Property-tax repealed 392
Prospects of Small Farmers 477
Provincial Districts, Progress for Eight Years 409-411
Provisions, Live-stock, &c., Prices of 311, 312
Public Debt 395
Annual Charge 400
Securities in which invested 401
Comparison with Past Years 400
Securities in which invested 401
Details of Loans 396
Securities in which invested 401
Flotation of Loans 401
Securities in which invested 401
Increase of 398
Securities in which invested 401
Net Indebtedness 398
Securities in which invested 401
Of Australasian Colonies 402
Securities in which invested 401
Purposes of Money composing Debt 404
Securities in which invested 401
Rates of Interest on 399
Securities in which invested 401
Sinking Fund accrued, Amount of 400
Securities in which invested 401
Stock Quotations 402
Public Libraries 240
In Provincial Districts 241
Members and Books 241
Public Property, Value of 308
Public Schools 222
Industrial Schools 236
Secondary Schools 230, 236
Technical Schools 224
Public Trust Office. (See also Year-book, 1898, p. 454.) 304
Number and Value of Estates administered 305
Public Works 17, 403
Expenditure on 405
Public Worship, Places of 239
Accommodation in 239
Denominations 240
In Provincial Districts 239
Pumice-stone Deposits of the Middle Part of the North Island 486
Purchase, Occupation of Land with Right of 372, 373, 421
Purchase of Native Lands by Government 418
Quartz-mining 327
Quotations, New Zealand Stock 402
Railways 365
Australasian Colonies, Miles of, in 368
Length and Cost 366
Particulars of Revenue from 367
Passengers 366
Profit on Working 367
Revenue and Expenditure 367
Train-miles 366
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 366
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 367
Comparison of Traffic, Revenue, and Expenditure for Ten Years 366
Length and Cost 366
Particulars of Revenue from 367
Passengers 366
Profit on Working 367
Revenue and Expenditure 367
Train-miles 366
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 366
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 367
Government, Goods and Live-stock carried 366
Length and Cost 366
Particulars of Revenue from 367
Passengers 366
Profit on Working 367
Revenue and Expenditure 367
Train-miles 366
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 366
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 367
In New Zealand, their History and Progress. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 377.)
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 367
Midland Railway 367
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 367
Private 367
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 367
Wellington-Manawatu Railway 367
Rainfall in New Zealand 332-334
Raising Young Stock 470
Rape and Turnips, Acres under 360
Cultivation of 458, 459
Rateable Properties in Boroughs 272
In Road Districts 280
Town Districts 279
Rates collected by Local Bodies, Nineteen Years 262
Rates of Wages, Average in Provincial Districts in 1899 313-316
Rating on Unimproved Value 271, 439
Interpretation 439
Method of preparing Valuation-roll 439
Method of taking Poll 439
Ratepayers may demand Poll to be taken 439
Rating Powers 440
Result of Polls taken by Local Bodies 440
System Optional 439
Repayments of Advances to Settlers 429, 430
Representation, and the General Election of 1899 156
Duties and Functions of Representation Commissions 156
Males and Females who voted 158
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896, and 1899 157
Recorded for each Candidate 160
Recorded in each Electoral District 160
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
“Electoral Act, 1893” and Amendment Act, 1896 16
Males and Females who voted 158
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896, and 1899 157
Recorded for each Candidate 160
Recorded in each Electoral District 160
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
Electoral Acts 157
Males and Females who voted 158
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896, and 1899 157
Recorded for each Candidate 160
Recorded in each Electoral District 160
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
Electoral Divisions of the Colony 156
Males and Females who voted 158
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896, and 1899 157
Recorded for each Candidate 160
Recorded in each Electoral District 160
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
General Election of 1899, European Representatives 157
Males and Females who voted 158
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896, and 1899 157
Recorded for each Candidate 160
Recorded in each Electoral District 160
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
Electors on Rolls in each Electoral District 158
Males and Females who voted 158
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896, and 1899 157
Recorded for each Candidate 160
Recorded in each Electoral District 160
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
Electors on Rolls, and Votes recorded, in Four City Electorates 160
Males and Females who voted 158
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896, and 1899 157
Recorded for each Candidate 160
Recorded in each Electoral District 160
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
Males and Females registered as Electors 158
Males and Females who voted 158
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896, and 1899 157
Recorded for each Candidate 160
Recorded in each Electoral District 160
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
Population, Census 1896, in each Electoral District 158
Males and Females who voted 158
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896, and 1899 157
Recorded for each Candidate 160
Recorded in each Electoral District 160
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
Proportion of Electors who voted, 1893, 1896, and 1899 157
Males and Females who voted 158
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896, and 1899 157
Recorded for each Candidate 160
Recorded in each Electoral District 160
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
Votes recorded for Defeated Candidates 163
Recorded for each Candidate 160
Recorded in each Electoral District 160
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
General Elections for European Representatives from the Year 1853 165
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
Maori Members, Election of 163
Proportion of Population who voted 164
Votes recorded 164
Maori 16
Qualifications of Electors, European 16
Maori 16
Representation Commissions 156
Woman's Franchise 16, 157
Residence and Improvements on Crown Lands 421
Revenue and Expenditure 380
From Government Railways 380, 381
From Land-tax and Income-tax 380, 381
Loan Expenditure, 1899-1900 384
Of Boroughs, Counties, Drainage Boards, Harbour Boards, River Boards, Road Boards, and Town Boards 264-266
Ordinary Revenue 381
Ordinary Revenue Expenditure 383
Territorial Expenditure 383
Territorial Revenue 381
Rifle Corps, Volunteer 51
River Boards, Revenue of 264, 265
Rivers 8, 12
Road Boards, Revenue, Expenditure, &c. 264, 265
Roll of Members of the House of Representatives (see also Corrigenda) 31
Legislative Council (see also Addenda) 29
Roman Catholic Schools 232, 233
Root-crops 360, 457
Rotorua District 495
Sailors' Home, Auckland 152
Sanatorium, Hanmer 504
Rotorua 495
Te Aroha 501
Savings-Banks, Post-Office 299
Private 300
Scholarships 235
Schools, Blind 238
Deaf and Dumb 238
Cost of 236
Inmates, 1897 and 1898 237
Industrial 236
Cost of 236
Inmates, 1897 and 1898 237
Engineering 224
Mines 224
Native 234
Primary or Public 222
Private 232
Roman Catholic 232
Secondary 230
Sunday 239
Technical 224
Scientific and Literary Institutions 240
Seeds, Grass- 361, 464
Selections, Number and Acreage of 336, 337
Septic Diseases, Deaths from 135
“Servants' Registry Offices Act, 1895” 319
Settlement, Discovery and Early 2
Settlements, Land for 377
Acquisition of Land under 377
Annual Rental under 378
Estates offered for Selection during Year 1899-1900 378
Expenditure authorised 416
Government Aid to Settlers 417
Preference given to Landless People 417
Process of Acquisition 416
Special Provisions for Workmen's Homes 417
Summary of all Transactions 378, 379
Transactions of Board for Year 1899-1900 378
Settlers, Advances to 387
Sheep 342, 467
In Australasian Colonies, 1898-99 342
In Colony, Fourteen Years 343
In Counties 340
In Provincial Districts, April, 1898 and 1899 344
Number and Size of Flocks 200, 343
Numbers in North and Middle Islands, Fourteen Years 343
Sheep-farming 467
Clips, Average Weight of 467
Cost of Management 315
Grass-seed sown per Acre 362
Lambing Returns 345
New Zealand Flock-book 469
Shearing, Price of 345
Shipping 364
Coastwise, Inwards 365
“ Outwards 365
Inwards and Outwards, Ten Years 364
Laws 319
Registered Vessels 365
Vessels and Tonnage 364
Shipwrecked Mariners, Depots for 53
“Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1894” 318
Silver Produced 322
Sinking Fund 398
Sinking Funds—
Amounts paid for interest and 398
Securities of 401
Sitting-days of House of Representatives 30
Legislative Council 28
Slips, Patent 54
Small Centres, Populations of 95
Small Farmers, Prospects of 477
Small Grazing-runs 372-375, 423
Small-pox, Remarks on 139
Soils, Description of (see Land Districts)
Sounds, West Coast 11
Southland Land District—Physical Features; Area, Nature, and Disposition of Lands; Agriculture, Dairy-farming, Sheep-farming; Coal and Gold; Fish, Fruit; Climate; Towns; Crown Lands for Disposal 605
Sown Grasses, Extent of 352, 361
In Counties 353
New Zealand, compared with Australia 362
Speaker of Legislative Council 29
Speakers of the House of Representatives, Successive 24
Legislative Council, Successive 23
Special Settlement Associations 422
Spinsters and Bachelors in New Zealand 123
Spirits, Consumption per Head 172, 247
Springs, The Thermal 495, 501, 504
State Instruction (see Schools) 221
Statistical Synopsis: Progress of Colony 409 and Broadsheets
Stewart Island 6, 12
Stipendiary Magistrates' Courts, Apprehensions, Convictions, &c. 245
Civil Cases 242
Stock in New Zealand, Live- 340, 466
In Australasian Colonies 342
Raising Young 470
Successive Governors 17
Ministries 22
Premiers 23
Sugar, Consumption of 171
Sunday Schools, Numbers attending 239
Supreme Court, Civil Cases 242
Judges, Past and Present 19
Survey Charges on Unsurveyed Lands 425
Sutherland Waterfall, The 595
Tallow exported 201
Taranaki Land District—Physical Features; Soils; Dairying, Grazing, &c.; Mining; Climate; Towns; Roads and Railways; Crown Lands 549
Taranaki Provincial District: Progress for Eight Years 410
Tariff, Customs 71-85
Taupiri Coal-mines 485
Taxation by General Government 392
By Local Bodies 263
Graduated 392, 437
In Australasian Colonies 394
Deductions and Exemptions under Land- and Income-tax 392, 434
Graduated 392, 437
In Australasian Colonies 394
Growth of Amount paid in Income-tax 394
Graduated 392, 437
In Australasian Colonies 394
Incidence of Land- and Income-tax 392, 434
Graduated 392, 437
In Australasian Colonies 394
Income-tax 392, 436
Graduated 392, 437
In Australasian Colonies 394
Land-tax (ordinary) 392, 434
Graduated 392, 437
In Australasian Colonies 394
Per Head in New Zealand, for Seven Years (excluding Maoris) 393
In Australasian Colonies 394
Proportion derived from Customs, 1898-99 394
Rate of, per Head, including Maoris 393
Rates of Land-tax 392, 437
Yield of Tax 392, 437
Tea, Consumption of 171
Te Aroha Mineral Springs. (See also Year-book, 1896, p. 427.) 501
Access to Te Aroha 504
Analysis of Springs 503
Baths and Bath-houses 502, 503
Description of Waters 502
Technical Education 224
Agricultural, Art, Engineering and Technical Science 224
Medicine, Otago 600
Mines, Otago 224, 600
Canterbury Agricultural College 224, 592
Medicine, Otago 600
Mines, Otago 224, 600
Examinations 225
Medicine, Otago 600
Mines, Otago 224, 600
Expenditure on 228
Medicine, Otago 600
Mines, Otago 224, 600
Manual and Technical Instruction, 1898 228
Medicine, Otago 600
Mines, Otago 224, 600
Metallurgy 224
Medicine, Otago 600
Mines, Otago 224, 600
Remarks on 226
Medicine, Otago 600
Mines, Otago 224, 600
School of Engineering and Technical Science 224
Medicine, Otago 600
Mines, Otago 224, 600
Telegraphs—
Messages transmitted 371
Miles of Line 371
Receipts 371
Telephone Exchanges 371
Temperature and Rainfall 332-335
At different Stations of New Zealand 332
Highest and Lowest in Shade, in New Zealand, the Australian Colonies, and other British Possessions 335
Tenure of Occupied Lands 372
Thermal-springs Districts—
Hanmer 504
Rotorua 495
Te Aroha 501
Tenures, the Three under Land Act 421
Timber exported 194, 196
Tobacco, Consumption of 172
Cultivation of 361
Tokaanu, Up the Wanganui River to 509
Tongariro Mountain 9
Totalisator Permits issued during Year 412
Town Districts. (See Local Bodies.)
Towns, Principal, and Suburbs 94
Towns, Villages, &c., Populations of 95
Trade—
Australasian Colonies as Markets for Great Britain, Importance of 219
In Australasian Colonies 218
Per Head of Population, Fourteen Years 215
With Atlantic and Pacific Ports of United States, Ten Years 217
With Australia 216
With India 217
With United Kingdom 216
External, Total Value of 214
In Australasian Colonies 218
Per Head of Population, Fourteen Years 215
With Atlantic and Pacific Ports of United States, Ten Years 217
With Australia 216
With India 217
With United Kingdom 216
Of Australasian Colonies, Value of, per Head 218
Of Australasian Colonies with United Kingdom 219
(See Exports.)
(See Imports.)
(See Shipping.)
“Trade-Union Act, 1878” 319
Transport and Communication 364
Electric Telegraph 371
Australasian 367
Cost of 366
Number of Miles travelled 366
Private Lines, Length, Cost, and Revenue 367
Revenue and Expenditure for Ten Years 367
Traffic for Ten Years 366
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 366
Mail-services 370
Australasian 367
Cost of 366
Number of Miles travelled 366
Private Lines, Length, Cost, and Revenue 367
Revenue and Expenditure for Ten Years 367
Traffic for Ten Years 366
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 366
Postal and Electric Telegraph 369
Australasian 367
Cost of 366
Number of Miles travelled 366
Private Lines, Length, Cost, and Revenue 367
Revenue and Expenditure for Ten Years 367
Traffic for Ten Years 366
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 366
Railways 365
Australasian 367
Cost of 366
Number of Miles travelled 366
Private Lines, Length, Cost, and Revenue 367
Revenue and Expenditure for Ten Years 367
Traffic for Ten Years 366
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 366
Treaty of Waitangi 4
Tree-planting 473
Troops for South Africa 449
Trout in New Zealand, Introduction of. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 431.)
Trust Office, Public (see also Year-book, 1898, p. 454) 304
Turnips, Acreage under 360
Cost of growing 360
Seed Sown per Acre 458
Yield per Acre 458
Typhoid Fever, Deaths from 138
Unimproved Value, Rating on 271, 439
United States, Trade with 217
University of New Zealand 230
Graduates 231
Students 232
Undergraduates 231
Vaccinations, Successful, Numbers and Proportions 138
Valuation of Land, Government 255, 438
Value of Home Produce exported 193
Value of Land, Increased 256
Value of Real Property 256, 270
Vessels. (See Shipping.)
Victoria College 231
Village Settlements 423
Vine-growing 472
Violent Deaths 150
Vital Statistics 114
Vital Statistics, Australasian Capitals, 1899 132
Volunteers 50
Votes and Voters at General Election 158
“Wages Attachment Act, 1895” 319
Wages in each Provincial District 312-316
Waitangi, Treaty of 4
Wanganui River to Tokaanu, Up the 509
Water-races, Canterbury 589
Wealth, Private 305
Calculated from Probate Returns 306
Of Australasia 307
Wealth, Public 308
Wellington Land District—Physical Features; Plains, Rivers, Lakes, Scenery, Forests, Soil; Climate; Harbours and Ports; Towns; Crown Lands; Industries, &c. 561
Wellington-Manawatu Railway 367
Wellington Provincial District: Eight Years' Progress 410
Westland Land District—Physical Features, Mountains, Rivers, Forests, Lakes, Soil, Climate, Lands, Harbours, Towns, Mining and Minerals, &c. 581
Westland, Marlborough, and Nelson Provincial Districts: Eight Years' Progress 411
Westport Coal Company (Limited) 482
Wheat, Amount held from Previous Season 356
Acreage and Actual Yield in Provincial Districts 351
Area under, and Produce, Ten Years 356
Consumption of, in New Zealand 357
Annual Average, Principal Countries 357
Crops of Australasian Colonies 357
Crops of the World 357
Export in 1899 202
Seed Sown per Acre 456
Whooping-cough, Deaths from 138
Wine, Consumption of, per Head for Seven Years 172
Winter Oats and Cape Barley 465
Yield per Acre 465
Women's Franchise 16, 157
Wool—
Exported 198
Increase in Production of, Twelve Years 199
Proportions of Greasy, Scoured, and Washed Wool exported, Three Years 199
Used at Local Mills 199
Woollen Manufactures exported 195
Works, Public 17, 403
World, Wheat-crop of the 357

