THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK 1899


Table of Contents

PREFACE.

EVERY effort has been made on this occasion, and with some success, to complete the preparation of the Year-book at an earlier date than previously.

The work was expedited subject to the disadvantage that some of the departmental reports presented to Parliament were not available for purposes of the statistical sections.

The latest figures are, however, mostly given throughout, and eleven new special articles introduced into Part III.

To meet the requirements of the Agent-General for the colony, extra copies of the sections have been made up into a number of small pamphlets, and these forwarded to London as early as possible without waiting for the completion of the book.

So far full evidences of the usefulness of the Year-book are forthcoming from time to time, and there is a large demand for it.

E. J. VON DADELSZEN.

Registrar-General's Office,

Wellington, N.Z., 12th August, 1899.

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.

CONSULS (see p. 24): (1) C. W. Rattray, Esq., appointed Vice-Consul for Denmark at Dunedin, vice E. Quick, Esq., resigned; (2) George Dunnet, Esq., provisionally recognised as Consular Agent of France at Auckland; (3) C. W. Rattray, Esq., appointed Acting Vice-Consul for Portugal at Dunedin, vice E. Quick, resigned; (4) Arthur Edward Pearce, Esq., appointment as Consul for Sweden and Norway at Wellington recognised.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL (see p. 29): Hon. Francis Humphris Fraser, Wellington, appointed 22nd June, 1899; Hon. Hugh Gourley, Dunedin, appointed 22nd June, 1899; Hon. Albert Pitt (Col.), Nelson, appointed 22nd June, 1899.

MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES (see pp. 31, 148); John Hutcheson, M.H.R. for Wellington, resigned 7th July, 1899, re-elected 25th July, 1899.

HONOURS HELD BY COLONISTS (see p. 26): Add Hon. H. B. Gresson, retired Judge. (Despatch, 29th August, 1877.)

CHIEF JUSTICE (see p. 19): Sir James Prendergast, Kt., resigned his appointment as Chief Justice from 25th May, 1899. Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G., appointed Chief Justice 22nd June, 1899.

“THE DIVORCE ACT, 1898,” came into operation 1st June, 1899 (p. 828, Gazette, 20th April, 1899): Assented to by Her Majesty the Queen (p. 753, Gazette).

PART I.—INTRODUCTORY; OFFICIAL

Table of Contents

Chapter 1. NEW ZEALAND

THE Colony of New Zealand consists of three main islands, with several groups of smaller islands lying at some distance from the principal group. The main islands, known as the North, the Middle, and Stewart Islands, have a coast-line 4,330 miles in length—North Island, 2,200 miles; Middle Island, 2,000 miles; and Stewart Island, 130 miles. The other islands now included within the colony are the Chatham, Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty, and Kermadec Islands. A protectorate over the Cook Islands (Hervey Group) is exercised by the Imperial Government, the Governor of New Zealand acting as responsible adviser.

New Zealand is mountainous in many parts, but has, nevertheless, large plains in both North and Middle Islands. In the North Island, which is highly volcanic, is situated the famous Thermal-Springs District, of which a special account will be given. The Middle Island is remarkable for its lofty mountains, with their magnificent glaciers, and for the deep sounds or fiords on the western coast.

New Zealand is firstly a pastoral, and secondly an agricultural country. Sown grasses are grown almost everywhere, the extent of land laid down being about ten millions of acres. The soil is admirably adapted for receiving these grasses, and, after the bush has been burnt off, is mostly sown over without previous ploughing. In the Middle Island a large area is covered with native grasses, all used for grazing purposes. The large extent of good grazing-land has made the colony a great wool and meat-producing country; and its agricultural capabilities are, speaking generally, very considerable. The abundance of water and the quantity of valuable timber are other natural advantages.

New Zealand is, besides, a mining country. Large deposits of coal are met with, chiefly on the west coast of the Middle Island. Gold, alluvial and in quartz, is found in both islands, the yield having been over fifty-four millions sterling in value to the present time. Full statistical information on this subject is given further on, compiled up to the latest dates.

Discovery and Early Settlement

The first authentic account of the discovery of New Zealand is that given by Abel Jansen Tasman, the Dutch navigator. He left Batavia on the 14th August, 1642, in the yacht “Heemskirk,” accompanied by the “Zeehaen” (or “Sea-hen”) fly-boat. After having visited Mauritius, and discovered Tasmania, named by him “Van Diemen's Land,” in honour of Anthony van Diemen, Governor of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, he steered eastward, and on the 13th December of the same year sighted the west coast of the Middle Island of New Zealand, described by him as “a high mountainous country, which is at present marked in the charts as New Zealand.”

Tasman, under the belief that the land he saw belonged to a great polar continent, and was part of the country discovered some years before by Schouten and Le Maire, to which the name of Staaten Land had been given, gave the same name of Staaten Land to New Zealand; but within about three months afterwards Schouten's “Staaten Land” was found to be merely an inconsiderable island. Upon this discovery being announced, the country that Tasman had called Staaten Land received again the name of “New Zealand,” by which it has ever since been known. Tasman sailed along the coast to a bay, where he anchored. To this he gave the name of Murderers (now Massacre) Bay, on account of an unprovoked attack on a boat's crew by the natives, and the massacre of four white men. Thence he steered along the west coast of the North Island, and gave the name of Cape Maria van Diemen to the north-western extremity thereof. After sighting the islands of the Three Kings he finally departed, not having set foot in the country.

There is no record of any visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until the time of Captain Cook, who, after leaving the Society Islands, sailed in search of a southern continent then believed to exist. He sighted land on the 6th October, 1769, at Young Nick's Head, and on the 8th of that month cast anchor in Poverty Bay. After having coasted round the North Island and the Middle and Stewart Islands—which last he mistook for part of the Middle Island—he took his departure from Cape Farewell on the 31st March, 1770, for Australia. He visited New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

M. de Surville, a French officer in command of the vessel “Saint Jean Baptiste,” while on a voyage of discovery, sighted the north-east coast of New Zealand on the 12th December, 1769, and remained for a short time. A visit was soon after paid by another French officer, M. Marion du Fresne, who arrived on the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand on the 24th March, 1772, but was, on the 12th June following, treacherously murdered at the Bay of Islands by the Natives.

In 1793 the “Dædalus,” under the command of Lieutenant Hanson, was sent by the Government of New South Wales to New Zealand, and two chiefs were taken thence to Norfolk Island. There was after this an occasional intercourse between the islands of New Zealand and the English settlements in New South Wales.

In 1814 the first missionaries arrived in New Zealand—Messrs. Hall and Kendall—who had been sent as forerunners by Mr. Marsden, chaplain to the New South Wales Government. After a short stay they returned to New South Wales, and on the 19th November of that year again embarked in company with Mr. Marsden, who preached his first sermon in New Zealand on Christmas Day, 1814. He returned to Sydney on the 23rd March, 1815, leaving Messrs. Hall and Kendall, who formed the first mission station at Rangihoua, Bay of Islands, under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society. Six years later, in 1821, the work of evangelization was put on a more durable basis; but the first station of the Wesleyan mission, established by Mr. Leigh and his wife, at the valley of the Kaeo, Whangaroa, was not taken possession of until the 10th June, 1823.

Colonisation

The first attempt at colonisation was made in 1825 by a company formed in London. An expedition was sent out under the command of Captain Herd, who bought two islands in the Hauraki Gulf and a strip of land at Hokianga. The attempt, however, was a failure, owing to the savage character of the inhabitants. In consequence of frequent visits of whaling-vessels to the Bay of Islands, a settlement grew up at Kororareka—now called Russell—and in 1833 Mr. Busby was appointed British Resident there. A number of Europeans—generally men of low character—gradually settled in different parts of the country, and married Native women.

In 1838 a colonisation company, known as the New Zealand Company, was formed to establish settlement on systematic principles. A preliminary expedition, under the command of Colonel William Wakefield, was despatched from England on the 12th May, 1839, and arrived in New Zealand in the following August. Having purchased land from the Natives, Colonel Wakefield selected the shore of Port Nicholson, in Cook Strait, as the site of the first settlement. On the 22nd January, 1840, the first body of immigrants arrived, and founded the town of Wellington. About the same time—namely, on the 29th January, 1840—Captain Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Natives, to proclaim the sovereignty of the Queen over the islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. A compact called “The Treaty of Waitangi,” to which in less than six months five hundred and twelve names were affixed, was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes. New Zealand was then constituted a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales, but on the 3rd May, 1841, was proclaimed a separate colony. The seat of Government had been previously established at Waitemata (Auckland), round which a settlement was formed.

The New Zealand Company having decided to form another settlement, to which the name of “Nelson” was to be given, despatched a preliminary expedition from England in April, 1841, for the purpose of selecting a site. The spot chosen was the head of Blind Bay, where a settlement was established. About the same time a number of pioneers arrived in Taranaki, despatched thither by the New Plymouth Company, a colonising society which had been formed in England, and had bought 50,000 acres of land from the New Zealand Company.

The next important event in the progress of colonisation was the arrival at Port Chalmers, on the 23rd March, 1848, of the first of two emigrant ships sent out by the Otago Association for the foundation of a settlement by persons belonging to or in sympathy with the Free Church of Scotland.

In 1849 the “Canterbury Association for founding a Settlement in New Zealand” was incorporated. On the 16th December, 1850, the first emigrant ship despatched by the association arrived at Port Cooper, and the work of opening up the adjoining country was set about in a systematic fashion, the intention of the promoters being to establish a settlement complete in itself, and composed entirely of members of the then United Church of England and Ireland.

The Maoris

Prior to the colonisation of New Zealand by Europeans, the earliest navigators and explorers found a race of people already inhabiting both islands. Papers written in 1874 by Mr. (afterwards Sir) William Fox, and Sir Donald McLean, then Native Minister, state that at what time the discovery of these islands was made by the Maoris, or from what place they came, are matters of tradition only, and that much has been lost in the obscurity enveloping the history of a people without letters. Nor is there anything on record respecting the origin of the Maori people themselves, beyond the general tradition of the Polynesian race, which seems to show a series of successive migrations from west to east, probably by way of Malaysia to the Pacific. Little more can now be gathered from their traditions than that they were immigrants, and that they probably found inhabitants on the east coast of the North Island belonging to the same race as themselves—the descendants of a prior migration, whose history is lost. The tradition runs that, generations ago, the Maoris dwelt in a country named Hawaiki, and that one of their chiefs, after a long voyage, reached the northern island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a flattering description of the country he had discovered, this chief, it is said, persuaded a number of his kinsfolk and friends, who were much harassed by war, to set out with a fleet of double canoes for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remembered, and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the people of the principal canoes after their arrival in New Zealand; and from these traditional accounts the descent of the numerous tribes has been traced. Calculations, based on the genealogical staves kept by the tohungas, or priests, and on the well-authenticated traditions of the people, indicate that about twenty-one generations have passed since the migration, which may therefore be assumed to have taken place about five hundred and twenty-five years ago. The position of the legendary Hawaiki is unknown, but many places in the South Seas have been thus named in memory of the motherland. The Maoris speak a very pure dialect of the Polynesian language, the common tongue, with more or less variation, in all the Eastern Pacific Islands. When Captain Cook first visited New Zealand he availed himself of the services of a native from Tahiti, whose speech was easily understood by the Maoris. In this way much information respecting the early history of the country and its inhabitants was obtained which could not have otherwise been had.

For results of recent researches as to probable origin and present numbers of the Maoris, see Section III. of Part II., post.

Boundaries and Area

The Proclamation of Captain Hobson on the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34° 30′ S. lat.; on the south, 47° 10′ S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0′ E. long.; on the west, 166° 5′ E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In April, 1842, by Royal Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries of the colony were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. By Proclamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, lying between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude, were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the Colony of New Zealand.

The following now constitute the Colony of New Zealand:—

  1. The island commonly known as the North Island, with its adjacent islets, having an aggregate area of 44,468 square miles, or 28,459,520 acres.

  2. The island known as the Middle Island, with adjacent islets, having an aggregate area of 58,525 square miles, or 37,456,000 acres.

  3. Stewart Island, and adjacent islets, having an area of 665 square miles, or 425,390 acres.

  4. The Chatham Islands, situate 536 miles eastward of Lyttelton in the Middle Island, with an area of 375 square miles, or 239,920 acres.

  5. The Auckland Islands, about 200 miles south of Stewart Island, extending about 30 miles from north to south, and nearly 15 from east to west, the area being 210,650 acres.

  6. The Campbell Islands, in latitude 52° 33′ south, and longitude 169° 8′ west, about 30 miles in circumference, with an area of 45,440 acres.

  7. The Antipodes Islands, about 458 miles in a south-easterly direction from Port Chalmers, in the Middle Island. These are detached rocky islands, and extend over a distance of between 4 and 5 miles from north to south. Area, 12,960 acres.

  8. The Bounty Islands, a small group of islets, thirteen in number, lying north of the Antipodes Islands, and about 415 miles in an east-south-easterly direction from Port Chalmers. Area, 3,300 acres.

  9. The Kermadec Islands, a group lying about 614 miles to the north-east of Russell, in the Bay of Islands. Raoul or Sunday Island, the largest of these, is about 20 miles in circuit. The next in size is Macaulay Island, about 3 miles round. Area of the group, 8,208 acres.

The total area of the colony is thus about 104,471 square miles, of which the aggregate area of the outlying groups of islands that are practically useless for settlement amounts to about 438 square miles.

A protectorate is exercised by the Imperial Government over the Cook Islands (or Hervey Group) by Proclamation dated the 27th October, 1888. The British Resident* is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Government. He acts as Government Agent for the colony in all matters of trade.

*Lieut-Colonel Walter Edward Gudgeon is now British Resident at Rarotonga. His salary is paid by this colony. He succeeded Mr. Frederick J. Moss, who was the first Resident appointed.

Area of the Australian Colonies

The areas of the several Australian Colonies, as given by different authorities, vary considerably. The total area of the Australian Continent is given as 2,944,628 square miles, according to a computation made by the late Surveyor-General of Victoria, Mr. J. A. Skene, from a map of Continental Australia compiled and engraved under his direction; but the following areas are taken from the latest official records of each colony:—

 Square Miles.
Queensland668,497
New South Wales310,700
Victoria87,884
South Australia903,690
Western Australia975,920
            Total Continent of Australia2,946,691
Tasmania26,215
New Zealand (including the Chatham and other islands)104,471
            Total Australasia3,077,377

The size of these colonies may be better realised by comparison of their areas with those of European countries. The areas of the following countries—Austria - Hungary, Germany, France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, Portugal, Spain, Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), Switzerland, Greece, Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, Eastern Roumelia, and Turkey in Europe—containing on the whole rather less than 1,600,000 square miles, amount to little more than half the extent of the Australian Continent. If the area of Russia in Europe be added to those of the other countries the total would be about one-seventh larger than the Australian Continent, and about one-twelfth larger than the Australasian Colonies, including New Zealand.

Area of the Colony of New Zealand

The area of the Colony of New Zealand is about one-seventh less than the area of Great Britain and Ireland, the Middle Island of New Zealand being a little larger than the combined areas of England and Wales.

      United KingdomArea in
square Miles.
England and Wales58,311
Scotland30,463
Ireland32,531
             Total121,305
      New ZealandArea in
Square Miles.
North Island44,468
Middle Island58,525
Stewart Island665
Chatham Islands375
Other islands438
             Total104,471

Physical Features of the North Island

The North Island extends over a little more than seven degrees of latitude—a distance in a direct line from north to south of 430 geographical or 498 statute miles; but, as the northern portion of the colony, which covers more than three degrees of latitude, trends to the westward, the distance in a straight line from the North Cape to Cape Palliser, the extreme northerly and southerly points of the island, is about 515 statute miles.

This island is, as a whole, hilly, and, in parts, mountainous in character, but there are large areas of plain or comparatively level country that are, or by clearing may be made, available for agricultural purposes. Of these, the principal are the plains in Hawke's Bay on the East Coast, the Wairarapa Plain in the Wellington District, and a strip of country along the West Coast, about 250 miles in length, extending from a point about thirty miles from the City of Wellington to a little north of New Plymouth. The largest plain in the North Island, Kaingaroa, extends from the shore of Lake Taupo in a north-north-easterly direction to the sea-coast in the Bay of Plenty; but a great part of it is covered with pumicesand, and is unfitted for tillage or pasture. There are several smaller plains and numerous valleys suitable for agriculture. The level or undulating country in this island fit, or capable of being made fit, for agriculture has been roughly estimated at 13,000,000 acres. This includes lands now covered with standing forest, and swamps that can be drained; also large areas of clay-marl and pumice-covered land. The clay-marl in its natural state is cold and uninviting to the farmer, but under proper drainage and cultivation it can be brought to a high state of productiveness. This kind of land is generally neglected at the present time, as settlers prefer soils more rapidly remunerative and less costly to work. The larger portion of the North Island was originally covered with forest. Although the area of bush-land is still very great, yet year by year the amount is being reduced, chiefly to meet the requirements of settlement, the trees being cut down and burnt, and grass-seed sown on the ashes to create pasture. Hilly as the country is, yet from the nature of the climate it is especially suited for the growth of English grasses, which will flourish wherever there is any soil, however steep the land may be; once laid down in grass very little of the land is too poor to supply food for cattle and sheep. The area of land in the North Island deemed purely pastoral or capable of being made so, while too steep for agricultural purposes, is estimated at 14,200,000 acres. In the centre of the island is a lake, about twenty miles across either way, called Taupo. A large area adjacent to the lake is at present worthless pumice-country. The Waikato River, the largest in the North Island, flows out of its north-eastern corner, and runs thence northwestward until it enters the ocean a little distance south of the Manukau Harbour. This river is navigable for small steamers for about a hundred miles from its mouth. The Maori King-country, occupied by Natives who for several years isolated themselves from Europeans, lies between Lake Taupo and the western coast. The River Thames, or Waihou, having its sources north of Lake Taupo, flows northward into the Firth of Thames. It is navigable for about fifty miles, but only for small steamers. The other navigable rivers in this island are the Wairoa (Kaipara), the Wanganui, and the Manawatu, the two last of which flow towards the south-west into Cook Strait.

The mountains in the North Island are estimated to occupy about one-tenth of the surface, and do not exceed 4,000ft. in height, with the exception of a few volcanic mountains that are more lofty. Of these, the three following are the most important:—

  1. The Tongariro Mountain, situated to the southward of Lake Taupo. It consists of a group of distinct volcanic cones, the lava-streams from which have so overlapped in their descent as to form one compact mountain-mass at the base. The highest of these cones is called Ngauruhoe, and attains an elevation of 7,515ft. The craters of Ngauruhoe, the Red Crater (6,140ft.), and Te Mari (4,990ft.) are the three vents from which the latest discharges of lava have taken place, the most recent having occurred in 1868. These craters are still active, steam and vapour issuing from them with considerable force and noise, the vapours, charged with pungent gases and acids, making it dangerous to approach too near the crater-lips.

  2. Ruapehu. This mountain lies to the south of Ngauruhoe and Tongariro. It is a volcanic cone in the solfatara stage, and reaches the height of 9,008ft., being in part considerably above the line of perpetual snow. The most remarkable feature of this mountain is the crater-lake on its summit, which is subject to slight and intermittent eruptions, giving rise to vast quantities of steam. Recently —in March, 1895—such an eruption took place, forming a few hot springs on the margin of the lake, and increasing the heat in the lake itself. This lake lies at the bottom of a funnel-shaped crater, the steep sides of which are mantled with ice and snow. The water occupies a circular basin about 500ft. in diameter, some 300ft. below the enclosing peaks, and is quite inaccessible except by the use of ropes. This lake, and the three craters previously mentioned on Tongariro, are all in one straight line, which, if produced, would pass through the boiling springs at Tokaanu on the southern margin of Lake Taupo, the volcanic country north-east of that lake, and White Island, an active volcano in the Bay of Plenty, situated about twenty-seven miles from the mainland.

  3. Mount Egmont. Tins is an extinct volcanic cone, rising to a height of 8,260ft. The upper part is always covered with snow. This mountain is situated close to New Plymouth, and is surrounded by one of the most fertile districts in New Zealand. Rising from the plains in solitary grandeur, it is an object of extreme beauty, the cone being one of the most perfect in the world.

It is estimated that the area of mountain-tops and barren country at too high an altitude for sheep, and therefore worthless for pastoral purposes, amounts, in the North Island, to 300,000 acres.

Without a doubt the hot springs form the most remarkable feature of the North Island. They are found over a large area, extending from Tongariro, south of Lake Taupo, to Ohaeawai, in the extreme north—a distance of some 300 miles; but the principal seat of hydrothermal action appears to be in the neighbourhood of Lake Rotorua, about forty miles north-north-east from Lake Taupo. By the destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces and of Lake Rotomahana during the eruption of Mount Tarawera on the 10th June, 1886, the neighbourhood has been deprived of attractions unique in character and of unrivalled beauty; but the natural features of the country—the numerous lakes, geysers, and hot springs, some of which possess remarkable curative properties in certain complaints—are still very attractive to tourists and invalids. The world-wide importance of conserving this region as a sanatorium for all time has been recognised by the Government, and it is now dedicated by Act of Parliament to that purpose.

Notwithstanding the length of coast-line, good harbours in the North Island are not numerous. Those on the west coast north of New Plymouth are bar-harbours, unsuitable for large vessels. The principal harbours are the Waitemata Harbour, on which Auckland is situated—this is rather a deep estuary than a harbour; several excellent havens in the northern peninsula; and Port Nicholson, on the borders of which Wellington is situated. This is a landlocked harbour, about six miles across, having a comparatively narrow but deep entrance from the ocean. The water is deep nearly throughout.

The Cape Colville Peninsula is rich in gold-bearing quartz.

COOK Strait

Cook Strait separates the North and Middle Islands. It is some sixteen miles across at its narrowest part, but in the widest about ninety. The strait is invaluable for the purpose of traffic between different parts of the colony.

Physical Features of the Middle Island

The extreme length of the Middle Island, from Jackson's Head, in Cook Strait, to Puysegur Point, at the extreme south-west, is about 525 statute miles; the greatest distance across at any point is in Otago (the southernmost) District, about 180 miles.

The Middle Island is intersected along almost its entire length by a range of mountains known as the Southern Alps. Some of the summits reach a height of from 10,000ft. to 12,000ft., Mount Cook, the highest peak, rising to 12,349ft.

In the south, in the neighbourhood of the sounds and Lake Te Anau, there are many magnificent peaks, which, though not of great height, are, owing to their latitude, nearly all crowned with perpetual ice and snow. Further north the mountains increase in height—Mount Earnslaw, at Lake Wakatipu; and Mount Aspiring, which has been aptly termed the New Zealand Matterhorn, 9,949 ft. in height, at Lake Wanaka. Northward of this again are Mount Cook (or Aorangi), Mount Sefton, and other magnificent peaks.

For beauty and grandeur of scenery the Southern Alps of New Zealand may worthily compare with, while in point of variety they are said actually to surpass, the Alps of Switzerland. In New Zealand few of the mountains have been scaled; many of the peaks and most of the glaciers are as yet unnamed; and there is still, in parts of the Middle Island, a fine field for exploration and discovery—geographical, geological, and botanical. The wonders of the Southern Alps are only beginning to be known; but the more they are known the more they are appreciated. The snow-line in New Zealand being so much lower than in Switzerland, the scenery, though the mountains are not quite so high, is of surpassing grandeur.

There are extensive glaciers on both sides of the range, those on the west being of exceptional beauty, as, from the greater abruptness of the mountain-slopes on that side, they descend to within about 700ft. of the sea-level, and into the midst of the evergreen forest. The largest glaciers on either side of the range are easily accessible.

The following gives the sizes of some of the glaciers on the eastern slope:—

Name.Area of Glacier.Length of Glacier.Greatest Width.Average Width.
 Acres.Miles ch.Miles ch.Miles ch.
Tasman13,66418 02 141 15
Murchison5,80010 701 50 66
Godley5,3128 01 551 3
Mueller3,2008 00 610 50
Hooker2,4167 250 540 41

The Alletsch Glacier in Switzerland, according to Ball, in the “Alpine Guide,” has an average width of one mile. It is in length and width inferior to the Tasman Glacier.

Numerous sounds or fiords penetrate the south-western coast. They are long, narrow, and deep (the depth of water at the upper part of Milford Sound is 1,270ft., although at the entrance only 130ft.), surrounded by giant mountains clothed with foliage to the snow-line, with waterfalls, glaciers, and snowfields at every turn. Some of the mountains rise almost precipitously from the water's edge to 5,000ft. and 6,000ft. above the sea. Near Milford, the finest of these sounds, is the great Sutherland Waterfall, 1,904ft. high.

The general surface of the northern portion of the Middle Island, comprising the Provincial Districts of Nelson and Marlborough, is mountainous, but the greater part is suitable for grazing purposes. There are some fine valleys and small plains suitable for agriculture, of which the Wairau Valley or Plain is the largest. Deep sounds, extending for many miles, break the coast-line abutting on Cook Strait. The City of Nelson is situated at the head of Blind Bay, which has a depth inwards from Cook Strait of about forty statute miles.

The Provincial District of Canterbury lies to the south of the Marlborough District, and on the eastern side of the island. Towards the north the land is undulating; then there is a stretch of almost perfectly level country extending towards the south-west 160 miles, after which, on the south, the country is undulating as far as the borders of the Otago District. On the east a block of hill-country rises abruptly from the plain and extends for some miles seaward. This is Banks Peninsula, containing several good harbours, the principal being Port Cooper, on the north, on which is situated Lyttelton, the chief port of the district: the harbour of Akaroa, one of the finest in the colony, is on the southern coast of this peninsula.

The District of Otago is, on the whole, mountainous, but has many line plains and valleys suitable for tillage. The mountains, except towards the west coast, are generally destitute of timber, and suitable for grazing sheep. There are goldfields of considerable extent in the interior of this district. The inland lakes are also very remarkable features. Lake Wakatipu extends over fifty-four miles in length, but its greatest width is not more than four miles, and its area only 114 square miles. It is 1,070ft. above sea-level, and has a depth varying from 1,170ft. to 1,296ft. Te Anan Lake is somewhat larger, having an area of 132 square miles. These lakes are bounded on the west by broken, mountainous, and wooded country, extending to the ocean.

The chief harbours in Otago are Port Chalmers, at the head of which Dunedin is situated, and the Bluff Harbour, at the extreme south.

The District of Westland, extending along the west coast of the Middle Island, abreast of Canterbury, is more or less auriferous throughout. The western slopes of the central range of mountains are clothed with forest-trees to the snow-line; but on the eastern side timber is scarce, natural grasses covering the ground.

The rivers in the Middle Island are for the most part mountain torrents, fed by glaciers in the principal mountain ranges. When the snow melts they rise in flood, forming, where not confined by rocky walls, beds of considerable width, generally covered by enormous deposits of shingle. The largest river in the colony as regards volume of water is the Clutha. It is 154 miles in length, but is only navigable for boats or small river-steamers for about thirty miles. The Rivers Buller, Grey, and Hokitika, on the West Coast, are navigable for a short distance from their mouths. They form the only ports in the Westland District. In their unimproved state they admitted, owing to the bars at their mouths, none but vessels of small draught; but, in consequence of the importance of the Grey and Buller Rivers as the sole ports available for the coal-export trade, large harbour-works have been undertaken, resulting in the deepening of the beds of these rivers, and giving a depth of from 18ft. to 26ft. of water on the bar.

The area of level or undulating land in the Middle Island avail able for agriculture is estimated at about 15,000,000 acres. About 13,000,000 are suitable for pastoral purposes only, or may become so when cleared of forest and sown with grass-seed. The area of barren land and mountain-tops is estimated at about 9,000,000 acres.

Stewart Island

Foveaux Strait separates the Middle from Stewart Island. This last island has an area of only 425,390 acres.

Stewart Island is a great tourist resort during the summer months, and is easily reached by steamer from the Bluff, distant about 25 miles.

The principal peak is Mount Anglem, 3,200 ft. above sea-level, which has an extinct crater at its summit. Most of the island is rugged and forest-clad; the climate is mild, frost being seldom experienced; and the soil, when cleared of bush, is fertile.

The chief attractions are the numerous bays and fiords. Paterson Inlet is a magnificent sheet of water, about ten miles by four miles, situated close to Half-moon Bay, the principal port, where between three and four hundred people live. Horse-shoe Bay and Port William are within easy reach of Half-moon Bay. Port Pegasus, a land-locked sheet of water about eight miles by a mile and a half, is a very fine harbour. At “The Neck” (Paterson Inlet) there is a Native settlement of over a hundred Maoris and half-castes. The bush is generally very dense, with thick undergrowth. Rata, black-pine, white-pine, miro, and totara are the principal timber trees. Fish are to be had in great abundance and variety; oysters form an important industry. Wild pigeons, ducks, and mutton-birds are plentiful.

The colour of gold is to be found all over the island.

The Outlying Islands

The outlying group of the Chatham Islands, 480 statute miles east-south-east from Wellington, and 536 miles eastward of Lyttelton, consists of two principal islands and several unimportant islets. The largest island contains about 222,490 acres, of which an irregularly-shaped lake or lagoon absorbs 45,960 acres. About one quarter of the surface of the land is covered with forest, the rest with fern or grass. The hills nowhere rise to a great height. Pitt Island is the next in size; the area is 15,330 acres. The greater portion of both islands is used for grazing sheep.

The Kermadec group of islands, four in number, is situated between 29° 10′ and 31° 30′ south latitude, and between 177° 45′ and 179° west longitude. They are named Raoul or Sunday Island, Macaulay Island, Curtis Island, and L'Espérance or French Rock. The principal island, Sunday, is 600 miles distant from Auckland. The islands are volcanic, and in two of them signs of activity are still to be seen. The rainfall is plentiful, but not excessive. The climate is mild and equable, and slightly warmer than the north of New Zealand. The following are the areas of the islands and islets of the group: Sunday Island, 7,200 acres; Herald group of islets, 85 acres; Macaulay Island, 764 acres; Curtis Islands, 128 acres and 19 acres; L'Espérance, 12 acres: total, 8,208 acres. Sunday Island is twenty miles in circumference, roughly triangular in shape, and at the highest point 1,723ft. above the sea-level. It is rugged and broken over a very large extent of its surface, and, except in a few places, covered with forest. The soil everywhere on the island is very rich, being formed by the decomposition of a dark-coloured pumiceous tuff and a black andesitic lava, with which is closely mixed a fine vegetable mould. The great luxuriance and richness of the vegetation bear witness to the excellence of the soil, which is everywhere—except where destroyed by eruptions, and on the steep cliffs—the same rich loam. Want of water is one of the drawbacks. Three of the four lakes on the island are fresh, but so difficult of approach as to be practically useless.

The Auckland Islands are about 290 miles south of Bluff Harbour, their position being given on the Admiralty chart as latitude 50° 31′ 29″ S., and longitude 166° 19′ 12″ E. They have several good harbours. Port Ross, at the north end of the principal island, was described by the eminent French commander, D'Urville, as one of the best harbours of refuge in the known world. At the southern end of the island there is a through passage extending from the east to the west coast. It has been variously named Adam's Strait and Carnley Harbour, and forms a splendid sheet of water. The largest of the islands is about 27 miles long by about 15 miles broad, and is very mountainous, the highest part being about 2,000ft. above the sea. The west coast is bold and precipitous, but the east coast has several inlets. The wood on the island is, owing to the strong prevailing wind, scrubby in character. The New Zealand Government maintains at this island a dépôt of provisions and clothing for the use of shipwrecked mariners.

Constitution

British sovereignty was proclaimed over New Zealand in January, 1840, and the country became a dependency of New South Wales until the 3rd May, 1841, when it was made a separate colony. The seat of Government was at Auckland, and the Executive included the Governor, and three gentlemen holding office as Colonial Secretary, Attorney-General, and Colonial Treasurer.

The successors of these gentlemen, appointed in August, 1841, May, 1842, and January, 1844, respectively, continued in office until the establishment of Responsible Government on the 7th May, 1856. Only one of them—Mr. Swainson, the Attorney-General—sat as a member of the first General Assembly, opened on the 27th May, 1854. During the session of that year there were associated with the permanent members of the Executive Council certain members of the General Assembly. These latter held no portfolios.

The Government of the colony was at first vested in the Governor, who was responsible only to the Crown; but in 1852 an Act granting representative institutions to the colony was passed by the Imperial Legislature. Under it the constitution of a General Assembly for the whole colony was provided for, to consist of a Legislative Council, the members of which were to be nominated by the Governor, and of an elective House of Representatives. The first session of the General Assembly was opened on the 27th May, 1854, but the members of the Executive were not responsible to Parliament. The first Ministers under a system of Responsible Government were appointed on the 18th April, 1856. By the Act of 1852 the colony was divided into six provinces, each to be presided over by an elective Superintendent, and to have an elective Provincial Council, empowered to legislate, except on certain specified subjects. The franchise amounted practically to household suffrage. In each case the election was for four years, but a dissolution of the Provincial Council by the Governor could take place at any time, necessitating a fresh election both of the Council and of the Superintendent. The Superintendent was chosen by the whole body of electors of the province; each member of the Provincial Council by the electors of a district. The Provincial Governments, afterwards increased to nine, remained as integral parts of the Constitution of the colony until the 1st November, 1876, when they were abolished by an Act of the General Assembly, that body having been vested with the power of altering the Constitution Act. On the same day an Act of the General Assembly which subdivided the colony (exclusive of the areas included within municipalities) into counties, and established a system of local county government, came into force.

Government

The Governor is appointed by the Queen. His salary is £5,000 a year, and is provided by the colony.

Members of the Legislative Council hold their seats under writs of summons from the Governor. Till the year 1891 the appointments were for life; but in September of that year an Act was passed making appointments after that time tenable for seven years only, though Councillors may be reappointed. In either case seats may be vacated by resignation or extended absence. Two members of the Council are aboriginal native chiefs.

The members of the House of Representatives are elected for three years from the time of each general election; but at any time a dissolution of Parliament by the Governor may render a general election necessary. Four of the members are representatives of Native constituencies. An Act was passed in 1887 which provided that, on the dissolution of the then General Assembly, the number of members to be thereafter elected to the House of Representatives should be seventy-four in all, of whom four were to be elected, under the provisions of the Maori Representation Acts, as representatives of Maori electors only. For the purposes of European representation the colony is divided into sixty-two electoral districts, four of which—the Cities of Auckland, Wellington, Christ-church, and Dunedin—return each three members, and all the other electorates one each. Members of the House of Representatives are chosen by the votes of the inhabitants in every electoral district appointed for that purpose. By “The Members of the House of Representatives Disqualification Act, 1897,” no person, who, being a bankrupt within the meaning of “The Bankruptcy Act, 1892,” has not obtained an order of discharge under that Act shall be qualified to be nominated as a candidate for election, or to be elected, or to take his seat as a member of the House of Representatives, anything in “The Electoral Act, 1893,” or any other Act to the contrary notwithstanding.

In 1889 an amendment of the Representation Act was passed, which contained a provision prohibiting any elector from giving his vote in respect of more than one electorate at any election. “The Electoral Act, 1893,” extended to women of both races the right to register as electors, and to vote at the elections for members of the House of Representatives. The qualification for registration is the same for both sexes. No person is entitled to be registered on more than one electoral roll within the colony. Women are not qualified to be elected as members of the House of Representatives. The electoral laws are the subject of special comment further on in this work. Every man registered as an elector, and not coming within the meaning of section 8 of “The Electoral Act, 1893,” is qualified to be elected a member of the House of Representatives for any electoral district. For European representation every adult person, if resident one year in the colony and three months in one electoral district, can be registered as an elector. Freehold property of the value of £25 held for six months preceding the day of registration until 1896 entitled a man or woman to register, if not already registered under the residential qualification. But the Amendment Act of 1896 abolished the property qualification (except in case of existing registrations), and residence alone now entitles a man or woman to have his or her name placed upon an electoral roll. For Maori representation every adult Maori resident in any Maori electoral district (of which there are four only in the colony) can vote. Registration is not required in Native districts.

The Seat of Government

Up to the year 1865 the seat of Government of New Zealand was at Auckland. Several attempts were made by members of Parliament, by motions in the Legislative Council and House of Representatives, to have it removed to some more central place; but it was not until November, 1863, that Mr. Domett (the then ex-Premier) was successful in carrying resolutions in the House of Representatives that steps should be taken for appointing some place in Cook Strait as the permanent seat of Government in the colony. The resolutions adopted were: “(1.) That it has become necessary that the seat of Government in the colony should be transferred to some suitable locality in Cook Strait. (2.) That, in order to promote the accomplishment of this object, it is desirable that the selection of the particular site in Cook Strait should be left to the arbitrament of an impartial tribunal. (3.) That, with this view, a Bill should be introduced to give effect to the above resolutions.” On the 25th November an address was presented to the Governor, Sir George Grey, K.C.B., by the Commons of New Zealand, requesting that the Governors of the Colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, might each be asked to appoint one Commissioner for the purpose of determining the best site in Cook Strait. Accordingly, the Hon. Joseph Docker, M.L.C., New South Wales; the Hon. Sir Francis Murphy, Speaker of the Legislative Council, Victoria; and R. C. Gunn, Esq., Tasmania, were appointed Commissioners.

These gentlemen, having made a personal inspection of all suitable places, arrived at the unanimous decision “that Wellington, in Port Nicholson, was the site upon the shores of Cook Strait which presented the greatest advantages for the administration of the government of the colony.”

The seat of Government was, therefore, in accordance with the recommendation of the Commissioners, removed to Wellington in February, 1865.

Public Works

Nearly all the public works of New Zealand are in the hands of the Government of the colony, and in the early days they simply kept pace with the spread of settlement. In 1870, however, a great impetus was given to the progress of the whole country by the inauguration of the “Public Works and Immigration Policy,” which provided for carrying out works in advance of settlement. Railways, roads, and water-races were constructed, and immigration was conducted on a large scale. As a consequence, the population increased from 267,000 in 1871 to 501,000 in 1881, and to 743,463 at the close of the year 1898, exclusive of Maoris.

Chapter 2. SUCCESSIVE GOVERNORS

SUCCESSION OF GOVERNORS OF NEW ZEALAND, AND THE DATES ON WHICH THEY ASSUMED AND RETIRED FROM THE GOVERNMENT

Captain William Hobson, R.N., from Jan., 1840, to 10 Sept., 1842.