Chapter 85. STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF THE COLONY OF NEW ZEALAND FOR THE YEARS 1840 TO 1852 (INCLUSIVE).

STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF THE COLONY OF NEW ZEALAND FOR THE YEARS 1840 TO 1852 (INCLUSIVE).
Year.Population of European Descent (excluding the Military and their Families.)*Trade.Revenue and Expenditure.
Imports.Exports.Revenue from Customs.Revenue from Land Sales and Crown Lands.Revenue from Post Office, Fees, Fines, Licenses, and other Incidental Sources.Total Revenue from Previous Sources.Parliamentary Grant, or Receipts in aid of Revenue.Appropriations from the Commissariat Chest for Military and Naval Expenditure.†Total Expenditure.

*The Maori population was estimated at 56,400 persons in the year 1853.

† The data are drawn from several official sources, and the information is only approximate.

‡ Raised by debentures at different issues.

The following are particulars respecting the European population, their cultivations, and live stock for the year 1851:—

Religious Denominations.—Church of England, 14,179 persons; Presbyterians, 4,124; Wesleyans, 2,529; Primitive Methodists, 226; Independents, 333; Baptists. 400; Unitarians, 74; Lutherans, 186; Quakers, 8; Protestants not specifically defined, 614; Roman Catholics, 3,473; Jews, 65; refused to state, 496.

Education.—Could not read, 7,818 persons; read only, 4,353; read and write, 14,536.

Land in Cultivation.—Acres—in wheat, 5,514; barley, 1,329; oats, 2,324; maize, 250; potatoes, 2,256; grass, 15,589; gardens or orchard, 1,188; other crops, 679: total under crop, 29,140. Acres fenced, 40,625.

Live Stock.—Horses, 2,890; mules and asses, 60; cattle, 34,787; sheep, 233,043; goats, 12,121; pigs, 16,214.

 Persons.£££££££££
18402,050 926 926 926   
18415,00085,06210,8366,40728,5402,44337,39043,34780481,541
184210,992166,78318,67018,56811,7232,29832,58917,4941,42651,509
184311,848191,20753,94516,2411,6133,54421,3989,5628,09339,053
184412,447111,61949,64711,0994052,44513,94930,815‡9,78254,546
184512.774116,98076,9118,8091553,84512,899 200,000212,899
184613,274155,47882,65621,3196154,71126,64535,673‡190,000252,318
184714,477202,35545,48536,4728355,95843,26537,752153,038234,055
184817,166233,84444,21538,3663,3375,77947,48236,000155,653239,135
184919,543254,679133,66241,9313,6004,87750,40820,000151,455221,863
185022,108  43,6128,5597,12752,29841,730131,100232,128
185126,707  49,20812,2615,58067,04920,000110,600197,649
185227,633  50,52714,28110,95675,76410,00091,600177,364
STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF THE COLONY OF NE
(For Summary, Years 1840 to
Year.Population (exclusive of Maoris) on 31st DecemberBirths.Deaths.Marriages.Crown Lands.*
Males.Females.Totals.Waste Lands sold for Cash in each Year.Cash realised.Lands finally alienated under the Deferred-payment System.Free Grants.*Let on Perpetual Lease.Taken up during the Year
Land taken up.In Occupation on December 31.Under Occupation with Right of Purchase.§On Lease in Perpetuity.§Improved Farms.§Special-settlement Associat'ns. §

*The waste or Crown lands sold or granted in each year prior to 1856 cannot be accurately stated.

The total gross quantity of land disposed of by Crown grants up to the end of March, 1900, including both lands grants for public purposes, Native reserves, and old land-claims; also, from the year 1872, grants to Natives under the provisions of the Native Land Acts.

On 31st March, 1900, 11,341,173 acres, in 968 runs, were he

‡ Corrected by results of census taken in April, 1891.

§ Financial year ended 31st March of the year following.

¶ The population of the colony (other than Maoris) according to the census of 12th April, 1896 but of these 79 miles have been, since 31st March, 1900, taken over by the Government under provisions of “The Railways Construction and Land Act, 1881.”

a Under deferred-payment system.

b Held under perpetual lease.

c Area included previously as held under lease in perpetuity, and occupation with right of purchase.

d New system; counted on

       Acres.£Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1853                
185417,91414,64032,554             
185520,78116,41137,1921,460470406          
185625,35620,18445,5401,72240640451,97233,156 14      
185727,60622,19649,8021,966434478141,15979,060 6,169      
185833,67925,73459,4132,272582534239,128150,839 6,277      
185941,10730,48671,5932,647704603477,021222,885 45,730      
186045,39434,31779,7113,1461,092690424,254204,113 47,016      
186161,06237,95999,0213,4411,109878449,358285,365 18,834      
186279,68046,132125,8124,0641,2311,091658,337506,657 40,335      
1863105,97858,070164,0485,1151,9831,485529,437380,998 66,853      
1864106,58065,578172,1586,5012,9211,878691,174595,858 47,198      
1865117,37673,231190,6077,4902,7571,908503,112341,094 62,681      
1866125,08079,034204,1148,4662,5402,038603,406528,028 55,975      
1867131,92986,739218,6688,9182,7022,050288,917287,416 76,743      
1868134,62191,997226,6189,3912,6622,085199,309182,065 42,205      
1869140,11297,137237,2499,7182,7211,931112,211115,941 145,449      
1870145,732102,668248,40010,2772,7031,85176,76688,419 37,256      
1871156,431110,555266,98610,5922,6421,86492,642110,973 123,796      
1872162,404117,156279,56010,7953,1921,873338,516389,107 183,673      
1873170,406125,540295,94611,2223,6452,276790,245980,758 484,541      
1874194,349147,511341,86012,8444,1612,828648,800860,471 238,581      
1875213,294162,562375,85614,4385,7123,209318,682448,697 486,335      
1876225,580173,495399,07516,1684,9043,196497,416846,831 31,145      
1877227,681180,937408,61816,8564,6853,114777,8621,314,48079,32440,314      
1878240,627191,892432,51917,7704,6453,377642,6671,252,99354,861      
1879257,894205,835463,72918,0705,5833,35279,575146,73337,953      
1880268,364216,500484,86419,3415,4373,181131,798184,48818,97841,972      
1881274,986225,924500,91018,7325,4913,277235,815351,43039,494530,650      
1882283,303234,404517,70719,0095,7013,600138,512209,00427,487122,100      
1883294,665246,212540,87719,2026,0613,612113,500141,25124,229228,69826,78626,364    
1884306,667257,637564,30419,8465,7403,80096,267124,92840,023121,61120,97541,561    
1885312,125263,101575,22619,6936,0813,81359,61384,28234,637456,08024,44151,367    
1886317,646271,740589,38619,2996,1353,48839,96443,83629,292185,76450,329§93,868   43,873a
1887324,558278,803603,36119,1356,1373,56321,15425,33018,496316,48872,401§150,218   31,740a
1888324,948282,432607,38018,9025,7083,61764,89852,37923,630142,351205,371§312,495   19,905a
1889328,588287,464616,052‡18,4575,7723,63242,61747,95024,77360,708238,634§544,914   4,970a
1890332,557292,951625,508‡18,2785,9943,79798,479108,95946,808135,763289,871§798,571   71a
1891336,174297,884634,05818,2736,5183,80556,06053,56852,021209,432283,440§1,019,405   1,923b
1892345,146305,287650,43317,8766,4594,00233,65934,15641,726243,008125,194§1,188,07154,271212,705 157,381c
1893357,635314,630672,26518,1876,7674,11526,27526,78644,779198,3233,854§1,100,537108,134252,798 68,852c
1894363,763322,365686,12818,5286,9184,17838,695§47,033§53,577§89,516§1,263§864,212§75,501156,9269,731c51,346c
1895369,725328,981698,706¶18,5466,8634,11026,584§21,117§62,287§143,107§1,427§746,403§84,970198,30028,348c44,237c
1896376,987337,175714,16218,6126,4324,84328,489§20,825§57,015§223,871§9,106§632,046§59,652139,2104,882c28,084c
1897384,703344,353729,05618,7376,5954,92822,526§18,226§41,683§25,602§651§543,535§81,416128,8139,007c442c
1898392,124351,339743,46318,9557,2445,09137,430§26,829§39,506§438,257§640§440,089§109,952166,9604,823c607c
1899398,679357,826756,50518,8357,6805,46123,940§21,057§26,370§703,799§624§336,183§117,772162,6887,393c2c
NEW ZEALAND FROM 1853 TO 1899 INCLUSIVE.
840 to 1852, see separate sheet.)
Small Grazing-runs and Grazing-Farms§Occupied and Cultivated Holdings over One Acre in Extent.Land (including Sown Grasses) under Cultivation.Live Stock.†Postal.Electric Telegraph.Miles of Railway.
Horses.Horned Cattle.Sheep.Pigs.Letters (received and despatched).Newspapers (received and despatched).Postal Revenue.Money Orders issued.Amount of Money Orders issued.Miles of Line.Number of Messages.Cash and Cash Values, including Teleph'es.Open for Traffic.Under Construction.Railway Receipts.

lands sold and lands disposed of without sale, was 23,382,972 statute acres.

The figures under the head “Free Grants” represent in each year the total area of free grants to immigrants and naval and military settlers, there held from Government on depasturing licenses, and 1,220,689 acres, as small grazing-runs, by 645 persons.

† Prior to 1892 this information is given for the years in which a census of the colony was taken.

ril, 1896, was 703,360 at that date; the Maori population was 39,854.

¶ Information not similarly compiled by Department of Agriculture.

** Government Railways; there are, besides, 167 miles of private lines.

nted once only.

e Holdings of exactly one acre, besides certain Maori holdings, are included.