  • [British sovereignty was proclaimed by Captain Hobson in January, 1840, and New Zealand became a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales until 3rd May, 1841, at which date it was proclaimed a separate colony. From January, 1840, to May, 1841, Captain Hobson was Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand under Sir George Gipps, Governor of New South Wales, and from May, 1841, Governor of New Zealand; the seat of Government being at Auckland, where he died in September, 1842. From the time of Governor Hobson's death, in September, 1842, until the arrival of Governor Fitzroy, in December, 1843, the Government was carried on by the Colonial Secretary, Lieutenant Shortland.]

Lieutenant Shortland, Administrator, from 10 Sept., 1842, to 26 Dec., 1843.

Captain Robert Fitzroy, R.N., from 26 Dec., 1843, to 17 Nov., 1845.

Captain Grey (became Sir George Grey, K.C.B., in 1848), from 18 Nov., 1845, to 31 Dec., 1853.

  • [Captain Grey held the commission as Lieutenant-Governor of the colony until the 1st January, 1848, when he was sworn in as Governor-in-Chief over the Islands of New Zealand, and as Governor of the Province of New Ulster and Governor of the Province of New Munster. After the passing of the New Zealand Constitution Act, Sir George Grey was, on the 13th September, 1852, appointed Governor of the colony, the duties of which office he assumed on the 7th March, 1853. In August, 1847, Mr. E. J. Eyre was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of New Munster: he was sworn in, 28th January, 1848. On 3rd January, 1848, Major-General George Dean Pitt was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of New Ulster: he was sworn in, 14th February, 1848; died, 8th January, 1851; and was succeeded as Lieutenant-Governor by Lieutenant-Colonel Wynyard, appointed 14th April, 1851; sworn in, 26th April, 1851. The duties of the Lieutenant-Governor ceased on the assumption by Sir George Grey of the office of Governor, on the 7th March, 1853.]

Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Henry Wynyard, C.B., Administrator, from 3 Jan., 1854, to 6 Sept., 1855.

Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B., from 6 Sept., 1855, to 2 Oct., 1861.

Sir George Grey, K.C.B., Administrator, from 3 Oct., 1861; Governor, from 4 Dec., 1861, to 5 Feb., 1868.

Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G., from 5 Feb., 1868, to 19 Mar., 1873.

Sir George Alfred Arney, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 21 Mar. to 14 June, 1873.

Sir James Fergusson, Baronet, P.C., from 14 June, 1873, to 3 Dec., 1874.

The Marquis of Normanby, P.C., G.C.M.G., Administrator, from 3 Dec., 1874; Governor, from 9 Jan., 1875, to 21 Feb., 1879.

James Prendergast, Esquire, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 21 Feb. to 27 Mar., 1879.

Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G., Administrator, from 27 Mar., 1879; Governor, from 17 April, 1879, to 8 Sept., 1880.

James Prendergast, Esquire, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 9 Sept. to 29 Nov., 1880.

The Honourable Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G., from 29 Nov., 1880, to 23 June, 1882.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 24 June, 1882, to 20 Jan., 1883.

Lieutenant - General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B., from 20 Jan., 1883, to 22 Mar., 1889.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 23 Mar. to 2 May, 1889.

The Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G., from 2 May, 1889, to 24 Feb., 1892.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 25 Feb., to 6 June, 1892.

The Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G., from 7 June, 1892, to 6 Feb., 1897.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 8 Feb., 1897, to 9th Aug., 1897.

The Earl of Ranfurly, K.C.M.G., from 10th Aug., 1897.

Chapter 3. SUPREME COURT JUDGES

SUPREME COURT JUDGES, PAST AND PRESENT, WITH DATES OF APPOINTMENT, AND OF RESIGNATION OR DEATH

Sir W. Martin, appointed Chief Justice, 10 Jan., 1842. Resigned, 12 June, 1857.

H. S. Chapman, appointed, 26 Dec., 1843. Resigned, 30 July, 1850. Reappointed, 23 Mar., 1864. Resigned, 31 Mar., 1875.

S. Stephen, appointed, 30 July, 1850. Appointed Acting Chief Justice, 20 Oct., 1855. Died, 13 Jan., 1858.

Daniel Wakefield, appointed, Oct., 1855. Died, Oct., 1857.

H. B. Gresson, appointed temporarily, 8 Dec, 1857. Permanently, 1 July, 1862. Resigned, 31 Mar., 1875.

Sir G. A. Arney, appointed Chief Justice, 1 Mar., 1858. Resigned, 31 Mar., 1875.

A. J. Johnston, appointed, 2 Nov., 1858. Died, 1 June, 1888.

C. W. Richmond, appointed, 20 Oct., 1862. Died, 3 Aug., 1895.

J. S. Moore, appointed temporarily, 15 May, 1866. Relieved, 30 June, 1868.

C. D. R. Ward, appointed temporarily, 1 Oct., 1868. Relieved, May, 1870. Appointed temporarily, 21 Sept., 1886. Relieved, 12 Feb., 1889.

Sir J. Prendergast, appointed Chief Justice, 1 April, 1875.

T. B. Gillies, appointed, 3 Mar., 1875. Died, 26 July, 1889.

J. S. Williams, appointed, 3 Mar., 1875.

J. E. Denniston, appointed, 11 Feb., 1889.

E. T. Conolly, appointed, 19 Aug., 1889.

Hon. Sir P. A. Buckley, K.C.M.G., appointed, 20 Dec., 1895. Died, 18 May, 1896.

W. B. Edwards, appointed, 11 July, 1896.

F. W. Pennefather, appointed temporarily, 25 April, 1898.

Chapter 4. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1843–56

MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL OF THE COLONY OF NEW ZEALAND PREVIOUS TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT (NOT INCLUDING THE OFFICERS COMMANDING THE FORCES).

Willoughby Shortland, Colonial Secretary, from 3 May, 1841, to 31 Dec., 1843; succeeded by Mr. Sinclair.

Francis Fisher, Attorney-General, from 3 May to 10 Aug., 1841; succeeded by Mr. Swainson.

George Cooper, Colonial Treasurer, from 3 May, 1841, to 9 May, 1842; succeeded by Mr. Shepherd.

William Swainson, Attorney-General, from 10 Aug., 1841, to 7 May, 1856.

Alexander Shepherd, Colonial Treasurer, from 9 May, 1842, to 7 May, 1856.

Andrew Sinclair, Colonial Secretary, from 6 Jan., 1844, to 7 May, 1856.

  • [The three gentlemen last mentioned were nominated by Her Majesty as ex officio members of the Executive Council. Two of them, the Colonial Secretary and the Colonial Treasurer, were not members of the General Assembly, opened for the first time 27th May, 1854, but all three remained in office until the establishment of Responsible Government.]

James Edward FitzGerald, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 14 June to 2 Aug., 1854.

Henry Sewell, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 14 June to 2 Aug., 1854.

Frederick Aloysius Weld, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 14 June to 2 Aug., 1854.

Francis Dillon Bell, M.L.C., without portfolio, from 30 June to 11 July, 1854.

Thomas Houghton Bartley, M.L.C., without portfolio, from 14 July to 2 Aug., 1854.

Thomas Spencer Forsaith, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854.

Edward Jerningham Wakefield, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854.

William Thomas Locke Travers, M.H.R., without portfolio, 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854.

James Macandrew, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854.

Chapter 5. PARLIAMENTS

Number of Parliaments since the Constitution Act passed for conferring Representative Institutions upon the Colony of New Zealand, with The Dates of Opening and Closing of Sessions and Dates of Dissolution

Parliament.Date of Opening of Sessions.Date of Prorogation.
First (dissolved 15th September, 1855)27 May, 1854.9 August, 1854.
31 August, 185416 September, 1854.
8 August, 185515 September, 1855.
Second (dissolved 5th November, 1860)15 April, 185616 August, 1856.
(No session in 1857) 10 April, 185821 August, 1858.
(No session in 1859) 30 July, 18605 November, 1860.
Third (dissolved 27th January, 1866)3 June, 18617 September, 1861.
7 July, 186215 September, 1862.
19 October, 186314 December, 1863.
24 November, 186413 December, 1864.
26 July, 186530 October, 1865.
Fourth (dissolved 30th December, 1870)30 June, 1866October, 1866.
9 July, 186710 October, 1867.
9 July, 186820 October, 1868.
1 June, 18693 September, 1869.
14 June, 187013 September, 1870.
Fifth (dissolved 6th December, 1875)14 August, 187116 November, 1871.
16 July, 187225 October, 1872.
15 July, 18733 October, 1873.
3 July, 187431 August, 1874.
20 July, 187521 October, 1875.
Sixth (dissolved 15th August, 1879)15 June, 187631 October, 1876.
19 July, 187710 December, 1877.
26 July, 18782 November, 1878.
11 July, 187911 August, 1879.
Seventh (dissolved 8th November, 1881)24 September, 187919 December, 1879.
28 May, 18801 September, 1880.
9 June, 188124 September, 1881.
Eighth (dissolved 27th June, 1884)18 May, 188215 September, 1882.
14 June, 18888 September, 1883.
5 June, 188424 June, 1884.
Ninth (dissolved 15th July, 1887).7 August, 188410 November, 1884.
11 June, 188522 September, 1885.
13 May, 188618 August, 1886.
26 April, 188710 July, 1887.
Tenth (dissolved 3rd October, 1890)6 October, 188723 December, 1887.
10 May, 188831 August, 1888.
20 June, 188919 September, 1889.
19 June, 189018 September, 1890.
Eleventh (dissolved 8th November, 1893)23 January, 189131 January, 1891.
11 June, 18915 September, 1891.
23 June, 189212 October, 1892.
22 June, 18937 October, 1893.
Twelfth (dissolved 14th November, 1896)21 June, 189424 October, 1894.
20 June, 18952 November, 1895.
11 June, 189619 October, 1896.
Thirteenth7 April, 189712 April, 1897.
23 September, 189722 December, 1897.
24 June, 18985 November, 1898.

Chapter 6. SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES

Since the Establishment of Responsible Government in New Zealand in 1856

Name of Ministry.Assumed Office.Retired.

*Owing to the death of the Premier, the Hon. J. Ballance, on 27th April, 1893.

1. Bell-Sewell7 May, 185620 May, 1856.
2. Fox20 May, 18562 June, 1856.
3. Stafford2 June, 185612 July, 1861.
4. Fox12 July, 18616 August, 1862.
5. Domett6 August, 186230 October, 1863.
6. Whitaker-Fox30 October, 186324 November, 1864.
7. Weld24 November, 186416 October, 1865.
8. Stafford16 October, 186528 June, 1869.
9. Fox28 June, 186910 September, 1872.
10. Stafford10 September, 187211 October, 1872.
11. Waterhouse11 October, 18723 March, 1873.
12. Fox3 March, 18738 April, 1873.
13. Vogel8 April, 18736 July, 1875.
14. Pollen6 July, 187515 February, 1876.
15. Vogel15 February, 18761 September, 1876.
16. Atkinson1 September, 187613 September, 1876.
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)13 September, 187613 October, 1877.
18. Grey15 October, 18778 October, 1879.
19. Hall8 October, 187921 April, 1882.
20. Whitaker21 April, 188225 September, 1883.
21. Atkinson25 September, 188316 August, 1884.
22. Stout-Vogel16 August, 188428 August, 1884.
23. Atkinson28 August, 18843 September, 1884.
24. Stout-Vogel3 September, 18848 October, 1887.
25. Atkinson8 October, 188724 January, 1891.
26. Ballance24 January, 18911 May, 1893.*
27. Seddon1 May, 1893. 

Chapter 7. PREMIERS OF SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES

Name of Premier.
Henry Sewell.
William Fox.
Edward William Stafford.
William Fox.
Alfred Domett.
Frederick Whitaker.
Frederick Aloysius Weld.
Edward William Stafford.
William Fox.
Hon. Edward William Stafford.
George Marsden Waterhouse.
Hon. William Fox.
Hon. Julius Vogel, C.M.G.
Daniel Pollen, M.L.C.
Sir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.
Harry Albert Atkinson.
Harry Albert Atkinson (Ministry reconstituted).
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.
Hon. John Hall.
Frederick Whitaker, M.L.C.
Harry Albert Atkinson.
Robert Stout.
Harry Albert Atkinson.
Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.
Sir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.
John Ballance.
Rt. Hon. Richard John Seddon, P.C.

Chapter 8. SPEAKERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

With Dates of their Appointment and Dates of Retirement or Death

Name of Speaker.Date of Appointment.Date of Retirement or Death.
Hon. William Swainson16 May, 18548 August, 1855.
Hon. Frederick Whitaker8 August, 185512 May, 1856.
Hon. Thomas Houghton Bartley12 May, 18561 July, 1868.
Hon. Sir John Larkins Cheese Richardson, Kt.1 July, 186814 June, 1879.
Hon. Sir William Fitzherbert, K.C.M.G.14 June, 187923 January, 1891.
Hon. Sir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.23 January, 189128 June, 1892.
Hon. Henry John Miller8 July, 1892. 

Chapter 9. SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

With Dates of their Election and Dates of Retirement

Name of Speaker.Date of Election.Date of Retirement.
Sir Charles Clifford, Bart.26 May, 1854 
 15 April, 18563 June, 1861.
Sir David Monro, Kt. Bach.3 June, 1861 
 30 June, 186613 Sept., 1870.
Sir Francis Dillon Bell, K.C.M.G., C.B.14 August, 187121 October, 1875.
Sir William Fitzherbert, K.C.M.G.15 June, 187613 June, 1879.
Sir George Maurice O'Rorke, Kt. Bach.11 July, 1879 
 24 September, 1879 
 18 May, 1882 
 7 August, 1884 
 6 October, 18873 October, 1890.
Hon. Major William Jukes Steward23 January, 18918 November, 1893.
Hon. Sir George Maurice O'Rorke, Kt. Bach.21 June, 1894 
 6 April, 1897. 

Chapter 10. FOREIGN CONSULS

Consuls of Foreign Countries residing in, or with Jurisdiction over, New Zealand, April, 1899

Country represented.Office held.Name.Place of Residence.
Austria-HungaryConsulE. LangguthAuckland.
BelgiumConsul-GeneralEdouard PolletMelbourne.
BelgiumConsulCharles John JohnstonWellington.
BelgiumConsulJoseph James KinseyChristchurch.
BelgiumConsulJ. BurnsAuckland.
BelgiumConsulHon. Richard Oliver, M.L.C.Dunedin.
ChiliConsulWilliam BrownSydney.
DenmarkConsul (for North Island); Chief Consular Officer in New ZealandEduard Valdemar JohansenAuckland.
DenmarkConsul (for South Island)Emil Christian SkogChristchurch.
DenmarkVice ConsulFrancis Henry Dillon BellWellington.
DenmarkVice ConsulEdmund QuickDunedin.
FranceConsul (for New Zealand)Count Louis Antoine Marie Joseph Henri De CourteWellington.
FranceActing Consular AgentProfessor William Michael ClarkeChristchurch.
FranceConsular AgentGeorge DunnetAuckland.
FranceConsular AgentPercival Clay NeillDunedin.
German EmpireConsul-General— Kem permannSydney.
German EmpireConsulBendix HallensteinDunedin.
German EmpireConsulPhilip KippenbergerChristchurch.
German EmpireConsulFriedrich August KrullWanganui.
German EmpireConsulCarl SeegnerAuckland.
German EmpireVice-ConsulEberhard FockeWellington.
Hawaiian IslandsConsul-General (for Australasia)W. E. DixonSydney.
Hawaiian IslandsConsulJames MacfarlaneAuckland.
Hawaiian IslandsConsulWilliam Godfrey NeillDunedin.
ItalyConsul-General (in Australia)Commendatore P. CorteMelbourne.
ItalyConsular Agent(Vacant)Christchurch.
ItalyConsular AgentGeorge FisherWellington.
ItalyConsular AgentEdward Bowes CargillDunedin.
ItalyConsular AgentGeraldo Giuseppe PerottiGreymouth.
ItalyConsular AgentR. Rose (acting)Auckland.
JapanConsulA. S. AldrichWellington.
NetherlandsConsul-GeneralJ. C. T. ReelfsMelbourne.
NetherlandsConsulCharles John JohnstonWellington.
NetherlandsVice-ConsulEdward Bowes CargillDunedin.
NetherlandsVice-ConsulAmbrose MillarAuckland.
NetherlandsVice-ConsulHarold Featherston JohnstonWellington.
PortugalConsulJohn DuncanWellington.
PortugalActing ConsulIan Gavin DuncanWellington.
PortugalVice-ConsulHenry Rees GeorgeAuckland.
PortugalVice-ConsulEdmund QuickDunedin.
PortugalActing Vice-ConsulCharles William RattrayDunedin.
RussiaConsulBaron d'Ungern-SternbergMelbourne.
SpainVice-Consul(Vacant)Christchurch.
SpainActingThomas JamiesonChristchurch.
Sweden and NorwayConsulEdward PearceWellington.
Sweden and NorwayActing ConsulArthur Edward PearceWellington.
Sweden and NorwayVice-ConsulEduard Valdemar JohansenAuckland.
Sweden and NorwayVice-ConsulFrank GrahamChristchurch.
United StatesConsul (for New Zealand)Frank DillinghamAuckland.
United StatesVice-ConsulLeonard A. BachelderAuckland.
United StatesConsular AgentRobert PitcaithleyChristchurch.
United StatesConsular AgentJohn DuncanWellington.
United StatesConsular AgentWilliam Godfrey NeillDunedin.

Chapter 11. AGENT-GENERAL FOR NEW ZEALAND IN LONDON

The Hon. W. P. Reeves, Westminster Chambers, 13, Victoria Street, S.W. Secretary—Walter Kennaway, C.M.G.

AGENTS-GENERAL FOR AUSTRALASIA

Queensland.—The Hon. Sir Horace Tozer, K.C.M.G., Westminster Chambers, 1, Victoria Street, S.W. Secretary—Charles Shortt Dicken, C.M.G.

New South Wales.—Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart., G.C.M.G. (acting), Westminster Chambers, 9, Victoria Street, S.W. Secretary—S. Yardley, C.M.G.

Victoria.—Lieut.-General Hon. Sir Andrew Clarke, R.E., G.C.M.G., 15, Victoria Street, S. W. Secretary—S. B. H. Rodgerson.

South Australia.—The Hon. J. A. Cockburn, M.D., Victoria Chambers, 15, Victoria Street, S.W. Secretary—T. F. Wickstead.

Western Australia.—The Hon. Edward Horne Wittenoom, 15, Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W. Secretary—Reginald Charles Hare.

Tasmania.—The Hon. Sir Philip Oliver Fysh, K.C.M.G., Westminster Chambers, 5, Victoria Street, S.W.

Chapter 12. THE COLONIAL OFFICE

Table of Contents

April, 1899

(Downing Street, S.W., London), with Dates of Appointment.

Principal Secretary of State for the Colonies—The Right Hon. Joseph Chamberlain, M.P., 28th June, 1895.

Under-Secretaries: Parliamentary—The Right Hon. the Earl of Selborne, 28th June, 1895. Permanent—Sir Edward Wingfield, K.C.B., B.C.L., 1st March, 1897.

Assistant Under-Secretaries: Frederick Graham, 1st March, 1897; Charles P. Lucas; H. B. Cox (Legal); and Reginald L. Antrobus, C.B.

Chapter 13. CROWN AGENTS FOR THE COLONIES

Downing Street, S.W. City Office: 1, Tokenhouse Buildings, E.C., London.

Crown Agents—Sir Montagu Frederick Ommanney, K.C.M.G., Ernest Edward Blake, and Major Maurice Alexander Cameron, R.E.

Chapter 14. HONOURS HELD BY COLONISTS

Buller, Sir Walter Lawry, F.R.S., C.M.G., 1875; K.C.M.G., 1886.

Grace, Hon. Morgan Stanislaus, C.M.G., 1890.

Hall, Hon. Sir John, K.C.M.G., 1882.

Hector, Sir James, F.R.S., C.M.G., 1875; K.C.M.G., 1887.

Kennaway, Walter, Esq., C.M.G., 1897.

O'Rorke, Hon. Sir George Maurice, Knt. Bach., 1880.

Perceval, Sir Westby Brook, K.C.M.G, 1894.

Prendergast, Sir James, Knt. Bach., 1881.

Richardson, Hon. Edward, C.M.G., 1879.

Roberts, John, Esq., C.M.G., 1891.

Seddon, Right Hon. Richard John, P.C., 1897.

Stafford, Hon. Sir Edward William, K.C.M.G., 1879; G.C.M.G., 1887.

Stout, Hon. Sir Robert, K.C.M.G., 1886.

Whitmore, Hon. Colonel Sir George Stoddart, C.M.G., 1869; K.C.M.G., 1882.

Persons allowed to retain the Title of “Honourable” within Her Majesty's Dominions

By despatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies, dated Downing Street, 15th June, 1893, His Excellency the Governor was apprised that the title of “Honourable,” appertaining to Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils in colonies possessing Responsible Government, whether confined to duration of office or continued for life, is approved by Her Majesty for use and recognition throughout her dominions, either during office or for life, as the case may be.

By further despatch of 10th March, 1894, the Secretary of State announces that he is prepared in future to submit for the approval of the Queen the recommendation of the Governor of any colony having Responsible Government that the President of the Legislative Council or the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly may, on quitting office after three years' service in their respective offices, be permitted to retain the title of “Honourable.” This title is now held by Sir G. M. O'Rorke and Major William Jukes Steward.

Besides the Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils, the following ex-Ministers whose names do not appear in the list given above are allowed, as such, to retain the title of “Honourable”: Bryce, John, 1884; Dick, Thomas, 1884; Fergus, Thomas, 1891; Haultain, Colonel T. M., 1870; Hislop, Thomas W., 1891; Johnston, Walter W., 1884; Mitchelson, Edwin, 1891; Oliver, Richard, 1884; Reeves, William P., 1896; Richardson, George F., 1891; Rolleston, William, 1884; Tole, Joseph A., 1888; Ward, Joseph George, 1896.

Chapter 15. GOVERNOR OF NEW ZEALAND

Ranfurly, His Excellency The Right Honourable Sir Uchter John Mark, fifth Earl of (Ireland, 1831), Viscount Northland (1791), Baron Welles (1781), Lord-in-Waiting to Her Majesty (1895–1897), Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George; Knight of Justice and Member of the Council of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem; son of third earl, brother of fourth earl; born 14th August, 1856; succeeded 1875; married, 1880. The Honourable Constance Elizabeth, only child of seventh Viscount Charlemont, C.B. Living issue: One son (Viscount Northland), two daughters (Ladies Constance and Eileen Knox). Appointed 6th April, 1897, and assumed office 10th August, 1897, as Governor and Commander-in-Chief in and over Her Majesty's Colony of New Zealand and its Dependencies. Salary, £5,000. Residences: Northland House, Dungannon, Ireland; Government House, Wellington; Government House, Auckland.

Private Secretary and Aide-de-Camp: Dudley Alexander (Captain, “The Prince of Wales's Own”—West Yorkshire—Regiment).

Assistant Private Secretary: The Honourable Charles Edward Hill-Trevor.

Aide-de-Camp: Henry Dudley Ossulston Ward (Lieutenant, Royal Horse Artillery).

Extra Aide-de-Camp: Arthur Charles Wellesley (Lieutenant, 4th Battalion Lincolnshire Regiment).

Administrator of the Government.—The Chief Justice holds a dormant commission.

Chapter 16. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, April, 1899

His Excellency the Governor presides.

Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C., Premier, Colonial Treasurer, Commissioner of Trade and Customs, Postmaster-General, Electric Telegraph Commissioner, Minister of Labour, and Minister of Native Affairs.

Hon. J. McKenzie, Minister of Lands, Minister of Agriculture, Commissioner of Forests, and Minister in Charge of Advances to Settlers Office.

Hon. A. J. Cadman, Minister for Railways and Minister of Mines.

Hon. J. Carroll, Commissioner of Stamp Duties, Acting Colonial Secretary, and Member of Executive Council representing the Native Race.

Hon. W. C. Walker, Minister of Immigration, Minister of Education, and Minister in Charge of Hospitals and Charitable Aid.

Hon. W. Hall-Jones, Minister for Public Works, Minister of Marine, and Minister in Charge of Printing Office.

Hon. T. Thompson, Minister of Justice, Minister of Defence, and Minister of Industries and Commerce.

Clerk of Executive Council—Alexander James Willis.

Chapter 17. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

Legislative Council

The number of members at present constituting the Legislative Council is forty-five. The number cannot be less than ten, but is otherwise unlimited. Prior to 1891 Councillors summoned by the Governor held their appointments for life; but on the 17th of September of that year an Act was passed giving the Council power to elect its own Speaker for a period of five years, and making future appointments to the Council tenable for seven years only, to be reckoned from the date of the writ of summons of the Councillor's appointment, though every such Councillor may be reappointed. The qualifications are that the person to be appointed be of the full age of twenty-one years, and a subject of Her Majesty, either natural-born or naturalised by or under any Act of the Imperial Parliament or by or under any Act of the General Assembly of New Zealand. All contractors to the public service to an amount of over £50 and Civil servants of the colony are ineligible as Councillors. Payment of Councillors is at the rate of £150 a year, payable monthly. Actual travelling-expenses to and from Wellington are also allowed. A deduction of £1 5s. per sitting day is made in case of an absence, except through illness or other unavoidable cause, exceeding five sitting days in any one session. Under “The Legislative Council Act, 1891,” a seat is vacated by any member of the Council: (1.) If he takes any oath or makes any declaration or acknowledgment of allegiance, obedience, or adherence to any foreign Prince or Power; or (2), if he does, or concurs in, or adopts any act whereby he may become a subject or citizen of any foreign State or Power, or is entitled to the rights, privileges, or immunities of a subject of any foreign State or Power; or (3), if he is a bankrupt, or compounds with his creditors under any Act for the time being in force; or (4), if he is a public defaulter, or is attainted of treason, or is convicted of felony or any infamous crime; or (5), if he resigns his seat by writing under his hand addressed to and accepted by the Governor; or (6), if for more than one whole session of the General Assembly he fails, without permission of the Governor notified to the Council, to give his attendance in the Council. By the Standing Orders of the Council, the presence of one-fourth of the members of the Council, exclusive of those who have leave of absence, is necessary to constitute a meeting for the exercise of its powers. This rule, however, may be altered from time to time by the Council. The ordinary sitting-days are Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, from 2.30 p.m. to 5 p.m., resuming again at 7.30 when necessary.

Roll of Members of the Honourable the Legislative Council of New Zealand, April, 1899

Speaker—The Hon. Henry John Miller

Chairman of Committees—The Hon. William Douglas Hall Baillie

Name.Provincial District.Date of Appointment.
Acland, the Hon. John Barton ArundelCanterbury8 July, 1865.
Arkwright, the Hon. FrancisWellington13 December, 1895.
Baillie, the Hon. William Douglas HallMarlborough8 March, 1861.
Barnicoat, the Hon. John WallisNelson14 May, 1883.
Bolt, the Hon. William MouatOtago15 October, 1892.
Bonar, the Hon. James AlexanderWestland27 June, 1868.
Bowen, the Hon. Charles ChristopherCanterbury20 January, 1891.
Feldwick, the Hon. HenryOtago15 October, 1892.
Grace, the Hon. Morgan Stanislaus, C.M.G.Wellington13 May, 1870.
Harris, the Hon. BenjaminAuckland3 February, 1897.
Holmes, the Hon. MathewOtago19 June, 1866.
Jenkinson, the Hon. John EdwardCanterbury6 June, 1893.
Jennings, the Hon. William ThomasAuckland15 October, 1892.
Johnston, the Hon. Charles JohnWellington20 January, 1891.
Jones, the Hon. GeorgeOtago13 December, 1895.
Kelly, the Hon. ThomasTaranaki15 October, 1892.
Kelly, the Hon. WilliamAuckland3 February, 1897.
Kenny, the Hon. Courtney William Aylmer ThomasMarlborough15 May, 1885.
Kerr, the Hon. JamesWestland15 October, 1892.
McCullough, the Hon. WilliamAuckland15 October, 1892.
MacGregor, the Hon. JohnOtago15 October, 1892.
McLean, the Hon. GeorgeOtago19 December, 1881.
Miller, the Hon. Henry John (Speaker)Otago8 July, 1865.
Montgomery, the Hon. WilliamCanterbury15 October, 1892.
Morris, the Hon. George BenthamAuckland15 May, 1885.
Oliver, the Hon. RichardOtago10 November, 1881.
Ormond, the Hon. John DaviesHawke's Bay20 January, 1891.
Peacock, the Hon. John ThomasCanterbury9 October, 1877.
Pinkerton, the Hon. DavidOtago3 February, 1897.
Reeves, the Hon. Richard Harman JeffaresNelson13 December, 1895.
Richardson, the Hon. Edward, C.M.G.Wellington15 October, 1892.
Rigg, the Hon. JohnWellington6 June, 1893.
Scotland, the Hon. HenryTaranaki24 February, 1868.
Shrimski, the Hon. Samuel EdwardOtago15 May, 1885.
Smith, the Hon. Alfred LeeOtago18 June, 1898.
Smith, the Hon. William CowperHawke's Bay13 December. 1895.
Stevens, the Hon. Edward Cephas JohnCanterbury7 March, 1882.
Swanson, the Hon. WilliamAuckland15 May, 1885.
Taiaroa, the Hon. Hori KereiOtago15 May, 1885.
Tomoana, the Hon. HenareHawke's Bay24 June, 1898.
Twomey, the Hon. Jeremiah MatthewOtago18 June, 1898.
Walker, the Hon. LancelotCanterbury15 May, 1885.
Walker, the Hon. William CampbellCanterbury15 October, 1892.
Whitmore, the Hon. Sir George Stoddart, K.C.M.G.Hawke's Bay31 August, 1863.
Williams, the Hon. HenryAuckland7 March, 1882.

Clerk of Parliaments, Clerk of the Legislative Council, and Examiner of Standing Orders upon Private Bills—Leonard Stowe.

Clerk-Assistant—Arthur Thomas Bothamley.

Second Clerk-Assistant—George Moore.

Interpreter—Henry S. Hadfield.

House of Representatives

The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is seventy-four—seventy Europeans and four Maoris. This number was fixed by the Act of 1887, which came for the first time into practical operation at the general election of 1890. Previously (from 1881) the House consisted of ninety-five members—ninety-one Europeans and four Maoris. The North Island returns thirty-four European members, and the Middle Island thirty-six. The Cities of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin return each three members, and all other electoral districts one each. The elections are triennial, except in the case of a dissolution by the Governor. Every registered elector, being of the male sex, and free from any of the disqualifications mentioned in section 8 of “The Electoral Act, 1893,” is eligible for membership. All contractors to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly, in any one financial year, as well as the Civil servants of the colony, are incapable of being elected as, or of sitting or voting as, members. The payment made to members of the House of Representatives is £20 per month, amounting to £240 per annum. £2 for every sitting-day exceeding five is deducted on account of absence during session not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. Travelling-expenses to and from Wellington are also allowed. This scale of payment came into force on the 1st January, 1893, under the provisions of “The Payment of Members Act, 1892.” Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum. Unless otherwise ordered, the sitting-days of the House are Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, from 2.30 p.m. to 5.30 p.m., resuming at 7.30 p.m. Order of admission to the Speaker's Gallery is by ticket obtained from the Speaker. The Strangers' Gallery is open free to the public.

Roll, of Members of the House of Representatives, April, 1899

Speaker-The Hem. Sir George Maurice O'Rorke, Kt. Chairman of Committees—Arthur Robert Guinness.

Name.Electoral District.Date of Notification of Return of Writ.
      For European Electorates.
Allen, Edmund GiblettWaikouaiti21 December, 1896.
Allen, JamesBruce21 December, 1896.
Bollard, JohnEden21 December, 1896.
Brown, HenryTaranaki21 December, 1896.
Buchanan, Walter ClarkeWairarapa21 December, 1896.
Cadman, Hon. Alfred JeromeOhinemuri21 December, 1896.
Carncross, Walter Charles FrederickTaieri21 December, 1896.
Carroll, Hon. JamesWaiapu21 December, 1896.
Carson, GilbertWanganui21 December, 1896.
Crowther, WilliamCity of Auckland21 December, 1896.
Duncan, Thomas YoungOamaru21 December, 1896.
Duthie, JohnCity of Wellington12 March, 1898.
Field, Henry AugustusOtaki21 December, 1896.
Fisher, GeorgeCity of Wellington21 December, 1896.
Flatman, Frederick RobertGeraldine21 December, 1896.
Fraser, WilliamWakatipu21 December, 1896.
Gilfedder, MichaelWallace21 December, 1896.
Graham, JohnCity of Nelson21 December, 1896.
Guinness, Arthur RobertGrey21 December, 1896.
Hall-Jones, Hon. WilliamTimaru21 December, 1896.
Herries, William HerbertBay of Plenty21 December, 1896.
Hogg, Alexander WilsonMasterton21 December, 1896.
Holland, James JobCity of Auckland21 December, 1896.
Houston, Robert MorrowBay of Islands21 December, 1896.
Hunter, GeorgeWaipawa21 December, 1896.
Hutcheson, JohnCity of Wellington21 December, 1896.
Hutchison, GeorgePatea21 December, 1896.
Joyce, JohnLyttelton21 December, 1896.
Kelly, James WhyteInvercargill21 December, 1896.
Lang, Frederic WilliamWaikato21 December, 1896.
Lawry, FrankParnell21 December, 1896.
Lethbridge, Frank YatesRangitikei21 December, 1896.
Lewis, CharlesCity of Christchurch21 December, 1896.
McGowan, JamesThames21 December, 1896.
McGuire, FelixHawera21 December, 1896.
McKenzie, Hon. JohnWaihemo21 December, 1896.
Mackenzie, Mackay John ScobieCity of Dunedin21 December, 1896.
McKenzie, RoberickMotucka21 December, 1896.
McLean. Robert Donald DouglasNapier21 December, 1896.
McNab, RobertMataura3 June, 1898.
Massey, William FergusonFranklin21 December, 1896.
Meredith, RichardAshley21 December, 1896.
Millar, John AndrewCity of Dunedin21 December, 1896.
Mills, Charles HoughtonWairau21 December, 1896.
Monk, RichardWaitemata21 December, 1896.
Montgomery, William HughEllesmere21 December, 1896.
Moore, RichardKaiapoi21 December, 1896.
Morrison, ArthurCaversham21 December, 1896.
O'Meara, JohnPahiatua21 December, 1896.
O'Regan, Patrick JosephBuller21 December, 1896.
O'Rorke, Hon. Sir George Maurice, Knt. Bach.Manukau21 December, 1896.
Pirani, FrederickPalmerston21 December, 1896.
Rawlins, Charles ChampionTuapeka7 November, 1898.
Rolleston. Hon. WilliamRiccarton21 December, 1896.
Russell, William RussellHawke's Bay21 December, 1896.
Seddon, Rt. Hon. Richard John, P.C.Westland21 December, 1896.
Sligo, AlexanderCity of Dunedin18 October, 1897.
Smith, George JohnCity of Christchurch21 December, 1896.
Stevens, JohnManawatu21 December, 1896.
Steward. Hon. William JukesWaitaki21 December, 1896.
Symes, WalterEgmont21 December, 1896.
Tanner, William WilcoxAvon21 December, 1896.
Taylor, Thomas EdwardCity of Christchurch21 December, 1896.
Thompson, RobertMarsden21 December, 1896.
Thompson, Hon. ThomasCity of Auckland21 December, 1896.
Thomson, James WilliamClutha21 December, 1896.
Ward, Hon. Joseph GeorgeAwarua13 August, 1897.
Wason, John CathcartSelwyn21 December, 1896.
Wilson, CharlesSuburbs of Wellington28 April, 1897.
Wright, Edward GeorgeAshburton21 December, 1896.
      For Maori Electorates.
Heke, HoneNorthern Maori14 January, 1897.
Kaihau, HenareWestern Maori14 January, 1897.
Parata, TameSouthern Maori14 January, 1897.
Pere, WiEastern Maori14 January, 1897.

Clerk of House of Representatives—H. Otterson.

Clerk-Assistant—A. J. Rutherfurd.

Second Clerk-Assistant—A. F. Lowe.

Sergeant-at-Arms—W. Eraser.

Reader and Clerk of Bills and Papers-E. W. Kano.

Chief Hansard Reporter—J. Grattan Grey.

Interpreters—L. M. Grace, W. E. Goff. Clerk of Writs-H. Pollen.

Deputy Clerk of Writs— ———.

Acting Librarian—H. L. James, B.A.

Chapter 18. OFFICIAL LIST

Table of Contents

[4th April, 1899.]

PREMIER'S OFFICE

Premier—Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C.

Secretary to Cabinet—A. J. Willis

COLONIAL SECRETARY'S DEPARTMENT

Chief Office

Colonial Secretary—Hon. James Carroll (acting)

Under—Secretary—Hugh Pollen Chief Clerk—

Clerks—R. F. Lynch, J. F. Andrews, L. W. Loveday

Officer in Charge of Government Buildings—W. H. Hennah

Audit Office

Controller and Auditor-General—J. K. Warburton. Assistant Controller and Auditor—J. C. Gavin

Chief Clerk—L. C. Roskruge Clerks—W. Dodd, H. S. Pollen, W. G. Holdsworth, E. J. A. Stevenson, C. M. Georgeson, J. Skerrett

Cadet—J. H. Fowler Extra Clerks—D. C. Innes, J. Swift, A.E. Bybles, J. Ward, A. A. Bethune, B. A. Meek, C. E. Briggs

Audit Officer, Agent-General's Office, London—C. F. W. Palliser

Audit Inspectors-P. P. Webb, A. H. Maclean, J. King, A. W. Eames, E. T. Greville, G. H. I. Easton, C. P. Johnson, J. T. Dumbell, W. H. Carlyle, H. A. Lamb

Registrar-General's Office

Registrar-General—E. J. Von Dadelszen Chief Clerk and Deputy Registrar-General-G. Drury

Clerks—F. H. Macliattie, S. Coffey, W. W. Cook.

Cadet—Ben Keys

Registrars of Births, Deaths, and Marriages

Four Chief Towns.

Auckland—E. H. Lyons

Wellington—F. W. Mansfield

Christchurch—J. W. Parkerson

Dunedin—W. J. Hall

Printing and Stationery Department

Government Printer, Stationery Office Manager, and Controller of Stamp Printing—John Mackay

Superintending Overseer—J. Burns Chief Clerk and Accountant—B.B. Allen Clerk and Computer—N. B. K. Manley Clerks — F. Barrand, J. W. Hall, R.