Acres.Number.Acres.    Number.Number.£Number.£  £  £
       119,039177,583         
       138,482201,381         
       171,407238,522         
       196,760271,254         
  121,648    337,721498,163         
  141,00714,912137,2041,523,32440,734482,856684,3486,024        
  156,940    707,870839,3857,812        
       890,3691,029,35610,068        
  226,62128,275193,2852,761,38343,2701,236,7681,428,35114,108        
       2,122,2322,064,12322,7101,4106,590      
       3,403,2483,397,66932,32911,58655,703      
  382,65549,409249,7604,937,27361,2764,151,1424,306,01739,30216,59178,556      
       4,443,4734,206,99246,47517,23678,576      
       4,758,6444,373,03949,59822,710108,77969948,2319,114   
  676,90965,715312,8358,418,579115,1044,811,2403,060,88855,33124,473115,61071487,43614,295   
 11,932783,435    4,977,1993,283,61557,10725,854118,2111,471134,64726,224   
 13,476997,477    5,016,5953,563,14758,00728,427127,2181,611173,74632,649   
 10,2111,140,279    5,645,8793,889,66255,78031,864140,4541,887238,19527,422   
 14,8741,226,22281,028436,5929,700,629151,4606,081,6974,179,78470,24936,291157,3972,015369,08537,203   
 15,3041,416,933    6,958,5434,411,09194,73344,660191,0092,312491,20544,669   
 15,8831,651,712    7,915,9855,269,19594,70652,351219,2582,389637,94155,195145434 
 16,0921,943,65399,261494,11311,674,863123,7419,058,4566,306,692104,37162,712263,1642,632844,30162,32220962121,198
 17,2502,377,402    10,427,8516,811,277122,49673,027293,4813,156993,32374,42054246472,073
 18,7502,940,711    11,770,7377,962,748129,26380,255310,2683,1701,100,59980,841718427469,051
 20,5193,523,277    13,054,8708,066,311143,60090,672334,9733,3071,182,95585,5891,052251569,898
 21,0483,982,866137,768578,43013,069,338207,33715,524,7619,410,366158,998101,017368,2553,4341,260,32492,4331,089142758,096
 23,1294,506,889    20,957,81810,057,944141,448117,999428,6733,5121,448,943112,3511,171284762,572
 24,1474,768,192    22,824,46810,272,917149,517135,648465,4053,7581,304,712100,0231,288192836,077
 26,2985,189,104161,736698,63712,985,085200,08325,557,93112,248,043156,579135,556452,1823,8241,438,772101,5661,333187892,026
 27,3525,651,255    30,525,57913,313,099168,325148,162499,3683,9741,570,189102,3781,371171953,347
 28,5876,072,949    33,588,40813,030,563172,665172,556541,1334,0741,599,400102,9581,404224961,304
 29,8146,550,399    35,257,84614,093,742188,772186,052572,6664,2641,654,305101,4821,4791581,045,712
 31,7636,668,920    35,829,85514,233,878197,456188,622581,3954,4631,774,273112,7781,6131791,047,418
105,85733,3326,845,177187,382853,35816,564,595277,90138,084,59214,324,047206,029155,680547,7554,5461,836,266115,6661,721171998,768
156,48234,7437,284,752    39,377,77415,381,323213,355159,579555,7444,6461,835,394116,2111,753169994,843
161,65235,7477,670,167    40,398,02016,202,849212,247162,387555,9964,7901,765,860104,1161,777163997,615
60,34038,1788,015,426    42,301,23316,721,016222,978172,076589,5454,8741,802,987106,4621,8091761,095,569
86,16138,0838,462,495    43,917,20017,912,734229,867176,427602,0775,0601,961,161110,6971,8421321,121,701
159,46441,2248,893,225211,040831,83118,128,186308,81247,612,86418,501,912245,395195,239651,9905,3491,968,264117,6341,8691701,115,432
92,92642,7689,713,745  18,570,752 50,610,74218,557,565252,494199,438694,8475,4791,904,143103,8131,8861881,181,522
252,69345,29010,063,051 885,30519,380,369 52,085,44919,556,030253,457210,957750,9295,5132,069,791112,4661,9481481,172,792
117,84546,67610,128,076 964,03420,230,829 52,168,33619,271,590254,800222,678776,7835,8232,046,839114,5101,9931271,150,851
46,40710,698,809237,4181,047,90119,826,604239,77829,586,949d12,675,973d242,615243,497812,6046,2452,124,211123,1122,0141141,183,041
68,93458,904e11,550,075249,8131,138,57219,138,493209, 85330,442,053d13,216,521d262,482269,566902,1606,2852,520,169129,635**2,0181241,286,158
149,45860,759e11,444,563252,8341,209,16519,687,954186, 02733,030,095d14,261,345d272,163293,659970,8316,4842,696,233136,221**2,055921,376,008
77,63262,639e11,984,606258,1151,203,02419,673,725193,51235,654,947d15,095,487d304,947318,3701,029,2416,7362,960,738145,295**2,0901131,469,665
155,10962,485e12,474,511261,9311,210,43919,348,506249,75138,484,371d15,717,388d325,301344,6641,118,8086,9103,469,631162,945**2,1041111,623,891

* The waste or Crown lands sold or granted in each year prior to 1856 cannot be accurately stated.

The total gross quantity of land disposed of by Crown grants up to the end of March, 1900, including be grants for public purposes, Native reserves, and old land-claims; also, from the year 1872, grants to Natives under the provisions of the Native Land Acts.

On 31st March, 1900, 11,341,173 acres, in 968 runs.

‡ Corrected by results of census taken in April, 1891.

§ Financial year ended 31st March of the year following.

|| The population of the colony (other than Maoris) according to the census of 12th A but of these 79 miles have been, since 31st March, 1900, taken over by the Government under provisions of “The Railways Construction and Land Act, 1881.”

a Under deferred-payment system.

b Held under perpetual lease.

c Area included previously as held under lease in perpetuity, and occupation with right of purchase.

d New system; co

Year.ShippingExports (the Produce of New Zealand).Exports (the Produce of New Zealand).
Inwards.Outwards.Registered Vessels belonging to the Colony.Wool.Grain.Frozen Meat.Flax (Phormium).Gold.Gum (Kauri).Provisions, Tallow, Timber, &c.
Number of VesselsTonnage.Number of Vessels.Tonnage.Number of Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Value.Total Value.

* Post-Office Savings-Banks were first opened in 1867.

† Statistics of schools and scholars not being complete for years prior to 1874, no figures are entered.

§ There was in March, 1900, an accrued sinking fund amounting to £944,375, leaving a net indebtedness of £46,930,077.

|| Excluding Maoris.

a Financial year ended 31st March of year following.

b During the last nine years the Public Works Fund has been assisted by contributions from the revenue of the Consolidated Fund to the extent £425,000; in 1899-1900, £450,000.

Further receipts in aid have been given since the year 1870 by way of contributions of stamp duties. release of sinking funds, &c.

c And securing annuities amounting te

       lb.£Bushels.£cwt.£Tons.£Oz.£Tons.£££
185323865,50422962.891  1,071,34066,50759,95919,042  461,046  82915,971200,706303,272
185429374,83129376,718  1,254,41670,10393,70041,019  481,563  1,66028,864179,341320,890
185537888,61434179,825  1,772,34493,104150,35282,302  1504,674  3554,514181,273365,867
185632685,74832382,991  2,559,618146,07066,15024,032  22552  1,44018,591129,188318,433
185728978,30928376,5241866,6622,648,716176,57981,75729,676  3871010,43640,4422,52135,25086,737369,394
185833990,11832282,2931896,8523,810,372254,02271,40320,680  641,51613,53352,4431,81020,03685,252433,949
1859438136,580398120,3922137,8835,096,751339,779118,74039,016  771,5937,33628,4272,01020,77691,717521,308
1860398140,276398140,2932388,5276,665,880444,39255,68313,112  611,2404,53817,5851,0469,85162,953549,133
1861596197,986546205,3502529,1447,855,920523,7288,1182,518  243194,234752,6578569,88850,4071,339,241
1862813301,365783288,64728710,8259,839,265674,2266,6021,821  13261410,8621,591,3891,10311,10779,2162,358,020
18631,154419,9351,094394,66534315,18912,585,980830,4953,2381,160  13251628,4502,431,7231,40027,02752,2353,342,891
18641,117426,0041,089433,25342322,57316,691,6661,070,9973,580722  7170480,1711,857,8472,22860,59060,3083,050,634
1865862295,625783283,02046624,48419,180,5001,141,76125,4476,076  375574,5742,226,4741,86746,06082,9753,503,421
18661,019330,303986306,97949326,78722,810,7761,354,15232,6107,297  45996735,3762,844,5172,53570,572118,5564,396,090
1867944309,568950308,16936623,24027,152,9661,580,608158,81126,986  1264,256686,7532,700,2752,68577,49189,8484,479,464
1868851277,105873287,71037224,53928,875,1631,516,548632,556114,125  5348,137637,4742,504,3262,69072,49353,1334,268,762
1869764250,731771247,76438125,99027,765,6361,371,230520,55696,441  2,02845,245614,2812,362,9952,850111,307102,9164,090,134
1870756273,151766265,40738426,74337,039,7631,703,944854,399141,135  5,471132,578544,8802,157,5854,391175,074234,3664,544,682
1871729274,643709265,61837127,10737,793,7341,606,1441,032,902164,087  4,24890,611730,0292,787,5205,054167,958354,7845,171,104
1872775300,302743285,36636423,96341,886,9972,537,9191,058,480178,886  3,98599,405445,3701,730,9924,811154,167405,8175,107,186
1873739289,297704281,84741130,03541,535,1852,702,471598,431136,832  6,454143,799505,3371,987,4252,83385,816421,6275,477,970
1874856399,296822385,53347138,93546,848,7352,834,6951,162,782291,103  2,03837,690376,3881,505,3312,56879,986403,3385,152,143
1875926416,727940417,82050242,02554,401,5403,398,1551,276,927231,417  63911,742355,3221,407,7703,230138,523288,2375,475,844
1876878393,180866393,33453844,40159,853,4543,395,8162,172,098337,878  89718,285318,3671,268,5592,888109,234359,1295,488,901
1877812388,568848400,60953342,47964,481,3243,658,9381,323,910276,452  1,05318,826366,9551,476,3123,632118,348509,8416,058,717
1878926456,490886428,49354146,96559,270,2563,292,8072,112,214508,767  62210,666311,4371,244,1903,445132,975595,2145,784,619
1879894473,940908475,75256364,45762,220,8103,126,4393,470,344660,557  4457,874284,1001,134,6413,228147,535486,4095,563,455
1880730395,675786424,04155966,31666,860,1503,169,3005,540,445898,997  89415,617303,2151,220,2634,725242,817555,3066,102,300
1881765420,134762413,48757272,38759,415,9402,909,7605,815,960986,072  1,30826,285250,683996,8675,460253,778589,4885,762,250
1882795461,285769438,55158476,19665,322,7073,118,5544,310,984907,96115,24419,3392,04041,955230,893921,6645,533260,369983,5086,253,350
1883805494,926851507,56557984,90368,149,4303,014,2116,723,3031,286,72487,975118,3282,01336,761222,899892,4456,518336,6061,170,1696,855,244
1884852529,188872534,24258392,69681,139,0283,267,5275,489,635766,824254,069345,0901,52523,475246,392988,9536,393342,1511,208,4666,942,486
1885786519,700780513,00059795,88786,507,4313,205,2754,597,645513,697296,473373,8571,06316,316222,732890,0565,876299,7621,292,9486,591,911
1886725502,572707488,33157194,19690,853,7443,072,9713,523,324463,549346,055427,1931,11215,922235,578939,6484,920257,6531,209,7466,386,682
1887653489,754675493,58355794,02788,824,3823,321,0744,126,836443,780402,107455,8701,57825,094187,938747,8786,790362,4341,194,9516,551,081
1888683526,435701531,47852486,13283,225,7333,115,0085,101,167668,859552,298628,8004,04275,269229,608914,3098,482380,9331,471,9507,255,128
1889781602,634762593,25252087,411102,227,3543,976,3756,120,202985,224656,822783,37417,084361,182197,492785,4907,519329,5901,820,7739,042,008
1890744662,769745649,70552198,907102,817,0774,150,5998,287,0241,030,415898,8941,087,61721,158381,789187,641751,3607,438378,5631,648,4189,428,761
1891737618,515744625,807521102,068106,187,1144,129,6865,877,059676,3381,000,3071,194,72415,809281,514251,1611,007,1728,388437,0561,673,6049,400,094
1892686675,223689656,100491101,156118,180,9124,313,3076,625,525816,272869,6001,033,37712,793214,542237,393951,9638,705517,6781,518,7299,365,868
1893617615,604635642,466478100,388109,719,6843,774,7384,855,368583,397903,8361,085,16712,587219,375227,502915,9218,317510,7751,468,0708,557,443
1894609631,100614631,25047599,588144,295,1544,827,0162,434,295226, 1831,025,2431,194,5454,67766,256221,614887,8658,338404,5671,478,7169,085,148
1895611672,951597648,946479100,988116,015,1703,662,1312,381,837215,7831,134,0971,262,7111,80621,040293,4931,162,1817,425418,7661,647,5418,390,153
1896589614,097592627,659492105,553129,151,6244,391,8482,941,821346,1971,103,3621,251,9932,96832,985263,6941,041,4287,126431,3231,681,5629,177,336
1897600686,899587675,333506119,713135,835,1174,443,1441,919,887235,4291,407,9211,566,2862,76930,674251,647980,2046,641398,0101,942,5209,596,267
1898620765,255622765,793518126,113149,385,8154,645,8041,045,980136,1201,551,7731,698,7504,85074,556280,1751,080,6919,905586,7672,102,30010,324,988
1899609811,183604807,866522129,583147,169,4974,324,6276,985,999721,8171,865,8272,088,85610,371184,411389,5701,513,18011,116607,9192,358,93011,799,740

ed. The total gross quantity of land disposed of by Crown grants up to the end of March, 1900, including both lands sold and lands disposed of without sale, was 23,382,972 statute acres. The figures under the head to Natives under the provisions of the Native Land Acts. On 31st March, 1900, 11,341,173 acres, in 968 runs, were held from Government on depasturing licenses, and 1,220,689 acres, as small grazing-runs, by 645 pe the year following.

|| The population of the colony (other than Maoris) according to the census of 12th April, 1896, was 703,360 at that date; the Maori population was 39,854.

¶ Information not similarly compisions of “The Railways Construction and Land Act, 1881.”

ed previously as held under lease in perpetuity, and occupation with right of purchase.

d New system; counted once only.

e Holdings of exactly one acre, besides certain Maori holdings, are included.

Exports (the Produce of New Zealand).Exports (the Produce of New Zealand).Imports.Coal-mines, Output from.Revenue of General Government.Expenditure of General Government.Public Debt: Debentures and Stock in Circulation. (Prior to 1880 the figures are for Calendar Years.)Debt of Local Bodies.Banks.(Average of Four Quarters)
Frozen Meat.Flax (Phormium).Gold.Gum (Kauri).Provisions, Tallow, Timber, &c.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Value.Total Value.Total Value.Out of Revenue Account.Out of Loan Accounts.Deposits.Assets.

and scholars not being complete for years prior to 1874, no figures are entered.

‡ In addition to these there were in December, 1899, 3,065 children attending the Native schools, nearly dness of £46,930,077.

|| Excluding Maoris.

Public Works Fund has been assisted by contributions from the revenue of the Consolidated Fund to the extent of £2,205,000; the payments in each financial year were—in 1891–92, £30,000; in 1892–93, £200,000; in 1893–9 way of contributions of stamp duties, release of sinking funds, &c.

c And securing annuities amounting to £23,810 per annum.

cwt.£Tons.£Oz.£Tons.££££Tons.£££££££
  461,046  82915,971200,706303,272597,827        
  481,563  1,66028,864179,341320,890891,201        
  1504,674  3554,514181,273365,867813,460        
  22552  1,44018,591129,188318,433710,868        
  3871010,43640,4422,52135,25086,737369,394992,994      343,316419,860
  641,51613,53352,4431,81020,03685,252433,9491,141,273      448,078705,738
  771,5937,33628,4272,01020,77691,717521,3081,551,030      541,2131,003,584
  611,2404,53817,5851,0469,85162,953549,1331,548,333      644,521992,082
  243194,234752,6578569,88850,4071,339,2412,493,811Prior to 1878, 709,931     882,7541,235,952
  13261410,8621,591,3891,10311,10779,2162,358,0204,626,082    836,000 1,596,4462,691,117
  13251628,4502,431,7231,40027,02752,2353,342,8917,024,674    1,289,750 2,092,0904,028,766
  7170480,1711,857,8472,22860,59060,3083,050,6347,000,655    2,219,450 2,480,3035,063,458
  375574,5742,226,4741,86746,06082,9753,503,4215,594,977    4,368,681 2,638,4145,455,289
  45996735,3762,844,5172,53570,572118,5564,396,0905,894,863    5,435,728 3,097,4735,891,532
  1264,256686,7532,700,2752,68577,49189,8484,479,4645,344,607    5,781,193 2,904,5945,947,160
  5348,137637,4742,504,3262,69072,49353,1334,268,7624,985,748    7,182,743 3,102,7275,734,745
  2,02845,245614,2812,362,9952,850111,307102,9164,090,1344,976,126    7,360,616 3,174,8316,231,416
  5,471132,578544,8802,157,5854,391175,074234,3664,544,6824,639,015    7,841,891 3,127,7696,315,354
  4,24890,611730,0292,787,5205,054167,958354,7845,171,1044,078,193    8,900,991 3,334,6725,871,888
  3,98599,405445,3701,730,9924,811154,167405,8175,107,1865,142,951    9,985,386 3,919,8385,429,747
  6,454143,799505,3371,987,4252,83385,816421,6275,477,9706,464,687    10,913,936 4,713,8067,267,720
  2,03837,690376,3881,505,3312,56879,986403,3385,152,1438,121,812    13,366,936 5,564,4349,954,216
  63911,742355,3221,407,7703,230138,523288,2375,475,8448,029,172    17,400,031 5,967,20510,987,178
  89718,285318,3671,268,5592,888109,234359,1295,488,9016,905,171    18,678,111 6,238,47111,776,070
  1,05318,826366,9551,476,3123,632118,348509,8416,058,7176,973,418    20,691,111 7,185,10612,992,104
  62210,666311,4371,244,1903,445132,975595,2145,784,6198,755,663162,218   22,608,311 8,960,36915,393,630
  4457,874284,1001,134,6413,228147,535486,4095,563,4558,374,585231,218   23,958,311 8,021,07316,054,295
  89415,617303,2151,220,2634,725242,817555,3066,102,3006,162,011299,923   28,185,711 8,538,93514,220,275
  1,30826,285250,683996,8675,460253,778589,4885,762,2507,457,045337,262   28,479,1113,039,8079,069,37714,863,645
15,24419,3392,04041,955230,893921,6645,533260,369983,5086,253,3508,609,270378,272   29,445,0113,277,5848,945,34617,162,234
87,975118,3282,01336,761222,899892,4456,518336,6061,170,1696,855,2447,974,038421,764   31,071,5823,540,0468,659,47717,794,761
254,069345,0901,52523,475246,392988,9536,393342,1511,208,4666,942,4867,663,888480,831   32,195,4223,962,3309,643,21418,442,139
296,473373,8571,06316,316222,732890,0565,876299,7621,292,9486,591,9117,479,921511,063   33,880,7224,313,22310,083,29618,811,567
346,055427,1931,11215,922235,578939,6484,920257,6531,209,7466,386,6826,759,013534,353   35,741,6534,943,27010,579,71119,041,827
402,107455,8701,57825,094187,938747,8786,790362,4341,194,9516,551,0816,245,515558,620   36,758,4375,620,74711,031,61418,799,847
552,298628,8004,04275,269229,60891,3098,482380,9331,471,9507,255,1285,941,900613,895   38,375,0505,812,80311,155,77818,709,444
656,822783,37417,084361,182197,492785,4907,519329,5901,820,7739,042,0086,308,863586,445   38,667,9505,892,05011,528,42417,652,915
898,8941,087,61721,158381,789187,641751,3607,438378,5631,648,4189,428,7616,260,525637,397   38,830,3505,978,05912,368,61017,735,259
1,000,3071,194,72415,809281,514251,1611,007,1728,388437,0561,673,6049,400,0946,503,849668,794   38,713,0686,042,69312,796,09816,814,518
869,6001,033,37712,793214,542237,393951,9638,705517,6781,518,7299,365,8686,943,056673,315   39,257,8406,081,93413,587,06217,558,168
903,8361,085,16712,587219,375227,502915,9218,317510,7751,468,0708,557,4436,911,515691,548   39,826,4156,203,86914,433,77718,255,534
1,025,2431,194,5454,67766,256221,614887,8658,338404,5671,478,7169,085,1486,788,020719,546   40,386,9646,614,82413,927,21717,746,421
1,134,0971,262,7111,80621,040293,4931,162,1817,425418,7661,647,5418,390,1536,400,129726,6544,556,015a4,370,481a2,972,203ab43,050,7806,685,51013,544,41518,159,781
1,103,3621,251,9932,96832,985263,6941,041,4287,126431,3231,681,5629,177,3367,137,320792,8514,798,708a4,509,981a1,089,590ab44,366,6186,737,57814,490,82716,900,199
1,407,9211,566,2862,76930,674251,647980,2046,641398,0101,942,5209,596,2678,055,223840,7135,079,230a4,602,372a1,134,812ab44,963,4246,793,39814,290,51217,276,771
1,551,7731,698,7504,85074,556280,1751,080,6919,905586,7672,102,30010,324,9888,230,600907,0335,258,228a4,858,511a1,543,683ab46,938,0066,834,36114,143,22917,013,404
1,865,8272,088,85610,371184,411389,5701,513,18011,116607,9192,358,93011,799,7408,739,633975,2345,699,618a5,140,127a1,906,604ab47,874,452§6,963,25414,591,22317,190,433