Watts, A. Stace, A. Williams Cadet—R. A. Gray

Hansard Supervisor—M. F. Marks Overseer,—J. J. Gamble, B. Wilson Sub-overseer, Jobbing-room—G. Tattle Overseer, Machine-room—Overseer, Binding Branch—W. Franklin Sub-overseer, Binding Branch—G. H. Broad

Night Foreman—J. F. Rogers Stamp Printer—H. Hume Stereotyperand Electrotyper—W. J. Kirk Readers—W. Fuller, H. S. Mountier Forewoman, Binding Branch — Miss O'Malley Engineer—T. R. Barrer

COLONIAL TREASURER'S DEPARTMENT

Chief Office

Colonial Treasurer—Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C.

Secretary to the Treasury, Receiver-General, Paymaster-General, and Registrar of Consols — James B. Heywood

Accountant to the Treasury—Robert J. Collins

Cashier—C. E. Chittey Corresponding Clerk—H. Blundell Clerks—C. Meacham, R. B. Vincent, W. E. Cooper, J. Driscoll, E. L. Mowbray, A. O. Gibbes, J. Holmes, H. N. W. Church, J. Eman Smith, T. H. Burnett, J. Radcliffe, A. J. Morgan, T. J. Davis, F. H. Tuckey, W. Wilson Cadets—G. A. Fraser, E. J. Fitzgibbon Cadettes—H. L. Hansen, E. Fisher Officer for Payment of Imperial Pensions at Auckland-B. J. Davoney

Friendly Societies' and Trades Unions' Registry Office; also Office of the Registrar under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act

Registrar—E. Mason

Revising Barrister for Friendly Societies and Trades Unions—L. G. Reid Clerk—C. T. Benzoni

Old-age Pensions Office

Registrar—E. Mason

Deputy Registrars—

Auckland—John King, Registrar of Electors

Wellington—F. W. Mansfield, Registrar of Births. &c.

Christchurch—L. C. Williams, Registrar of Electors

Dunedin—James Taylor, Deputy Registrar of Births, &c.

(In all other Pension Districts Clerks of the Magistrates' Courts are the Deputy Registrars)

LAND AND INCOME TAX DEPARTMENT

Commissioner—John McGowan

Deputy Commissioner—G. F. C. Campbell

Chief Clerk—F. J. M. D. Walmsiey Accountant—P. Heyes

Clerks—A. J. McGowan, H. Nancarrow, J. M. King, W. M. Tyers, G. W. Jänisch, J. W. Black, D. R. Purdie, C. V. Kreeft, A. F. Oswin, D. G. Clark, J. Stevenson, J. R. Smyth, R. Hepworth

Cadets—E. Panting, C. E. J. Dowland, C. J. Lovatt

DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE

Head Office

Minister of Justice—Hon. T. Thompson Under-Secretary—F. Waldegrave Translator—G. H. Davies Clerks—C. B. Jordan, C. E. Matthews, W. D. Anderson, G. F. Dixon

Crown Law Office

Attorney-General—(vacant) Solicitor-General—W. S. Reid Assistant Law Officer—L. G. Reid Law Draftsman—F. Fitchett, M. A., LL.D.

Clerk—E. Y. Redward

Patent Office

Registrar of Patents, Designs, and Trademarks—F. Waldegrave

Deputy Registrar—J. C. Lewis Clerks—M. J. Organ, Mary Eyre

Judicial

Supreme Court Judges

Chief Justice—

Wellington—Sir J. Prendergast, Knt. Puisne Judges—

Wellington—W. B. Edwards Auckland—E. T. Conolly Christchurch—J. E Denniston Dunedin—J. S. Williams (on leave), F. W. Pennefather (Acting)

District Court Judges

Wairarapa, Wanganui, New Plymouth, Hawera, and Palmerston North—C. C. Kettle

Nelson—H. W. Robinson

Ashburton, Timaru, Oamaru, Queens-town, Naseby, Lawrence, Invereargil, Hokitika, Greymouth, Westport, Reefton, and Kumara—C. D. R. Ward

Registrars of the Supreme Court

Auckland—H. C. Brewer

New Plymouth—R. L. Stanford

Wanganui—C. C. Kettle

Napier—A. Turnbull

Gisborne—W. A. Barton

Wellington—D. G. A. Cooper

Nelson—H. W. Robinson

Blenheim—J. Allen

Christchurch—A. R. Bloxam

Hokitika—A. H. King

Dunedin—C. McK. Gordon

Invercargill—F. G. Morgan

Sheriffs

Auckland—H. C. Brewer

Taranaki—A. H. Holmes

Hawke's Bay—A. Turnbull

Poverty Bay—W. A. Barton

Wellington—D. G. A. Cooper Wairarapa—W. R Haselden

Wanganui and Rangitikei—A. D. Thomson

Nelson—W. Heaps

Westland North—E. C. Kelling

Central Westland—H. Lucas

Marlborough—J. B. Stoney

Canterbury—A. R. Bloxain

Timaru—C. A. Wray

Westland—A. H. King

Otago—C. McK. Gordon

Southland—J. R. Colyer

Crown Solicitors

Auckland—Hon. J. A. Tole

New Plymouth—A. Standish

Gisborne—J. W. Nolan

Napier—A. J. Cotterill

Wellington—H. Gully

Wanganui—S. T. Fitzherbert

Nelson—C. Y. Fell

Blenheim—R. McCallum

Christchurch—T. W. Stringer

Timaru—J. W. White

Hokitika—

Dunedin—J. F. M. Fraser

Invercargill—T. M. Macdonald

Oamaru—A. G. Creagh

Crown Prosecutors (District Courts)

New Plymouth—A. Standish

Hawera—E. L. Barton

Wanganui and Palmerston North—S. T. Fitzherbert

Masterton—A. R. Bunny

Westport and Recfton—C. E. Harden

Hokitika—J. Park

Greymouth—M. Hannan

Timaru—J. W. White

Oamaru—A. G. Creagh

Nelson—C. Y. Fell

Queenstown—Wesley Turton

Invercargill—T. M. Macdonald

Stipendiary Magistrates

Auckland—H. W. Brabant

Pokeno, Waikato, &c.—T. Jackson

Onehunga, &c.—T. Hutchison*

Russell, &c.—J. S. Clendon

Tauranga, &c.—J. M. Roberts*

Thames, &c.—R. S. Bush*

Gisborne, &c.—J. Booth

New Plymouth—R. L.

Stanford Hawera, &c.—H. W. Northcroft

Wanganui, &c.—C. C. Kettle

Palmerston North, &c.—A. Greenfield

Wellington, &c.—H. Eyre Kenny

Wairarapa, &c.—W. R. Haselden

Napier, &c.—A. Turnbull

Nelson—H. W. Robinson*

Motueka, Collingwood, &c.—Wilson Heaps*

Blenheim, &c.—J. Allen*

Christchurch, &c.—R. Beetham

Kaiapoi, &c.—H. W. Bishop

Timaru, &c.—C. A. Wray

Greymouth, Westport, &c.—H. A. Stratford*

Hokitika, &c.—D. Macfarlane*

Dunedin, &c.—E. H. Carew* and C. C. Graham

Oamaru, &c.—J. Keddell*

Milton, &c.—R. S. Hawkins*

Clyde, &c.—S. E. McCarthy.*

Naseby—S. M. Dalgleish*

Invercargill, &c.—J. W. Poynton*

*Are also Wardens of Goldfields.

Chatham Islands—R. S. Florance

Official Assignees in Bankruptcy

Auckland—J. Lawson, J.P.

Wellington—J. Ashcroft, J.P.

Christchurch—G. L. Greenwood

Dunedin—C. C. Graham, S.M.

Clerks of District and Magistrates' Courts.

New Plymouth—A. H. Holmes

Hawera-A. Trimble

Wanganui—A. D. Thomson

Palmerston North-W. Matravers

Masterton—E. Rawson

Nelson—C. H. Webb-Bowen

Hokitika—C. A. Barton

Kumara—J. McEnnis

Greymouth—B. Harper

Westport—E. C. Kelling

Reefton—H. Lucas

Timaru—T. Howley

Ashburton—T. W. Tayler

Oamaru—H. H. G. Ralfe

Invercargill—J. R. Colyer

Queenstown—H. N Firth

Lawrence—A. M. Eyes

Naseby—John Terry

Receivers of Gold Revenue, Mining Registrars, and Clerks of Wardens' and Magistrates' Courts

Thames—J. Jordan

Coromandel—T. M. Lawler

Paeroa—T. A. Moresby

Te Aroha—D. Banks

Tauranga—J. Thomson

Whangarei—G. M. Robertshaw

Havelock and Cullensville (Marlborough) — H. McArdle

Nelson—C. H. Webb-Bowen

Motueka—H. E. Gilbert

Collingwood—J. T. Foley

Westport—E. C. Kelling

Charleston—T. R. W. Philpotts

Reefton—H. Lucas

Ahaura—A. Askenbeck

Greymouth—B. Harper

Kumara—J. McEnnis

Hokitika—C. A. Barton

Naseby, &c.—John Terry

Wyndham—D. Bogue

Clyde, Blacks, and Alexandra—F. T. D. Jeffrey

Cromwell—J. Fleming

Queenstown and Arrowtown—H. N. Firth

Lawrence—A. M. Eyes

Riverton—A. G. Ashby

Clerks of Magistrates' Courts

Auckland—F. J. Burgess

Gisborne—W. A. Barton

Hamilton—T. Kirk

Napier—R. B. Mathias

Hastings—P. Skerrett

Marton, &c.—F. M. Deighton

Wellington—W. P. James

Blenheim—J. B. Stoney

Christ church-W. Martin

Lyttelton—W. Shanaghan

Kaiapoi—M. Lynskey

Dunedin—W. G. P. O'Callaghan

Native Land Court

Chief Judge—G. B. Davy

Judges—A. Mackay, D. Scannell, R. Ward, H. W. Brabant, W. J. Butler. H. F. Edger, W. G. Mair, H. D. Johnson, J. M. Batham

Registrars—Auckland, J. W. Browne; Gisborne, J. Brooking; Wellington, R. C. Sim

Commissioners of the Native Land Court

R. S. Bush, J. Booth, A. Turnbull, J. S. Clendon, T. Jackson, C. C. Kettle, J. M. Roberts, W. Stuart, H. W. Bishop, E. H. Carew, H. E. Kenny, R. L. Stanford, T. Hutchison, H. W. Robinson, R. S. Florance: Sub-commissioners—J. Brooking, W. A. Thom

Government Native Agent, Otorohanga—G. T. Wilkinson

Validation Court

Chief Judge—G. B. Davy

Judges—The Judges of the Native Land Court

Registrars—The Registrars of the Native Land Court

Coroners

Coroners—Auckland, T. M. Philson, H. W. Brabant, T. Hutchison, E. Baker; Akaroa, G. H. Saxton; Blenheim, J. Allen; Christchurch, R. Beetham and H. W. Bishop; Clyde, S. E. McCarthy; Col' wood, E. Davidson; Coromandel, A. R. H. Swindley; Dunedin, E. H. Carew; Foxton, E. H. Thynne; Gisborne, J.

Booth; Greymouth, H. A. Stratford; Huntly, T. H. White; Hawera, C. E. Major; Hokitika, D. Macfarlane and R. W. Wade; Invercargill, J. W. Poynton; Lawrence, R. S. Hawkins; Marton. A. Ross; Masterton, W. R. Haselden; Napier, A. Turnbull; Naseby, S. M. Dalgleish; Nelson, H. W. Robinson, and L. G. Boor; New Plymouth, R. L. Stanford; Oamaiu, J. Keddell; Opotiki, S. Bates; Otahuhu, S. Luke; Otaki, W. H. Simcox; Paeroa, W. Forrest; Palmerston on North, A. Greenfield and G. M. Snelson; Pokeno, T. Jackson; Port Albert, J. Shepherd; Pahi, J. B. Ariell; Queenstown, L. Hotopand S. E. McCarthy; Raglan, W. H. Wallis; Stratford, H. J. C. Coutts; Tauranga, A. C. H. Tovey and J. M. Roberts; Te Awamutu, T. Gresham; Trmaru, C. A. Wray; Te Kopuru, T. Webb; Thames, A. Bruce and R. S. Bush; Waimate, E. M. Williams; Waipawa, S. Johnson; Wellington, J. Ashcroft; Wangauni, H. W. Northcroft and C. C. Kettle; Whangarei, J. Bell; Woodville, E. J. Gothard; Chatham Islands, R. S. Florance

New Zealand Police Force

Head Office

Commissioner—John Bennett Tunbridge Clerks—John Evans, John Tasker, William John Mahoney Cadet—Walter Gollan

Police Department

Inspectors—Thomas Broham, Peter Pender, William Stone Pardy, Francis McGovern, John Cullen. John Wybrant Ellison, Robert. James Gillies

Sub—Inspectors—Terence O'Brien, Ewen McDonnell, Nicholas Kiely, Edward Wilson

Prisons Department

Inspector—Lieut-Colonel Arthur Hume, N. Z. M.

Clerk—T. E. Richardson

Gaolers—Auckland, George Sinclair

Reston; Dunedin, Samuel Charles Phillips; Hokitika, Michael Flannery; Invercargill, John Henry Bratby; Lyttelton, Matthew Michael Cleary; Napier, Francis Edward Severne; New Plymouth, Bartholomew Lloyd O'Brien; Wanganui, Robert T. N. Beasley; Wellington, Patrick Samuel Garvey

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE

Minister—Hon. T. Thompson Clerk—A. M. Smith

DEPARTMENT OF LABOUR

Minister of Labour—Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C.

Secretary for Labour and Chief Inspector of Factories—E. Tregenr

Chief Clerk—James Mackay Clerk—F. W. T. Rowley

Cadet—F. A. De la Mare

Shorthand Writer and Typist—J. W. Collins

Inspectors of Factories

North Island—J. Mackay, J. Shanaghan, H. Ferguson, L. D. Browett, W. J. Blake, Margaret. Hawthorne, and 71 local Inspectors

South Island—J. Mackay, J. Shanaghan, J. Lomas, H. Maxwell, W. J. McKeown, Margaret Hawthorne, and 68 local Inspectors (There are also 200 Bureau Agents in different parts of the colony.)

PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT

Head Office

Minister for Public Works—Hon. W. Hall-Jones

Under-Secretary—H. J. H. Blow Engineer-in-Chief—W. H. Halcs

Superintending Engineer—P. S. Hay, M.A., M.Inst.C.E.

Chief Clerk—W. D. Dumbell

Accountant—G. J. Clapham

Land-purchase Officer—H. Thompson

Record Clerk—H. W. H. Millais

Clerks—C. T. Rushbrook, A. S. Lewis, A. Biddell, E. McCarthy, E. Bold, A. R. Stone, E. Hornemau, H. R. Rae, N. Jacobs, P. S. Waldie, F. E. Banks, A. H. Kimbell, A. L. Goldfinch, L. White

Chief Draughtsman—W. G. Rutherford Architect—J. Campbell

Draughtsmen—T. Perham, E. Jackson, A. Koch, W. Withers, E. McC. Blake, W. G. Swan, J. H. Price, G. Bjornstad, W. A. Smith, C. A. Lawrence, L. L. Richards Engineering Cadet—J. J. Wilson Head Storekeeper—John Young

District Offices

District Engineers—Auckland, C. R.

Vickerman; Dunedin, E. R. Ussher, M.Inst C.E.

Resident Engineers—Hunterville, G. L. Cook, M.Tnst.C E.; West port, R. A. Young, Assoc. M.I.C.E.; Greymouth, J. Thomson, B.E.; Jackson's, J. A. Wilson; Hyde, W. A. Shain. In charge of North Island Main Trunk Railway survey, R. W. Holmes

Assistant Engineers—A. C. Koch, J. D. Louch, F. M. Hewson, D. Ross, J. J. Hay. M.A., W. H. Gavin, T. Roberts, J. H. Dobson, J. S. Stewart, S. J. Harding, F. H. Geieow, C. E. Armstrong, J. H. Lewis, H. Dickson, J. W. E. McEnnis, A. Jack, F. W. Furkert, J. Meenan

Engineering Cadets—W. A Jeff, W. Sherratt, C. J. McKenzie, F. P. Bartley

Clerks, Draughtsmen, &c.—W. Black, C. Wood, P. F. M. Burrows, L. F. Tegner, W. A. Camming, J. H. Denton, W. H. Hislop, E. Waddell, G. Glenister, J. C. Fulton, T. Douglas, J. B. Borton, C. Scholfield, H F. Doogan, C. E. Crawford, L. P. Cabot, W. E. Butler, W. E. Fitzgerald, L. M. Shera, A. W. Hamann

RAILWAYS DEPARTMENT

Minister for Railways—Hon. A. J. Cadman

General Manager—T. Ronayne

Assistant General Manager—C. Hudson Chief Clerk—T. W. Waite

Clerks—R. W. Mc Villy, E. J. Andrews, B. M. Wilson, W. S. Ridler, F. S. Pope, W. Johnston, J. E. Widdop, W. H. Gifford, A. J. Will, W. H. Warren, S. S. Millington, D. Sinclair

Audit Inspectors—H. Baxter, D. Munro, C. L. Russell

Railway Accountant—A. C. Fife

Clerks—H. Davidson, J. H. Davies, G. G. Wilson, M. C. Rowe, S. P. Curtis, J. McLean, E. Davy, A. Morris, E. P. Brogan, C. Batten, W. B. Fisher, J. Firth, E. J. Fleming, H. H. Leopard, R. J. Loe, F. W. Lash, A. H. Hunt, W. Bourke, W. H. Hales, W. E. Ahern, F. K. Porteous, T. A. O'Connor, H. H. Bell

Stores Manager—G. Felton

Clerks—A. M. Heaton, F. J. Dawes, G. H. Norie, S. Alpe, H. W. Barbor, R. H. Stephens. E. J. Maguiness, H. R. Carey. L. B. Archibald, J. M. Skinner, G. B. Cope, J. R. Robertson

District Managers—Kaihu, T. H. Barstow; Auckland, A. Grant; Wanganui, H. Buxton; Napier and Welling ton, T. E. Donne; Greymouth, C. A. Piper; Picton, H. B. Dobbie; Nelson, G. E. Rich Christchurch, W. H. Gaw; T. Arthur; Invereargill, S. F. Whitcombe

Station masters in charge—Kawakawa, R. B. Peat; Whangarei, A. B. Duncan; Westport, T. Hay-Mackenzie

Chief Engineer for Working Railways—J. H. Lowe, M, Inst. CE.

Inspecting Engineer—J. Coom, M.Inst. C. E.

Signal Engineer—A. H. Johnson

Railway Land Officer—E. G. H. Mainwaring

Chief Draughtsman—G. A. Troup

Draughtsmen—J. Besant, W. R. B. Bagge, C. T. Jeffreys. A. S. Henderson, H. D. Thomson, W. R. Davidson

Clerks—W. P. Hicks, M. Angus, J. T. Ford, W. A. Miruins, H. Jessup, H. W. Rowden, H. H. Gardner, P. J. McGovern, E. D. Richards, A. N. Longton, D. F. Sullivan

District Engineers—Auckland, C. H. Biss; Wanganui, D. T. McIntosh; Wellington, H. Macandrew; Westport, J. D. Harris; Greymouth, H. St. J. Christophers; Christchurch, James Burnett; Dunedin, F. W. MacLean

Assistant Engineer. Invercargill—A. J. McCredie

Locomotive Superintendent—T. F. Rotheram

Clerks—R. Triggs, R. Aekins, C. G. Edwards, G. G. Haldane, J. Rumgay, W. B. Sinclair, E. L. Forward, C. H. Virtue, N. G. Ward, H. McKeowen, C. M. Hill, E. J. Guthrie, G. H. Reynolds, N. P. G. Ewart, C. L. Pettit

Chief Draughtsman—G. A. Pearson

Draughtsmen—R. Pye-Smith, E. E. Gillon, W. A. Palmer

Locomotive Engineers-Auckland, A. V. Macdonald; Wanganui-Napier, H. H. Jackson; Wellington, T. A. Peterkin; Hurunui—Bluff, A. L. Beattie; Relieving, J. H. Fox

Board of Appeal

North Island

H. Eyre Kenny, Stipendiary Magistrate, Chairman, appointed by the Governor.

H. Davidson, Railway Accountant's Office' elected.

T. Wilson, Fireman, elected.

Middle Island

C. D. R. Ward, District Judge. Chairman, appointed by the Governor.

T. W. Brebner, Stationmaster, elected.

P. E. Nolan, Signalman, elected.

POST AND TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT

General Post Office

Postmaster-General and Commissioner of Electric Telegraphs—Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C.

Secretary—W. Gray

Superintendent of Electric Lines—J. K. Logan

Assistant Secretary and Inspector—T. Rose

Controller of Money-orders and Savings banks, and Accountant—G. Gray

Chief Clerk—D. Robertson

Clerks—W. R. Morris, E. V. Senn, F. V. Waters, H. Plimmer, J. C. Williamson, W. Crow, W. Isbister, L. Ledger, V. J. Brogan, W. Callaghan, G. W. Moorhouse, W. Chegwidden, H. S. B. Miller. H. Huggins, G. V. Hudson, F. Perrin, H. D. Grocott, J. Brennan, H. Cornwall, R. J. Thompson, R. E. Hayes, J. J. Esson, D. A. Jenkins, E Fitzsimons, H. N. McLeod, J. C. Redmond, C. B. Harton, H. A. Smith, W. J. Drake, J. D. Avery, A. H. Tucker, J. G. Roache, J. Coyle, F. W. Faber, W. H. Carter, P. Tyrrell, A. T. Markmann, P. Kelleher, W. A. Tanner, G. H. Harris, H. C. Hickson, C. Dempsey, P. D. Hoskins, H. C. Milne, J. G. Howard, W. R. Wakelin, C. J. Panting, F. Stewart, T. E. Diamond, F. W. Furby, R. A. Keenan, J. B. Jordan, N. M. Chesney, F. G. A. Eagles, E. Bermingham, C. Bermingham, S. Brock, E. Harris, B. Kenny, V. Johnston, M. A. McLeod, C. Smith, M. A. Asquith

Electrician—W. C. Smythe

Assistant Electrician—T. Buckley

Mechanician—R. Heinitz

Assistant Mechanician—F. Palmer

Storekeeper—J. Black

Assistant Storekeeper—C. B. Mann

Clerks in Store—C. Nicholls, T. Palmer

Cadets in Store—F. H. Guinness, M. McGilvray

Circulation Branch (Post Office)—J. Hoggard, Chief Clerk

Inspectors of Telegraphs

Auckland—E. H. Bold

Christchurch—W. G. Meddings

Dunedin—J. Orchiston

Assistant Inspectors of Post Offices

D. Cumming, C. J. A. H. Tipping, S. P. Stevens

Sub-Inspector of Telegraphs

Nelson—J. W. Gannaway

Chief Postmasters

Auckland—S. B. Biss

*Thames—J. E. Coney

*Gisborne—G. W. Sampson

Napier—S. J. Jago

*New Plymouth—F. D. Holdsworth

*Wanganui—J. F. McBeth

*Blenheim—J. Bull

*Nelson—H. Calders

*Westport—J. H. Sheath

*Greymouth—C. J. Berry

*Hokitika—W. St. G. Douglas

Christchurch—R. Kirton

*Timaru—J. A. Hutton

*Oamaru—W. W. Beswick

Dunedin—E. Cook

*Invercargill—J. W. Wilkin

* Combined post- and telegraph-offices.

Officers in Charge of Telegraph Offices

Auckland—W. S. Furby

Napier—H. W. Harrington

Wellington—C. C. Robertson

Christchurch—J. W. Mason

Dunedin—J. G. Ballard

Board of Appeal

J. McGowan, Commissioner of Taxes, Chairman (by Act).

J. K. Logan, Superintendent of Electric Lines (by Act).

F. M. Scully, Representing Postal Branch, elected.

W. McNickle, Representing Telegraph Branch, elected.

DEPARTMENT OF TRADE AND CUSTOMS

Commissioner of Trade and Customs—

Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, P.C.

Secretary and Inspector of Customs and Secretary of Marine—W. T. Glasgow.

Chief Clerk—T. Larchin

Clerks, Customs—F. Oxford, V. R. Meredith, C. H. Manson

Audit—. W. Brewer, H. Crowther (Writer)

Collectors of Customs

Auckland—A. Rose

Poverty Bay—E. Pasley

New Plymouth—H. Bedford

Napier—E. R. C. Bowen

Wellington—D. McKellar

Wanganui—A. Elliott

Wairau—W. J. Hawley

Nelson—W. Heaps

Westport—J. Mills

Greymouth—A. McDowell

Hokitika—E. Chilman

Lyttelton and Christchurch—E. Patten

Timaru—A. Hart

Oamaru—J. P. Ridings

Dunedin—C. W. S. Chamberlain

Invercargill and Bluff Harbour—D. Johnston, jun.

Officers in Charge of Ports, and Coastwaiters

Thames—T. C. Bayldon, Coastwaiter

Russell—H. Stephenson, Coastwaiter

Tauranga—E. Northcroft, Officer in Charge

Whangaroa—A. G. Ratclifte, Coastwaiter

Whangarei—J. Munro, Coastwaiter

Mongonui—A. D. Clemett, Officer in Charge

Hokianga—G. Martin, Coastwaiter

Kaipara—J. C. Smith, Officer in Charge

Waitara—J. Cameron, Coastwaiter

Foxton—J. B. Imrie, Officer in Charge

Patea—J. W. Glenny, Officer in Charge

Picton—F. J. Robertshaw, Officer in Charge

Chatham Islands—R. S. Florance, Officer in Charge

MARINE DEPARTMENT

Minister of Marine—Hon. W. Hall-Jones

Secretary—W. T. Glasgow

Chief Clerk—G. Allport

Clerks—J. J. D. Grix, G. Sinclair

Cadet—A. P. Owens

Marine Engineer for the Colony—W. H. Hales

Nautical Adviser and Chief Examiner of Masters and Mates—(vacant)

Examiner of Masters and Mates—Wellington, R. A. Edwin, Com. R.N.

Weather Reporter—R. A. Edwin, Com. R.N.

Examiners of Masters and Mates, Auckland—T.C. Tilly and J. Adamson

Examiner of Musters and Mates, Lyttelton—J. A. H. Marciel

Examiner of Masters and Mates, Dunedin—W. J. Grey

Chief Inspector of Machinery, Principal Engineer Surveyor, and Chief Examiner of Engineers—R. Duncan

Inspectors of Machinery, Engineer Surveyors, and Examiners of Engineers:—Auckland—W. J. Jobson and L. Blackwood; Wellington—H. A. McGregor, P. Carman, and A. McVicar; Christ-church—G. Croll; Dunedin—A. Morrison and H. Wetherilt

Master of s.s. Tutanekai—C F. Post

Master of s.s. Hinemoa—J. Bollons

Inspectors of Sea Fisheries

Russell—H. Stephenson

Whangarei—J. Munro

Wellington—F. Moorhouse

Hokitika—J. Duncan

Bluff—P. McGrath

Harbourmasters.*

* The more important harbours are controlled by local Boards, not by the Marine Department.

Collingwood—F. Stallard

Foxton—A. Seabury

Hokianga—G. Martin

Kaipara—J. Christy Smith

Manukau—J. Neale

Motueka—H. L. Moffatt

Nelson—F. W. Cox

Picton—H. B. Dobbie

Port Robinson—J. Sinclair

Russell—H. Stephenson

Waitapu—S. G. Robinson

STAMP DEPARTMENT

Commissioner of Stamp Duties—Hon. Jas. Carroll

Secretary for Stamps—C. A. St. G. Hickson

Chief Clerk and Accountant—H. O. Williams

Custodian and Issuer of Stamps—W. H. Shore

Record and Receiving Clerk—J. P. Murphy

Clerk—J. Murray

Chief Stamper—C. Howe

Cadet—W. Wilkes

Deputy Commissioners of Stamps

Auckland—E. Bamford

Gisborne—C. H. W. Dixon

Taranaki—R. L. Stanford

Hawke's Bay—Thos. Hall

Wellington—C. A. St. G. Hickson

Wanganui—J. F. McBeth

Nelson—W. W. de Castro

Marlborough—A. V. Sturtevant

Canterbury—E. Denham

Timaru—J. A. Hutton

Otago—P. C. Corliss

Southland—F. G. Morgan

Westland—A. H. King

LAND TRANSFER DEPARTMENT AND DEEDS REGISTRY

Registrar-General of Land and Deeds—G. B. Davy

Secretary, Land and Deeds—C. A. St. G. Hickson

District land Registrars and Registrars of Deeds

Auckland—E. Bamford

Taranaki—R. L. Stanford

Wellington—Win. Stuart

Hawke's Bay—Thos. Hall

Gisborne—J. M. Batham

Nelson—H. W. Robinson

Marlborough—J. Allen

Canterbury—G. G. Bridges, District Land Registrar; E. Denham, Registrar of Deeds

Otago—H. Turton

Southland—F. G. Morgan

Westland—A. H. King

Examiners of Titles

Auckland—E. Bamford

Taranaki—R. L. Stanford

Wellington—Wm. Stuart, H. Howorth

Hawke's Bay—Thos. Hall

Gisborne—J. M. Batham

Nelson—H. W. Robinson

Marlborough—Wm. Stuart

Canterbury—G. G. Bridges

Otago—H. Turton

Southland—F. G. Morgan

Westland—A. H. King

Registrar of Joint-stock Companies

C. A. St. G. Hickson

Registrars of Building Societies, Industrial and Provident Societies, and Assistant Registrars of Joint stock Companies

Auckland—E. Bamford

Taranaki—R. L. Stanford

Hawke's Bay—Thos. Hall

Wellington—H. O. Williams

Nelson—W. W. de Castro

Marlborough—A. V. Sturtevant

Canterbury—E. Denham

Otago—P. C. Corliss

Southland—F. G. Morgan

Westland—A. H. King

Poverty Bay—C. H. W. Dixon

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

Minister of Education (administering also Native schools, industrial schools, and the institution for deaf-mutes)—Hon. W. C. Walker

Secretary for Education and Inspector-General of Schools—George Hogben, M.A.

Assistant Secretary—Sir E. O. Gibbes, Bart.

Clerks—F. K. de Castro. H. B. Kirk, M.A., R. H. Pope, F. L. Severne, E. C. Banks, F. D. Thomson, T. G. Gilbert

Inspector of Native Schools—James H. Pope. Assistant Inspector—H. B. Kirk. M.A.

Education Boards

Auckland—V. E. Rice, Secretary

Taranaki—(vacant), Secretary

Wanganui—A. A. Browne, Secretary

Wellington—A. Dorset, Secretary

Hawke's Bay—G. T. Fannin, Secretary

Marlborough—J. Smith, Secretary

Nelson—S. Ellis, Secretary

Grey—W. Riemenschneider, Secretary

Westland—A.J. Morton, B.A., Secretary

Canterbury North—H. C. Lane, Secretary

Canterbury South—J. H. Bamfield, Secretary

Otago—P. G. Pryde, Secretary

Southland—J. Neill, Secretary

School Commissioners

(Administrators of Education Reserves). Auckland—H. N. Garland, Secretary

Taranaki—(vacant), Secretary

Wellington—N. J. Tone, Secretary

Hawke's Bay—E. P. A. Platford, Secretary

Marlborough—J. Smith, Secretary

Nelson—A. T. Jones, Secretary

Westland—A. J. Morton, Secretary

Canterbury—H. H. Pitman, Steward of Reserves

Otago—C. Macandrew, Secretary

Industrial Schools

Government Schools

Auckland Industrial School—Miss S. E. Jackson, Manager

Burnham Industrial School (Canterbury) —T. Archey, Manager

Caversham Industrial School (Otago)—G. M. Burlinson, Manager

Private Schools

St. Mary's Industrial School. Ponsonby—Rev. G. H. Gillan, Manager

St. Joseph's Industrial School, Wellington—Rev. W. J. Lewis, Manager

St. Mary's Industrial School, Nelson—Rev. W. J. Mahoney, Manager

St. Vincent de Paul's Industrial School, Dunedin—Rev. P. Murphy, Manager

Institution for Deaf-mutes, Sumner

Director—G. van Asch

Steward—H. Buttle

LUNATIC ASYLUMS

Inspector—Duncan MacGregor, M.A., M.B., C.M.*

*Also holds appointment of Inspector of Hospitals and Charitable Institutions.

Deputy Inspector—Mrs. Grace Neill

Medical Superintendent, Auckland Asylum—R. M. Beattie, M.B.

Medical Superintendent, Christchurch Asylum—E. G. Levinge, M.B.

Medical Superintendent, Porirua Asylum—Gray Hassell, M.D.

Medical Superintendent, Wellington Asylum—T. R. King, M.D.

Medical Superintendent, Seacliff Asylum—F. Truby King, M.B.

Superintendent, Hokitika Asylum—H. Gribben; Medical Officer, H. Macandrew, M.B.

Superintendent, Nelson Asylum—J. Morrison; Medical Officer, A. G. Talbot, M.B.

Ashburn Hall, Waikari (private asylum)—Proprietors, Dr. Alexander and Executor of James Hume; Medical Officer, Frank Hay, M.B.

MINES DEPARTMENT

Chief Office

Minister of Mines—Hon. A. J. Cadman

Under-Secretary for Mines—H. J. H. Eliott

Inspecting Engineer—George Wilson

Chief Clerk—T. H. Eamer

Clerk—H. E. Radcliffe

Analyst—W. Skey

Geologist—Alexander McKay, F.G.S.

Assistant Geologist—W. A. McKay

Draughtsman—C. H. Pierard

Cadet—J. T. Watkins

Inspectors of Mines

Thames and Auckland Districts—James Coutts; Assistant Inspector, Thomas Ryan; Canterbury, Dunedin, and Southland Districts—J. Hayes; Cadet, H. Paton; West Coast Districts—R. Tennent; Assistant Inspector—A. H. Richards

Mining Bureau

Secretary—P. Galvin

Managers of Water-races

Waimea-Kumara—A. Aitken

Mount Ida—R. Murray

Schools of Mines

Lecturers and Instructors: Thames—F. B. Allen, M.A., B. Sc.; Assistant, W. H. Baker; Reefton—; Coromandel—J. M. MacLaren, M.A.; Waihi—P. G. Morgan, M.A.

Board of Examiners under “The Coal-mines Act, 1891.”

The Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand; the Surveyor-General; the Inspecting Engineer of Mines; the Chief Inspector of Machinery, Wellington; James Bishop, of Brunnerton; Thomas Brown, of Denniston; and William Shore, of Kaitangata

Board of Examiners under “The Mining Act. 1891.”

Same official members as above Board, with the following private members: H. A. Gordon and Thomas Aitken Dunlop, of the Thames; Patrick Quirk Caples, of Reefton, and Francis Hodge, of Coromandel.

The Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand is Chairman of both Boards, and Mr. T. H. Homer is the Secretary.

Geological Survey, Museum, and Observatories

Minister in Charge—The Hon. Minister of Mines

Director—Sir J. Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S.

Clerk, Curator, and Meteorological Observer for Wellington—R. B. Gore

Astronomical Observer—T. King

Meteorological Observer, Auckland—T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S.

Meteorological Observer, Dunedin—H. Skey

Meteorological Observer, New Plymouth—E. Veale

Meteorological Observer, Hokitika—A. D. Macfarlane

New Zealand Institute

Manager—Sir J. Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S.

Hon. Treasurer—W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S.

Secretary—R. B. Gore

DEFENCE DEPARTMENT

Minister of Defence—Hon. T. Thompson

Under-Secretary—Sir A. P. Douglas, Bart. (Retired Lieutenant R.N.), Major N.Z.M.

Commander of the N.Z. Forces

Colonel Arthur Pole Penton, R.A.

Staff-officer to the Commander of the N.Z. Forces

Major Wm. Robarts Napier Madocks, N.Z.M. (Lieutenant R.A.)

Clerk—T. F. Grey

Cadet—A. J. Baker

Defence Store Department

Storekeeper—Capt. S. C. Anderson.

Assistant Storekeeper—T. H. Sewell

Clerk—J. O'Sullivan

New Zealand Permanent Militia

No. 1 Service Company

Major W. B. Messenger

Captain H. C. Morrison

Captain J. Coleman

Lieutenant J. E. Hume

Lieutenant H. E. Pilkington

Lieutenant W. P. Wall

Inspectors of Submarine Mining Establishment

Captain J. Falconer

Captain William Coyle

No. 2 Service Company

Captain J. Falconer

Captain William Coyle

Quartermaster, Permanent Militia

Captain S. C. Anderson

Surgeon, Permanent Militia (Wellington)

John Teare, M.B.

Surgeon, Permanent Militia (Auckland)

John Wilkins, M.R.C.S.E.

Surgeon, Permanent Militia (Lyttelton)

C. H. Upham, M.R.C.S.E.

Honorary Surgeon, Permanent Militia

Patrick J. O'Neill O'Carroll, L.R.C.S.I.

Honorary Chaplain, Lyttelton Detachment Permanent Militia

The Rev. E. E. Chambers

Honorary Chaplain, Wellington Detachment Permanent Militia

The Rev. W. C. Waters, M.A.

Officers Commanding Militia and Volunteer Districts, and Adjutants

Auckland—Lieut.-Colonel Joseph Henry Banks, N.Z.M. (late Major H.M. 7th Dragoon Guards, &c.). Acting Adjutant: Captain John Grant, N.Z. Vols.

Wellington—Lieut.-Colonel Stuart Newall, N.Z.M.

Canterbury—Lieut.-Colonel Henry Gordon, N.Z.M., late H.M. 44th Foot

North Otago (sub-district)—V.D. Major Alfred Headland

Otago—Lieut.-Colonel William Holden Webb, N.Z.M., late S.M. 109th Foot

Southland (sub-district)—Captain John Edward Hawkins

Nelson—V.D. Lieut.-Colonel Albert Pitt, N.Z.M. Adjutant: Wm. S. Little-john (Captain, Nelson College Cadets)

DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND SURVEY

HEAD OFFICE

Minister of Lands—Hon. John McKenzie

Surveyor - General and Secretary for Crown Lands—S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S. Assistant. Surveyor-General and Under-Secretary for Crown Lands—Alexander Barron

Chief Draughtsman—F. W. Flanagan

Chief Clerk—W.S. Short

Chief Accountant—H. J. Knowles

Auditor of Land Revenue—W. G. Runcie

Superintendent of Village-settlements—J. E. March

Auckland District

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—G. J. Mueller

District Surveyors—L. Cussen, J. Baber, jun., G. A. Martin, A. H. Vickerman, H. D. M. Haszard

Assistant Surveyors—T. K. Thompson, R. S. Galbraith

Road Surveyors—C. W. Hursthouse, A. B. Wright, R. H. Reaney

Chief Draughtsman—W. C. Kensington

Receiver of Land Revenue—T. M. Taylor

Hawke's Bay District

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—E. C. Gold-Smith (also District Land Officer, Gisborne)

District Surveyors—L. Smith, James Hay, W. J. Wheeler

Assistant Surveyor—P. A. Dalziel, J. Mouat

Chief Draughtsman—F. Simpson

Receiver of Land Revenue—F. Bull

Taranaki District

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—J. Strauchon

District Surveyors—H. M. Skeet, G. H. Bullard

Assistant-Surveyors—J. F. Frith, W. T. Morpeth

Road Surveyor—G. F. Robinson

Chief Draughtsman—F. E. Clarke

Receiver of Land Revenue—G. P. Doile

Wellington District

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—J. W. A. Marchant

District Surveyors—J. D. Climie, F. A. Thompson, H. J. Lowe

Assistant Surveyors—J. McKay, J. G. Littlejohn, H. Maitland

Road Surveyors—G. T. Murray, A. C. Turner

Chief Draughtsman—J. Mackenzie

Receiver of Land Revenue—T. G. Wait

Nelson District

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—T. Humphries

District Surveyors—J. A. Montgomerie, J. Snodgrass, R. T. Sadd

Assistant Surveyors—J. D. Thomson, D. Innes Barron

Chief Draughtsman and Receiver of Land Revenue—H. Trent

Caretaker, Hanmer Springs—J. Rogers

Manager, Hanmer Springs Sanatorium—D. McDonald

Marlborough District

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—C. W. Adams

District Surveyors—F. S. Smith, D. W. Gillies

Assistant Surveyor—E. W. Buckeridge

Chief Draughtsman and Receiver of Land Revenue—G. Robinson

Westland District

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—W G. Murray

Assistant Surveyor—W. Wilson

Road Surveyor—F. B. Wither

Chief Draughtsman and Receiver of Land Revenue—G. J. Roberts

Canterbury District

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—S. Weetman

District Surveyors—T. N. Broderick, G. H. M. McChire, L. O. Mathias

Chief Draughtsman—C. B. Shanks

Receiver of Land Revenue—A. A. McNab

Otago District

Commissioner of Crown Lands—J. P. Maitland

Chief Surveyor—John Hay

District Surveyor—J. Langmuir, E. H. Wilmot, D. M. Calder

Assistant Surveyors—W. D. R. McCurdie, W. T. Neill

Chief Draughtsman—S. Thompson

Receiver of Land Revenue—G. A. Reade

Southland District

Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—David Barron

Assistant Surveyor—A. Hodgkinson

Chief Draughtsman—J. G. Clare

Receiver of Land Revenue—H. L. Welch

Members of Land Boards

Auckland—G. Mueller, R. Thompson, B. Harris, D. Lundon, J. Renshaw

Hawke's Bay—E. C. Gold-Smith, C. Hall, T. Hyde, R. R. Groom, G. Mathewson

Taranaki—J. Strauchon, T. Kelly, C. K. Stock, J. Heslop, H. J. C. Coutts

Wellington—J. W. A. Marchant, A. W. Hogg, J. Stevens, H. A. Field, A. Reese Nelson—Thomas Humphries, John Graham, D. Bate, F. Hamilton, O. Lynch

Marlborough—C. W. Adams, C. H. Mills, J. Redwood, A. P. Seymour

Westland—W. G. Murray, A. Matheson, J. Chesney, J. S. Lang

Canterbury—S. Weetman, A. C. Pringle, R. Meredith, D. McMillan, J. McLachlan

Otago—J. P. Maitland; H. H. Kirkpatrick, H. Clark, J. Duncan, W. Dallas

Southland—David Barron, A. Kinross, J. McIntyre, A. Baldey, D. King

Board of Examiners of Surveyors

The Surveyor-General; the Assistant Surveyor-General; the Chief Surveyors for the Land Districts of Wellington, Hawke's Bay, Nelson, and Canterbury

Secretary to Beard—T. M. Grant

“THE LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS ACT, 1894.”

Board of Land Purchase Commissioners

Chairman of Board and Land Purchase Inspector—Jas. McKerrow, F.R.A.S.

The Board consists of the Land Purchase Inspector as Chairman, the Surveyor - General, the Commissioner of Taxes—these for the whole colony—with the Commissioners of Crown Lands and a member of the Land Board in each land district, who are members only for the business arising within their respective districts.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Chief Office

Minister in Charge—Hon. J. McKenzie

Secretary of Agriculture and Chief Inspector of Stock—John D. Ritchie

Assistant, Chief Inspector of Stock—T. A. Fraser

Chief Clerk—Richard Evatt

Clerk and Biologist—T. W. Kirk, F.L.S.

Assistant Entomologist at Auckland—Thomas Broun, F.E.S.

Veterinary Surgeons—J. A. Gilruth, M.R.C.V.S. (Chief); Archibald Park, M.R.C.V.S.; C. J. Reakes, M.R.C.V.S.

Produce Commissioner, London—H. C. Cameron

Dairy Commissioner—J. A. Ruddick

Dairy Instructors and Graders—James Sawers, J. T. Lang, A. A. Thornton, R. W. D. Robertson, James Johnston, A. Büsck

Pomologists—W. J. Palmer, J. C. Blockmore, S. I. Fitch

Poultry Expert—D. D. Hyde

Inspectors of Stock

Auckland—E. Clifton (in charge), F. Schaw, Auckland; D. Fleming, Whangarei; D. Ross, Hamilton; H. E. Collett, Whakatane

Napier—W. Miller (in charge), H. Oldham, Napier; W. R. Rutherfurd, Napier; C. Thomson, Grisborne; J. Harvey, Woodville

Wairarapa—G. H. Jenkinson, Masterton (in charge); F. G. Wayne, Carterton

Wellington—J. Drummond, Wellington

West Coast—A. K. Blundell (in charge), Wanganui; F. E. Orbell, Hawera; H. G. J. Hull, Palmerston North

Nelson—H. M. Campbell, Nelson (in charge); G. S. Cooke, Richmond

Marlborough—John Moore, Bienheim

Westland—V. A. Huddleston, Hokitika

Canterbury—Kaikoura—R. F. Holderness (in charge), E. A. Dowden, Christ-church; C. A. Cunningham, Rangiora; J. C. Huddleston, Rotherham; Blair Fullarton, Ashburton

South Canterbury—C. C. Empson, Timaru; J. W. Deem, Fairlie; F. H. Brittain, Kurow

Otago—J. E. Thomson, Dunedin; J. S. Nichol, Outram; J. C. Miller, Oamaru; R. Bree, Milton; J. L. Bruce, Balclutha; A. Ironside, Clyde; R. I. Gossage, Naseby; A. Mills, Lawrence; James Duncan, Palmerston; E. A. Field, Gore; H. T. Turner, Invercargill; J. A. Easton, Riverton; J. W. Raymond, Bluff

VALUATION DEPARTMENT

Valuer General—John McGowan

Deputy Valuer-General—G. F. C. Campbell

Chief Clerk—F. J. M. D. Walmsley

Clerks—J. P. Dugdale, H. L. Wiggins, A. W. Knowles, H. O'Rourke, J. T. Bolt, H. Redmond, J. Ferguson

Draughtsman—H. H. Seed

Supervising Valuers—W. Duncan, Auckland; A. Barns, Wanganui; T. K. Macdonald, Wellington; A. P. O'Callaghan, Christchurch; A. McKerrow, Dunedin; H. Carswell, Invercargill

District Valuers—James I. Wilson, jun., Whangarei; J. J. Reynolds, Auckland; W. Garrett, Paeroa; W. H. Wallis, Hamilton; Ian S. Simson, Gisborne; W. E. Griffin, Napier; S. Hill, New-Plymouth; R. Gardner, Palmerston North; J. Fraser, Masterton; E.Kenny, Picton; J. Webster, Hokitika; D. Dick, Ashley; J. Whitelaw, Christchurch; A. Freeman, Christchurch; A. Allan, Timaru; E. A. Atkinson, Oamaru; W. L. Craig, Palmerston South; W. Dallas, Balclutha; A. J. Burns, Dunedin; J. George, Queenstown; T. Green, Gore; A. Macpherson, Invercargill

Clerks—Auckland, E. W. Watson; Christ-church, J. M. Wheeler, A. Millar; Dunedin, A. Clothier; Invercargill, T. Oswin, C. de R. Andrews

Cadets—Christchurch, E. J. R. Cumming; Dunedin, H. A. Anderson

GOVERNMENT LIFE INSURANCE DEPARTMENT

Commissioner—J. H. Richardson, F.F.A., F.I.A.V.

Assistant Commissioner—D. M. Luckie

Actuary—Morris Fox

Secretary—W. B. Hudson

Chief Medical Officer—T. Cahill, M.D.

Accountant—G. W. Barltrop

Assistant Actuary—G. Leslie

Chief Clerk—R. C. Niven

Second Assistant Actuary—P. Muter

Office Examiner—G. A. Kennedy

Clerks—J. W. Kinniburgh, D. J. McG. McKeuzie, W. S. Smith, A. H. Hamerton, F. B. Bolt, C. E. Galwey, T. L. Barker, H. Spackman, A. L. B. Jordan, H. S. Manning, A. Avery, G. Webb, C. W. Palmer, C. J. Alexander, F. K. Kelling, J. B. Young, G. C. Fache, J. A. Thomson, R. T. Smith, A. W. G. Burnes, F. W. Beale, H. Rose, A. de Castro, R. P. Hood, G. A. N. Campbell, F. M. Leckie, W. H. Woon, A. T. Traversi, S. P. Hawthorne, J. G. Reid, A. E. Jackson, C. H. E. Stichbury, J. R. Samson, H. H. Henderson, R. Fullerton. A. H. John-tone, J. S. Butler, R. S. Latta, H. Davies,

T. Fouhy, J. Lindsay, J. R. Fraser, G. E. Sadd, J. T. Gunn, T. M. Dimant, W. Spence, J. J. Feeney

Chief Messenger–W. Archer

Auckland Agency

District Manager—W. J. Speight

Chief Clerk—J. K. Blenkhorn

Clerk—J. B. Watkis

Napier Agency

Resident Agent—J. H. Dean

Clerk—G. C. Rodda

Wanganui Agency

Resident Agent—J. Fairburn

Clerk—W. Rattray

Wellington Agency

District Manager and Supervisor of New Business—G. Robertson

Chief Clerk—M. J. K. Heywood

Clerks—W. C. Marchant and A. M. McDonald

Nelson Agency

Resident Agent—A. P. Burnes

Blenheim Agency

Agency Clerk—C. H. Ralph

Greymouth Agency

Resident Agent—A. E. Allison

Christchurch Agency

District Manager—J. C. Prudhoe

Chief Clerk—J. W. H. Wood

Clerk—G. J. Robertson

Timaru Agency

Agency Clerk—S. T. Wicksteed

Oamaru Agency

Resident Agent—O. H. Pinel

Dunedin Agency

District Manager—R. S. McGowan

Chief Clerk—G. Crichton

Clerks—A. Marryatt and G. S. Nicoll

Invercargill Agency

Resident Agent—J. Findlay

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE

Public Trustee—J. C. Martin

Deputy Public Trustee—A. A. Duncan

Solicitor—F. J. Wilson

Chief Clerk—T. S. Ronaldson

Accountant—M. C. Barnett

Clerks—T. Stephens, M. Townsend, P. Fair, C. Zachariah, P. Hervey, E. C. Reeves, W. A. Fordham, A. Purdie, G. A. Smyth, A. J. Cross, N. Levien, W. McGowan, M. E. Harrap, S. Dimant, E. A. Smythe, W. Barr, E. O. Hales, C. Morris, S. W. Smith, C. A. Goldsmith, H. Masters, W. Campbell, R. Price, M. Leahy, H. Turner

District Agent, Christchurch—J. J. M. Hamilton; Clerks, J. Allen, T. R. Saywell

District Agent, Auckland—E. F. Warren; Clerk, E. Holloway; Cadet, K. N. H. Browne

District Agent, Dunedin—F. H. Morice; Typist, F. Naphtali; Cadet, J. B. Jack

District Agent, Greymouth—T. D. Kendall

District Agent, Napier—

District Agent, Nelson—E. P. Watkis

West Coast Settlement Reserves Agent—Thomas W. Fisher; Clerk, H. Oswin

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS OFFICE

Superintendent—John McGowan

Deputy Superintendent—G. F. C. Campbell

Chief Clerk—F. J. M. D. Walmsley

Inspecting Accountant—P. Heyes

Clerks—W. Waddel, T. C. Somers, H. E. Williams, W. Hinchcliffe, J. Atkinson, T. W. Foote, J. E. Thompson, W. Auld, C. T. Fraser, A. A. Prichard, M. J. Crombie, C. Wilson, C. B. Collins, D. Fraser, R. G. McLennan, C. G. Collins

Chief Valuers—W. Duncan, Auckland; A. Barns, Wanganui; T. Kennedy Macdonald, Wellington; A. P. O'Callaghan, Christchurch; A. McKerrow, Dunedin; H. Carswell, Invercargill

Clerks at Agencies—F. B. Robertson, H. Barron

Cadets in Government Service to be Volunteers

Cadets in the Civil Service are required, after arriving at the age of eighteen years, to serve for three years in a Volunteer corps. Heads of departments are required to notify the Under Secretary for Defence of the appointment of all cadets coming within this regulation.

Chapter 19. ECCLESIASTICAL

There is no State Church in the colony, nor is State aid given to any form of religion. Government in the early days set aside certain lands as endowments for various religious bodies, but nothing of the kind has been done for many years past.

Church of the Province of New Zealand, commonly called the “Church of England.”

Bishops

The Most Rev. William Garden Cowie, D.D., Auckland; consecrated 1869 (Primate).

The Right Rev. William Leonard Williams, B.A., Waiapu; consecrated 1895.

The Right Rev. Frederic Wallis, D.D., Wellington; consecrated 1895.

The Right Rev. Charles Oliver Mules, M.A., Nelson; consecrated 1892.

The Right Rev. Churchill Julius, D.D., Christchurch; consecrated 1890.

The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt Nevill, D.D., Dunedin; consecrated 1871.

The Right Rev. Cecil Wilson, M.A., Melanesia; consecrated 1894.

Roman Catholic Church

Archbishop

The Most Rev. Francis Redwood, S.M., D.D., Archbishop and Metropolitan, Wellington; consecrated 1874.

Bishops

The Right Rev. George Michael Lenihan, D.D., Auckland; consecrated 1896.

The Right Rev. John Joseph Grimes, S.M., D.D., Christchurch; consecrated 1887.

The Right Rev. Michael Verdon, D.D., Dunedin; consecrated 1896.

Annual Meetings and Officers

The principal present heads or officers of the various churches, and the places and times of holding the annual or periodical assemblies or meetings, are as follow:—

Church of England.—For Church purposes, the colony is divided into six dioceses—viz., Auckland, Waiapu, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The General Synod meets every third year in one or other of the dioceses.—President, the Bishop of Auckland, Primate; Secretary, Rev. J. P. Kempthorne. Nelson; Lay Secretary, H. J. H. Blow, Esq., Wellington. The Diocesan Synods meet once a year, under the presidency of the Bishop of the diocese. The next General Synod will be held in Napier, in January, 1901.

Roman Catholic Church.—The diocese of Wellington, established in 1848, was in 1887 created the metropolitan see. There are three suffragan dioceses—Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin. A Retreat is held annually in each of the four dioceses, at the end of which a Synod is held, presided over by the Bishop, and at which all his clergy attend.

Presbyterian Church of New Zealand.—The Assembly meets annually, in February, at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, in succession. Moderator, the Right Rev. David John Steele, M.A.; Clerk and Treasurer, Rev. David Sidey, D.D., Napier.

Presbyterian Church of Otago and Southland.—The Synod meets annually in October at Dunedin. Moderator, Rev. George Lindsay, Invercargill; Clerk, Rev. W. Bannerman, Roslyn, Dunedin; Church Factor, Mr. Frederick Smith, High Street, Dunedin. Theological Professors, Rev. John Dunlop, M.A., D.D., and Rev. Michael Watt, M.A., D.D. Mr. James Dunbar, Tutor in Greek.

Wesleyan Methodist Church.—The annual Conference meets on or about the last Tuesday in February, the exact date being determined by the President, who holds office for one year. Each Conference determines where the next one shall assemble. President (1899–1900), Rev. J. Orchard, Kaiapoi; Secretary, Rev. D. J. Murray, Thames. The next Conference is to meet in Pitt Street Church, Auckland.

Primitive Methodists.—A Conference takes place every January. The next is to be held at Stratford, Taranaki, commencing 12th January, 1900. The Executive Committee of the Church sits in Auckland. The Conference officials for the present year are: President, Rev. Peter W. Jones, Timaru; Vice-President, James Taylor, Esq., J.P., Tawa Flat, Wellington; Secretary, Rev. Joseph Sharp, Collingwood Street, Auckland; Secretary of Executive Committee and Treasurer of Mission Funds, Mr. D. Goldie, Pitt Street, Auckland.

Baptist Union of New Zealand.—President, H. H. Driver, Esq., Dunedin; Treasurer, Mr. A. Chidgey, Christchurch; Secretary, Rev. A. H. Collins, Auckland. The Union comprises 31 churches, 3,240 members, 5,055 scholars in the Sunday schools, with 583 teachers. There were also 89 local preachers, and 22 preaching-stations. This religious body has a newspaper of its own—the New Zealand Baptist—published in Christchurch; Editor, Rev. Arthur Dewdney, Oamaru.

Congregational Union of New Zealand.—The annual meetings are held during the month of February, at such place as may be decided on by vote of the Council. Chairman for 1899–1900, Mr. George Fowlds, Auckland; Chairman-elect, Rev. S. J. Baker, Christchurch; Secretary, Rev. Frederic Warner, Auckland; Treasurer, Mr. W. H. Lyon, Auckland; Registrar, Mr. F. Meadowcroft, Wellington; Head Office, Auckland. In 1900 the meeting of the Council will be held at Wellington. The Committee of the Union meets in Auckland on the second Tuesday of each month.

Hebrews.—Ministers: Rev. S. A. Goldstein, Auckland; Rev. H. van Staveren, Wellington; Rev. A. T. Chodowski, Dunedin; Mr. Alexander Singer, Hokitika. Annual meetings of the general Congregations are usually held at these places during the month of Elul (about the end of August).

Chapter 20. DEFENCES, MILITARY AND NAVAL

The defence forces consist of the Permanent Militia (Artillery and Submarine Mining Corps), and the auxiliary forces of Volunteers (Cavalry, Mounted Rifles, Naval Artillery, Field Artillery, Engineers, and Rifle companies). There is a Commander of the Forces, who is an Imperial officer, and he has a Staff officer who is also an Imperial officer. To the Under-Secretary for Defence all questions of expenditure are referred; while the Chief Engineer of the Public Works Department has charge of the defence-works.

Militia and Volunteer Districts

The two islands (North and Middle) are divided into five districts and two sub-districts, each commanded by a Field Officer of Militia or Volunteers, with a staff of drill-sergeants.

Permanent Militia (Artillery)

This Force is divided into four companies, which are stationed at Auckland, Wellington (head-quarters), Lyttelton, and Dunedin; their principal duties are to look after and take charge of all guns, stores, ammunition, and munitions of war at these four centres. The Force consists of one major, two captains, three subalterns, with an establishment of 217 of all ranks.

Permanent Militia (Submarine Miners)

This branch, like the Artillery, is divided amongst the four centres for submarine mining and torpedo work, and consists of two captains, with a total establishment of 76 of all ranks. They have charge of four torpedo-boats and four steam-launches, and of all submarine mining and torpedo stores. They are likewise employed in blowing up rocks and wrecks, and generally improving harbours.

Volunteers.—Cavalry

There are two troops of Cavalry, both being in the Middle Island. These corps are kept in a state of efficiency by going into camp for six days' training annually. The total strength of the two troops is 117 of all ranks.

Volunteers.—Mounted Rifles

There are sixteen corps of Mounted Rifles, nine in the North Island and seven in the Middle Island, with a total strength of 974 of all ranks. These corps go into camp for an annual training of six days.

Volunteers.—Naval Artillery

There are nine batteries of this branch of the service (six in the North Island and three in the Middle Island), having a total strength of 815 of all ranks. These corps are divided into port and starboard watches at the four centres; some of these corps are trained to assist the Permanent Artillery in working heavy ordnance, whilst others act as auxiliaries to the Submarine Miners in submarine mining and torpedo work. These corps have cutters and other boats provided and kept up for them, and are instructed in rowing, knotting, splicing, signalling, and such like duties.

Volunteers.—Garrison Artillery

There is one corps of Garrison Artillery in the North, with a strength of 102 of all ranks, and one in the Middle Island, with a strength of 54 of all ranks.

Volunteers.—Field Artillery

There are five batteries of Field Artillery (two in the North Island and three in the Middle Island), with a total of 332 of all ranks. They are armed with 9-pounder Armstrong breech-loading rifled guns and 6-pounder Nordenfeldts, on field-carriages.

Volunteers.—Engineers

This branch consists of three corps, with a total of 211 of all ranks, one in the North and two in the Middle Island. Besides carrying rifles they are provided with entrenching tools and all appliances for blowing up bridges or laying land-mines.

Volunteers.—Rifle Corps

In this branch of the service there are seventy-three corps (besides one honorary reserve, 45 strong), thirty-five being in the North Island and thirty-eight in the Middle Island, with a total strength of 4,646 of all ranks, including garrison bands.

Volunteers.—Cadet Corps

There is a force of forty-one cadet corps—viz., fifteen in the North Island and twenty-six in the Middle Island, with a total strength of 2,295 of all ranks.

Ordnance, Arms, etc

The armament at the forts of the four centres consists of 8 in. 13-ton breech-loading rifled Elswick Ordnance Company's guns, with 6 in. 5-ton, of like pattern, all mounted on hydro-pneumatic disappearing carriages; 7 in. 7-ton muzzle-loading rifled guns, on traversing slides; 64-pounder rifled muzzle-loading converted 71 cwt. guns, on garrison standing carriages and traversing slides; 64-pounder rifled muzzle-loading 64 cwt. guns on traversing slides; 6-pounder quick-firing Nordenfeldts, on garrison piilar-mountings, and field-carriages; Hotchkiss quick-firing guns and Maxim machine guns. The Volunteer Field Artillery are armed with 9-pounder Armstrong breech-loading rifled guns, and 6-pounder Nordenfeldts, and the whole of the adult portion of the Force have carbines or rifles of Martini-Enfield and Martini-Henry patterns; Cadets being armed with Snider carbines.

There is a large stock of Whitehead torpedoes, contact- and ground-mines, in charge of the Submarine Mining Companies, as well as four Thorneycroft torpedo-boats.

Enrolment, etc

Members of the Permanent Militia are enrolled to serve until lawfully discharged, and Volunteers for one year. The Permanent Militia is principally recruited from men who have one year's efficient service in the Volunteers; and after passing the gunnery and other courses and serving three years in the Permanent Militia the men are eligible for transfer to police and prison services.

Instructors

The Instructors for Permanent Artillery and Torpedo Corps are obtained from the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness, and from the Royal Engineers, under a three years' engagement, on completion of which they return to their regiments.

Capitation

An annual capitation of £2 10s. is granted to each efficient Volunteer, and a sum not exceeding £20 to each efficient cadet corps. One hundred and fifty rounds of ball-cartridge are issued each year free to every adult Volunteer, and twenty-five rounds of Snider ball to each cadet over thirteen years of age.

Administration

The defence forces of New Zealand are administered under “The Defence Act, 1886.”

Expenditure on the Establishment and Maintenance of Defences from 1884–85 to 1898–99

Year.Military Expenditure.Harbour Defences.Total.
 £££
1884–8590,8169,601100,417
1885–8691,242127,167218,409
1886–8789,927139,429229,356
1887–88122,06173,458195,519
1888–8953,59150,089103,680
1889–9063,61415,75279,366
1890–9180,89110,79891,689
1891–9275,3437,64482,987
1892–9359,80811,20571,013
1893–9456,5703,97660,546
1894–9562,1812,49564,676
1895–9684,9813,31488,295
1896–9782,4434,69087,133
1897–9883,0042,52585,529
1898–99114,78910,158124,947

Chapter 21. DÉPÔTS FOR SHIPWRECKED MARINERS

As eleven of the crew of the barque “Spirit of the Dawn,” which was wrecked on Antipodes Island on the 4th September, 1893, remained on the island for eighty-eight days without becoming aware of the existence of the dépôt of provisions and clothing for castaways which is established there, attention may usefully be drawn to the fact that such dépôts are maintained by the New Zealand Government on that island, and on the Auckland, Campbell, Bounty, Kermadec, and Snares Islands.

The following are the positions of the dépôts:—

Auckland Islands.—A dépôt is placed on the south side of Erebus Cove, Port Ross, and another in Camp Cove, Carnley Harbour, and a third at the head of Norman Inlet. One boat is placed on the north-west end of Adams Island, another on Enderby Island, and another on Rose Island.

Campbell Island.—A dépôt is erected in Tucker Cove, Perseverance Harbour, and a boat has been placed at the head of that harbour.

Antipodes Islands.—A dépôt is placed abreast the anchorage on the north-east side of the principal island.

Bounty Islands.—There is a dépôt on the principal island.

Snares Island.—A dépôt has been established on this island in Boat Harbour.

Kermadec Islands.—A dépôt is established on Macaulay Island, near Lava Cascade, on the north-east end of the island, and another on Curtis Island, at the head of Macdonald Cove, on the northwestern end of the island.

Finger-posts to indicate the direction of the dépôts have also been put up.

The Government steamer visits the Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty, and Snares Islands twice a year, and the Kermadec Islands once a year.

Chapter 22. GRAVING DOCKS AND PATENT SLIPS

Vessels visiting New Zealand, and requiring docking or repairs, will find ample accommodation at the principal ports of the colony.

There are in New Zealand four graving-docks; two of these are situated in Auckland, one at Lyttelton, and one at Port Chalmers.

Auckland Docks

The Auckland Docks are the property of the Auckland Harbour Board, and cost, with machinery, appliances, &c., £207,000. The dimensions of the docks at Auckland are as follow:—

 Calliope Dock.Auckland Dock.
Length over all525 feet.312 feet.
Length on floor500 feet.300 feet.
Breadth over all110 feet.65 feet.
Breadth on floor40 feet.42 feet.
Breadth at entrance80 feet.43 feet.
Depth of water on sill at high water ordinary spring tides)33 feet.13 1/2 feet.

The following is the scale of charges for the use of the Auckland and Calliope Graving Docks and appliances:—

Auckland Graving Dock.
 £s.d.
Entrance fee110
For every vessel of 100 tons (gross register), or under, per day400
For every vessel over 100 tons (gross register), for first 100 tons, per day400
For every additional ton (gross register), per day002
For two or more vessels docking at the same time, the tonnage of which together does not exceed 100 tons (gross register), per day each2100

For shores cut in docking or hanging the vessel, there must be paid, according to injury done, such amount as may be fixed by the Dock master.

For use of steam-kiln, 10s. per day.

For use of pitch furnace, 10s. per day.

Calliope Graving Dock.
 £s.d.
Entrance fee550
For all vessels up to 300 tons (gross register)2000
For all vessels 301 to 400 tons (gross register)22100
For all vessels 401 to 500 tons (gross register)2500
For all vessels 501 to 600 tons (gross register)27100
For all vessels 601 to 700 tons (gross register)3000
For all vessels 701 to 800 tons (gross register)32100
For all vessels 801 to 900 tons (gross register)3500
For all vessels 901 to 1,000 tons (gross register)37100
For all vessels 1,001 to 1,100 tons (gross register)4000
For all vessels 1,101 to 1,200 tons (gross register)4500
For all vessels 1,201 to 1,300 tons (gross register)5000
For all vessels 1,301 to 1,500 tons (gross register)5500
For all vessels 1,501 to 2,000 tons (gross register)6000
For all vessels 2,001 to 3,000 tons (gross register)6500
For all vessels 3,001 to 4,000 tons (gross register)7000
For all vessels 4,001 to 5,000 tons (gross register)7500

The foregoing charges are for three days or less. After the third day in dock the following rates are charged:—

For all vessels up to 500 tons (gross register)4d. per ton per diem.
For all vessels of 501 tons to 1,000 tons3d. per ton per diem.
For all vessels over 1,001 tons up to 2,000 tons2 1/2d. per ton per diem.
For all vessels over 2,001 tons and upwards2d. per ton per diem.

Twenty per cent. reduction on Calliope Dock rates is allowed when two or three vessels can arrange to dock on the same tide, and remain in dock the same number of hours; but such reduction is not allowed if any of the Auckland Harbour Board's vessels are docked at the same time as another vessel.

For shores cut in docking or hanging the vessel, there is to be paid, according to injury done, such amount as may be fixed by the Dock master.

During the year 1898, 85 vessels of various descriptions, with a total of 39,319 tons, made use of the Auckland Graving Dock, occupying it in all 145 days 8 hours, for repairs or painting.

In Calliope Dock 13 vessels were docked, viz.: 1 warship and 12 merchant steamers, also 1 dredge (twice), of an aggregate tonnage of 11,479, occupying the dock for 57 days 7 hours.

Dock dues for the year amounted to £1,402 6s. 9d.

Lyttelton Dock and Patent Slip

The Graving-dock at Lyttelton, which is the property of the Harbour Board, is capable of docking a first-class ironclad, or any of the large ocean steamers except the “Gothic” now running to the colony. Its general dimensions are: Length over all, 503ft.; length on floor, 450ft.; breadth over all, 82ft.; breadth on floor, 46ft.; breadth at entrance, 62ft.; breadth where ship's bilge would be, on 6ft. blocks, 55ft.; depth of water on sill at high-water springs, 23ft.

The scale of charges for the use of the dock and pumping machinery are as follow:—

 £s.d.
For all vessels up to 300 tons, for four days or less2000
For all vessels up to 301 to 400 tons, for four days or less22100
For all vessels up to 401 to 500 tons, for four days or less2500
For all vessels up to 501 to 600 tons, for four days or less27100
For all vessels up to 601 to 700 tons, for four days or less3000
For all vessels up to 701 to 800 tons, for four days or less32100
For all vessels up to 801 to 900 tons, for four days or less3500
For all vessels up to 901 to 1,000 tons, for four days or less37100
For all vessels up to 1,001 to 1,100 tons, for four days or less4000
For all vessels up to 1,101 to 1,200 tons, for four days or less4500
For all vessels up to 1,201 tons and upwards, for four days or less5000

After the fourth day in deck, the following rates are charged:—

For all vessels up to 500 tons4d. per ton per day.
For all vessels of 501 tons to 1,000 tons3d. per ton per day.
For all vessels over 1,001 tons up to 2,000 tons2 3/4d. per ton per day.
For all vessels over 2,001 tons up to 3,000 tons2 1/2d. per ton per day.
For all vessels over 3,001 tons up to 4,000 tons2 1/4 per ton per day.
For all vessels over 4,001 tons up to 5,000 tons2d. per ton per day.

Twenty per cent. reduction on the above rates is allowed when two or three vessels can arrange to dock on the same tide and remain in dock the same number of hours. Two vessels of 1,000 tons each can be docked at the same time. The 20-per cent. rebate is not allowed if any of the Lyttleton Harbour Board's vessels are docked at the same time as another vessel. The twenty four hours constituting the first day of docking commences from the time of the dock being pumped out.

Any vessel belonging to H.M. Navy or any colonial Government, or any commissioned ship belonging to any foreign nation, is admitted into the graving dock without payment of the usual dock dues, but is charged only such sum as is necessary for the reimbursement of actual expenditure of stores, wages, and materials.

There are electric lights, one on each side of the graving-dock; and there is a workshop alongside the dock, and several other engineering works within a short distance of it, where repairs and heavy foundry-work can be done.

The graving dock and machinery cost £105,000. The interest and sinking fund on that sum, at 6 1/2 per cent., amounts to £6,825 per annum. Since its construction, the dock dues for the sixteen years, ended 31st December, 1898, amounted to £14,487 13s. 1d., and the working expenses to £9,454 9s. 3d., leaving a credit balance for sixteen years, ended 31st December, 1898, of £5,033 3s. 10d.

During the year 1898 twenty-three vessels were docked, and the dock dues amounted to £800 3s. 10d. For the sixteen years, ending 1898, 305 vessels were docked.

Alongside the graving dock is a Patent slip, with a cradle 150ft. in length, suitable for vessels of 300 tons. It belongs to the Harbour Board.

Otago Graving Dock

The dock at Port Chalmers is vested in the Otago Dock Trust, a body entirely distinct from the Otago Harbour Board. Vessels of large size can be taken in the Otago Dock, as the following measurements will show:—

Length over all335 feet.
Length on the floor328 feet.
Breadth over all68 feet.
Breadth on floor41 feet.
Breadth where ship's bilge would be43 feet.
Breadth at dock gates50 feet.
Depth of water on sill at high-water (ordinary spring tides)17 1/2 feet.

Connected with the Otago Dock are a large machine-shop, steam-hammer, and forge, with all the appliances necessary for performing any work that may be required by vessels visiting the port. An 80-ton shear-legs has also been erected for heavy lifts.

There is also a patent slip, used for taking up small vessels.

All vessels using the Otago Graving Dock are liable to dock dues according to the following scale (unless under special contract), revised since the beginning of 1896:—

 £s.d.
Vessels under 200 tons, for the first three days, or part of three days2500
Vessels of 200 tons, and under 800 tons3000
Vessels of 800 tons and upwards42100

And for every day, or part of a day, after the first three days:—

Vessels under 300 tons8d. per register ton per day.
Vessels under 300 tons and under 400 tons7 3/4d. per register ton per day.
Vessels under 400 tons and under 500 tons7 1/2d. per register ton per day.
Vessels under 500 tons and under 600 tons71/4d. per register ton per day.
Vessels under 600 tons and under 700 tons7d. per register ton per day.
Vessels under 700 tons and under 800 tons6 3/4d. per register ton per day.
Vessels under 800 tons and under 900 tons6 1/2d. per register ton per day.
Vessels under 900 tons and under 1,000 tons6 1/4d. per register ton per day.
1,000 tons and upwards6d. per register ton per day.

During the last twelve months, ending 31st December, 1898, the dock was in use 234 working-days. The number of vessels docked was sixty-four, having a total registered tonnage of 48,970.

Wellington Patent Slip

The Port of Wellington has no dock; but there is a well equipped patent slip at Evans Bay, on which vessels of 2,000 tons can be safely hauled up. This slip is the property of a private company, and is in no way connected with the Harbour Board. It is 1,070ft. long, with a cradle 260ft. in length. There is a depth of 32ft. at high water at the outer end of the slip. A dolphin and buoys are laid down for swinging ships in Evans Bay.

The company has convenient workshops, which contain machinery necessary for effecting all ordinary repairs to vessels using the slip.

During the year ending 31st March, 1898, there were 99 vessels of various sizes taken up on the slip for repairs, cleaning, painting, &c., of an aggregate tonnage of 35,200 tons. The charges for taking vessels on the slip and launching them are 1s. per ton on the gross tonnage for the first full twenty-four hours, and 6d. per ton per day afterwards, unless by special agreement.

Timaru Slip

The Timaru slip is capable of taking up a vessel of 200 tons.

Nelson Cradle

The Anchor Steamship Company's cradle can take up a vessel of 150 tons.

Chapter 23. LIGHTHOUSES

The coasts of New Zealand are, considering their extent, fairly well lighted, but there are many places where lights are still required. Additions to the existing lights are made from time to time as funds are available.

Including the lighthouse on East Cape, now building, there are twenty-nine coastal lights—eight of the first order, fifteen of the second, three of the third, and three of smaller orders.

There has been no special difficulty in the erection of lighthouses in New Zealand, apart from the trouble caused by indifferent landings. There are no lighthouses built in the sea, such as the well known Eddystone or Bell Rock. That on The Brothers is the only one which it is considered necessary to keep as a rock-station: that is, the keepers are relieved from time to time, three being always at the station and one on shore.

The cost of the erection of the lighthouses is given by the Marine Department as about £174,000 (the Ponui Passage Lighthouse, having been built by the Provincial Government of Auckland, the cost is not given). The annual consumption of oil is about 19,800 gallons; and the cost of maintenance, irrespective of the cost of maintaining the lighthouse steamer, is about £13,000 a year.

Besides the coastal lighthouses, there are harbour-lights at most of the ports of the colony for the guidance of vessels into and out of the ports.

The following table shows the names of the lighthouses, indicating also their situation, the order of apparatus, description, period (in seconds) and colour of the lights, and of what material the respective towers are built:—

Name of Light-house.Order of Apparatus.Description.Period of Revolving Light.Colour of Light.Tower built of.
 Dioptric. Seconds.  
Cape Maria van Deimen1st orderRevolving60WhiteTimber
..Fixed..Red, to show over Columbia Reef
Moko Hinou1st orderFlashing10WhiteStone.
Tiri-Tiri (Auckland)2nd orderFixed..White, with red are over Flat RockIron.
Ponui Passage5th orderFixed..White and redTimber
Cuvier Island1st orderRevolving30WhiteIron.
Portland Island2nd orderRevolving30WhiteTimber.
..Fixed..Red, to show over Bull Rock
Cape Palliser2nd orderFlashingTwice every half-minute, with three seconds intervals between flashesWhiteIron.
Pencarrow Head2nd orderFixed WhiteIron.
Cape Egmont2nd orderFixed..WhiteIron.
Manukau Head3rd orderFixed..WhiteTimber
Kaipara Head2nd orderFlashing10WhiteTimber
Brothers (in Cook Strait)2nd orderFlashing10WhiteTimber
..Fixed..Red, to show over Cook Rock
Cape Campbell2nd orderRevolving60White 
Godley Head (Lyttelton)2nd orderFixed..WhiteStone.
Akaroa Head2nd orderFlashing10WhiteTimber.
Moeraki3rd orderFixed..WhiteTimber.
Taiaroa Head3rd orderFixed..RedStone.
Cape Saunders2nd orderRevolving60WhiteTimber.
Nugget Point1st orderFixed..WhiteStone.
Waipapapa Point2nd orderFlashing10WhiteTimber.
 Catadioptric. 
Dog Island1st orderRevolving30WhiteStone.
 Dioptric. 
Centre Island1st orderFixed..White, with red arcs over inshore dangersTimber.
Puysegur Point1st orderFlashing10WhiteTimber.
Cape Foulwind2nd orderRevolving30WhiteTimber.
Farewell Spit2nd orderRevolving60White, with red arc over Spit endTimber.
Nelson4th orderFixed..White, with red arc to mark limit of anchorageIron.
French Pass6thFixed..Red and white, with white light on beacon 
Stephens Island1st orderGroup flashing30WhiteIron
East Cape (now building)2nd orderRevolving10WhiteIron.