lands disposed of without sale, was 23,382,972 statute acres. The figures under the head “Free Grants” represent in each year the total area of free grants to immigrants and naval and military settlers, Government on depasturing licenses, and 1,220,689 acres, as small grazing-runs, by 645 persons.

† Prior to 1892 this information is given for the years in which a census of the colony was taken. 360 at that date; the Maori population was 39,854.

¶ Information not similarly compiled by Department of Agriculture.

Government Railways; there are, besides, 167 miles of private lines,

e Holdings of exactly one acre, besides certain Maori holdings, are included.

Revenue of General Government.Expenditure of General Government.Public Debt: Debentures and Stock in Circulation. (Prior to 1880 the figures are for Calendar Years.)Debt of Local Bodies.Banks. (Average of Four Quarters.)Savings-Banks.Insurances in Force in the Government Insurance Department at end of Year.Friendly Societies from which returns received.Schools and Scholars.†CrimeYear.
Primary Schools.Private Schools.
Out of Revenue Account.Out of Loan Accounts.Deposits.Assets.Liabilities.Number of Depositors.Balance to credit on 31st Dec.No. of Policies.Sums Assured and Bonuses.No. of Lodges, &c.No. of Members.Schools.Scholars.Schools.Scholars.Convictions in Superior Courts.||Convictions in Magistrates' Courts.||

se there were in December, 1899, 3,065 children attending the Native schools, nearly all maintained by Government, 726 at industrial schools and orphanages, and 2,723 scholars at high schools.

ayments in each financial year were—in 1891–92, £30,000; in 1892–93, £200,000; in 1893–94, £250,000; in 1894–95, £250,000; in 1895–96, £150,000; in 1896–97, £150,000; in 1897–98, £300,000; in 1898–

££££££££ £ £         
                  131,3731853
                  211,9551854
                  312,1541855
                  282,0051856
     343,316419,860432,494          272,0101857
     448,078705,738616,7697157,862        622,5891858
     541,2131,003,584678,4748027,996        702,7491859
     644,521992,082801,5881,10412,450        912,9031860
     882,7541,235,9521,097,1621,14422,921        1003,4901861
   836,000 1,596,4462,691,1172,092,4971,49629,768        1456,3711862
   1,289,750 2,092,0904,028,7662,962,5852,37144,117        2349,2961863
   2,219,450 2,480,3035,063,4583,343,1724,66994,248        26211,3571864
   4,368,681 2,638,4145,455,2893,522,1464,30487,400        33210,1021865
   5,435,728 3,097,4735,891,5324,010,1104,51391,863        27711,0401866
   5,781,193 2,904,5945,947,1603,737,6956,579156,855        24011,2091867
   7,182,743 3,102,7275,734,7453,838,2208,121243,615        24810,9731868
   7,360,616 3,174,8316,231,4163,863,00610,103320,383        27711,6951869
   7,841,891 3,127,7696,315,3543,819,67012,137388,8045930,250      23111,9901870
   8,900,991 3,334,6725,871,8883,988,40014,275454,966454200,611      18011,5061871
   9,985,386 3,919,8385,429,7474,628,81917,289597,0021,689625,421      19010,8011872
   10,913,936 4,713,8067,267,7205,538,03021,807812,1442,634995,986      18911,9921873
   13,366,936 5,564,4349,954,2166,490,50427,215943,7533,9531,453,496  54438,2151888,23719413,7411874
   17,400,031 5,967,20510,987,1786,987,31830,310897,3264,9891,836,859  59945,5621827,31625717,1101875
   18,678,111 6,238,47111,776,0707,221,39932,577905,1466,1532,282,129898,56068051,9642449,35724915,9021876
   20,691,111 7,185,10612,992,1048,152,23035,709964,4307,1492,716,907888,82873056,2392529,99225016,1031877
   22,608,311 8,960,36915,393,63010,031,00939,9261,043,2048,7113,251,2201109,75974865,0402369,20629216,1191878
   23,958,311 8,021,07316,054,2959,057,46342,679990,33710,2233,72613813,16581775,55625710,23429615,8211879
   28,185,711 8,538,93514,220,2759,550,17747,4621,148,99211,6564,171,50417914,48483682,40127811,23833014,7781880
   28,479,1113,039,8079,069,37714,863,64510,083,18861,0541,549,51512,4114,471,18227218,63486983,5602669,98727013,7951881
   29,445,0113,277,5848,945,34617,162,23410,015,27368,3581,832,04715,8925,273,16427318,70091187,17926210,00226516,2201882
   31,071,5823,540,0468,659,47717,794,7619,706,70073,5461,784,63119,9175,992,11127518,84894392,47625711,25525816,5901883
   32,195,4223,962,3309,643,21418,442,13910,691,59979,5141,926,75921,0036,224,57128121,14498797,23826512,20328717,6721884
   33,880,7224,313,22310,083,29618,811,56711,130,24485,7692,142,56023,2186,552,24230222,7941,021102,40728011,98926617,5661885
   35,741,6534,943,27010,579,71119,041,82711,603,19491,2962,133,86124,7157,053,27629021,6791,054106,32828812,49728616,4281886
   36,758,4375,620,74711,031,61418,799,84711,995,49597,4962,407,77625,4397,136,94434724,9281,093110,91929913,41734715,2781887
   38,375,0505,812,80311,155,77818,709,44412,108,353103,0462,691,69326,1687,362,48835324,9381,128112,68529913,89330814,2591888
   38,667,9505,892,05011,528,42417,652,91512,486,717110,5662,858,64427,2187,600,53736526,0131,155115,45629313,45827613,8611889
   38,830,3505,978,05912,368,61017,735,25913,356,598118,3443,137,02328,1027,807,79235726,3791,200117,91229813,62627013,8851890
   38,713,0686,042,69312,796,09816,814,51813,820,458126,8863,406,94929,2268,390,80336427,3721,255119,52328114,14228313,0511891
   39,257,8406,081,93413,587,06217,558,16814,623,335135,8273,580,54430,3168,580,81737928,7541,302122,62027414,45624113,2901892
   39,826,4156,203,86914,433,77718,255,53415,489,633147,1993,966,84931,7098,821,25537229,7631,355124,69029914,92230413,4571893
   40,386,9646,614,82413,927,21717,746,42114,930,791154,4054,066,59432,9079,232,54336929,9631,410127,30030214,62730012,6131894
4,556,015a4,370,481a2,972,203ab43,050,7806,685,51013,544,41518,159,78114,491,627163,5134,620,69633,9689,345,22937630,9051,464129,85629814,65934413,0671895
4,798,708a4,509,981a1,089,590ab44,366,6186,737,57814,490,82716,900,19915,520,431175,1735,065,86434,7729,415,69339231,8251,533131,03728313,94729114,1491896
5,079,230a4,602,372a1,134,812ab44,963,4246,793,39814,290,51217,276,77115,380,248187,9545,520,08036,1749,8538832,6701,585132,19727814,44730314,8751897
5,258,228a4,858,511a1,543,683ab46,938,0066,834,36114,143,22917,013,40415,299,058199,4645,746,88737,84810,124,22741035,5011,624131,62129414,78235116,6421898
5,699,618a5,140,127a1,906,604ab47,874,452§6,963,25414,591,22317,190,43315,834,858213,1726,128,29739,366103,417,020  1,645131,315‡30715,29537617,2861899
DISTRIBUTION OF EUROPEAN POPULATION.
Total (including Chinese and Half-castes).
Persons.Males.Females.

NOTE.—The Maori population of the colony (not included above) according to the result of a separate census taken in February, 1896, amounted to 39,854. Of these, 37,102 persons were found to be in the North Island, 2,207 persons in the Middle Island, 117 at Stewart Island, and 199 Maoris and Morioris at the Chatham Islands. There were 229 Maori wives of European husbands enumerated in the European census.