Chapter 24. “THE CIVIL SERVICE INSURANCE ACT, 1893.”

It is provided by the above-named Act that every person appointed to the Civil Service under “The Civil Service Reform Act, 1886,” or afterwards, shall retire at the age of sixty years; but the Governor in Council may, nevertheless, require any officer who has attained such age to continue to perform his duties, unless unfitted by reason of ill-health or other cause. It is also provided that if any officer appointed under “The Civil Service Reform Act, 1886,” shall become permanently incapacitated through no fault of his own he shall receive compensation equal to one month's salary for each year of service. It is further provided that every officer under a certain age, to be fixed by regulations, appointed after the passing of this Act shall effect a policy on his (or her) own life with the Life Insurance Commissioner, providing the following combined benefits:—

  1. The payment of a sum of money on the death of such officer, should it occur before he attains the age of sixty years (or after that age, in consideration of his paying the necessary additional premium); and

  2. The payment to such officer of an annuity until death should he survive the age of sixty years.

The policies and moneys secured thereby are not assignable, and cannot be charged or attached, unless the officer leaves the service, voluntarily or otherwise, when he may either surrender the policy or maintain it in force, as he may choose.

The premiums are paid in the form of monthly deductions from salaries, according to the following schedule:—

Salary per Annum.Monthly Deduction from Salary.Yearly Deduction.
 £s.d.£s.d.
Under £150084500
£150 and under £20001267100
£200 and under £25001681000
£250 and under £300101012100
£300 and under £3501501500
£350 and under £40019217100
£400 and under £45011342000
£450 and under £500117622100
£500 and under £5502182500
£550 and under £600251027100
£600 and under £65021003000
£650 and under £700214232100
£700 and under £75021843500
£750 and under £80032637100
£8003684000

When the salary is increased so that it falls in the next higher category in the schedule, the deductions and benefits are also pro proportionately increased, according to the then present age of the policyholder, by endorsement of the policy.

By regulations under the Act, made by the Governor in Council, dated 8th March, 1894, scales of benefits were adopted. For every £5 annually deducted from the salary in accordance with the schedule already given there is provided a temporary insurance of £100 (constant at all ages at entry), ceasing at age sixty, together with a deferred annuity (varying with the age at entry from £63 11s. 1d. at age fifteen to £10 10s. 5d. at age forty) after the age of sixty. By consenting to a small additional deduction from salary, any officer may have the insurance continued after age sixty to the end of life. Newly-appointed officers who are over forty are allowed the option of accumulating 5 per cent. of their salaries in the Public Trust Office, or of taking out insurances or annuities in the Government Insurance Department.

At the end of 1898 there were 236 Civil Service policies in force, insuring £34,518 (including bonuses), and providing deferred annuities amounting to £9,282. Fourteen policies had been lapsed or surrendered, insuring £2,659 at death, with £579 deferred annuities; three policies, insuring £354, had become claims by death; and the holders of seven policies, insuring £2,513 (with £168 deferred annuities), had left the Civil Service, but elected to continue their policies with the Insurance Department.

These policies, placed in separate tables, are merged in the general business of the Insurance Department, and share in the periodical distributions of profits. At successive valuations the necessary reserve is made to fully cover the liability which has accrued upon each of the contracts, thus avoiding the possibility of any future danger such as has overtaken so many pension schemes administered on unsound principles. Indeed, it may be said that two of the greatest benefits conferred upon the participants in this scheme are the avoidance of fluctuation in the fund through amalgamating with a large insurance institution, and the possession of fixed and irrevocable contracts, clearly defining the benefits to be received at death or by way of pension.

Chapter 25. NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS

There are (March, 1899) 208 publications on the register of newspapers for New Zealand. Of these, 50 are daily papers, 29 are published twice a week, 36 three times a week, 61 once a week, 3 fortnightly, and 29 monthly.

The names of the newspapers, with the postal districts and towns in which they are printed, are given in the following list, the second column showing the day or period of publication.

M. signifies morning paper; E. evening paper:—

Auckland.
Auckland— 
    Auckland Evening Star (E.)Daily.
    Auckland Weekly News and Town and Country Journal (M)Saturday
    Bible Standard (M.)Monthly.
    Christian WorkerMonthly.
    Church Gazette (M.)Monthly.
    New Zealand A B C GuideMonthly.
    New Zealand Farmer, Bee and Poultry Journal (M.)Monthly.
    New Zealand Graphic, Ladies' Journal, and Youths' CompanionWednesday.
    New Zealand Herald (M.)Daily.
    New Zealand Illustrated Sporting Review and Licensed Victualler's Gazette (M.)Thursday.
    New Zealand Joyful NewsMonthly.
    New Zealand Standard (M.)Monthly.
    Observer (M.)Saturday.
    Produce Circular and Monthly Report (M.)Monthly.
    Sharland's Trade JournalSaturday.
    Southern Cross Log (E.)Monthly.
Coromandel—
    Coromandel County News (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Dargaville—
    Wairoa Bell and Northern Advertiser (E.)Tu., Fri.
Hamilton—
    Waikato Argus (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
    Waikato Times and Thames Valley Gazette (E.)Daily.
Kawakawa—
    Northern Luminary (E.)Friday.
Onehunga—
    Weekly Onehunga Independent and District Advertiser (M.)Saturday.
Rotorua—
    Hot Lakes Chronicle (E.)Saturday.
Whangarei—
    Northern Advocate (E.)Friday.
Thames.
Karangahake—
    Goldfields Advocate and Ohinemuri County Chronicle (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Opotiki—
    Opotiki Herald, Whakatane County and East Coast Gazette (E.)Tuesday, Friday.
Paeroa—
    Hauraki Tribune and Thames Valley Advertiser (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
    Ohinemuri Gazette (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Tauranga—
    Bay of Plenty Times and Thames Valley Warden (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
    Te Aroha—
    Te Aroha and Ohinemuri News and Upper Thames Advocate (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Thames—
    Thames Star (E.)Daily.
    Thames Advertiser and Miners' News (M.)Daily.
Waihi—
    Waihi Miner and Hauraki Goldfield Gazette (E.)Daily.
Waitekauri—
    Golden Age (E.)Wed., Sat.
Whakatane—
    Whakatane TimesWed., Sat.
Gisborne.
Gisborne—
    Poverty Bay Herald (E.)Daily.
    Telephone (M.)Saturday.
New Plymouth.
Inglewood—
    Record and Waitara Age (M.)Wed., Saturday.
    Weekly Record (M.)Saturday.
    New Plymouth—
    Budget and Taranaki Weekly Herald (M.)Saturday.
    Daily News (M.)Daily.
    Taranaki Herald (E.)Daily.
    Taranaki News (M.)Saturday.
Opunake—
    Opunake Times (E.)Tuesday, Friday.
Stratford—
    Egmont Post (E.)Tu., Th., Sat.
    Egmont Settler (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Waitara—
    Waitara Evening Mail and Clifton County Chronicle (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
    Waitara Times and Clifton County Gazette (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
    Napier.
Dannevirke—
    Bush Advocate (E.)Tu., Th., Sat.
    Morning Press (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Hastings—
    Hastings Standard (E.)Daily.
Napier—
    Daily Telegraph (E.)Daily.
    Hawke's Bay Herald (M.)Daily.
    New Zealand Fire and Ambulance RecordMonthly.
Waipawa—
    Waipawa Mail (E.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
Wairoa—
    Wairoa Guardian and County Advocate (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
    Wanganui.
Eltham—
    Eltham Argus and District Advertiser (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
    Eltham Guardian; Kaponga, Ngaire, Te Roti, Hawera, Stratford, and Cardiff Advertiser (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Hawera—
    Egmont Star (M.)Saturday.
    Hawera and Normanby Star, Patea County Chronicle, and Waimate Plains Gazette (E.)Daily.
    Hawera Morning Post, Patea, Normanby, Eltham, Stratford, Kaponga, Manaia, and Opunake Register (M.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Hunterville—
    Paraekaretu Express, Hunterville, Ohingaiti, Moawhango, and Rata Advertiser (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
Manaia—
    Waimate Witness (E.)Tuesday, Friday.
Mangaweka—
    Mangaweka Settler, and Ohingaiti, Rangiwhaia, Taihape, and Waimarino Advertiser (M.)Wed., Sat.
Marton—
    Rangitikei Advocate and Manawatu Argus (E.)Daily.
Patea—
    Patea County Press (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Raetihi—
    Waimarino Argus and Raetihi, Ohakune, Karioi, Pipiriki, and Upper Wanganui Advocate (M.)Tuesday.
Wanganui—
    Jubilee (M.)Tuesday.
    Wanganui Chronicle and Patea-Rangitikei Advertiser (M.)Daily.
    Wanganui Herald (E.)Daily.
    Weekly Chronicle and Patea-Rangitikei Record (M.)Saturday.
    Yeoman (M.)Friday.
    Wellington.
Carterton—
    Wairarapa Leader (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
    Wairarapa Observer, Featherston Chronicle, East Coast Advertiser, and South County Gazette (E.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
Eketahuna—
    Eketahuna Express and North Wairarapa Courier (E.)Tu., Th., Sat.
Feilding—
    Feilding Star (E.)Daily.
Foxton—
    Foxton Telegraph and West Coast Advertiser (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
    Manawatu Herald (E.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
Greytown—
    Wairarapa Standard and Featherston Advocate (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Levin—
    Manawatu Farmer and Horowhenua County Chronicle (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Masterton—
    Wairarapa Daily Times (E.)Daily.
    Wairarapa Star (E.)Daily.
    Weekly Star and Wellington District Advertiser (M.)Thursday.
Otaki—
    Otaki Mail and Horowhenua County and West Coast Advertiser (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
Pahiatua—
    Pahiatua Herald (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
    Palmerston North—
    Manawatu Daily Standard, Rangitikei Advertiser, and West Coast Gazette (E.)Daily.
    Manawatu Daily Times (E.)Daily.
Petone—
    Hutt and Petone Chronicle (M.)Wednesday.
Wellington—
    Church Chronicle (M.)Monthly.
    Evening Post (E.)Daily.
    Guardian (E.)Thursday, fortnightly.
    New Zealand Craftsman (M.)Monthly.
    New Zealand Cyclists' Touring Club Gazette (M.)Monthly.
    New Zealand Dairyman and Dairy Messenger (E.)Monthly.
    New Zealand Field (M.)Friday.
    New Zealand Insurance, Finance, and Mining Journal (M.)Monthly.
    New Zealand Mail, Town and Country Advertiser (M)Friday.
    New Zealand Mines Record (M.)Monthly.
    New Zealand Times (M.)Daily.
    Register and Property Investors' GuideMonthly.
    Wellington Price Current and New Zealand Trade Review (M)Monthly.
Woodville—
    Woodville Examiner (E.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Blenheim.
Blenheim—
    Marlborough Daily Times and Town and Country Advertiser (M.)Daily.
    Marlborough Express (E.)Daily.
Havelock—
    Pelorus Guardian and Miners' Advocate (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
    Picton—
    Marlborough Press, County of Sounds Gazette (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
Nelson.
Brightwater—
    Brightwater Independent Chronicle (M.)Thursday.
Collingwood—
    Golden Bay Argus (E.)Thursday.
Nelson—
    Colonist (M.)Daily.
    Nelson Evening Mail (E.)Daily.
Takaka—
    Takaka News and Collingwood Advertiser (E.)Thursday.
Westport.
Charleston—
    Charleston Herald, Brighton Times, and Croninville Reporter (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Murchison—
    Buller Post (E.)Thursday.
Westport—
    Buller Miner (M.)Friday.
    Westport News (M.)Daily.
    Westport Times and Evening Star (E.)Daily.
Greymouth.
    Brunnerton—
    Brunner News, Blackball Courier, and Grey Valley Advertiser (E.)Daily.
Greymouth—
    Evening Star and Brunnerton Advocate (E.)Daily.
    Grey River Argus (M.)Daily.
    Weekly Argus (M.)Weekly.
Reefton—
    Inangahua Herald and New Zealand Miner (M.)Daily.
    Inangahua Times and Reefton Guardian (E.)Daily.
Hokitika.
Hokitika—
    Hokitika Guardian and Evening Star (E.)Daily.
    Leader (M.)Saturday.
    West Coast Times (M.)Daily.
Kumara—
    Kumara Times and Dillman's and Goldsborough Advertiser (E.)Daily.
Ross—
    Ross and Okarito Advocate and Westland Advertiser (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Christchurch.
Akaroa—
    Akaroa Mail and Banks Peninsula Advertiser (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
Ashburton—
    Ashburton Guardian (E.)Daily.
    Ashburton Mail, Rakaia, Mount Somers, and Alford Forest Advertiser (M.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
    Ashburton Standard and Farmers' Advocate (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Cheviot—
    Cheviot News (M.)Tues., Fri.
Christchurch—
    Canterbury Times (M.)Wednesday.
    Colonial InventorMonthly.
    Lyttelton Times (M.)Daily.
    Mercantile and Bankruptcy Gazette of New Zealand (E.)Thursday.
    New Zealand RaptistMonthly.
    New Zealand Church News (M.)Monthly.
    New Zealand Cyclist (M.)Saturday.
    New Zealand Railway ReviewMonthly.
    New Zealand Schoolmaster (E.)Monthly.
    New Zealand War Cry and Official Gazette of the Salvation Army (M.)Saturday.
    New Zealand WheelmanWednesday.
    Press (M.)Daily.
    ProhibitionistFortnightly, Fri.
    Spectator (M.)Wednesday.
    Star (E.)Daily.
    Truth (E.)Daily.
    Weekly Press (incorporating the “Referee”) (M.)Wednesday.
    Oxford (East)—
    Oxford Observer (M.)Saturday.
Kaikoura—
    Kaikoura Star and North Canterbury and South Marlborough News (E.)Tu., Fri.
Rangiora—
    Rangiora Standard and North Canterbury Guardian (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Southbridge—
    Ellesmere Guardian (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Timaru.
Geraldine—
    Fairlie Star (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
    Geraldine Advocate (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
    Pleasant Point Mail (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
    Temuka Times (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
Temuka—
    Geraldine Guardian (M.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
    Temuka Leader (M.)Tues., Thur., Sat.
Timaru—
    South Canterbury Times (E.)Daily.
    South Canterbury Weekly Gazette (M.)Friday.
    Timaru Herald (M.)Daily.
Waimate—
    Waimate Advertiser (M.)Saturday.
    Waimate Times (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Oamaru.
Oamaru—
    North Otago Times (M.)Daily.
    Oamaru Mail (E.)Daily.
Dunedin.
    Alexandra South—
    Alexandra Herald and Central Otago Gazette (M.)Thursday.
Balclutha—
    Clutha Leader (M.)Friday.
    Free Press (M.)Friday.
Clyde—
    Dunstan Times, Vincent County Gazette, and General Goldfields Advertiser (M.)Friday.
Cromwell—
    Cromwell Argus and Northern Goldfields Gazette (M.)Tuesday.
    Cromwell TimesWeekly.
    Dunedin— 
    Advocate (M.)Saturday.
    Christian Outlook (M.)Saturday.
    Evening Star (E.)Daily.
    Farmers' Circular (M.)Thur., fortn'ly.
    KatipoMonthly.
    New Zealand Tablet (M.)Friday.
    Otago Daily Times (M.)Daily.
    Otago Witness (M.)Thursday.
    Otago Workman, Dunedin and Suburban Advertiser (M)Saturday.
    Phonographic Magazine and Typewriting NewsMonthly.
    New Zealand Mining Journal and Financial Guide (M.)Monthly.
    SchoolmatesMonthly
    Temperance StandardMonthly
    Triad (M.)Monthly
    Weekly Budget (M.)Saturday.
Lawrence—
    Tuapeka Recorder (M.)Friday.
    Tuapeka Times (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Milton—
    Bruce Herald (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
Mosgiel—
    Taieri Advocate (M.)Wed., Saturday.
Naseby—
    Mount Ida Chronicle (E.)Friday (twice).
Palmerston—
    Palmerston and Waikouaiti Times (M.)Friday.
Roxburgh—
    Mount Benger Mail (M.)Saturday.
Tapanui—
    Tapanui Courier and Central Districts Gazette (M.)Wednesday.
Invercargill.
Arrowtown—
    Lake County Press (E.)Thursday.
Gore—
    Mataura Ensign (E.)Tues., Th., Sat.
    Southern Standard (M.)Tuesday, Friday.
Invercargill—
    Southern Cross (M.)Saturday.
    Southlander (M.)Friday.
    Southland Daily News (E.)Daily.
    Southland Times (M.)Daily.
    Weekly Times (M.)Friday.
Queenstown—
    Lake Wakatipu Mail (E.)Friday.
Riverton—
    Western Star and Wallace County Gazette (M.)Tues., Fri.
Winton—
    Winton Record and Hokonui Advocate (M.)Tues., Fri.
Wyndham—
    Wyndham Farmer (M.)Mon., Wed., Fri.
    Wyndham Herald (M.)Wed., Friday.

The foregoing towns are arranged according to the postal district in which they are situated.

Taking the provincial districts, Auckland has 37 publications registered as newspapers, Taranaki 11, Hawke's Bay 8. Wellington 46, Marlborough 4, Nelson 12, Westland 9, Canterbury 37, and Otago 44.

Chapter 26. THE CUSTOMS TARIFF OF NEW ZEALAND

Under the Customs and Excise Duties Acts, 1888 and 1895, and “The Tobacco Excise Duties Act, 1896.”

Table of Duties

The headings of the respective classes in this Table and in the Table of Exemptions are used solely for convenience of classification, and shall not in any way affect the articles specified therein, or be construed to indicate the material of which any such article is made.

The word “iron” includes steel, or steel and iron combined.

Neither steam-engines, nor parts of steam-engines, nor steam-boilers (land or marine) are included in the expression “machines” or “machinery” in either this Table or the Table of Exemptions.

The abbreviation “n.o.e.” means not otherwise enumerated.

In computing “ad valorem” duties the invoice value of the goods is increased by 10 per cent.

Class I.—Foods and Articles for Human Consumption

Names of Articles and Rates of Duty

  1. Almonds, in the shell, 2d. the lb.

  2. Almonds, shelled, n.o.e, 3d. the lb.

  3. Bacon and hams, 2d. the lb.

  4. Biscuits, ships', plain and unsweetened, 3s. the cwt.

  5. Biscuits, other kinds, 2d. the lb.

  6. Boiled sugars, comfits, lozenges, Scotch mixtures, and sugar-candy, 2d. the lb., including internal packages.

  7. Candied peel and drained peel, 3d. the lb.

  8. Capers, caraway seeds, catsup, cayenne pepper, chillies, chutney, curry-powder and -paste, fish-paste, gelatine, isinglass, liquorice, olives, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  9. Chocolate confectionery, and all preparations of chocolate or cocoa—

    In plain trade packages, 3d. the lb.

    In fancy packages, or in small packages for retail sale, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  10. Confectionery, n.o.e., 2d. the lb., including internal packages.

  11. Fish, dried, pickled, or salted, n.o.e., 10s. the cwt.

  12. Fish, potted and preserved, 2d. the lb., or packages of that reputed weight, and so in proportion for packages of greater or less reputed weight.

  13. Fruit, fresh, viz.:—

    Apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines, medlars, apricots, quinces, tomatoes, 1d. the lb.

    (No duty exceeding 1/2d. the lb. to be levied on apples and pears from 14th July to 31st December.)

    Currants, raspberries, gooseberries, blackberries, and strawberries, 1/2d. the lb.

    Lemons, 1/2d. the lb.

  14. Fruits, dried, 2d. the lb.

  15. Fruits, preserved in juice or syrup, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  16. Fruit-pulp, and partially preserved fruit, n.o.e., 1 1/2 d. the lb.

  17. Fruits preserved by sulphurous acid, 1d. the lb.

  18. Glucose, 1d. the lb.

  19. Honey, 2d. the lb.

  20. Jams, jellies, marmalade, and preserves, 2d. the lb. or packages of that reputed weight, and so in proportion for packages of greater or less reputed weight.

  21. Jellies concentrated in tablets or powder, 4d. the lb.

  22. Maizena and cornflour, 1/4d. the lb.

  23. Meats, potted or preserved, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  24. Milk, preserved, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  25. Mustard, 2d. the lb.

  26. Nuts of all kinds, except cocoanuts, 2d. the lb.

  27. Oysters, preserved, 2d. the lb. or packages of that reputed weight, and so in proportion for packages of greater or less reputed weight.

  28. Pearl barley, 1s. the cwt.

  29. Peas, split, 2s. the cwt.

  30. Pickles, 3s. the imperial gallon.

  31. Provisions, n.o.e., 20 per cent., ad valorem.

  32. Rice and rice-flour, 6s. the cwt.

  33. Rice, undressed, and dressed in bond, 4s. the cwt.

  34. Salt, except rock-salt, 10s. the ton.

  35. Sardines, including the oil, 2d. the lb.

  36. Sauces, 4s. the imperial gallon.

  37. Spices, including pepper and pimento, unground, 2d. the lb.

  38. Spices, including pepper and pimento, ground, 4d. the lb.

  39. Sugar, 1/2d. the lb.

  40. Treacle and molasses, 1/2d. the lb.

  41. Vegetables, fresh, dried, or preserved, 20 per cent., ad valorem.

  42. Vinegar, table, not exceeding 6.5 per cent. of acidity,* 6d. the gallon.

    * Vinegar exceeding 6.5 per cent. of acidity to be treated as acetic acid.

    Class II.—Tobacco.

  43. Cigarettes, not exceeding in weight 2 1/2lb. per 1,000, 17s. 6d. the 1,000. And for all weight in excess of 2 1/2lb. per 1,000, 6d. the oz.

  44. Cigars, 7s. the lb.

  45. Snuff, 7s. the lb.

  46. Tobacco, 3s. 6d. the lb.

  47. Tobacco unmanufactured, entered to be manufactured in the colony in any licensed tobacco manufactory, for manufacturing purposes only, into tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, or snuff, 2s. the lb.

    Class III.—Alcoholic Beverages, and Materials for Making Same.

  48. Ale, beer of all sorts, porter, cider, and perry, the gallon, or for six reputed quart bottles, or 12 reputed pint bottles, 2s. the gallon.

  49. Cordials, bitters, and liqueurs, 16s. the liquid gallon.

  50. Hops, 6d. the lb.

  51. Malt, 2s. the bushel.

  52. Rice malt, 1d. the lb.

  53. Solid wort, 6d. the lb.

  54. Spirits and strong waters, the strength of which can be ascertained by Sykes's hydrometer, 16s. the proof gallon.

    (No allowance beyond 16.5 under proof shall be made for spirits or strong waters of a less hydrometer strength than 16.5 under proof.)

  55. Spirits and strong waters, sweetened or mixed, when not exceeding the strength of proof, 16s. the liquid gallon.

  56. Spirits and strong waters in cases shall be charged as follows, namely:—Two gallons and under, as two gallons; over two gallons and not exceeding three, as three gallons; over three gallons and not exceeding four, as four gallons; and so on for any greater quantity contained in any case.

  57. Spirits or strong waters, mixed with ingredients in any proportion exceeding 33 per cent. of proof spirit, and although thereby coming under any other designation, excepting patent or proprietary medicines, or tinctures and medicinal spirits otherwise enumerated, 16s. the liquid gallon.

  58. Wine, Australian, containing not more than 35 per cent. of proof spirit verified by Sykes's hydrometer, the gallon, or for six reputed quart bottles, or twelve reputed pint bottles, 5s. the gallon.

  59. Wine, other than sparkling and Australian, containing less than 40 per cent. of proof spirit verified by Sykes's hydrometer, the gallon, or for six reputed quart bottles, or twelve reputed pint bottles, 6s. the gallon.

  60. Wine, sparkling, 9s. the gallon.

    Class IV.—Non-Alcoholic Beverages, and Materials for Making Same.

  61. Aërated and mineral waters and effervescing beverages, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  62. Chicory, 3d. the lb.

  63. Chocolate, 3d. the lb.

  64. Cocoa, 3d. the lb.

  65. Coffee, essence of, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  66. Coffee, raw, 2d. the lb.

  67. Coffee roasted, 5d. the lb.

  68. Syrups; lime- or lemon-juice sweetened; raspberry vinegar, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  69. Tea, 4d. the lb.

    Class V.—Drugs, Medicines, Chemicals, and Druggists' Sundries.

  70. Acid, acetic, n.o.e., containing not more than 30 per cent. of acidity, 1 1/2d. the lb. For every 10 per cent. of acidity or fraction thereof additional, 1/2d. the lb.

  71. Acid, tartaric, 1d. the lb.

  72. Baking-powder, yeast preparations, and other ferments, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  73. Chemicals n.o.e., including photographic chemicals and glacial acetic acid, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  74. Cream of tartar, 1d. the lb.

  75. Drugs and druggists' sundries and apothecaries' wares, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  76. Essences, flavouring, spirituous, 15 per cent. ad valorem until 1st February, 1896, and thereafter 16s. the liquid gallon.

  77. Essences, flavouring, n.o.e., 15 per cent. ad valorem.

  78. Eucalyptus oil, in bulk or bottle, 20 per. cent. ad valorem.

  79. Glycerine, refined, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  80. Opium, 40s. the lb.

  81. Patent medicines, 40 per cent. ad valorem.

  82. Proprietary medicines, or medicaments, (1) bearing the name of the proprietor on label or package; (2) bearing a prefixed name in the possessive case; (3) n.o.e., prepared by any occult secret or art, 40 per cent. ad valorem.

  83. Saccharine, except in the form of tabloids or tablets, 1s. 6d. the ounce.

  84. Sarsaparilla, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  85. Soda, carbonate and bicarbonate, 1s. the cwt.

  86. Soda, crystals, 2s. the cwt.

  87. Tinctures and medicinal spirits of any recognised pharmacopœia, containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 1s. the lb.

  88. Tinctures and medicinal spirits of any recognised pharmacopœia, containing less than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 6d. the lb.

    Class VI.—Clothing and Textile Goods.

  89. Apparel and ready-made clothing, and all articles n.o.e. made up wholly or in part from textile or other piece-goods, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  90. Apparel made by British or foreign tailors, dress-, mantle-, or jacket-makers, to the order of residents in the colony, and intended for the individual use of such residents, whether imported by the residents themselves or through an importing firm, 40 per cent. ad valorem.

  91. Blankets, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  92. Collars and cuffs, of paper or other material, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  93. Cotton counterpanes, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  94. Cotton piece-goods, to include turkey twills, dress prints (hard-spun and plain-woven), where the invoice value does not exceed 4d. the yard; and cotton piece-goods n.o.e., 10 per cent. ad valorem.

  95. Cotton piece goods—namely, tapestry; cretonnes; chintz art crêpe, and serges; velveteens, velvets, and plushes, all kinds; damasks, moquette; sateens, linenettes; crepons; crimps; zephyrs; ginghams; turkey twills; prints; printed cottons; piqués; vestings; quiltings and marcellas; muslins of all kinds; nets; window-nets; hollands, curtains, and blinds; diapers; ticks, including coloured Belgian; towellings; laces: 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  96. Drapery n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  97. Feathers, ornamental (including ostrich), and artificial flowers, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  98. Forfar, dowlas, and flax sheeting, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  99. Furs, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  100. Haberdashery n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  101. Hats of all kinds, including straw hats, also caps, 25 per cent ad valorem.

  102. Hosiery n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  103. Lace, and laces, n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  104. Millinery of all kinds, including trimmed hats, caps, and bonnets, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  105. Ribbons and crape, all kinds, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  106. Rugs, woollen, cotton, opossum, or other, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  107. Shawls, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  108. Silks, satins, velvets, plushes, n.o.e., composed of silk mixed with any other material, in the piece, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  109. Textile piece-goods other than cotton or silk, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  110. Umbrellas, parasols, and sunshades, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  111. Yarns n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

    Class

    Class VII.—Leather and Manufactures of Leather.

  112. Boots, shoes, and slippers, n.o.e; goloshes, clogs, pattens, vamps, uppers, and laces, 22 1/2 per cent. ad valorem.

  113. Heel-plates, and toe-stiffeners and plates, 22 1/2 per cent. ad valorem.

  114. Leather—

    Leather belting and belt-leather, harness, bridle, legging, bag, kip (other than East India), 4d. the lb.

    Buff and split, including satin hides and tweeds, 3d. the lb.

    Cordovan, levanted leather, roans, sheepskins, morocco n.o.e., basils, 3d. the lb.

    Sole-leather, 2d. the lb.

    East India kip, Persians, lambskins and goatskins (dressed other than morocco), kangaroo and wallabi skins (dressed), tan and coloured calf, 2d. the lb.

    Leather n.o.e., 1d. the lb.

  115. Leather board or compo, 4d. the lb.

  116. Leather bags and leather-cloth bags, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  117. Leather, chamois, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  118. Leather cut into shapes, 22 1/2 per cent. ad valorem.

  119. Leather leggings, 22 1/2 per cent. ad valorem.

  120. Leather manufactures n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  121. Portmanteaux; trunks; travelling-bags and brief-bags of leather or leather-cloth, 10 in. in length and upwards, and carpet-bags, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  122. Saddlery and harness, whips and whip-thongs, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

    Class VIII.—Furniture and Household Furnishings.

  123. Basket- and wicker-ware n.o.e., not being furniture, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  124. Carpets and druggets; floorcloth; mats and matting, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  125. Desks, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  126. Furniture and cabinetware, n.o.e., and other than iron, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  127. Furniture-, knife-, and plate-powder and polish, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  128. Mantelpieces, other than stone, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  129. Upholstery n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

    Class IX.—China, Glass, and Earthen Goods.

  130. Bricks, known as firebricks, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  131. China, porcelain, and parianware, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  132. Drainage pipes and tiles, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  133. Earthen flooring and garden tiles, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  134. Earthenware, stoneware, and brownware, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  135. Filters, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  136. Fireclay, ground, and fireclay goods, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  137. Glass, crown, sheet, and common window, 2s. the 100 superficial feet.

  138. Glassware; also plate-glass, and glass polished, coloured, and other kinds n.o.e.; globes and chimneys for lamps, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  139. Lamps, lanterns, and lamp-wick, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  140. Plate-glass, bevelled or silvered; mirrors and looking-glasses, framed or unframed, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

    Class X.—Fancy Goods, Musical Instruments, etc.

  141. Artificial flies, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  142. Cards, playing, 6d. per pack.

  143. Clocks, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  144. Dressing-cases, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  145. Fancy goods, and toys, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  146. Fishing tackle, including artificially-baited hooks other than flies, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  147. Jewellery; plate, gold or silver; greenstone, cut or polished: 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  148. Mouldings in the piece, for picture-frames, cornices, or ceilings, 15 per cent. ad valorem.

  149. Musical instruments of all kinds n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  150. Oil, perfumed, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  151. Papier-maché ware, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  152. Perfumery n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  153. Perfumed spirits and Cologne-water; £1 1s. the liquid gallon until the 1st February, 1896, and thereafter £1 10s. the liquid gallon.

  154. Photographic goods n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  155. Pictures, paintings, drawings, engravings, and photographs, framed or unframed; picture- or photograph-frames and -mounts, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  156. Platedware, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  157. Statues, statuettes, casts, and bronzes, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  158. Tobacco-pipes and cases, cigar- and cigarette-holders and cases, cigarette-papers and -cases, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  159. Toilet preparations n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  160. Watches, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  161. Walking-sticks, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

    Class XI.—Paper Manufactures and Stationery.

  162. Calendars and show-cards, all kinds, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  163. Cardboard boxes complete, or cardboard cut and shaped for boxes (including match-boxes), 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  164. Directories of New Zealand, or of any part thereof; also covers for directories, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  165. Handbills, programmes, and circulars, playbills and printed posters, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  166. Ink, writing, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  167. Paper bags, coarse (including sugar-bags), 7s. 6d. the cwt.

  168. Paper bags n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  169. Paper-hangings, 15 per cent. ad valorem.

  170. Paper, wrapping—viz., blue candle, glazed cap, glazed casings, small hand, lumber hand, and tissue, 5s. the cwt.

  171. Paper, wrapping, other kinds, including brown, cartridge, and sugar papers, 5s. the cwt.

  172. Printed matter relating to patent or proprietary medicines; trade catalogues, price-lists, and fashion-plates of the goods of firms or persons in the colony, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  173. Stationery and writing paper n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  174. Stationery, manufactured—viz., account-books; manuscript books; bill-head, invoice, and statement forms; printed or ruled paper; counter-books; cheque- and draft-forms; tags; labels; blotting-pads; sketch-books; book covers; copying letter-books; manifold writers; albums (other than for photographs); diaries; birthday-books; plain or faint-lined ruled books; printed window-tickets; printed, lithographed, or embossed stationery; and Christmas, New Year, birthday, and Easter cards and booklets: 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  175. Stereotypes and matrices, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

    Class XII.—Manufactures of Metal.

  176. Bicycles, tricycles, and the like vehicles; also finished or partly finished or machined parts of same, n.o.e., including weld-less steel tubing cut to short lengths, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  177. Boilers, land and marine, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  178. Brass cocks, valves, unions, lubricators, and whistles, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  179. Brass manufactures n.o.e, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  180. Cartridges (shot), 10- to 24-bore, 1s. 6d. the 100.

  181. Cartridge-cases, 9d. the 100.

  182. Cartridges, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  183. Cash-registering machines, 10 per cent. ad valorem.

  184. Coffin-furniture, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  185. Composition-piping, 3s. 6d. the cwt.

  186. Copper manufactures n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  187. Copying-presses, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  188. Crab-winches, cranes n.o.e., capstans, and windlasses, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  189. Cutlery, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  190. Firearms, all kinds, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  191. Galvanised-iron manufactures n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  192. Gasometers, and other apparatus for producing gas; also gas-meters, 10 per cent. ad valorem.

  193. Gaspipes, iron, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  194. Hardware, ironmongery, and holloware, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  195. Iron bridges, and iron material, n.o.e., for the construction of bridges, wharves, jetties, or patent slips, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  196. Iron columns for buildings, and other structural ironwork, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  197. Iron doors for safes and vaults, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  198. Iron, galvanised corrugated sheets, screws, and nails, 2s. the cwt.

  199. Iron galvanised tiles, ridging, guttering, and spouting, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  200. Iron gates and gate-posts, staples, standards, straining posts and apparatus, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  201. Iron nails, 2s. the cwt.

  202. Iron pipes, and fittings for same, including main-cocks, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  203. Iron, plain galvanised sheet and hoop, 1s. 6d. the cwt.

  204. Iron tanks, exceeding 200 gallons and not exceeding 400 gallons, 10s. each.

  205. Iron tanks, of and under 200 gallons, 5s. each.

  206. Iron-work and wire-work, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  207. Japanned and lacquered metal ware, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  208. Lawn-mowers, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  209. Lead, in sheets, 1s. 6d. the cwt.

  210. Lead piping, 3s. 6d. the cwt.

  211. Machinery, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  212. Machinery, electric, and appliances, 10 per cent. ad valorem.

  213. All machinery for agricultural purposes, including chaff-cutters, corn-crushers, corn-shellers, also articles used in manufacturing the same—namely, chaff-cutting knives, tilt-rakes, fittings for threshing-mills, forgings for ploughs; but excluding reapers and binders, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  214. Machinery for dairying purposes (excluding separators and coolers), 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  215. Machinery for flour-mills, woollen-mills, paper-mills, rope- and twine-making, dredging, saw-milling, planing, and wood-working (including lathes), oil-refining, boring, and also machinery for refrigerating or preserving meat, leather-splitting machines, and band-knives for same, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  216. Machinery for stamping and blocking tin, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  217. Machinery of every description for mining purposes, including machine pumps, but excluding machinery for gold-saving purposes and processes, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  218. Manufactures, n.o.e., of metal, or of metal in combination with any other material, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  219. Nails n.o.e., 3s. the cwt.

  220. Portable engines on four or any greater number of wheels, with boilers of locomotive type; also traction-engines, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  221. Printing machines and presses, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  222. Pumps and other apparatus for raising water n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  223. Railway and tramway plant and materials n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  224. Sad-irons, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  225. Shot, 10s. the cwt.

  226. Soda-water machines; also machines for aërating liquids, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  227. Steam-engines and parts of steam-engines n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  228. Steam-engines and parts thereof (including the boiler or boilers therefor), imported specially for mining and dairying purposes, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  229. Tinware, and tinsmiths' furniture, n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  230. Waterworks pipes, iron, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  231. Weigh-bridges and weighing-machines, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  232. Wire mattresses and webbing, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  233. Zinc tiles, ridging, guttering, piping, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  234. Zinc manufactures n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

    Class XIII.—Timber and Articles made from Timber.

  235. Bellows, other than forge, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  236. Blocks, wooden tackle, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  237. Buckets and tubs, of wood, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  238. Carriages, carts, drays, wagons and perambulators, and wheels for the same, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  239. Carriage shafts, spokes, and felloes, dressed: bent carriage timber n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  240. Doors, glazed with ornamental glass, 4s. each.

  241. Doors, plain, 2s. each.

  242. Sashes, glazed with ornamental glass, 4s. the pair.

  243. Sashes, plain, 2s. the pair.

  244. Timber, palings, 2s. the 100.

  245. Timber, posts, 8s. the 100.

  246. Timber, rails, 4s. the 100.

  247. Timber, sawn, dressed, 4s. the 100 ft. superficial.

  248. Timber, sawn, rough, 2s. the 100 ft. superficial.

  249. Timber, shingles and laths, 2s. the 1,000.

  250. Woodenware and turnery n.o.e., and veneers, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

    Class XIV.—Oils, Paints, etc.

  251. Axle-grease and other solid lubricants, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  252. Harness oil and composition, and leather dressing, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  253. Naphtha, 6d. the gallon.

  254. Oil, kerosene, 6d. the gallon.

  255. Oil, linseed, 6d. the gallon.

  256. Oil, mineral, including shale-waste or unrefined mineral-oil n.o.e., 6d. the gallon.

  257. Oil, n.o.e., 6d. the gallon.

  258. Oil, olive, in bulk, 6d. the gallon.

  259. Oil vegetable, in bulk, n.o.e., 6d. the gallon.

  260. Oil, vegetable or other, in bottle, 15 per cent. ad valorem.

  261. Paints and colours ground in oil or turpentine, 2s. 6d. the cwt.

  262. Paints and colours mixed ready for use, 5s. the cwt.

  263. Putty, 2s. the cwt.

  264. Stearine, 1 1/2 d. the lb.

  265. Varnish, enamel paints, gold size, 2s. the gallon.

  266. Whiting and chalk, 1s. the cwt.

    Class XV.—Agricultural and Farm Products, etc.

  267. Animals, food for, of all kinds, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  268. Cattle (horned), 10s. each.

  269. Chaff, £1 the ton.

  270. Grain—namely, barley, 2s. the 100 lb.

  271. Grain and pulse of every kind n.o.e., 9d. the 100 lb.

  272. Grain and pulse of every kind, when ground or in any way manufactured, n.o.e., 1s. the 100 lb.

  273. Horses, £1 each.

  274. Linseed, £1 the ton.

  275. Maize, 9d. the 100 lb.

  276. Onions, £1 the ton.

  277. Prepared calf-meal, £1 5s. the ton.

    Class XVI.—Miscellaneous.

  278. Bags, flour, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  279. Bags, calico, forfar, hessian, and linen, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  280. Bagging and bags n.o.e., 15 per cent. ad valorem.

  281. Blacking and boot-gloss, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  282. Blacklead, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  283. Blue, 2d. the lb.

  284. Brooms, brushes, and brushware n.o.e., 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  285. Brushes, hair, and combs; toilet, clothes, and hat brushes, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  286. Candles, 2d. the lb. or package of that reputed weight, and so in proportion for packages of greater or less reputed weight.

  287. Cement, 2s. the barrel.

  288. Cordage and rope n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  289. Cork, cut, including bungs, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  290. Fireworks n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  291. Flock, 10 per cent. ad valorem.

  292. Glue and size, 1 1/2d. the lb.

  293. Granite, sawn on not more than two sides, and not dressed or polished, 5 per cent. ad valorem.

  294. Marble, granite, and other stone, dressed or polished, and articles made therefrom, including mantelpieces, 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  295. Matches—

    Wooden, in boxes containing not more than 60 matches, 1s. the gross of boxes.

    In boxes containing over 60 and not more than 100 matches, 2s. the gross of boxes.

    In boxes containing more than 100 matches, for every 100 matches or fraction thereof contained in one box, 2s. the gross of boxes.

    Wax, “plaid vestas” in cardboard boxes containing under 100 matches, 1s. 2d. the gross of boxes.

    “Pocket vestas” in tin or other boxes containing under 100 matches, 1s. 9d. the gross of boxes.

    “Sportsman's,” “Ovals,” and “No. 4 tin vestas” in boxes containing not more than 200 matches, 5s. the gross of boxes.

    Other kinds, for every 100 matches or fraction thereof contained in one box, 2s. 6d. the gross of boxes.

  296. Nets and netting, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  297. Powder, sporting, 6d. the lb.

  298. Rice, manufactured into starch in bond, 2s. the cwt.

  299. Sacks, other than corn sacks and jute sacks, 15 per cent. ad valorem.

  300. Sausage-skins and casings (including brine or salt), 3d. the lb.

  301. Soap, common yellow and blue mottled, 5s. the cwt.

  302. Soap n.o.e. 25 per cent. ad valorem.

  303. Soap-powder, extract of soap, dry soap, and soft-soap, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  304. Spirits, methylated, 1s. the liquid gallon.

  305. Spirits, cleared from warehouse, methylated under prescribed conditions, 6d. the liquid gallon.

  306. Starch, 2d. the lb.

  307. Tarpaulins, tents, rick- and wagon-covers, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  308. Twine, n.o.e., 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  309. Washing-powder, 20 per cent. ad valorem.

  310. Wax, paraffin, mineral, vegetable, and Japanese, 1 1/2d. the lb.

    In addition to any duty chargeable by law on any goods imported into the colony, a further duty of 20 per cent. ad valorem shall be charged when the goods are prison-made.

    Table of Exemptions from Duties of Customs. Class I.—Foods, etc.

    Names of Articles.

  311. Almonds, Barbary, Sicily, and French, used in confectioners' manufactures.

  312. Anchovies, salted, in casks.

  313. Arrowroot, sago, tapioca, macaroni, vermicelli, and prepared groats.

  314. Rock salt.

    Class IV.—Non-Alcoholic Beverages, etc.

  315. 315. Cocoa-beans.

    Class V.—Drugs, etc.

  316. Acids—viz.: boracic; carbolic, in bulk; fluoric; muriatic; nitric; oxalic; oleic; pyrogallic; salicylic; sulphuric.

  317. Concentrated extracts, or essences in liquid form or preserved in fat for perfume-manufacturing purposes in manufacturing warehouses, in bottles of not less than 1 lb. in weight.

  318. Disinfectants.

  319. Drugs and chemicals—viz.: alum; sulphate of aluminium; sulphate of ammonia; anhydrous ammonia; aniline dyes; arsenic, bluestone, or sulphate of copper; borax; catechu; chloride of calcium; nitrate of silver; cochineal; creosote, crude or commercial; glycerine, crude; gum, arabic and tragacanth; gum benzoin; artificial gum arabic; gum damar; phosphorus; potash, caustic potash, and chlorate of potash; pearlash; cyanide of potassium; sal-ammoniac; saltpetre; acetate of soda, crude; soda-ash; caustic soda; nitrate of soda; silicate of soda, sulphate of soda; sulphide of sodium; strychnine; sulphur; chloride of zinc; iron-sulphates; gall-nuts; turmeric; saffron; nitrous-oxide gas; tree washes; insecticides; maltine; chlorodyne.

  320. Essential oils, except eucalyptus; cod-liver oil; oil of rhodium.

  321. Horse-drenches.

  322. Medicinal barks, leaves, herbs, flowers, roots, and gums.

  323. Scrub-exterminator.

  324. Sheep-dip; sheep-drenches; sheep-licks.

  325. Surgical and dental instruments and appliances.

  326. Scientific and assay balances, retorts, flasks, and other appliances for chemical analysis and assay work.

  327. Water-hardening chemicals for brewers' use.

    Class VI.—Clothing and Textiles.

  328. Accoutrements for military purposes, excepting uniform clothing.

  329. Brace-elastic and brace mountings.

  330. Bunting, in the piece.

  331. Butter- and cheese-cloth.

  332. Buttons, tapes, wadding, pins, needles.

  333. Calico, white and grey, also cotton sheetings, in the piece.

  334. Corduroy, moleskin, and plain beaver-skin, of cotton, in the piece.

  335. Coloured cotton shirtings; flannelette shirtings.*

    * See note on next page.

  336. Forfar, dowlas, and flax sheeting, when cut up under supervision in sizes not exceeding 47 in. × 36 in. for making flour-bags, and not exceeding 54 in. for lining wool mats.

  337. Fur-skins, green or sun-dried.

  338. Gold or silver lace or braid for military clothing.

  339. Hatmaker's materials—viz.: silk plush; felt hoods; shellac; galloons; calicoes; spale-boards for hat-boxes; leathers and linings; blocks; moulds; frames; ventilators; and tassels.

  340. Hessians, plain or striped, and scrim.

  341. Leather-cloth.

  342. Minor articles (required in the making-up of apparel, boots, shoes, hats, caps, saddlery, umbrellas, parasols, and sunshades), enumerated in any order of the Commissioner, and published in the Gazette.

  343. Sailcloth, canvas, and unbleached double-warped duck, in the piece.

  344. Sewing cottons, silks, and threads; crotchet, darning, and knitting cottons; angola mendings not exceeding 45 yards, on cards.

  345. Silk for flour-dressing.

  346. Silk twist (shoemakers' and saddlers').

  347. Stay makers' binding, eyelets, corset-fasteners, jean, ticks, lasting, sateen, and cotell.

  348. Tailors' trimmings—viz.: plain-coloured imitation hair-cloth; canvas; plain Verona and plain diagonal, and such patterns of checked Italian cloth as may be approved of by the Commissioner of Customs; Italian cloth of cotton or wool; buckram; wadding and padding; silk, worsted, and cotton bindings and braids; stay-bindings; Russia braids; shoulder-pads; buckles; silesias; drab, slate, and brown jeans; pocketings; slate, black, and brown dyed unions and linens.

  349. Umbrella-makers' materials—viz.: reversible and levantine silk mixtures, gloria, and satin de chêne of not less than 44 in. in width; alpaca cloth, with border; zanella cloth, with border; also other piece-goods on such conditions as the Commissioner may approve; sticks, runners, notches, caps, ferrules, cups, ribs, stretchers, tips, and rings.

  350. Union shirtings the invoice value of which does not exceed 6d. the yard.*

    * Whenever any dispute arises as to the application of the exemption in favour of coloured cotton, flannelette, or union shirtings, in the case of fabrics alleged to be such shirtings, the Commissioner has power to decide such dispute: and in case of doubt on his part, he may require the fabric in dispute to be cut up for shirt-making, under such conditions as he prescribes.

  351. Waterproof material in the piece.

    Class VII.—Leather, and Articles used in Leather Manufactures.

  352. Boot-elastic.

  353. Bootmakers' linings, canvas, plain or coloured, bag and portmanteau linings, of such materials, qualities, and patterns as may be approved by the Commissioner.

  354. Boots, shoes, and slippers—viz., children's, Nos. 0 to 3.

  355. Cork soles, and sock soles.

  356. East India kip, crust or rough-tanned, but undressed.

  357. Goatskins, crust or rough-tanned, but undressed.

  358. Grindery, except heel- and toe-plates.

  359. Hogskins.

  360. Kangaroo-, wallabi-skins, undressed.

  361. Leather, japanned or enamelled; goatskins, dressed as morocco, coloured (other than black).

  362. Saddle-trees.

  363. Saddlers' ironmongery (except bits and stirrup-irons), hames, and mounts for harness; straining, surcingle, brace, girth, and roller-webs; collar-check, and the same article plain, of such quality as may be approved by the Commissioner; legging-buckles.

  364. Tanning materials, crude.

    Class VIII.—Furniture, etc.

  365. Blind-webbing and tape.

  366. Upholsterers' webbing, hair-seating, imitation hair-seating, curled hair; gimp and cord, of wool, cotton, or silk; tufts and studs.

    Class IX.—China, Glass, etc.

  367. Bottles, empty, plain glass, not being cut or ground; also jars up to 3 in. in diameter at the mouth.

  368. Glass plates (engraved) for photo-lithographic work.

  369. Jars or other dutiable vessels, containing free goods or goods subject to a fixed rate of duty, and being ordinary trade packages for the goods contained in them.

    Class X.—Fancy Goods, etc.

  370. Action-work and keys, in frames or otherwise, for manufacture of organs, harmoniums, and pianos; organ-pipes and stop-knobs.

  371. Artists' canvas, colours, brushes, and pallet-knives.

  372. Magic-lanterns, lenses, and slides.

  373. Microscopes and astronomical telescopes, and lenses for same.

  374. Musical instruments, specially imported for Volunteer bands.

  375. Paintings, statuary, and works of art, presented to or imported by any public institution or art association registered as a body corporate, for display in the buildings of such institution or association, and not to be sold or otherwise disposed of.

  376. Photographic cameras and lenses.

  377. Photographs of personal friends in letters or packets.

  378. Precious stones, cut or uncut and unmounted.

  379. Sensitized surfaces for photographic purposes.

    Class XI.—Paper, etc.

  380. Bookbinders' materials—viz., cloth, leather, thread, headbands, webbing, end-papers, tacketing-gut, marbling-colours, marble-paper, blue-paste for ruling-ink, staple-presses, wire-staples, staple-sticks.

  381. Butter-paper, known as parchment paper or waxed paper.

  382. Cardboard and pasteboard, of sizes not less than that known as “royal”.

  383. Cardboard boxes, materials for—viz., gold and silver paper, plain and embossed, gelatine and coloured papers, known as “box-papers.”

  384. Cartridge paper, for drawing-books.

  385. Cloth-lined boards, not less than “royal.”

  386. Cloth-lined papers; enamelled-paper; ivorite and gelatine; metallic paper, not less than “demy.”

  387. Copy-books and drawing-books.

  388. Copying-paper, medium and double-foolscap, in original mill wrappers and labels.

  389. Hand-made cheque-paper.

  390. Ink, printing.

  391. Masticated para.

  392. Millboard and bookbinders' leather-board.

  393. Paper, hand-made or machine-made book or writing, of sizes not less than the size known as “demy,” when in original wrappers.

  394. Printing-paper.

  395. Printed books, papers, and music n.o.e.

  396. School slates, and educational apparatus.

    Class XII.—Metals.

  397. Anchors.

  398. Artificers' tools.

  399. Axes and hatchets; spades, shovels, and forks; picks; mattocks; quartz and knapping-hammers; scythes, sheep-shears, reaping-hooks; soldering-irons, paperhangers' scissors; butchers' saws and cleavers.

  400. Axles, axle-arms, and boxes.

  401. Band-saws and folding-saws, including frames.

  402. Bellows nails.

  403. Bicycles and tricycles, fittings for—viz., rubber-tires, pneumatic-tires, outside covers, and inner tubes; rubber and cork handles, and pedal-rubbers; also drop-forgings and stampings, ball-bearings, weldless steel tube in full lengths, rims, forks, and spokes, in the rough.

  404. Blacksmiths' anvils, forges, and fans.

  405. Bolts, 5in. by 1/2in. in diameter, and under, and nuts for same.

  406. Brass and copper, in pigs, bars, tubes, or sheets.

  407. Brass tubing and stamped work, in the rough, for gasliers and brackets.

  408. Caps, percussion.

  409. Card-clothing for woollen-mills.

  410. Chains, trace and plough chains; or metal articles required to repair or complete riding or driving harness or saddlery to be repaired or made in the colony.

  411. Copper and composition rod, bolts, sheathing, and nails.

  412. Couch-roll jackets, machine-wires, beater-bars, and strainer-plates for paper-mills.

  413. Crucibles.

  414. Emery-grinding machines and emery-wheels.

  415. Empty iron drums, not exceeding 10 gallons capacity.

  416. Engineers' machine tools.

  417. Eyelets.

  418. Fire-engines, including Merryweather's chemical fire-engines.

  419. Fish-hooks.

  420. Galvanising-baths, welded.

  421. Gas-engines and hammers, and oil-engines.

  422. Glassmakers' moulds.

  423. Hydraulic cranes.

  424. Iron- and brass-wove wire and wire-gauze; also wire netting.

  425. Iron boiler-plates and unflanged end-plates for boilers; boiler-tubes not exceeding 6in. in diameter, and unflanged; Bowling's expansion rings; furnace-flues.

  426. Iron, plain black sheet, rod, bolt, bar, plate, hoop, and pig.

  427. Iron rolled girders.

  428. Iron plates, screws, and castings for ships.

  429. Iron wire n.o.e., including fencing-wire, plain and barbed.

  430. Lead, in pigs and bars.

  431. Locomotives.

  432. Machine saws.

  433. Machinery for gold-saving purposes and processes.

  434. Metal fittings for trunks, portmanteaux, travelling-bags, leggings, bags, and satchels.

  435. Metal sheaves for blocks.

  436. Metallic capsules.

  437. Perambulators and the like vehicles, fittings for, n.o.e.

  438. Perforated or cellular sheet zinc or iron.

  439. Printing type and materials n.o.e.

  440. Rails for railways and tramways.

  441. Reapers and binders, and reaping and mowing machines, and extra parts for same; materials for manufacturing agricultural machinery—namely, reaper-knife sections, fingers, brass and steel springs, malleable castings, discs for harrows, mould-boards and plough-shares, mould-board plates, and steel share-plates cut to pattern, skeith-plates; ploughs and harrows; combined threshers.

  442. Riddles and sieves.

  443. Rivets and washers.

  444. Separators and coolers for dairying purposes.

  445. Set-screws, engineers' studs, and split-pins.

  446. Sewing-, knitting-, and kilting-machines.

  447. Spiral springs (except sofa- and mattress-springs).

  448. Steam and hydraulic pressure and vacuum gauges.

  449. Surveyors' steel bands and measuring-tapes.

  450. Swords.

  451. Tacks of all kinds.

  452. Tea-packing lead.

  453. Tin, in pigs, bars, or sheets.

  454. Tinsmiths' fittings, including stamped or blocked tin, planished or unplanished.

  455. Tins, tops of ornamented.

  456. Wire, of brass, copper, or lead.

  457. Zinc, plain sheet.

  458. Zinc plates and copper plates for photo-lithographic work.

    Class XIII.—Timber, etc.

  459. Ash, hickory, and lancewood timber, unwrought.

  460. Blacksmiths' bellows.

  461. Brush woodware.

  462. Carriage- and cart-shafts, spokes and felloes in the rough; hubs, all kinds; poles if unbent and unplaned, all kinds; bent wheel-rims.

  463. Carriage- and cart-makers' materials—viz., springs, mountings, trimmings, brass hinges, tire-bolts, shackle-holders, step treads, and other iron fittings (except steps, lamp-irons, dash-irons, seat-rails, and fifth wheels), rubber-cloth.

  464. Churns.

  465. Lignum-vitæ.

  466. Sieves, hair.

  467. Wooden handles for tools.

    Class XIV.—Oils, etc.

  468. Benzine in bulk.

  469. Oils—viz., candlenut, fish, whale, seal, penguin, and palm.

  470. Paints and colours n.o.e.

  471. Shale oil, once run, suitable for gas-making.

  472. Spirits of tar.

  473. Turpentine, driers, and terebene.

    Class XV.—Miscellaneous.

  474. Apparatus and appliances solely for teaching purposes, as may be approved by the Commissioner.

  475. Belting for machinery, other than leather.

  476. Binder-twine.

  477. Bricks, other than fire-bricks.

  478. Building materials n.o.e.

  479. Brushes for cream-separators and combined screens.

  480. Candlenuts and candlenut kernels.

  481. Candlewick.

  482. Canvas aprons and elevators for reapers and binders.

  483. Carpenters' baskets.

  484. Charts and maps.

  485. Cotton waste.

  486. Dye-stuffs and dyeing materials, crude.

  487. Felt sheathing.

  488. Food preservative n.o.e.

  489. Gum boots.

  490. Hawsers of 12 in. and over.

  491. Honey and brown Windsor soap composition.

  492. Iron and steel cordage.

  493. Jute bagging, bags, and sacks.

  494. Manures.

  495. Marble and other stone, hewn or rough-sawn, not dressed or polished.

  496. Netmakers' cotton twine.

  497. Official supplies for consular officers of countries where a similar exemption exists in favour of British Consuls.

  498. Papermakers' felts.

  499. Passengers' baggage and effects, including only wearing apparel and other personal effects that have been worn or are in use by persons arriving in the colony; also implements, instruments, and tools of trade, occupation, or employment of such persons; and household or other effects not exceeding £100 in value, which have been in use for twelve months prior to embarkation by the persons or families bringing them to the colony, and not intended for any other person or persons or for sale; also cabin furnishings belonging to such persons.

  500. Plaster of Paris.

  501. Powder, blasting and meal.

  502. Ship-chandlery n.o.e.

  503. Ships' rockets, blue-lights, and danger-signals.

  504. Spirits for manufacturing perfumed spirit, flavouring essences, and culinary essences in manufacturing warehouses.*

    * This exemption ceased on the 1st day of February, 1896.

  505. Stones, mill, grind, oil, and whet.

  506. Tobacco for sheepwash or for insecticide, after being rendered unfit for human consumption to the satisfaction of the Commissioner.

  507. Treacle or molasses, mixed with bone-black in proportions to the satisfaction of the Commissioner.

  508. Tubular woven cotton-cloth in the piece, for meat-wraps.

  509. Type-writers.

  510. Wax, bottling.

  511. Woolpacks and woolpockets.

  512. Yarn—viz., coir, flax, hemp.

  513. Articles and materials (as may from time to time be specified by the Commissioner) which are suited only for, and are to be used solely in, the fabrication of goods within the colony. All decisions of the Commissioner in reference to articles so admitted free to be published from time to time in the Gazette.

  514. And all articles not otherwise enumerated.

    Table of Excise Duties.

  515. Tobacco, 1s. in the lb.*

  516. Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff, 1s. 6d. the lb.*

    * “The Tobacco Excise Duties Act, 1896,” section 2, enacts:—

    “On and after the thirty-first day of December, one thousand eight hundred and ninety-six, section three of “The Customs and Excise Duties Act, 1891,” shall be deemed to be repealed, and in lieu of the duties imposed by that section there shall be levied, collected, and paid, on and after that day, upon tobacco manufactured in the colony, at the time of making the entry for home consumption thereof, the several duties of excise following, that is to say,—

    “On tobaccoOne shilling the pound,
    “On cigars and snuffOne shilling and sixpence the pound.
    “On cigarettes— 
        If manufactured by machineryTwo shillings and sixpence the pound.
        If made by handOne shilling the pound.”
  517. Beer, 3d. the gallon.

  518. Articles in which spirit is a necessary ingredient, manufactured in a warehouse appointed under section 26 of “The Customs Laws Consolidation Act, 1882,” namely,—

    Pharmacopœia tinctures, essences, extracts, and medicinal spirits containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 9d. the lb.

    Pharmacopœia tinctures, essences, extracts, and medicinal spirits containing less than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 3d. the pound.

    Culinary and flavouring essences, 12s. the liquid gallon, from 1st February, 1896.

    Perfumed spirit, 20s. the liquid gallon, from 1st February, 1896.

    Toilet preparations which are subject to 16s. the liquid gallon on importation, 12s. the liquid gallon.

    Toilet preparations which are subject to 25 per cent. duty on importation, 6s. the liquid gallon.

    Duties imposed by His Excellency the Governor under Section 17 of “The Customs and Excise Duties Act, 1888.”

  519. Olive stones, ground (see New Zealand Gazette, 15th May, 1890), 4d. the lb.

  520. Brewers' caramel (see New Zealand Gazette, 21st August, 1890), 3d. the lb.

  521. Liquid hops (see New Zealand Gazette, 21st December, 1893), 6s. the lb.

  522. The United Asbestos Patent Salamander Decorations (see New Zealand Gazette, 14th May, 1896), 15 per cent. ad valorem.

PART II.—STATISTICAL INFORMATION
[The progress of the colony from the beginning is shown in the statistical broadsheets which follow the General Index.]

Table of Contents

Chapter 27. SECTION I.—POPULATION

THE estimated population of New Zealand on the 31st December, 1898, with the increase for the year, is shown below:

 Persons.Males.Females.
Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris) ou 31st December, 1897729,056384,703344,353
Increase during year 1898:—
     By excess of births over deaths11,7115,3356,376
     Excess of arrivals over departures2,6962,086610
Estimated population, exclusive of Maoris, on 31st December, 1898743,463392,124351,339
Maori population (1896)39,85421,67318,181
          Total estimated population of Colony on 31st December, 1898783,317413,797369,520

The number of the Chinese in New Zealand at the end of the year 1898 was estimated to be 3,464 persons, of whom 31 were females.

INCREASE OF POPULATION

The increase for each quarter of the year 1898 was:—

First Quarter.
          Increase from:Total.Males.Females.
Excess of births over deaths2,8311,2961,535
Excess of departures over arrivals (decrease)−173−23−150
2,6581,2731,385
Second Quarter.
Excess of births over deaths2,9341,3021,632
Excess of departures over arrivals (decrease)−1,082−678−404
1,8526241,228
Third Quarter.
Excess of births over deaths2,8531,3101,543
Excess of arrivals over departures610505105
3,4631,8151,648
Fourth Quarter.
Excess of births over deaths3,0931,4271,666
Excess of arrivals over departures3,3412,2821,059
6,4343,7092,725
 Year 1898.
Excess of births over deaths11,7115,3350,376
Excess of arrivals over departures2,6962,086610
14,4077,4216,986

The movement of population for seven years is given next. Although the large increase in 1893 by excess of arrivals over departures was not maintained during the five following years, the arrivals in the colony at all events exceeded the departures in each of these years, and the total excess of arrivals for the seven-year period 1892–98 inclusive is found to be 25.438 persons, drawn from other colonies or countries. The number may be somewhat greater than the actual fact, but probably not very much so. Reference to the possible source of error and its degree will be found further on.

Year.Estimated Population on the 31st December.Increase during the YearCentesimal Increase on Population of Previous Year.
By Excess of Births over Deaths.By Excess of Arrivals over Departures.Net Increase.
* The results of the census taken in April, 1896, disclosed the fact that the estimate of population for December, 1895, was too low by 1,804 persons. Adding this number to the increase for 1896 (13,652 persons) makes 15,456, which is the difference between the populations given for the years 1895 and 1896.
1892650,43311,4174,95816,3752.58
1893672,26511,42010,41221,8323.36
1894686,12811,6102,25313,8632.06
1895698,706*11,68389512,5781.83
1896714,16212,1801,47213,652*1.95
1897729,05612,1422,75214,8942.09
1898743,46311,7112,69614,4071.98

POPULATION OF PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS

At a distance of three years' time from the date of the census it is impossible to state with anything like certainty of accuracy what the populations of the provincial districts may be. The natural increase by excess of births over deaths is correctly found and added, but the internal movement of people cannot be measured; and, in respect of the North and Middle Islands, it is known that a process of leaving the south and settling in the north has been going on for a long while. Further, the arrivals in the colony of persons from abroad and the departures to places outside New Zealand are counted in the Customs returns as at the first port of touching and the last of departure. Thus, the total excess of arrivals over departures has to be afterwards divided amongst the provincial districts proportionally, which is certainly not a method likely to give perfectly true results, though it is the best perhaps that can possibly be adopted for the years lying between those on which the quinquennial census is taken.

From the above remarks, it will be seen that the estimated populations given below are no doubt too high for the Middle Island and too low for the North, but there is no means of allowing for the presumed error. The figures are given with these qualifications:—

ESTIMATED POPULATIONS OF PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS, 31ST DECEMBER, 1898.
(Figures given subject to previous remarks.)
 Persons. Persons.
Auckland162,595Westland14,907
Taranaki33,613Canterbury142,924
Hawke's Bay36,411Otago172,162
Wellington129,738      Chatham Islands251
Marlborough13,243      Kermadec Islands7
Nelson37,612 
      Estimated total population of colony, excluding Maoris, Dec. 31, 1898 743,463

CENSUS, 1896

The population of the colony (exclusive of Maoris), as returned in the census schedules for the night of the 12th April, 1896, was 703,360 persons, of whom 3,711 were Chinese, and 2,259 half castes living amongst and as Europeans.

A census of the Maori population was taken during February of 1896, when the number of the Native race was found to be 39,854 persons, including 3,503 half-castes living as Maoris. 229 Maori women were returned as married to European husbands. The complete population (European and Maori) of the colony was therefore 743,214 persons, as exhibited in the following statement, specifying the numbers for each sex:—

 Persons.Males.Females.
* Not including 171 persons, officers and crew of a British man-of-war.
Population (exclusive of persons of the aboriginal native race, of mixed European and Native blood, and Chinese)697,390366,607330,783
Half-castes and persons of mixed race living as and among Europeans2,2591,1231,136
Chinese3,7113,68526
Aboriginal natives (including 229 Maori wives of Europeans)36,35119,72916,622
Half-castes and persons of mixed race living among and as members of Maori tribes3,5031,9441,559
          Total population on 12th April, 1896*743,214393,088350,126

The total half-caste or mixed European and Native population was 5,762 persons. The number of half-castes living among Europeans increased since 1891 by 75, or at the rate of 3.4 per cent. In that year the number of Maori wives of Europeans was 251; in 1896 it was 229. The Chinese decreased from 4,444 at the time of the census of 1891 to 3,711 in April, 1896; or at the rate of 16.5 per cent., caused mainly by the excess of departures over arrivals.

The Maori population fell from 41,993 in 1891 to 39,854 in 1896, according to the returns.

The increase on the total European population between April, 1891, and April, 1896, amounted to 76,702 persons, or a rate of 12.24 per cent. Between the census of 1886 and that of 1891 the numerical increase was 48,176 persons, or 8.33 per cent., so that an improved progress was made during the last five-year period to the extent of 3.91 per cent. The average annual increase in the period 1891-96 was at the rate of 2.33 per cent.

The population of the principal divisions of the colony in April, 1896, was—

 Persons.Males.Females.
North Island and adjacent islets (exclusive of Maoris)340,631181,089159,542
Middle Island and adjacent islets (exclusive of Maoris)362,236190,038172,198
Stewart Island252152100
Chatham Islands (exclusive of Maoris)234132102
Kermadec Islands743
      Total for the colony (exclusive of Maoris)703,360371,415331,945

POPULATION OF COUNTIES

New Zealand is, by “The Counties Act, 1876,” divided into counties and boroughs, excepting certain outlying islands, which are not within county boundaries. It is provided by the above mentioned Act that boroughs shall not be included in counties. In April, 1896, the number of the counties was 81. Of these, the North Island had 47, with a population amounting altogether to 191,374 persons. The Middle Island had 33 counties, the population being 200,117 persons. Stewart Island is a county in itself, and had a population of 244 persons. The names and populations of the various counties in the colony were as under at the date of the enumeration:—

    Counties.    Census, 1896

* Since the census was taken in 1836 two new counties—Akitio and Eketahuna—have been constituted. Both were cut out of Wairarapa North County.

† Since the 12th April, 1896, the following new boroughs have been constituted: New Brighton (population 800 in 1898), cut out of Selwyn County; Whangarei (population 1,250 in 1896), cut out of Whangarei County.

Mongonui 1,889
Whangaroa 969
Hokianga 1,909
Bay of Islands 2,723
Hobson 3,750
Whangarei 6,847†
Otamatea 2,483
Rodney 3,464
Waitemata 6,762
Eden 15,940
Manukau 12,185
Coromandel 4,987
Thames 4,515
Ohinemuri 4,761
Piako 2,706
Waikato 2,814
Waipa 3,584
Raglan 1,545
Kawhia 598
West Taupo 156
East Taupo 232
Rotorua 840
Tauranga 1622
Whakatane 1,988
Waiapu 447
Cook 5,287
Clifton 1,450
Taranaki 9,970
Stratford 5,141
Hawera 6,934
Patea 3,084
Waitotara 2,737
Wanganui 3,095
Rangitikei 6,030
Kiwitea 2,428
Oroua 6,450
Pohangina 1,351
Manawatu 2,709
Horowhenna 3,792
Hawke's Bay 6,894
Wairoa 1,490
Waipawa 8,866
Patangata 2,374
Pahiatua 3,208
Wairarapa North7,209*
Akitio
Eketahuna
Wairarapa South 5,409
Hutt 5,750
Sounds 747
Marlborough 6,330
Kaikoura 1,575
Collingwood 2,509
Waimea 8,591
Buller 4,833
Inangahua 4,254
Grey 4,592
Westland 4,723
Amuri 916
Cheviot 1,042
Ashley 11,913
Selwyn 30,090†
Akaroa 3,886
Ashburton 10,820
Geraldine 7,499
Levels 7,723
Mackenzie 1,514
Waimate 4,777
Waitaki 8,876
Waihemo 2,148
Waikouaiti 4,389
Peninsula 2,645
Taieri 6,950
Bruce 4,828
Tuapeka 6,477
Clutha 6,564
Maniototo 3,742
Vincent 4,090
Lake 2,663
Southland 21,603
Wallace 6,657
Fiord 151
Stewart Island 244

As before stated, the total county population amounted to 391,735, or 55.69 per cent. of the total for the colony.* In counties are included all towns not constituted municipal boroughs; but, on the other hand, the people living in many of the boroughs can hardly be called town population. The population in boroughs was 307,294 persons, or 43.69 per cent. of the whole. For every 100 persons resident in counties in 1896 there were 78 residing in boroughs. In 1891 the counties had 352,097 persons, and the boroughs 270,343, or, in other words, for every 100 persons in counties, 76 were residents of the boroughs. Thus it will be seen that the proportion of the town to the county population was slightly greater in 1896 than in 1891.

POPULATION OF BOROUGHS

The populations of the municipal boroughs in the colony, as estimated for the year 1898, are stated, there being no means of giving exact information until another census enumeration has been made, which will probably be in April of the year 1901.

Boroughs.Estimated Population 1898.
† Subject to revision; no particulars supplied for a calculation.
Whangarei1,250
Birkenhead749
Devonport3,320
Auckland35,670†
Newton3,049
Newmarket2,106
Parnell4,327
Onehunga2,913
Thames5,000
Hamilton1,250
Cambridge865
Tauranga1,050
Gisborne2,500
New Plymouth4,176
Hawera2,200
Patea740
Wanganui6,362
Marton1,200
Feilding2,150
Palmerston North6,200
Foxton1,140
Hastings3,300
Napier9,399
Dannevirke1,600
Woodville1,150
Pahiatua1,200
Masterton3,800
Carterton1,300
Greytown1,127
Lower Hutt1,550
Petone3,200
Onslow1,350
Wellington42,512
Karori1,050
Melrose2,295
Picton800
Blenheim2,900
Nelson7,064
Richmond595
Westport3,200
Greymouth3,345
Brunner1,200
Kumara1,150
Hokitika2,494
Ross750
Rangiora1,871
Kaiapoi1,880
Christchurch18,085
Linwood6,553
St. Albans6,500
Sydenham10,987
Woolston2,274
Sumner584
New Brighton800
Lyttelton4,053
Akaroa630
Ashburton2,100
Timaru3,755
Waimate1,500
Oamaru5,372
Hampden320
Palmerston South775
Hawksbury730
Port Chalmers2,100
North-east Valley3,575
Maori Hill1,608
West Harbour1,400
Dunedin23,500
Roslyn4,329
Mornington3,825
Caversham4,830
St. Kilda1,359
South Dunedin5,066
Green Island700
Mosgiel1,450
Milton1,300
Kaitangata1,400
Balclutha925
Lawrence1,010
Roxburgh450
Tapanui450
Naseby500
Cromwell550
Alexandra400
Arrowtown409
Queenstown750
Gore2,500
Mataura800
Winton400
Invercargill5,591
North Invereargill920
South Invereargill1,920
East Invercargill980
Avenal400
Gladstone380
Campbelltown1,122
Riverton1,000

* For population of ridings, road districts, and localities, see Census volume, p. 32, Part I.

The Cities of Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin have considerable suburbs. The suburban population of Wellington is comparatively small. The following gives the names and populations of the several localities which may fairly be termed suburbs of the four principal cities:—

* To be called “Grey Lynn” from 16th August, 1899.
SUBURBS OF AUCKLAND.
 Estimated Population, Dec., 1898.
Boroughs—
     Birkenhead749
     Devonport3,320
     Newmarket2,106
     *Newton3,049
     Parnell4,327
Road Districts—
     Arch-hill1,557
     Eden Terrace1,604
     Epsom660
     Mount Albert1,668
     Mount Eden3,677
     Mount Roskill495
     One-tree Hill975
     Point Chevalier591
     Remuera2,034
Northcote Riding530
Outlying portion of Parnell Riding, being land in the Domain with hospital on it197
          Total suburbs27,539
          Auckland City35,670
          Total Auckland and suburbs63,209
SUBURBS OF WELLINGTON.
Boroughs—
     Onslow1,350
     Melrose2,295
     Karori1,050
          Total suburbs4,695
          Wellington City42,512
          Total Wellington and suburbs47,207
SUBURBS OF CHRISTCHURCH.
 Estimated Population, Dec., 1898.
Boroughs—
     St. Albans6,500
     Sydenham10,987
     Linwood6,553
     Woolston2,274
Road Districts—
     Avon (part)2,962
     Heathcote (part)1,980
     Riccarton (part)3,657
     Spreydon1,278
     Halswell (part)224
          Total suburbs36,415
          Christchurch City18,085
          Total Christchurch and suburbs54,500
     In laying off the suburbs of Christchurch the boundaries of the Christchurch Health District have been mainly followed.
SUBURBS OF DUNEDIN.
Boroughs—
     Caversham4,830
     Maori Hill1,608
     Mornington3,825
     North-East Valley3,575
     Roslyn4,329
     St. Kilda1,359
     South Dunedin5,066
     West Harbour1,400
          Total suburbs25,992
          Dunedin City23,500
          Total Dunedin and suburbs49,492

The increase of population for seven years at the four chief centres, with their suburbs, was:—

 Census, 1891Dec., 1893. Estimated.Numerical IncreaseIncrease per Cent.
Auckland and suburbs51,28763,20911,92223.2
Wellington and suburbs34,19047,20713,01738.1
Christchurch and suburbs47,84654,5006,65413.9
Dunedin and suburbs45,86949,4923,6237.9

Thus the two principal cities of the North Island are found to have progressed between 1891 and 1898 at a greater rate than those of the Middle Island, and Wellington in particular to have developed at nearly five times the rate of Dunedin and about three times as fast as Christchurch during the quinquennium.

While New South Wales and Victoria present what is termed by the statistician of the former colony “the disquieting spectacle of capital towns growing with wonderful rapidity, and embracing in their limits one-third of the population of the territory of which they are the centre,” New Zealand is saved from this by the configuration of the country, which has resulted in the formation of four chief towns, besides others of secondary importance but nevertheless trading centres.