The total population of the colony (including Maoris) in April, 1896, was: Persons, 743,214, males 393,088, females 350,126; of these 3,711 were Chinese—3,685 males, 26 females.

Counties391,735218,385173,350
Boroughs307,294149,415157,879
Islands adjacent to New Zealand709402307
Chatham Islands234132102
Kermadec Islands743
On shipboard3,3813,077304
                Totals for colony703,360371,415331,945
North Island340,631181,089159,542
Middle Island362,236190,038172,198
Stewart Island252152100
Chatham Islands234132102
Kermadec Islands743
                Totals for colony703,360371,415331,945
AGES OF THE PEOPLE (INCLUSIVE OF CHINESE).
Numbers.Proportion per Cent.Proportions of Sexes in every 100 Persons.
Ages.Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.Males.Females.
All ages703,360371,415331,945     
Specified ages702,578370,830331,688100.00100.00100.0053.0946.91
Under 1 year17,0708,7748,2962.432.372.5051.4048.60
1 year and under 2 years15,1927,6547,5382.162.062.2750.3849.62
2 years and under 3 years17,2408,7378,5032.452.362.5650.6849.32
3 years and under 4 years16,9518,5678,3842.412.312.5350.5449.46
4 years and under 5 years17,2068,7168,4902.452.352.5650.6649.34
5 years and under 6 years16,8518,5208,3312.402.302.5150.5649.44
6 years and under 7 years17,0908,6358,4552.432.332.5550.5349.47
7 years and under 8 years17,2828,8038,4792.462.372.5650.9449.06
8 years and under 9 years17,6508,8468,8042.512.392.6550.1249.88
9 years and under 10 years17,1528,7578,3952.442.362.5351.0648.94
10 years and under 11 years17,6668,8588,8082.512.392.6650.1449.86
11 years and under 12 years17,0198,5528,4672.422.312.5550.2549.75
12 years and under 13 years17,4668,8298,6372.492.382.6150.5549.45
13 years and under 14 years16,6288,3918,2372.372.262.4850.4649.54
14 years and under 15 years16,6888,4148,2742.382.372.5050.4249.58
15 years and under 20 years80,73440,36440,37011.5010.8812.1750.0050.00
20 years and under 21 years14,8507,5097,3412.112.032.2150.5749.43
21 years and under 25 years53,86626,75527,1117.677.228.1749.6750.33
25 years and under 30 years59,59530,60528,9908.488.258.7451.3548.65
30 years and under 35 years45,21323,74721,4666.446.406.4752.5247.48
35 years and under 40 years40,58722,50618,0815.786.075.4555.4544.55
40 years and under 45 years34,85419,99914,8554.965.394.4857.3842.42
45 years and under 50 years29,55516,83012,7254.214.543.8456.9443.06
50 years and under 55 years27,72616,20311,5233.954.373.4758.4441.56
55 years and under 60 years22,84914,2528,5973.253.842.5962.3737.63
60 years and under 65 years16,78210,5046,2782.392.831.8962.5937.41
65 years and under 70 years10,2406,4593,7811.461.741.1463.0836.92
70 years and under 75 years5,4243,2192,2050.770.870.6759.3540.65
75 years and under 80 years3,2311,8431,3880.460.500.4257.0442.96
80 years and under 85 years1,2656775880.180.180.1853.5246.48
85 and upwards5963052910.080.080.0951.1748.83
Unspecified age, under 21 years442618     
Unspecified age, over 21 years798559239     

SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS OF THE CENSUS OF 12th APRIL, 1896.

Birthplaces.Numbers.Proportions per Cent.Proportions of the Sexes in every 100 persons.
Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.Males.Females.
                Total population703,360371,415331,945   52.8147.19
                Totals for specified birthplaces702,756371,008331,748100.00100.00100.0052.7947.21
British—        
    United Kingdom—        
        England116,54166,59049,95116.5817.9515.0657.1442.86
        Wales2,1481,2908580.310.350.2660.0639.94
        Scotland50,43528,89021,5457.187.796.4957.2842.72
        Ireland46,03724,83521,2026.556.696.3953.9546.05
                Total United Kingdom215,161121,60593,55630.6232.7828.2056.5243.48
    Australasia—        
        New Zealand441,661221,085220,57662.8559.5966.4950.0649.94
        Australia, Tasmania Fiji21,78210,85410,9283.102.933.2949.8350.17
                Total Australasia463,443231,939231,50465.9562.5269.7850.0549.95
    Other British possessions3,7502,2011,5490.530.590.4758.6941.31
                Total British682,354355,745326,60997.1095.8993.4552.1347.87
Foreign—        
    Austria-Hungary8817491320.130.200.0485.0214.98
    Belgium13891470.020.020.0165.9434.06
    Denmark and Possessions2,1251,3737520.300.370.2364.6135.39
    France and Possessions6984942040.100.130.0670.7729.23
    Germany4,5953,0101,5850.650.810.4865.5134.49
    Greece12795320.020.030.0174.8025.20
    Italy423338850.060.090.0379.9120.09
    Netherlands and Possessions132115170.020.030.0087.1212.88
    Poland10170310.010.020.0169.3130.69
    Portugal and Possessions173149240.020.040.0186.1313.87
    Russia and Possessions365330350.050.090.0190.419.59
    Spain and Possessions8863250.010.020.0171.5928.41
    Sweden and Norway2,7752,2025730.400.590.1779.3520.65
    Switzerland342258840.050.070.0375.4424.56
    Other European Countries3017130.000.000.0056.6743.33
    China3,7193,695240.531.000.0199.350.65
    Africa (various)13472620.020.020.0253.7346.27
    America (North America)9696203490.140.170.1063.9836.02
    United States of America7805422380.110.150.0769.4930.51
    Other Foreign Countries4853331520.070.090.0568.6631.34
                Total Foreign19,08014,6164,4642.713.941.3576.6023.40
    At Sea1,3226476750.190.170.2048.9451.06
    Birthplaces not stated604407197     
                                Allegiance.        
    British subjects690,003360,238329,76598.1096.9999.3452.2147.79
    Foreign subjects13,35711,1772,1801.903.010.6683.6816.32
RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS.
Religious Denominations.Numbers.Proportions per Cent.Proportions of the Sexes in every 100 persons.
Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.Males.Females.

* Includes United Methodist Free Churches and Bible Christians, which bodies were incorporated in the Wesleyan Methodist Church or 13th April, 1896.