POPULATION OF TOWN DISTRICTS AND SMALL CENTRES

Besides the boroughs, there are 39 town districts (including the special town district of Rotorua, constituted under “The Thermal-Springs Districts Act, 1881,”) which are portions of the counties in which they are situated. Two only of these, Stratford and Hampstead, have more than 1,000 inhabitants. A list of these town districts is subjoined, with populations, as in 1896:—

Town Districts.Population.
* Constituted under “The Thermal-Springs Districts Act, 1881.”
Kamo222
Helensville564
Papakura274
Te Aroha672
Te Awamutu347
Kihikihi202
Ngaruawahia235
Rotorua*499
Opotiki641
Waitara (Raleigh)517
Opunake400
Inglewood658
Stratford1,256
Normanby396
Manala471
Waverley442
Lethbridge251
Bulls521
Halcombe376
Clyde (Wairoa)579
 Town Districts. Population.
Taradale807
Ormondville453
Waipawa764
Kaikora North301
Featherston711
Johnsonville493
Havelock365
Amberley437
Southbridge494
Hampstead1,214
Tinwald538
Geraldine841
Temuka660
Arowhenua789
Allanton (formerly Grey)274
Outram452
Clinton474
Wyndham483
Otautau367

In addition to the boroughs and town districts above referred to, the census results showed for 1896 throughout the colony no less than 561 places of the nature of townships, villages, or small centres without boundaries. One of these (New Brighton) has since been constituted a borough. It is impossible to say that the populations of these small centres are all strictly accurate, even for the census date, or given in such a way as to be fit for comparison one with another. In different cases more or less of surrounding country may have been considered as belonging to the centre, but there is at least at each place mentioned some sort of nucleus of population, if not a well-defined village or township. In making the statement the best has been done with a difficult matter, and the information is given as useful—in some cases, like that of Reefton, important—even if open to objection here and there. The county in which each is situated is also given:—

 Population
* Now known as Kimbolton. (Gazette, 5th January, 1899.)
Abbotsford, Taieri197
Adair, Levels127
Adams's Flat (and vicinity), Bruce72
Adamson's, Southland80
Addington, Selwyn480
Addison's Flat, Buller277
Ahaura, Grey252
Albert Town, Vincent52
Albury, Mackenzie96
Alford Forest, Ashburton426
Alfredton, Wairarapa North88
Allandale, Waihemo93
Allenton, Ashburton763
Alma, Waitaki158
Alton, Patea72
Anderson's Bay, Peninsula489
Annat, Selwyn72
Antonio's Flat, Inangahua59
Aongatete, Tauranga33
Apiti, Pohangina110
Aratapu, Hobson508
Arden, Taieri85
Arthurtown, Westland51
Arundel, Geraldine78
Ashley, Ashley70
Ashurst, Oroua361
Athol, Southland85
Avondale, Eden872
Awanui, Waiapu43
Bainfield, Southland114
Bainham, Collingwood106
Bald Hill Flat, Vincent242
Ballance, Pahiatua93
Bannockburn, Vincent410
Barkly, Southland146
Bay View, Southland38
Beaconsfield, Levels141
Beck's Maniototo76
Belfast, Selwyn600
Belgrove, Waimea332
Bendigo, Vincent56
Bennett's, Ashley150
Berwick, Taieri77
Birmingham,* Kiwitea155
Blackball, Grey176
Black's Point, Inangahua283
Blackwater, Inangahua163
Blue Spur, Westland53
Bluestone, Tuapeka188
Brighton, Taieri57
Brightwater, Waimea409
Broad Bay, Peninsula301
Brockville, Taieri44
Buffalo, Coromandel146
Bunnythorpe (and vicinity), Oroua309
Burke's, Mackenzie90
Burnside, Taieri159
Cabbage Bay, Coromandel133
Calcium, Wallace31
Callaghan's, Westland47
Cambrian's Maniototo134
Cambridge West, Waipa255
Canvastown, Marlborough54
Cape Foulwind, Buller223
Capleston, Inangahua170
Cardrona, Lake176
Castlecliffe, Waitotara269
Castlepoint, Wairarapa North31
Caversham, Levels37
Centre Bush, Southland66
Charleston Buller151
Charlton, Southland32
Cheltenham, Kiwitea43
Chertsey, Ashburton93
Clareville, Wairarapa South46
Clifton, Collingwood58
Clyde, Vincent310
Coalbrookdale, Buller165
Coal Creek, Tuapeka305
Coalgate, Selwyn116
Cobden, Grey274
Courtenay, Selwyn67
Crofton, Rangitikei113
Cromarty (and vicinity), Fiord39
Crushington, Inangahua108
Cullensville, Marlborough136
Culverden, Amuri40
Cust, Ashley117
Dalefield, Wairarapa South194
Danieltown, Wallace34
Darfield and Horndon, Selwyn262
Dargaville, Hobson358
Deborah, Waitaki60
Deborah Bay, Waikouaiti131
Denlair, Wanganui52
Denniston, Buller181
Dillman's, Westland467
Dipton, Southland86
Doyleston, Selwyn241
Dromore, Ashburton54
Drummond Wallace213
Dunback, Waihemo134
Dunganville, Grey125
Dunkeld, Tuapeka80
Dunsandel, Selwyn153
Duntroon, Waitaki195
Durie Town, Wanganui172
Duvauchelle's Bay, Akaroa89
East Clive, Hawke's Bay239
East Dipton, Southland162
Eastown, Wanganui228
East Winton, Southland137
Edendale, Southland184
Eketahuna, Wairarapa North476
Eltham, Hawera306
Enfield, Waitaki254
Epworth, Geraldine62
Ettrick, Tuapeka69
Evansdale, Waikouaiti45
Eweburn, Maniototo166
Fairdown, Buller44
Fairfax (and vicinity), Bruce171
Fairfield, Taieri80
Fairlie, Mackenzie369
Fendalton, Selwyn367
Fernhills, Southland67
Fernside, Ashley390
Ferntown, Collingwood81
Flax Swamp, Waikouaiti88
Flaxton, Ashley138
Fordell, Wanganui151
Fortrose, Southland140
Frankton, Lake156
Frasertown, Wairoa176
Galatea, Whakatane82
Garfield, Wallace41
Georgetown, Geraldine34
Georgetown, Waitaki119
German Bay, Akaroa212
Gibbston, Lake155
Gibbstown, Collingwood181
Gimmerburn, Maniototo178
Glenavy, Waimate55
Gleniti (and vicinity), Levels111
Glenore (and vicinity), Bruce91
Glentunnel, Selwyn189
Goldsborough, Westland179
Gordon Special Settlement, Piako70
Governor's Bay, Akaroa163
Granity Creek, Buller193
Grassmere, Southland104
Greatford, Rangitikei90
Greendale, Selwyn370
Green Island Bush, Taieri237
Greenpark, Selwyn349
Greenstone, Grey100
Greerton, Tauranga54
Grovetown, Marlborough316
Gumtown, Coromandel51
Hakaru, Otamatea34
Hakataramea, Waimate90
Hamilton, Maniototo50
Hampden, Waipawa188
Hamua, Wairarapa North103
Hardie's Taieri82
Harwood, Southland58
Hastings, Thames101
Hastwell, Wairarapa North169
Hatter's, or Nelson Creek, Grey128
Havelock, Hawke's Bay407
Hawarden, Ashley32
Hawksbury, Waikouaiti132
Heddon Bush, Wallace119
Henderson, Waitemata60
Henley, Taieri303
Herbert, Waitaki401
Herbertville, Patangata113
Heriot (and outlying), Tuapeka163
Highcliffe, Peninsula278
Hikurangi, Whangarei354
Hikutaia, Thames179
Hillgrove, Waitaki93
Hilton, Geraldine47
Hindon, Taieri117
Hirstfield, Wallace169
Hobsonville, Waitemata195
Hodgkinson, Wallace60
Hororata, Selwyn242
Howick, Manukau220
Huirangi, Taranaki50
Hunterville, Rangitikei755
Huntly, Waikato512
Hurunui, Ashley53
Hyde, Maniototo222
Ida Valley, Vincent262
Inangahua Junction, Inangahua31
Inglewood, Southland73
Islington, Selwyn207
Jackeytown, Oroua72
Kaeo, Whangaroa181
Kai Iwi, Waitotara64
Kaikohe, Bay of Islands134
Kaikoura, Kaikoura394
Kaitaia, Mongonui114
Kakanui (North), Waitaki163
Kakanui (South), Waitaki204
Kakaramea, Patea110
Kanieri, Westland175
Kapanga, Coromandel500
Karangahake, Ohinemuri609
Kaukapakapa, Waitemata313
Kawakawa, Bay of Islands321
Kawarau Gorge, Vincent44
Kawhia, Kawhia37
Kennedy Bay, Coromandel72
Kennington, Southland50
Kensington, Levels167
Kereru (and vicinity), Horowhenua135
Killinchy, Selwyn54
Kimberley, Selwyn162
Kingston, Lake47
Kirwee, Selwyn74
Kokonga, Maniototo111
Kohukohu, Hokianga262
Kopu, Thames136
Kuaotunu, Coromandel424
Kuaotunu Upper, Coromandel299
Kumeroa, Waipawa104
Kuri Bush, Taieri46
Kuriwao, Clutha122
Kurow, Waitaki271
Kyeburn Diggings, Maniototo97
Kyeburn, Lower, Maniototo113
Kyeburn, Upper, Maniototo72
Lake Hayes, Lake104
Lamlash, Peninsula31
Lauder, Maniototo51
Le Bon's Bay, Akaroa271
Leedstown, Rangitikei36
Leeston, Selwyn573
Leithfield, Ashley345
Levin, Horowhenua581
Lichfield, Piako49
Lime Hills, Southland126
Lincoln, Selwyn569
Lintley, Southland47
Linton, Oroua51
Little Akaloa, Akaroa259
Little River, Akaroa137
Livingstone, Waitaki110
London, Taieri100
Long Bush, Southland84
Longridge, Southland105
Lowburn, Vincent132
Lower Hawea, Vincent225
Lower Woodstock, Westland57
Lowther, Southland28
Luggate, Vincent76
Lumsden, Southland223
Lumsden Extension, Southland154
Lyell, Buller159
Macandrew, Southland72
Macetown, Lake161
Mackaytown, Ohinemuri32
Mackenzie, Cheviot53
Macrae's (and vicinity), Waihemo103
Maheno, Waitaki206
Mairtown, Whangarei177
Makakahi, Pahiatua61
Makarewa, Southland250
Maketu, Tauranga72
Makikihi, Waimate57
Makuri, Pahiatua93
Makutoku, Waipawa175
Mangamahoe, Wairarapa North35
Mangaonoho, Rangitikei166
Mangatainoko, Pahiatua106
Mangawai, Otamatea272
Mangaweka, Rangitikei349
Mangawhare, Hobson471
Manakau, Horowhenua149
Mandeville, Southland108
Mansfordtown, Waikouaiti380
Manutahi, Patea69
Manutahi, Taranaki175
Maori Gully, Grey58
Marlboroughtown, Marlborough148
Marsden, Grey44
Marshalltown, Kiwitea63
Matakohe, Otamatea93
Matamau, Waipawa137
Matata, Whakatane70
Martinborough, Wairarapa 
South75
Maungatua, Taieri63
Mauriceville East, Wairarapa North77
Mayfield, Waitemata76
Maxwelltown, Waitotara153
Meanee, Hawke's Bay145
Menzies' Ferry, Southland125
Mercer (and vicinity), Manukau210
Mercury Bay, Coromandel472
Merryjigs, Inangahua81
Merton, Waikouaiti753
Methven, Ashburton295
Middlemarch, Taieri130
Midhirst, Stratford248
Milford, Geraldine247
Mohaka, Wairoa36
Mokau, Kawhia108
Mokihinui, Buller45
Mongonui, Mongonui226
Morley, Wallace53
Morrinsville, Piako151
Morton, Levels235
Motueka, Waimea877
Mount Somers, Ashburton206
Mount Pisa, Vincent49
Murchison, Inangahua75
Nenthorn, Waikouaiti59
Newman, Wairarapa North227
Newport, Hobson97
Ngahauranga, Hutt212
Ngahere, Grey137
Ngapara, Waitaki233
Nightcaps, Wallace167
Normanby, Levels36
Norsewood (and vicinity), Waipawa898
North Heads, Waikouaiti78
North Taieri, Taieri183
No Town, Grey80
Nukumaru, Waitotara93
Oakura, Taranaki46
Oaklands, Peninsula52
Oban, Stewart Island41
Ohaeawai, Bay of Islands92
Ohakune, Wanganui40
Ohau (and vicinity), Horowhenua256
Ohinemutu, Rotorua131
Ohingaiti, Rangitikei410
Ohoka, Ashley654
Okaiawa, Hawera107
Okaihau and Omapere, Bay of Islands286
Okain's Bay, Akaroa222
Okarito, Westland62
Okato, Taranaki64
Ongaonga, Waipawa92
Ophir, Vincent266
Opua, Bay of Islands57
Oraka, Wallace111
Orari, Geraldine135
Oropi, Tauranga37
Orwell Creek, Grey105
Otago Heads, Peninsula179
Otahuhu, Manukau942
Otaki (and vicinity), Horowhenua836
Otakia, Taieri42
Otara, Southland200
Otekaike, Waitaki53
Otiaki, Waitaki176
Owaka, Clutha611
Owharoa, Ohinemuri103
Owhiro, Taieri38
Oxford East, Ashley153
Oxford West, Ashley241
Paeroa, Ohinemuri779
Pahia, Wallace84
Paikakariki, Hutt146
Pakawau, Collingwood71
Panmure, Eden323
Papanui, Selwyn479
Paraparaumu, Hutt192
Parkville, Wairarapa North233
Patangata, Patangata103
Patutahi (and vicinity), Cook263
Peel, Geraldine53
Pembroke, Lake176
Pigeon Bay, Akaroa352
Pihama, Hawera37
Piko, Levels160
Pine Hill, Waikouaiti88
Pipiriki, Wanganui44
Pirongia East, Waipa89
Pleasant Valley, Waikouaiti34
Plimmerton, Hutt49
Pohangina, Pohangina163
Point, Levels90
Porirua, Hutt74
Porangahau, Patangata171
Port Albert, Rodney56
Port Moeraki, Waitaki150
Portobello Town, Peninsula37
Pourakino, Wallace33
Prebbleton, Selwyn330
Prestonville, Southland107
Pukerau, Southland126
Puakanui, Waikouaiti47
Puriri, Thames143
Raetihi, Wanganui83
Rakaia, Ashburton458
Rangiriri, Waikato47
Raugiwhia (Pemberton), Kiwitea63
Rangotea, Manawatu136
Ranzau, Waimea60
Rata Settlement, Rangitikei195
Rawene, Hokianga120
Redcliffe, Waimate227
Reefton, Inangahua1,591
Reidston, Waitaki184
Renwicktown, Marlborough324
Reynolds, Waikouaiti38
Riccarton, Taieri99
Riccarton, Lower, Selwyn422
Riccarton, Upper, Selwyn502
Richmond, Selwyn288
Richmond Grove, Southland96
Rikiorangi, Hutt96
Rimu, Westland174
Riversdale, Southland265
Riwaka, Waimea575
Rockville, Collingwood102
Rolleston, Selwyn136
Rotheram, Amuri132
Rotorua, Rotorua499
Round Hill Diggings, Wallace225
Ruapekapeka, Bay of Islands92
Russell, Bay of Islands257
Sandymount, Peninsula299
Sanson, Manawatu255
Sarau, Waimea58
Sawyer's Bay, Waikouaiti382
Scarborough, Pahiatua76
Sefton, Ashley270
Selwyn, Selwyn55
Shaftesbury, Piako44
Shannon, Horowhenua262
Sheffieid, Selwyn176
Shiel Hill, Peninsula47
Shortland, Thames1,191
Silverstream, Mackenzie118
Skippers, Lake63
Southbrook, Ashley352
South Malvern, Selwyn92
Spreydon, Selwyn354
Springfield, Selwyn211
Spring Grove, Waimea361
Springston, Selwyn584
Stafford, Westland140
St. Andrews, Waimate201
St. Bathans, Maniototo254
Stirling (and vicinity), Bruce211
Stoke, Waimea547
Studholme Junction, Waimate93
Swannanoa, Ashley161
Swanson, Waitemata88
Switzers, Southland98
Taiaroa Heads, Peninsula40
Tairua, Thames141
Taitapu, Selwyn376
Takapau, Waipawa159
Tauherenikau, Wairarapa South71
Taupaki, Waitemata276
Taupo, East Taupo72
Taupiri, Waikato47
Taylorville, Wanganui51
Te Aroha West, Piako131
Te Aute, Waipawa93
Teddington, Akaroa103
Te Karaka, Cook67
Te Kopuru, Hobson184
Templeton, Selwyn310
Te Puke, Tauranga169
Thornbury, Wallace125
Thorpe, Waimea67
Tikokino, Waipawa39
Tiniroto, Cook57
Tinker's, Vincent242
Tinui, Wairarapa North221
Tokaanu, East Taupo59
Toko, Stratford134
Tokomaru, Horowhenua88
Totara, Whangaroa263
Tuakau, Manukau377
Tutaekara, Pahiatua74
Turua, Thames247
Upper Hutt, Hutt339
Upper Woodstock, Westland167
Urenui, Clifton91
Vauxhall, Peninsula89
Waddington, Selwyn121
Wade, Waitemata208
Waianiwa, Southland49
Waiau, Amuri183
Waihi, Ohinemuri1,102
Waihola, Bruce142
Waihou, Piako85
Waikaia, Southland256
Waikaka, Southland41
Waikanae, Horowhenua84
Waikare, Ashley258
Waikiwi, Southland45
Waikoikoi, Clutha215
Waimangaroa, Buller399
Waimate, Bay of Islands106
Waimatuku, Wallace225
Waimea West, Waimea293
Wainuiomata, Hutt45
Waiomio, Bay of Islands76
Waiorongomai, Piako201
Waipahi, Clutha109
Waipara, Ashley48
Waipiro, Waiapu73
Waipori, Tuapeka157
Waipu Central, Whangarei183
Waipukurau, Waipawa549
Wairio, Wallace81
Waitahuna, Tuapeka289
Waitati (and vicinity), Waikouaiti339
Waitekauri, Ohinemuri463
Waitotara, Patea207
Waituna, Kiwitea37
Waiwera, Clutha70
Wakefield, Waimea694
Wallacetown, Southland159
Wallingford, Patangata65
Walton, Taieri32
Wanstead, Patangata80
Warepa, Clutha257
Washdyke, Levels494
Waterford, Tauranga116
Waterton (and vicinity), Ashburton235
Watlington, Levels39
Wayne's, Waihemo38
Weber, Patangata108
Weedon's, Selwyn43
Wereroa, Horowhenua87
West Clive, Hawke's Bay428
Weston, Waitaki138
Weston Park, Waitaki49
Whakakiti, Wairarapa North71
Whakatane, Whakatane119
Whangapoua, Coromandel77
Whangaroa, Whangaroa152
Whare Flat Road, Taieri64
Whenuakiti, Coromandel90
Whitecliffs, Selwyn34
Whitmore, Oroua75
Whitstone, Waitaki84
Wickliffe Bay, Peninsula41
Wimbledon, Patangata79
Winchester, Geraldine212
Windsor, Waitaki99
Wingatui, Taieri174
Woodbury, Geraldine318
Woodend, Ashley498
Woodend, Southland96
Woodfield, Southland46
Woodlands, Taieri35
Woodlands, Southland218
Woodside, Taieri163
Wrey's Bush, Wallace123

POPULATION OF ADJACENT ISLANDS

The names and populations of the islands adjacent to and included in the colony were, in April, 1896:—

Islands.Total.M.F.
Rangitoto33..
Great Barrier307193114
Week's Island211
Waiheke1667690
Kawau1073
Motiti981
Tiritiri624
Ponui (Light)11..
Ponui Island281315
Cuvier642
Moturoa211
Mercury725
Mokohinau532
Motuhora844
Bean Rock (Light)11..
Motuhihi1165
Pahiki1073
Rakino431
Motutapu1183
Brown's11..
Rotoroa (Ruth's)1569
Slipper33..
Portland251015
Kapiti11..
Somes's936
Stephens1679
The Brothers33..
Quarantine211
Dog1358
Ruapuki99..
Centre15105
Chatham234132102
Kermadec743
 950538412

The islands which are not included within the boundaries of the counties had a population of 950 persons (exclusive of Maoris), against 913 in 1891. Only three of the islands had a population over 100 persons at last census. The population of the Great Barrier increased since 1891 from 262 to 307 persons; Waiheke showed a decrease from 215 to 166 persons. Europeans at the Chatham Islands decreased from 258 to 234.

POPULATION OF AUSTRALASIA

The Australasian Colonies as a whole contained a population on the 31st December, 1898, estimated at 4,476,985 persons, including those living in the Northern Territory of South Australia, but exclusive of the aboriginal natives of Queensland, South and Western Australia, and 39,854 New Zealand Maoris.

The population of Fiji in December, 1898, was 121,738 persons—67,245 males and 54,493 females. These numbers include natives and imported labourers, besides people of European descent.

AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES.
Colony.Population* on 31st December, 1898.Rate of Increase during 1898.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.

− Denotes loss.

* Subject to slight alteration on receipt of final returns.

 No.No.No.per cent.per cent.per cent.
New South Wales721,335624,9051,346,2401.691.761.72
Victoria593,446582,0441,175,490−0.330.21−0.06
Queensland279,670218,853498,5233.062.592.85
South Australia (including Northern Territory)191,745176,055367,8001.810.771.31
Western Australia112,05456,075168,1291.548.753.83
Tasmania95,63281,709177,3414.391.993.27
New Zealand (exclusive of 39,854 Maoris392,124351,339743,4631.932.031.98
          Australasia2,386,0062,090,9804,476,9861.481.551.52

The growth of population in these colonies over a period of thirty-eight years is shown in a comparative table. The total for 1898, being 4,476,986 persons, is greater than the population of Scotland but a little less than that of Ireland for 1895, and one-seventh part of the population of England and Wales for that year. The Australasian Colonies have now twice the population of Denmark, one-third more than Switzerland, and nearly that of the Netherlands.

Colony.1860.1870.1880.1890.1898.
 Persons.Persons.Persons.Persons.Persons.
New South Wales348,546498,659747,9501,121,8601,346,240
Victoria537,847726,599860,0671,133,2661,175,490
Queensland28,056115,567226,077392,965498,523
South Australia124,112183,797267,573319,414367,800
Western Australia15,22725,08429,01946,290168,129
Tasmania87,775100,765114,762145,290177,341
New Zealand79,711248,400484,864625,508743,463
          Australasia1,221,2741,898,8712,730,3123,784,5934,476,986

ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES

The number of persons who arrived in the colony in the year 1898 was 18,855, an increase of 263 on the number for the previous year. Of the arrivals in 1898, 16,942 persons were classified as adults, being above the age of twelve years, and 1,913 as children. The total number of males was 12,524, and of females 6,331. The arrivals from the United Kingdom numbered 2,598, and from Australia 14,969. Besides these, 214 persons came from Fiji, and 1,074 from the South Seas and other ports, including arrivals by mail-steamers from San Francisco.

Classified in respect of birthplace, it is found that 7,318 of the arrivals were persons born in the Australasian Colonies, 9,872 in the United Kingdom, and 34 in other British possessions. Of 1,631 persons arriving from foreign countries, 859 were born in Austria, 187 in Germany, 177 in the United States, 147 in France, 99 in Italy, 34 in Sweden, 7 in Norway, and 121 from other countries.

Among the arrivals in 1898 are noticed 76 “race-aliens,” or persons of other than European descent. Particulars of birthplace and sex are as under:—

     Birthplace.M.F.Total.
China25328
Japan729
Syria8513
Pacific Islands18321
Fiji101
India303
Ceylon101
          Total631376

The practice of nominating immigrants to be brought out partly at the Government expense has been discontinued since the 16th December, 1890, and there was no free immigration in the year 1898.

Only 28 Chinese (25 men and 3 women) arrived in the colony during 1898, but 93 left (all men), the departures thus exceeding the arrivals by 65.

The total departures in 1898 were 16,159 persons, being 319 more than in 1897. Thus, the movement of population to and from the colony is found to have been greater than in the previous year.

In each of the years 1892 to 1898, inclusive, the colony has drawn to itself more population than it has parted with, notwithstanding the attractions of Australian and other goldfields.

The departures from the colony by the Union Steamship Company's boats, as given through the Customs Department, are checked by special returns kindly furnished by the pursers of the steamers, and, where persons who did not book their passages have been omitted, the necessary additions are made. The pursers' returns also serve to prevent the occasional omission of the full number of persons leaving by any one vessel, which sometimes had happened previous to the introduction of this check. Unless more passengers are at any time of great pressure taken away from New Zealand than can lawfully be carried, the returns of outgo of population should prove very fairly correct, and indeed the census of 1896 showed that the estimates of population even after five years' interval was a very close approximation to the truth.

Of the departures in 1898, 14,622 persons were over twelve years of age, and 1,537 children. Nearly twice as many males left the colony as females, the numbers being 10,438 and 5,721 respectively. The departures to the United Kingdom amounted to 1,199 persons, and those to Australia numbered 13,619. Besides these, 151 persons left for Fiji, and 1,190 for other ports (including passengers for San Francisco).

The arrivals and departures for seven years are given in the following tables, in which 1893 shows the highest number of persons inwards, 26,135, and 1894 of persons outwards, 22,984. In regard to Australia the movement was also greatest during the same years, the arrivals in 1893 being 22,351, and departures in 1894 20,488 persons:—

ARRIVALS, SEVEN YEARS.
Year.From United Kingdom.From Australian Colonies.From Other Places.Total Arrivals.
18922,55514,67489318,122
18932,92922,35185526,135
18942,84621,2911,10025,237
18952,36518,57392421,862
18961,95614,1251,15517,236
18972,72414,7991,06918,592
18982,59814,9691,28818,855
     Totals, seven years17,973120,7827,284146,039
DEPARTURES, SEVEN YEARS.
Year.To United Kingdom.To Australian Colonies.To Other Places.Total Departures.
18921,61210,66988313,164
18931,58313,27786315,723
18941,66920,48882722,984
18951,70318,37788720,967
18961,57813,20897815,764
18971,59213,29395515,840
18981,19913,6191,34116,159
     Totals, seven years10,936102,9316,734120,601

It will be found that the above figures give the total arrivals from the United Kingdom in seven years as 17,973 persons, and the departures as 10,936; and there is no reason to doubt the correctness of these results. The colony drew directly from the Mother-country 7,037 persons over and above those that went back directly during the seven-year period. For each year in the period the arrivals from the United Kingdom exceed the departures, but the excess was only 943 in the year 1892, as compared with 1,399 in 1898. In regard to Australia, for each year given in the table the balance of interchange is in favour of New Zealand. For this seven-year period there was a net gain amounting to 17,851 persons.

The interchange of people with places other than the United Kingdom and Australia has also been since 1892 in favour of New Zealand, the net gain amounting to 550 persons.

The Board of Trade, London, publishes the total emigration from the United Kingdom to Australasia as a whole. By the figures given it will be seen that there was of late years an annual decrease in the number of persons coming to these colonies from the Home country until 1897, when the number somewhat increased. Prior to 1893 the arrivals from the United Kingdom ranged from 44,055 in 1886 down to 16,183 in 1892. Alongside of the Imperial returns of departures to Australasia are shown in the following statement the arrivals in New Zealand direct from the United Kingdom, taken from our own returns, which numbers are short of the full total of persons coming here from England by the arrivals via Australia or the United States of America. But, using the information available, it seems evident that New Zealand has been latterly preferred to Australia, from the high proportion which the arrivals here (direct) bear to every hundred of departures from England for the Australasian Colonies.

So long as New Zealand can secure one-sixth or more of the total persons leaving England for Australasia, she takes more than the proportion her population bears to that of the seven colonies collectively:—

Year.Emigration from United Kingdom to Australasia.Arrivals in New Zealand from United Kingdom.Arrivals in New Zealand per 100 Departures for Australasia from United Kingdom.
189311,4122,92925.67
189411,1512,84625.52
189510,8092,36521.88
189610,7101,95618.26
189712,3962,72421.97

A statement is added giving the arrivals and departures for each of the Australasian Colonies during the year 1898. The figures are Mr. Coghlan's, and the result is shown to be a net gain to these colonies of 7,670 persons during the year:—

Colony.Arrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.

* Subject to revision: Coghlan's preliminary figures.

−Denotes loss.

NOTE.—In these figures allowance has been made for unrecorded departures.

 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.
New South Wales*89,49549,613139,10886,59049,285135,8752,9053283,233
Victoria64,02630,41094,43670,91435,784106,698−6,888−5,374−12,262
Queensland23,99910,24434,24319,0139,09728,1104,9861,1476,133
South Australia*64,24530,45294,69762,78331,39694,1791,462−944518
Western Australia22,68310,02632,7092,7696,98728,7569143,0393,953
Tasmania*16,2707,80424,07413,3407,33520,6752,9304693,399
New Zealand12,5246,33118,85510,4385,72.116,1592,0866102,696
      Australasia293,242144,880438,122284,847145,605430,4528,395−7257,670

THE CHINESE

At the census of 1881, the year in which taxation was first imposed on Chinese landing in the colony, the Chinese population amounted to 5,004 persons, which fell to 4,542 in 1886, and further to 4,444 in 1891. In April, 1896, the census revealed a further fall to 3,711 persons. During the period 1881–96 the poll-tax was £10 per head, and this seemed sufficient for the purpose of preventing a large influx of the Chinese, except for the circumstance that, during the years 1894 and 1895, the arrivals shown by the Customs returns are found to have been some-what greater than the departures. In 1896, the Chinese Immigrants Act Amendment Act of that year raised the poll-tax on Chinese immigrants to £100 per head, and limited the number of Chinese passengers that may be carried by vessels to this colony to one for every 200 tons burthen. This Act is to remain in force only until “The Asiatic Restriction Act, 1896,” which has been, and still is, reserved for Her Majesty's assent, and has a wider scope, comes into operation. In 1896 the amount paid by the Chinese as poll-tax was £1,270, in 1897 the sum was £240, and in 1898 £400. The number of Chinese in the colony at the end of the year 1898 is estimated to have been 3,164, of whom 31 were females.

Chinese immigration is under restraint in Australia as well as in New Zealand. In New South Wales the arrivals have been reduced until the number for 1896 was only 99, against 450 departures, by means of a similar poll-tax to that of New Zealand, and requirement that every vessel should not bring more than one Chinaman to every 300 tons. These conditions are helped by the law which forbids the naturalisation of a Chinese, and some prohibition as to mining without special authority. In 1887 no less than 1,798 Chinese paid poll-tax in New South Wales, and in 1896 the number was only 2.

Of the Chinese living in New Zealand in 1896, when the last census was taken, 3,685 were males and 26 females. Of the males, 88 were returned as married. The number of the Chinese under 14 years of age was only 14 males and 11 females. These numbers do not include the issue of unions between Chinese men and European women.

The occupations show 2,162 gold-miners, 527 market and other gardeners with 129 assistants, 94 greengrocers and 38 assistants, 94 shop- or store-keepers and 30 assistants, 59 labourers, 43 hotel servants; 31 vegetable, 27 general, and 25 fish hawkers; 31 laundrymen and women, 31 domestic servants, 29 lodging house keepers, 27 cooks (not domestic), 24 farm-labourers, 19 eating-house keepers, 19 grocers with 21 assistants, 16 fishermen, 11 merchants with 6 assistants, 7 drapers and 1 assistant. Amongst various others, in small numbers each, are returned 1 law-clerk, 2 missionaries, 5 medical men, 1 dentist, 1 chemist, 1 interpreter, 2 bankers, 1 opium seller. Three of the Chinese were inmates of hospitals, and 3 others of benevolent asylums. While 22 were lunatics, only 2 were prisoners in gaol.

PARTICULARS RESPECTING THE POPULATION GIVEN IN THE CENSUS OF 1896

The Year-book for 1898 states, in the form of extracts from the Census report, full information as to the density of population in New Zealand, the proportions of the sexes, the religions, birthplaces, ages, and occupations of the people. It is not considered necessary to reprint the figures, or the remarks which accompany them, as these will be found on pages 105 to 115 of the previous issue of this work.

THE HOLLERITH ELECTRICAL MACHINE

A description of this machine, which is used in some countries for purposes of dealing with the cards by means of which census computations are now usually made, may be found interesting. The machine is not suited for a country like New Zealand, where the population is not very large, and where the combinations required are not of the most elaborate nature. It was tested in Victoria before the census of 1896 was compiled, and the Government decided against it. The question was raised in this colony, whether greater speed could not be achieved by means of the machine, which has led to this explanation. It has been thus described in connection with the Canadian census of 1891:—

“In tabulating the returns, the Hollerith electrical tabulating-machine (which should, perhaps, rather be called a totalling-machine), introduced in the United States, was used. For this purpose, a card, similar in principle to that used in New Zealand, is devoted to each person; but, instead of drawing lines, a hole is punched in the centre of the compartment. Each card is then successively placed on a horizontal board. This board is pierced with holes, corresponding in number to the total number of compartments on the card, and so situated that each hole is under the centre of a compartment. Under each of these holes, again, is a tube partly filled with mercury, which communicates by means of a wire from the bottom of the tube with the index of a counter. Above the card is a second horizontal board, on the lower side of which are springs, terminating in blunted needles, these being so arranged as to dip into the tubes wherever there is a hole in the card, and thus complete an electric circuit wherever the needle meets the mercury. The electric current then moves the index of the counter through one division each time the board is lowered. By passing all the cards through the machine, the number of persons corresponding to each particular fact can be counted at once, and this number is then written on the tabulation-sheets. The machine is so arranged also as to permit of particular needles only reaching the mercury, and thus a combination of two or more particulars can be worked out by merely passing the cards through the machine. Two or three different combinations can be worked out simultaneously, provided that any one particular does not enter more than one of the combinations—e.g., the religion according to education, and the infirmities according to age, could be worked out at the same time. It is, I believe, recognised that the device would not have been of so much value in the United Kingdom and the other colonies, where the number of details required is not so great. Owing to the time occupied in punching the cards as compared with that of ticking the compartments, the economy only begins to be appreciable when the combinations are very numerous.”

Chapter 28. SECTION II.—VITAL STATISTICS

Table of Contents

BIRTHS

THE number of births registered in the colony during 1898 was 18,955, or 25.74 in every 1,000 persons living. The rate is lower than that for the preceding year, and indeed since the year 1881 has steadily declined. The number of births registered in a year reached its maximum in 1884, when it stood at 19,846, after which it fell to 17,876 in 1892, rising again to 18,955 in 1898, the number stated previously.

The position still remains, that the increase in the number of marriages solemnised of late years has not as yet had any considerable effect in raising the number of births, and the birth-rate for last year (1898) is the lowest so far recorded in the statistics of the colony.

The figures for each year are worthy of notice, especially in connection with the subsequent particulars given as to marriages solemnised and the growth of population:—

Year.Number of
Births.
Rate per 1,000
of Population.
188219,00937.32
188319,20236.28
188419,84635.91
188519,69334.35
188619,29933.15
188719,13532.09
188818,90231.22
188918,45730.07
189018,27829.44
189118,27329.01
189217,87627.83
189318,18727.50
189418,52827.28
189518,54626.78
189618,61226.33
189718,73725.96
189818,95525.74

While this process of a diminishing birth-rate has been going on the marriages have been increasing numerically, and the population of the colony also:—

Year.Number of
Marriages.
Mean Population
(excluding Maoris).
18813,277493,482
18823,600509,309
18833,612529,292
18843,800552,590
18853,813573,362
18863,488582,117
18873,563596,374
18883,617605,371
18893,632612,716
18903,797620,780
18913,805629,783
18924,002642,245
18934,115661,349
18944,178679,196
18954,110692,417
18964,843706,846
18974,928721,609
18985,091736,260

In the year 1881 there were in New Zealand 5.72 births to every marriage in the previous year, and in 1898 the proportion had fallen to 3.85 births to each marriage.

In the Australian Colonies a similar decrease is noticeable. It has been remarked that in all the Australian Colonies the average number of children to a marriage tends to decrease. In Victoria the number for the year 1880 was 4.99, but fell to 4.05 in 1898. In New South Wales the figures are 5.0 and 4.11 for the same years respectively.

New Zealand had in 1880 the highest birth-rate of all the Australasian Colonies (40.78), but now, with the exception of South Australia (24.55) and Victoria (25.73), its birth-rate (25.74) is the lowest.

The fall over eleven years is calculated as under:—

BIRTH-RATES PER 1,000 OF POPULATION.
Colony.     1888.     1889.     1890.     1891.     1892.     1893.     1894.     1895.     1896.     1897.     1898.
* Subject to revision: Coghlan's preliminary figures.
Queensland37.7736.2740.9536.3535.8433.7331.8632.8530.0629.9228.28
New South Wales36.1833.7335.3534.5034.4132.2331.4730.6628.3528.4227.13*
Victoria32.4932.9533.6033.5732.5431.2529.1628.5727.3326.7025.73*
South Australia33.3432.3732.7533.9232.3231.7130.4930.2328.462.64424.55*
Western Australia33.8837.1432.5534.8533.0134.1427.4925.6222.6526.8229.35
Tasmania33.1031.9433.4933.3732.4833.9231.1330.1028.1627.7326.25*
New Zealand31.2230.0729.4429.0127.8327.5027.2826.7826.3325.9625.74

With a falling birth-rate, the census taken in 1896 showed lower numbers of each sex living at the period under five years than at the next quinquennial period, which is unsatisfactory, indicating as it does that there are not now sufficient living at the earlier years to maintain the number of those of five years and under ten now found in the tables. The census thus demonstrates the general correctness of the birth-rates, and shows that the results of the statistics are fairly accurate.

From the year 1895 marriages have shown an increase, the rate being then 5.94 per 1,000 of population. In 1898 the rate rose to 6.91, the highest recorded since 1882, when it was 7.07 per 1,000 of mean population. The number of marriages solemnised in 1898 was 5,091, an increase of 163 on the number for 1897.

MARRIAGE RATES IN AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES PER 1,000 OF POPULATION.
 1874.1886.1891.1896.1898.
Queensland8.628.677.186.056.03
New South Wales7.707.997.396.596.66
Victoria6.337.847.696.486.53
South Australia8.006.247.316.206.18
Western Australia6.967.988.008.459.89
Tasmania6.837.266.635.886.29
New Zealand8.815.996.046.856.91

In April, 1891, New Zealand had 83,204 children living under the age of 5 years, and in 1896 the number was 83,659, an increase of only 455, although the population at all ages increased in the quinquennium by 12.24 per cent. Between 1886 and 1891 the children living under 5 years actually decreased in number by 3,624, the increase of population of all ages (8.33 per cent.) being less than between 1891 and 1896 (12.24 per cent.). The number of children under one year to the total population at all ages, according to the results of three censuses, was:—

 Children under
One Year.
Total Population
(all Ages).
Census, 188618,355578,482
Census, 189116,443626,658
Census, 189617,070703,360

Thus, in 1886, with a population of 578,482 persons, there were 18,355 children under one year, against 17,070 children of that age in 1896, with a population of 703,360 persons.