                Total population703,360371,415331,945   52.8147.19
                Total for specified religions702,238370,637331,601100.00100.00100.0052.7847.22
Episcopalians—        
    Church of England, and Episcopalians not otherwise defined281,166148,171132,99540.0439.9840.1152.7047.30
Protestants (undescribed)1,6439966470.230.270.1960.6239.38
Presbyterians159,95284,25975,69322.7822.7322.8352.6847.32
Methodists—        
    Wesleyan Methodist*63,37331,48131,8929.028.499.6249.6850.32
    Primitive Methodists7,0413,4493,5921.000.931.0848.9851.02
    Methodists (undefined)2,8931,4761,4170.410.400.4351.0248.98
    Others6034260.010.010.0156.6743.33
Baptists16,0377,6908,3472.282.072.5247.9552.05
Congregational Independents6,7773,2843,4930.970.891.0548.4651.54
Lutheran, German Protestant5,5383,5372,0010.790.950.6063.8736.13
Unitarians3752321430.050.060.0461.8738.13
Society of Friends3212001210.050.050.0462.3137.69
Church of Christ5,8592,7003,1590.830.730.9546.0853.92
Brethren5,0352,3592,6760.720.640.3146.8553.15
Believers in Christ7736410.010.010.0146.7553.25
Evangelists3323100.000.010.0069.7030.30
Nonconformists9559360.010.020.0162.1137.89
Salvation Army10,5325,2445,2881.501.411.5949.7950.21
Christadelphians9524854670.140.130.1450.9549.05
New Church191101900.030.030.0352.8847.12
Seventh-day Adventists7763164600.110.090.1440.7259.28
Students of Truth3401481920.050.040.0643.5356.47
Dissenters6532330.010.010.0149.2350.77
Christian Israelites, Israelites6127340.010.010.0144.2655.74
Other Protestants1,7108608500.240.230.2650.2949.71
Roman Catholics97,52550,34847,17713.8913.5814.2351.6348.37
Catholics (undefined)1,2797045750.180.190.1755.0444.96
Greek Church11699170.020.030.0185.3414.66
Catholic Apostolic2471181290.040.030.0447.7752.23
Other Denominations—        
    Hebrews1,5498087410.220.220.2252.1647.84
    Mormons, Latter-day Saints2891621270.040.040.0456.0543.95
    Spiritualists3761961800.050.050.0552.1347.87
    Buddhists, Confucians, &c.3,3913,374170.480.910.0199.500.50
    Others187125620.030.030.0266.8533.15
No Denomination—        
    Freethinkers3,9833,0769070.570.830.2777.2322.77
    Agnostics5624261360.080.120.0475.8024.20
    Deists, Theists463880.010.010.0082.6017.40
    No denomination3,8982,4101,4880.550.650.4561.8338.17
    Doubtful4631150.010.010.0067.3932.61
No religion—        
    No religion1,4901,0894010.210.290.1273.0926.91
    Atheists11788290.020.020.0175.2124.79
    Secularists153112410.020.030.0173.2026.80
    Others (variously returned)11593220.020.030.0180.8719.13
Object to state15,96710,1415,8262.272.741.7663.5136.49
Unspecified1,122778344     
CONJUGAL CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
Ages.Numbers.Proportion to every 100 living at each Age.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
Total.Unmarried.Husbands.Widowers.Not stated.Total.Unmarried.Wives.Widows.Not stated.Unmarried.Husbands.Windows.Unmarried.Wives.Widows.
All ages.367,730255,184102,7369,348462331,919213,583103,19315,0489569.4827.972.5564.3731.104.53
Specified ages367,201254,947102,6219,324309331,662213,495103,06215,0149169.4827.982.5464.3931.084.53
14 years and upwards246,576134,322102,6219,324309213,84995,682103,06215,0149154.5441.673.7944.7648.227.02
Under 14 years120,625120,625   117,813117,813         
14 years to 15 years8,4138,413   8,2748,274         
15 years to 16 years8,2178,217   8,2168,2106     99.930.07 
16 years to 17 years8,2078,207   8,3358,31124     99.710.29 
17 years to 18 years7,9797,9763  8,0327,97062  99.960.04 99.230.77 
18 years to 19 years8,0368,02016  7,9617,7192393 99.800.20 96.963.000.04
19 years to 20 years7,8927,867232 7,8247,3754472 99.680.290.0394.265.710.03
20 years to 21 years7,4867,37996 117,3386,5138202398.721.28 88.7911.180.03
21 years to 25 years26,65224,2962,281294627,10819,4377,585652191.328.570.1171.7628.000.24
25 years to 30 years30,32319,75210,3581585528,98711,88216,7543331865.2534.220.5341.0257.831.15
30 years to 35 years23,3099,44413,5512872721,4664,39516,4266351040.5658.211.2320.4876.562.96
35 years to 40 years21,9816,45314,9745292518,0802,11915,019934829.3968.202.4111.7283.115.17
40 years to 45 years19,3034,50214,1246433414,8541,17012,4251,254523.3673.303.347.8883.688.44
45 years to 50 years16,2343,36411,9998472412,72575110,3981,574220.7574.025.235.9081.7312.37
50 years to 55 years15,7513,25511,3261,1502011,5225748,9651,979420.6972.007.314.9877.8417.18
55 years to 60 years13,9972,70610,0311,242188,5973446,2492,000419.3671.768.884.0072.7223.28
60 years to 65 years10,3702,1546,7921,409156,2772814,0981,892620.8065.5913.614.4865.3530.17
65 years to 70 years6,4041,2853,9611,14993,7811592,0701,549320.0961.9417.974.2154.7941.00
70 years to 75 years3,2026431,797751112,2051059061,191320.1556.3123.544.7741.1454.09
75 years to 80 years1,841285895651101,38848418920215.5748.8835.553.4630.1666.38
85 years to 85 years67478295299258830113444111.6143.9044.495.1119.2575.64
85 years to and upwards30526991782291153823718.5832.6758.755.1713.1081.73
Unspecified5292371152415325788131344      
EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE (EXCLUSIVE OF CHINESE).
Ages.Numbers (excluding Chinese).Proportion to every 100 at each Quinquennial Age-period.
Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.
Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.Education unknown.Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.Education unknown.Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.Education unknown.Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.
All ages561,77720,114115,1112,647296,8279,93859,4211,544264,95010,17655,6901,10380.602.8916.5181.062.7116.2380.093.0816.83
Specified ages561,24020,097115,0582,468296,4979,92859,3881,388264,74310,16955,6701,08080.592.8916.5281.052.7116.2480.083.0816.84
Specified ages above 5 years561,24019,62031,8912,468296,4979,72517,1531,388264,7439,89514,7381,08091.593.205.2191.693.005.3191.493.425.09
Under 5 years 47783,167  20342,235  27440,932  0.5799.43 0.4899.52 0.6699.34
5 years to 10 years49,80012,20122,7601,25624,7016,44911,75565325,0995,75211,00560358.7514.4026.8557.5715.0327.4059.9713.7426.29
10 years to 15 years84,15855152922642,27032231513541,8882292149198.730.650.6298.520.750.7398.950.540.51
15 years to 20 years79,90918249011839,8441123007540,065701904399.170.220.6198.980.280.7499.360.170.47
20 years to 25 years67,82717646911233,6541242897134,173521804199.060.260.6898.790.360.8599.330.150.52
25 years to 30 years58,47820650612029,8261113147228,652951924898.800.350.8598.590.371.0499.010.330.66
30 years to 35 years43,7883205788922,7151773595821,0731432193197.990.721.2997.700.761.5498.320.661.02
35 years to 40 years38,7144987519821,2422394415917,4722593103996.871.251.8896.891.092.0296.851.431.72
40 years to 45 years32,49867587810618,4562854966614,0423903824095.441.982.5895.941.482.5894.792.632.58
45 years to 50 years27,1867279598715,3452905475211,8414374123594.162.513.3394.831.793.3893.313.443.25
50 years to 55 years25,0929941,0998814,6943696365210,3986254633692.303.664.0493.602.354.0590.535.444.03
55 years to 60 years20,7498998955113,071376518327,6785233771992.043.993.9793.602.693.7189.516.104.39
60 years to 65 years15,019774808469,564295481305,4554793271690.474.664.8792.502.854.6587.137.655.22
65 years to 70 years9,113573468315,867225297153,2463481711689.755.654.6091.833.524.6586.229.244.54
70 years to 75 years4,668396325182,83917118571,8292251401186.627.356.0388.865.355.7983.3610.266.38
75 years to 80 years2,723268227111,58910314361,13416584584.628.337.0586.605.617.7982.0011.936.07
80 and upwards1,518180149118207777569810372682.199.748.0784.197.917.9079.9511.908.25
Unspecified age under 2111 21125 1476 7534.38 65.6226.32 73.6846.15 53.85
Unspecified age over 21526173216732510191492017131891.482.965.5691.812.825.3790.953.175.88
OCCUPATIONS.
Occupations (Classes and Orders).Numbers.Proportions per Cent.
Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.

* Attention is called to the fact that the numbers in the various orders of the commercial class include dealers only, but not manufacturers or makers. These last are included in the orders of the industrial class.

                Total population703,360371,415331,945100.00100.00100.00
Professional,—      
    Persons engaged in Government (not otherwise classed), defence, law, and protection3,5813,538430.510.960.01
    Persons ministering to religion, charity, health, science, education, and art15,6658,4617,2042.232.282.18
Domestic,—      
    Persons engaged in the supply of board and lodging, and in rendering personal service for which remuneration is usually paid28,8105,88022,9304.111.596.93
Commercial,—      
    Persons performing offices in connection with the exchange, valuation, insurance, lease, loan, or custody of money, houses, land, or property-rights4,4604,0314290.641.090.13
    Persons dealing in art or mechanic productions in which materials of various kinds are employed in combination1,7801,5911890.250.430.06
    Persons engaged in the sale, hire, or exchange of textile fabrics and dress, and of fibrous materials4,1623,3088540.590.890.26
    Persons engaged in dealing in food, drinks, narcotics, and stimulants8,1817,4976841.172.020.20
    Persons engaged in dealing in and treating animals, and dealing in animal and vegetable substances (excluding dealers in food)1,7111,700110.250.460.00
    Persons engaged in dealing in minerals and other materials mainly used for fuel and light51050460.070.130.00
    Persons engaged in dealing in minerals other than for fuel1,0601,034260.150.280.01
    Persons engaged as general dealers, or in undefined mercantile pursuits10,6639,0691,5941.522.450.47
    Persons engaged in storage9169163250.130.250.01
    Persons engaged in the transport of passengers, goods, or communications16,93716,6124872.414.480.10
Industrial,—*      
    Persons engaged in connection with the manufacture of, or in other processes relating to, art and mechanic productions in which materials of various kinds are employed in combination11,47210,98512,0501.642.960.15
    Persons engaged in connection with the manufacture of, or in repairs, cleansing, or in other processes relating to, textile fabrics, dress and fibrous materials19,8997,8492012.842.123.64
    Persons engaged in connection with the manufacture of, or in other processes relating to food, drink, narcotics, and stimulants5,6475,446180.801.470.06
    Persons (not otherwise classed) engaged in manufacture or other processes connected with animal and vegetable substances4,5814,563170.651.230.01
    Persons engaged in the alteration, modification, or manufacture of, or other processes relating to, metals or mineral matters6,4576,440 0.921.740.00
    Persons engaged in the making or repairing of buildings, roads, railways, docks, earthworks, &c., in the disposal of silt, dead matter, or refuse, or in mechanical operations or labour the nature of which is undefined15,49015,48372.214.180.00
    Industrial workers imperfectly defined18,26817,8054632.604.800.14
Agricultural, Pastoral, Mineral, and other Primary Producers,—      
    Persons directly engaged in the cultivation of land, or in rearing or breeding animals, or in obtaining raw products from natural sources106,130103,0163,11415.1327.800.94
Indefinite,—      
    Persons whose occupations are undefined, embracing those who derive incomes from sources which cannot be directly related to any other class6,5524,1342,4180.931.110.73
Dependents,—      
    Persons dependent upon natural guardians402,927127,211275,71657.4234.3383.28
    Persons dependent upon the State, or upon public or private support5,8083,5182,2900.830.950.69
Occupations not stated1,693824869