The births registered in 1885 were 19,693, against 18,546 in 1895, and the birth-rate fell from 34.35 per 1,000 of the population in the former year to 26.78 in the latter.

Deducting 1,637, the number of deaths of children under one year registered in 1895, from 18,546, the number of births for that year, leaves 16,909, or within 161 of the living children under one year at the time of the last census.

TWIN BIRTHS

There were 194 cases of twin births (388 children), and triplets were registered in two instances, in 1898. The number of children born was 18,955; the number of mothers was 18,757: thus on an average 1 mother in every 101 gave birth to twins, the same proportion as in 1896 and 1897. In 1895 the proportion was one in 93, and in 1894 one in 103.

ILLEGITIMACY

The births of 801 children were illegitimate: thus 42 in every 1,000 children born were born out of wedlock, against 44 in 1897 and 1896.

The following table gives the rates of illegitimacy in each of the Australasian Colonies. The rate in New Zealand is less than in any other of the Australasian Colonies except South Australia:—

PROPORTION OF ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS IN EVERY 100 BIRTHS.
Year.Queensland.New South Wales.Victoria.South Australia.Western Australia.Tasmania.New Zealand.
18384.135.084.802.67..3.623.05
18894.685.334.972.47..4.023.32
18904.855.265.092.50..4.053.30
18914.655.365.362.93..3.723.49
18925.055.715.592.935.894.753.32
18934.976.165.462.844.174.413.70
18944.526.145.503.054.665.093.80
18954.936.515.333.134.474.974.50
18965.225.75.633.455.615.914.48
18976.026.585.423.535.275.744.41

These figures show a rise in the proportion of illegitimate births to every 100 births for this colony, amounting to 1.36 for the period 1888–97.

The fall in the actual number of all births in New Zealand must not be forgotten when considering the increase in the number of illegitimates. The total number of births registered fell from 19,299 in 1886 to 18,612 in 1896, while the illegitimate births rose from 602 to 834. The causes that led to the fall in the birth-rate certainly did not greatly affect the number of illegitimate children.

ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS.
 Proportion Illegitimate
in
every 100 Births.
Total Number of
all Births.
Number of
Illegitimate
Births.
 1886.1896.1886.1896.1886.1896.
The whole Colony3.124.4819,29918,612602834
Auckland and suburbs4.347.232,3761,922103139
Wellington and suburbs4.708.051,3411,34263108
Christchurch and suburbs4.707.711,8721,51988117
Dunedin and suburbs5.557.841,5851,1738892

The number of spinsters in the colony between 15 and 45 increased during the ten years from 52,348 (census 1886) to 85,105 (census 1896), or at the rate of 62.6 per cent., while the illegitimate births increased from 602 to 834, or at the rate of 38.5 only.

It would therefore appear that the larger proportion of illegitimate births now obtaining cannot with any certainty be taken as indicative of increased looseness of living on the part of the people.

The following figures, taken from “The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales, 1896–97,” showing the rate of illegitimacy per 100 births in the Australasian Colonies and in the United Kingdom, are based on statistics for a period of five years:—

Country.Illegitimate
Births
per Cent.
New South Wales627
Victoria5.50
Queensland4.91
South Australia3.08
Western Australia5.29
Tasmania5.01
New Zealand3.97
England and Wales4.24
Ireland2.65
Scotland7.38

Of the total number of children born in Australasia during the five years ended 1896, 5.22 per cent. were illegitimate, as compared with 4.44 per cent. in the United Kingdom for the period 1891–95.

The figures on the next page, which give the percentages of illegitimate births in a number of foreign countries, also cover a period of five years.

Country.Illegitimate
Births
per Cent.
Germany9.15
     Prussia7.75
     Bavaria14.17
     Saxony12.50
Austria14.73
Hungary8.49
France8.67
Belgium8.81
Netherlands3.11
Sweden10.35
Norway7.09
Italy6.95

In Scotland, for the year 1895, the proportion of illegitimate births was 13.9 per cent. in Banff, and 14.6 per cent. in Wigtown; but in Ireland the rate varied from 0.7 per cent. in Connaught to 3.9 in Ulster.

THE LEGITIMATION ACT

An important Act was passed in 1894, entitled the Legitimation Act, which makes provision for the legitimation of children born before marriage on the subsequent marriage of their parents. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock, whose parents afterwards marry, is deemed to be legitimised by such marriage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes Registrars must register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father of an illegitimate child; but such person is required to make a solemn declaration that he is the father, and that at the time of the birth there existed no legal impediment to his marriage with the mother of the child. He has also to produce the evidence of his marriage. It will thus be seen that in cases dealt with under the Act registration becomes the test of legitimacy. In the December quarter of 1894, 11 children were legitimised; in 1895 the number was 68; in 1896, 56; in 1897, 48; and in 1898, 59, making altogether 242 legitimations since the passing of the law.

EXCESS PER CENT, OF BIRTHS OVER DEATHS

The excess per cent. of births over deaths in each of the Australasian Colonies for a mean of ten years, ending with 1894, is stated in the Victorian Year-book as under:—

New Zealand208
South Australia170
New South Wales156
Queensland142
Tasmania131
Western Australia116
Victoria111

BIRTHS AND BIRTH-RATES IN THE FOUR CHIEF CITIES

The total number of births registered as occurring in the four chief centres and suburbs in 1898 was 4,629, as against 4,408 for the previous year.

The births in the four cities rose from 2,847 in 1897 to 2,878 in 1898, and in the suburban boroughs from 1,561 to 1,751. The birth-rates for 1898 were,—

  Birth-rates per 1,000 of
Mean Population.
Auckland City26.96 
      ”     and five suburban boroughs 27.53
Wellington City25.75 
      ”     and three suburban boroughs 26.04
Christchurch City22.07 
      ”     and four suburban boroughs 24.31
Dunedin City21.61 
      ”     and eight suburban boroughs 21.88

Thus, by the inclusion of the suburbs the rate is raised at each of the four centres. It will be observed that Auckland has the highest rate, Wellington next highest, Christchurch and Dunedin following with intervals. The difference between the Auckland rate (27.53) and the Dunedin rate (21.88) is very marked. The birth-rate for the whole colony for 1898 was 25.74 per thousand. Auckland and Wellington are thus over the average, Christchurch and Dunedin below it.

Taking the births in the four central boroughs without their-suburbs, and comparing the numbers for 1898 and 1897, an increase is observed—at Auckland 10, at Christchurch 14, and at Dunedin 9; and a decrease at Wellington of 2. The figures for the last five years are:—

 1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.
Auckland (without suburbs)873888892906916
Wellington (without suburbs)9901,0001,0051,0671,065
Christchurch (without suburbs)400359370376390
Dunedin (without suburbs)527475498498507

The birth-rates recorded for the four central boroughs in 1898 show a rise at Christchurch, 22.07, as against 21.88 for 1897; and at Dunedin, from 21.54 in 1897 to 21.61 in 1898; but a fall at Auckland, from 28.29 to 26.96; and at Wellington, from 27.71 to 25.75. The rates for the years 1894–98 are as follows:—

 Births per 1,000 of Population.
 1894.1895.18961897.1898.
Auckland (without suburbs)27.8028.0423.3928.2926.96
Wellington (without suburbs)28.2528.3026.8427.7125.75
Christchurch (without suburbs)22.8120.3621.8121.8822.07
Dunedin (without suburbs)22.1419.8721.8321.5421.61

NATURALISATION

Aliens residing in the colony may, on taking the oath of allegiance to Her Majesty, obtain letters of naturalisation entitling them to enjoy all the rights and privileges that a natural-born subject of the United Kingdom can enjoy or transmit within this colony. One hundred and thirteen aliens (108 men and 5 women) were naturalised in 1898.

The number belonging to each nationality was as under:—

NUMBER OF ALIENS NATURALISED IN 1898.
 M.F.
Natives of—
     German Empire301
     Norway and Sweden220
     Denmark171
     Russia80
     France80
     Italy52
     Austria-Hungary60
     China40
     United States of America20
     Netherlands20
     Greece20
     Switzerland11
     Belgium10

The number of natives of each country naturalised during the last seventeen years is next shown,—

Natives of—
     Germany1,122
     Sweden and Norway807
     Denmark579
     China336
     Italy134
     Switzerland127
     Russia139
     Austria122
     France66
     Netherlands33
     Greece28
     Portugal20
     United States of America19
     Belgium14
     Other countries67
          Total3,613

By section 2 of “The Aliens Act Amendment Act, 1882,” repealed and re-enacted by section 2 of “The Aliens Act Amendment Act, 1892,” it is provided that when the father, or mother being a widow, has obtained naturalisation in the colony, every child who during infancy has become resident with them in New Zealand shall be deemed to be naturalised, and shall have the rights and privileges of a natural-born subject.

MARRIAGES

The marriages for 1898 show an increase on the number for the previous year. The number was 5,091, or 163 more than in 1897. The marriage-rate rose from 6.83 per 1,000 persons living in 1897 to 6.91 in 1898, the rate for 1898 being the highest obtained since 1882, when it stood at 7.07 per 1,000 persons. The improvement shown during the last three years sets New Zealand in a good position relatively to the colonies in Australia.

The rates for a series of eleven consecutive years were:—

MARRIAGES PER 1,000 OF THE POPULATION.
Year.Queens-land.New South Wales.Victoria.South Australia.Western Australia.Tasmania.New Zealand.
18888.637.378.036.707.186.585.97
18898.376.768.146.476.996.505.94
18908.497.148.217.065.806.646.12
18917.187.397.697.318.006.636.04
18926.676.776.646.517.296.516.23
18935.916.405.996.266.345.516.22
18945.706.205.986.096.245.436.15
18956.236.356.005.886.835.325.94
18966.056.596.486.208.455.886.85
18976.056.726.365.4610.736.236.83
18986.036.666.536.189.896.296.91

But the improved rate for this colony is still lower than the rate for many European countries.

MARRIAGES IN EVERY 1,000 OF THE POPULATION.
German Empire18968.3
Belgium18968.1
Hungary18968.1
England and Wales18967.9
Austria18967.9
Switzerland18967.8
Spain18947.8
France18967.5
Netherlands18967.5
Denmark18967.3
Scotland18967.2
Italy18967.1
Norway18966.7
Sweden18955.9
Ireland18965.0

Of the marriages solemnised in 1898, 4,628 were between bachelors and spinsters, 148 between bachelors and widows, 211 between widowers and spinsters, and 104 between widowers and widows. Divorced men and women have been classified as bachelors or spinsters: 10 divorced men and 11 divorced women were married during the year.

Included amongst spinsters are twelve married women, and amongst the bachelors three married men, who elected to go through the form of marriage with other persons under the protection of the provisions of section 204, subsection (5), of “The Criminal Code Act, 1893,” which runs: “No one commits bigamy by going through a form of marriage if he or she has been continually absent from his or her wife or husband for seven years then last past, and is not proved to have known that his wife or her husband was alive at any time during those seven years.”

The total number of marriages solemnized (5,091) does not include marriages where both parties are of the aboriginal native race, such persons being exempted from the necessity of complying with the provisions of the Marriage Act, although at liberty to take advantage thereof. Only seven marriages in which both parties were Maoris were contracted in 1898 in terms of the Act.

BACHELORS AND SPINSTERS IN NEW ZEALAND

The results of the last three censuses in respect of the number of bachelors of 20 years and upwards, and spinsters of 15 years and upwards, in the colony show some interesting features. While in 1886 there was an excess of bachelors over the spinsters amounting to 12,339 men, in 1891 the census gave an excess of 3,497 only, showing that a process of equalisation had been going on. But by 1896 not only had the preponderance of the male element been lost, but an excess of spinsters over bachelors was reported amounting to 1,786 women.

It is curious to notice how differently the numbers for the Provincial Districts have been affected by the process in operation. An excess of bachelors was preserved in Auckland, Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Wellington, Marlborough, Nelson, and Westland from 1886 to 1896, but in all these cases except Taranaki it diminished very much. In Canterbury, however, an excess of spinsters was found in 1886 of 910, which increased to 2,516 in 1891, and to 3,997 in 1896; while in Otago an excess of 2,359 bachelors in 1886 changed to an excess of 773 spinsters in 1891, which increased to 2,066 in 1896: these two important districts of the South Island losing large numbers of bachelors by departures to the North Island.

Provincial Districts.Census, 1886.Census, 1891.Census, 1896.
Excess of Bachelors over Spinsters.Excess of Spinsters over Bachelors.Excess of Bachelors over Spinsters.Excess of Spinsters over Bachelors.Excess of Bachelors over Spinsters.Excess of Spinsters over Bachelors.
     Total excess12,339..3,497....1,786
Auckland2,996..156..703..
Taranaki242..121..524..
Hawke's Bay1,809..1,337..1,142....
Wellington2,225..2,129..637..
Marlborough607..644..183..
Nelson1,524..1,486..580..
Westland1,479..900..501..
Canterbury..910..2,516..3,997
Otago2,359....773..2,066
Chatham Islands8..15..7..
Kermadec Islands......2....

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS DENOMINATIONS

Of the marriages in the year 1898, 23.37 per cent. were solemnised by ministers of the Church of England, 26.02 per cent. by ministers of the Presbyterian Churches, 13.98 per cent. by ministers of the Wesleyan and other Methodist Churches, 10.37 per cent. by ministers of the Roman Catholic Church, 9.25 per cent. by ministers of other denominations, and 17.01 per cent. by Registrars.

The following shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the principal denominations in the past seven years, and the percentages of these denominations to the total population:—

Denomination.Percentage of Marriages.Percentage of Denomination to Total Population in 1896.
1892.1893.1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.
Church of England20.7823.0622.8622.7422.8623.0023.3740.27
Presbyterians29.3826.5825.3024.3225.0125.4426.0222.78
Wesleyans and other Methodists14.8216.1315.9915.6917.9217.6113.9810.45
Roman Catholics9.748.9910.0811.1910.2610.1210.3714.07
Other denominations6.346.666.657.296.055.869.2512.43
     By Registrars18.9418.5819.1218.7717.9017.9717.01..
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Marriage by the Registrar is found to be rather less frequent than it was six years ago, the percentage falling from 18.94 in 1892 to 17.01 in 1898.

MARRIAGE REGISTER SIGNED BY MARK

Of the men married in 1898, 37, or 7.27 in every 1,000, and of the women (three of whom were Chinese) 39, or 7.66 per 1,000, signed the register by marks.

The illiteracy of the people, as measured by the proportion of married persons who affix marks instead of signatures to the marriage register, has greatly decreased of late, having fallen since 1881 from 32.04 per 1,000 among men to 7.27 per 1,000, and from 57.98 per 1,000 to 7.66 per 1,000 among women. This is shown in a very striking manner by the following table:—

PERSONS IN EVERY 1,000 MARRIED WHO SIGNED BY MARK.
Denomination.1881.1891.1898.
     M.     F.     M.     F.     M.     F.
Church of England16.5927.158.2910.663.361.68
Presbyterians10.2529.615.798.690.753.02
Wesleyans and other Methodists32.4141.798.9310.713.456.90
Roman Catholics117.78133.3331.3318.2815.1511.36
Other denominations10.3620.729.26....318
     By Registrars39.2293.5127.4243.0824.2523.09
          Total marriages32.0457.9813.9316.827.277.66

The proportion of illiterates in 1898 was greatest among those married before Registrars. Previously the proportion was largest among Roman Catholics; but since 1881 it has, as shown by the table, most remarkably decreased.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED

Of the persons married in 1898, 80 bridegrooms and 923 brides were under 21 years of age—two of the bridegrooms were between 17 and 18 years of age, and nine between 18 and 19. Of the brides, one was under 15 years of age, two were between 15 and 16, and thirty between 16 and 17 years of age. The proportion of men married is greatest at the ages of 25 to 30, and of women at from 21 to 25 years.

The following are the proportions of men and women married at each age-period to every 100 marriages in the years 1888, 1897, and 1898:—

Age.1888.1897.1898.
     M.     F.     M.     F.     M.     F.
Under 21 years1.8524.301.6218.651.5718.13
21 and under 2528.1742.0525.1941.2524.4540.86
25     ”     3033.8121.1538.8226.5639.2927.32
30     ”     4026.028.9825.9910.5225.9710.53
40     ”     506.692.745.282.135.602.12
50     ”     602.520.612.250.672.040.86
60     ”     700.880.140.670.200.900.18
70 and upwards0.060.030.180.020.18..

Registrars of Marriages are prohibited by law from issuing certificates for the marriage of minors without the consent of their parents or lawful guardians, if there be any in the colony. If a declaration be made in any case that there is no parent or lawful guardian in the colony, then a certificate may be issued after the expiration of fourteen days following the date on which the notice of intended marriage is given.

A marriage may not be solemnised except after the delivery to the minister or Registrar who officiates of a certificate issued by a Registrar authorising such marriage, and if any persons knowingly and wilfully intermarry without such certificate the marriage is null and void; and no clergyman or minister of any denomination is empowered to solemnise marriages until his name has been placed on the Registrar-General's list of officiating ministers for the year.

The ages at which persons may contract binding marriages are the same as in England—12 years for females and 14 for males. Marriage may be contracted at earlier ages than those stated, but would be voidable at the discretion of either of the parties upon reaching the age of 12 or 14, as the case may be, and without the necessity of proceedings in Court.

Although in New Zealand the age at which girls may legally marry is as above; nevertheless, by the criminal law, to unlawfully carnally know a girl under the age of 16 years is now a punishable offence. The age of consent was raised from 15 to 16 by statute passed in 1896.

The average age of the men married in this colony in 1898 was 29.95 years, and of the women, 25.30 years. In England the mean age of those whose ages were stated was (in the year 1894) 28.41 years for men, and 26.15 years for women. Thus the average age at marriage in the colony is higher for men, but lower for women, than in England.

The proportion of bridegrooms under 21 is much greater in England than in New Zealand; but the proportion of brides under 21 is greater in the colony.

In England, in 1891–95, of every 1,000 bridegrooms whose ages were stated, 56 were under 21 years of age, and of every 1,000 brides 183 were under 21 years of age. In New Zealand, in 1898, the proportions were 16 bridegrooms and 181 brides of similar ages in every 1,000 married:—

Year.Bridegrooms
under 21
in every 100.
Brides under 21
in
every 100.
18841.8727.10
18861.9526.09
18881.8524.30
18901.8922.75
18921.6220.14
18941.4419.53
18961.9619.51
18971.6218.64
18981.5718.13

NUMBER OF MINISTERS

The number of the clergy enumerated at the census of 1896 was 777. In 1891 the number returned was 732. Besides the regular clergy, there were, in 1896, 11 Mormon missionaries and 221 Salvation Army officers, of whom 112 were females; also 17 evangelists, 52 missionaries (11 women), and 45 preachers. The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act is (March, 1899) 923, and the denominations to which they belong are shown hereunder.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS, 31 ST MARCH, 1899.
Denomination.No.
Church of England304
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand117
Presbyterian Church of Otago and Southland84
Roman Catholic Church159
Wesleyan Methodist Church138
Congregational Independents19
Baptists25
Primitive Methodist Connexion32
Lutheran Church10
Hebrew Congregations5
Church of Christ8
Independent Wesleyan1
Brethren1
The New Church1
The Forward Movement1
Salvation Army7
Catholic Apostolic Church3
Seventh-day Adventists4
Conditional Immortalitists1
Christchurch Central Mission1
The Union Free Church1
The Newtown Christian Mission1
          Total923

There were, at the time of the census, 25 theological students, 72 church officers such as sextons and others, and 82 members of religious orders not ministering to charity or education.

DEATHS

The deaths in 1898 numbered 7,244, being equivalent to a rate of 9.84 in every 1,000 persons living. The rate is slightly higher than that obtaining in 1897 (9.14). The lowest experienced since the year 1887, when the deaths were 10.29 per 1,000 of the population, was that for 1896 (9.10).

The death-rate in New Zealand contrasts very favourably with that in the other Australasian Colonies and in European countries, as will be seen by the figures given for a series of years:—

Country.    1890.    1891.    1892.    1893.    1894.    1895.    1896.    1897.    1898.

* Excluding the Northern Territory.

† Subject to revision: Coghlan's preliminary figures.

New Zealand9.6610.3510.0610.2310.199.919.109.149.84
Queensland14.9812.7712.6613.3412.0811.3812.1011.3312.67
New South Wales12.9014.2413.2213.2512.3011.7912.4310.8912.48†
Victoria16.1016.2413.6314.1113.1313.2513.3412.8715.94
South Australia*12.4013.2611.3813.4211.6411.2511.4811.1812.95†
Western Australia11.2616.9616.6315.2714.0017.3216.4517.6316.05
Tasmania14.7415.0013.5313.4712.4311.3811.6811.5313.52
England and Wales19.520.219.019.216.618.717.1....
Scotland19.720.718.619.517.219.716.9....
Ireland18.218.419.417.918.218.416.6....
Denmark19.020.019.418.917.516.915.7....
Norway17.917.517.816.316.915.615.2....
Sweden17.116.817.916.816.415.2......
Austria29.428.228.827.227.827.626.4....
Hungary32.433.135.031.130.429.628.8....
Switzerland21.020.719.220.420.519.718.4....
German Empire24.423.424.124.622.322.220.8....
Netherlands20.520.721.019.218.518.617.2....
France22.622.622.622.821.222.320.2....
Italy26.426.226.325.325.125.224.2....

In this statement New Zealand is conspicuous as showing the lowest death-rate. The rates for the principal colonies in Australia are a little higher, but still far below those for the United Kingdom or the European Continental States mentioned in the table.

DEATHS AND DEATH-RATES OF THE FOUR PRINCIPAL CITIES AND THEIR SUBURBS

In the earlier annual reports on the vital statistics of the four chief towns the central boroughs alone were dealt with, particulars respecting the suburbs not having been obtained. But this omission was held to be a grave defect, as the suburban death-rate may differ much from the death-rate at the centre. Steps were therefore taken early in 1895 to collect statistics of the suburban boroughs as well as of the four chief cities. As regards Auckland and Christ-church, the whole of the area usually recognised as suburban has not yet been brought under municipal government, and the statistics given below do not deal with such portions as still remain in road districts. The omission, however, is not very important, for there are in either case quite enough suburbs included within borough boundaries to give a fair idea of the death-rate of greater Auckland and greater Christchurch. As further boroughs are formed the vital statistics will be made to include them.

The total number of deaths registered for the four centres in 1898 was 2,203—viz., 1,489 in the cities, and 714 in the suburbs. In 1897 the number was 2,013: 1,378 in the cities, and 635 in the suburbs.

By including the suburbs the death-rate for last year is lowered at each of the four centres, the difference being most noticeable in Auckland and Dunedin. The rates for the year are:—

 Death-rates per 1,000
of mean Population.
Auckland City14.22 
Auckland City and five suburban boroughs 13.13
Wellington City12.47 
Wellington City and three suburban boroughs 11.94
Christchurch City10.87 
Christchurch City and four suburban boroughs 10.63
Dunedin City12.73 
Dunedin City and eight suburban boroughs 11.65

MORTALITY AT FOUR CENTRES, INCLUDING SUBURBS

If the suburbs are included, the death-rate is found to be highest in Auckland and lowest in Christchurch; Wellington and Dunedin taking second and third places respectively. The death-rate for the colony was 9.84 per 1,000 of mean population. The four centres, as might be expected, each show a higher average than this.

If the number of deaths of infants under one year be excluded, the mortality among the rest of the population is found to have been for 1897 and 1898 in the following ratio to the 1,000 living:—

 1897.1898.
Auckland (including suburbs)8.978.97
Wellington (including suburbs)8.798.52
Christchurch (including suburbs)9.178.40
Dunedin (including suburbs)9.289.90

The degree of infantile mortality is perhaps best shown in the proportion of deaths of children under one year of age to every 100 births. For 1897 and 1898 the proportions at the chief centres were,—

 1897.1898.
Auckland (including suburbs)12.5415.10
Wellington (including suburbs)9.8413.11
Christchurch (including suburbs)11.259.16
Dunedin (including suburbs)6.308.01

Thus the proportion at Dunedin is little more than half that found at Auckland. Again, the percentage of deaths of children under 5 to the total number of deaths is: in Auckland, 36.99; in Wellington, 34.61; in Christchurch, 25.05; in Dunedin, only 18.71. The total of deaths under 5 is 642, or 29.14 per cent. of all deaths, as against 541 and 26.88 for 1897. The deaths of persons of 65 and upwards numbered 506 last year; in 1897 they were 442.

MORTALITY AT FOUR CENTRES, EXCLUDING SUBURBS

Excluding suburbs, and dealing with the deaths at all ages in the four cities or central boroughs only, the rates for 1898 are found to be higher in Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin than in the previous year, but lower in Christchurch. The total number of deaths, and the death-rates, for four years are given:—

Cities (excluding Suburbs).Deaths, 1895.Deaths, 1896.Deaths, 1897.Deaths, 1898.
No.Per 1,000 of Population.No.Per 1,000 of Population.No.Per 1,000 of Population.No.Per 1,000 of Population.
Auckland47114.8745314.4241612.9948314.22
Wellington46213.0743411.5946312.0351612.47
Christchurch19110.8319511.4922613.1519210.87
Dunedin24410.212199.6027311.8129812.73

By omitting the deaths of infants under one year, and calculating the rate on the population of one year of age and upwards, the position of the four cities as regards magnitude of death-rate is altered materially, Dunedin now taking first place.

 Deaths per 1,000 of Population, excluding Infants (under One Year of Age).
 1895.1896.1897.1898.
Auckland (excluding suburbs)11.0210.029.649.86
Wellington (excluding suburbs)9.849.179.359.18
Christchurch (excluding suburbs)8.708.8610.658.85
Dunedin (excluding suburbs)9.678.0710.7010.87

Subjoined is a table showing the rates of infant mortality in the four cities for each of the past five years, together with the mean rates for the period. In respect of both last year's rate and the mean rate Auckland stands first, and Dunedin fourth.

 Deaths of Children under One Year to every 100 Births.
 1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.Mean of
Five Years.
Auckland (excluding suburbs)15.1214.8616.4812.8017.1415.28
Wellington (excluding suburbs)9.4912.4010.0510.5913.7111.25
Christchurch (excluding suburbs)9.0011.1412.9712.5010.0011.12
Dunedin (excluding suburbs)8.739.477.836.229.668.38

CAUSES OF DEATH AT FOUR CENTRES, INCLUDING SUBURBS

While treating of the death-rates at the chief cities and surroundings, it is desirable to refer to the causes of mortality, which is done in the remarks that follow. The deaths for the whole colony, classified according to their cause, are treated of at length a little further on.

Specific Febrile and Zymotic Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

The mortality from these diseases at Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin, with their suburbs, was much higher in 1898 than in 1897. Growth of population can only be said to account for a small part of the increase. At Christchurch the deaths for last year by zymotic diseases were fewer than in the former year, the total deaths in this class for the four towns being 304 for 1898 and 201 for 1897.

Deaths from Febrile and Zymotic Diseases.
 Auckland and
Suburbs.
Wellington and
Suburbs.
Christchurch and
Suburbs.
Dunedin and
Suburbs.
189782395624
1898117994444

Of the above, diarrhœal diseases caused most deaths in 1898 at the four centres taken together, the total number being 124. Influenza came next with 70 deaths, typhoid fever contributed 38, measles 28, diphtheria 10, and other zymotic complaints 34.

Comparison of the deaths for each city shows,—

Zymotic, &c., Diseases.Auckland and Suburbs.Wellington and Suburbs.Christchurch and Suburbs.Dunedin and Suburbs.
1897.1898.1897.1898.1897.1898.1897.1898.
Diarrhœal diseases495922362414615
Influenza12142211617918
Typhoid fever1222712441..
Measles..7..15..2..4
Diphtheria43126312
Scarlet fever1..............
Other zymotic diseases4127136475

The higher figures for Wellington, relating to the year 1898, in respect of diarrhœa, influenza, and measles are very noticeable.

Parasitic Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

Hydatids were fatal at Auckland (1 death) and Dunedin (2). These, with 1 death from thrush, make the total of 4.

Dietetic Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

These numbered 23, of which 17 were attributed to intemperance.

Constitutional Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

From these, deaths at the four towns numbered 467 in 1898. The first in importance of these diseases, and of all causes of death, is tubercle. The figures for 1897 and 1898 show 257 and 249 deaths for each year respectively.

Phthisis and other Tubercular Diseases (at Four Chief Centres).
 1897.1898.
Phthisis.Other Tubercular
Diseases.
Phthisis.Other Tubercular
Diseases.
Auckland and suburbs5112483
Wellington      ”47125012
Christchurch      ”453495
Dunedin      ”67206121
 2104720841

The mortality from tubercular diseases for 1898 was 11.30 per cent. of the total deaths at the four boroughs from all causes.

Deaths from cancer increased at the chief towns from 129 in 1897 to 160 in 1898. The latter number is 7.26 per cent, of deaths for the year from all causes.

Diabetes showed 18 deaths, against 12 in 1897.

Developmental Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

There were 191 deaths; 80 of which were from premature birth and 92 from old age.

Local Diseases (at Four Chief Centres)

Deaths in this class were only 10 more than in 1897, the figures being 1,012 against 1,002. Diseases of the respiratory system showed 250 deaths for 1898, or about one-fourth of the whole mortality in the class, against 210 in the former year. Bronchitis, pneumonia, congestion of lungs, pleurisy, and allied diseases form this group.

Under the head of diseases of the digestive system there were 181 deaths at the four centres, including 49 from enteritis; gastritis, 13; cirrhosis of liver, 15; hepatitis, 8; and dentition, 15.

Diseases of the urinary system showed 70 deaths. The remaining deaths were: 230 from nervous diseases, 4 of organs of special sense, 234 of organs of the circulatory system, 6 of the lymphatic, 26 of the reproductive system, 7 of the organs of locomotion, and 4 of the integuments.

Violent Deaths (at Four Chief Centres)

There were 101 violent deaths at the cities and suburbs, 75 of which were accidental. Six were caused by fractures, and 13 by falls. In 7 cases death resulted from the deceased being run over by bicycle, cart, engine, tram, or train. Eight deaths were from burning, 12 by drowning, 9 suffocation, 2 poisoning, 1 misadventure with chloroform; besides 6 from accident at birth, and 11 others.

Of 24 suicides, 8 were by shooting, 5 by cutting throat, &c., 4 by poison, 5 by hanging, 1 by dynamite, and 1 by jumping from a bridge.

VITAL STATISTICS OF AUSTRALASIAN CAPITALS, 1897–98

The vital statistics of the chief cities, with their suburbs, of the Australasian Colonies, using the latest figures to hand, show that the death-rate in Wellington (N.Z.) for 1898 was considerably lower than that of Melbourne, Sydney, or Adelaide, for the same year. The rate in Hobart and suburbs for 1897 was higher than that of Wellington for 1898, but the proper comparison of both towns for the same period cannot be made yet.

Capital Cities (including Suburbs).Estimated Mean Population.Births.Deaths.Excess of Births over Deaths.
Total Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.Total Number.Rate per 1,000 Population.
Melbourne, 1898464,59012,01625.868,52318.353,493
Sydney, 1898422,10011,90128.196,36515.085,536
Adelaide, 1898146,8703,92720.742,54217.311,385
Brisbane, 1897103,3233,34932.411,21911.802,130
Perth, 189736,0491,07229.7478221.69290
Hobart, 189738,52886522.4557114.82294
Wellington, 189845,9981,19826.0454911.94649

DEATHS IN THE WHOLE COLONY AT VARIOUS AGE-PERIODS

The average age at death of persons of either sex, in each of five years, was as follows:—

 Males.Females.
189436.64 years31.59 years.
189536.21 years30.17 years.
189636.80 years32.41 years.
189738.80 years34.77 years.
189839.29 years35.69 years.

Subjoined is a classified statement of the deaths of infants under one year during 1898, with the ratio of the deaths in each class to the 1,000 births during the year:—

Year.Sex.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Total under 12 Months.
NUMBER OF DEATHS.
1898Male324157182197860
Female249132124145650
DEATHS TO THE 1,000 BIRTHS.
1898Male33.6916.3318.9320.4989.44
Female26.6614.1313.2815.5269.59

Eighty-nine out of every thousand of male children born, and seventy of every thousand females, are found to have died before attaining the age of one year. The mortality is thus one in eleven of male children and one in fourteen of females, even in New Zealand, where conditions are far more favourable to infant life than in Australia, at least as far as relates to the cities.

It will also be seen from the figures that the chances of living during the first year of age are far greater for female than for male infants. Thus, during the year 1898 there were—

100 deaths of males to 79 deaths of females under 1 month of age;
100 deaths of males to 86 deaths of females from 1 to 3 months of age;
100 deaths of males to 70 deaths of females from 3 to 6 months of age;
100 deaths of males to 76 deaths of females from 6 to 12 months of age;
100 deaths of males to 78 deaths of females under 12 months of age.

The rates of infantile mortality—that is, the proportion the deaths of children under one year of age bear to the births—are, as previously stated, higher in the Australian Colonies than in New Zealand. The following table gives the rate in the several colonies named for each of the ten years, 1883–92:—

NUMBER OF DEATHS OF CHILDREN UNDER ONE YEAR OF AGE TO EVERY 100 BIRTHS.
Year.Queensland.New South Wales.Victoria.South Australia.Tasmania.New Zealand.
188313.3411.4811.4414.5612.3910.39
188414.7412.6211.3713.429.987.93
188514.8513.1212.5711.3411.268.92
188612.5912.8512.7312.6210.489.84
188711.2910.5913.0011.1210.099.38
188812.0711.0912.759.599.437.07
188913.6212.5015.219.4210.647.89
189010.0510.4511.749.6510.557.87
189110.1211.8912.629.099.459.12
189210.6810.6010.689.679.918.92

CAUSES OF DEATH (THE WHOLE COLONY)

The deaths registered in the colony during the last five years, when distributed among the several classes according to their assigned causes, give the rates shown hereunder:—

Causes of Death.Rate per 10,000 living.
1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.
Zymotic diseases14.1211.2410.248.4410.99
Parasitic diseases0.320.360.240.180.37
Dietetic diseases0.630.810.860.840.87
Constitutional diseases19.4218.9517.0617.9918.81
Developmental diseases8.047.127.257.468.80
Local diseases45.2248.6043.3145.3046.86
Violence10.268.628.327.557.43
Ill-defined and not-specified causes3.843.423.723.634.26
          All causes101.8599.1291.0091.3998.39

Forty-eight in every one hundred deaths in 1898 were from local diseases, of which diseases of the respiratory system formed 12 per cent., diseases of the circulatory system and of the nervous system 11 per cent. (each), while diseases of the digestive system contributed 8 per cent. Constitutional diseases, including, with others, phthisis and cancer, comprised 19 per cent. of the total mortality. Eleven per cent. of deaths were from zymotic causes, including 6.21 per cent. from miasmatic diseases, and 3.80 per cent. from diarrhœal. Deaths from developmental diseases come next in proportion, being 8.95 per cent. of the whole, and are closely followed by violent deaths, 7.55 per cent.

Causes of Death.Number of Deaths.Proportion to Total Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 living, 1898.Proportion per 10,000 living, 1897.
Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.
Class I. Specific febrile or zymotic diseases,—   Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
      Order 1. Miasmatic diseases2531974505.916.656.216.113.90
      2Order 2. Diarrhœal diseases1321132753.793.813.803.743.56
      Order 3. Malarial diseases0.01
      Order 4. Zoogenous diseases
      Order 5. Venereal diseases1613290.370.440.410.390.35
      Order 6. Septic diseases1936550.441.210.750.750.62
          Total Class I.45035980910.5112.1111.1710.998.44
Class II. Parasitic diseases1512270.350.410.370.370.18
Class III. Dietetic diseases4420641.030.670.880.870.84
Class IV. Constitutional diseases7426431,38517.3421.6919.1218.8117.99
Class V. Developmental diseases5433056488.0110.298.958.807.46
Class VI. Local diseases,—
      Order 1. Diseases of nervous system46531578010.8610.6310.7710.5910.38
      Order 2. Diseases of organs of special sense67130.140.240.180.180.10
      Order 3. Diseases of circulatory system48928777611.439.6810.7110.5410.39
      Order 4. Diseases of respiratory system52531183612.2710.4911.5411.3611.09
      Order 5. Diseases of digestive system3452505958.068.438.228.087.86
      Order 6. Diseases of lymphatic system1324370.300.810.510.500.41
      Order 7. Diseases of urinary system1721622744.023.443.783.723.28
      Order 8. Diseases of reproductive system,—        
          (a.) Of organs of generation26260.880.360.350.36
          (b.) Of parturition72722.430.990.980.89
      Order 9. Diseases of locomotive system1410240.330.340.330.330.29
      Order 10. Diseases of integumentary system125170.280.170.240.230.25
          Total Class VI.2,0411,4093,45047.6947.5447.6346.8645.30
Class VII. Violence,—
      Order 1. Accident or negligence385784639.002.636.396.296.66
      2Order 2. Homicide4260.090.070.080.080.10
      Order 3. Suicide6610761.540.341.051.030.76
      Order 4. Execution220.050.030.030.03
          Total Class VII.4579054716.683.047.557.437.55
Class VIII. Ill-defined and not-specified causes1881263144.394.254.334.263.63
          Grand totals4,2802,9647,244100.00100.00100.0098.3991.39

The next table shows, for either sex, the number of deaths from each cause registered during the year 1898:—

CAUSES OF DEATH.
Class.Causes of Death.Males.Females.Total.
Orders and Diseases.
I.---SPECIFIC FEBRILE OR ZYMOTIC DISEASES.ORDER 1.---Miasmatic.
Small-pox.........
Chicken-pox.........
Measles312556
Epidemic rose-rash, rubeola...11
Scarlet fever, scarlatina112
Typhus.........
Dengue.........
Relapsing fever.........
Influenza12792219
Whooping-cough426
Mumps.........
Diphtheria212445
Cerebro-spinal fever.........
Simple and ill-defined fever...11
Enteric fever, typhoid6951120
Other miasmatic diseases.........
Total Order 1253197450
ORDER 2.---Diarrhœal.
Simple cholera16824
Diarrhœa13799236
Dysentery9615
Total Order 2162113275
ORDER 3.---Malarial.
Remittent fever.........
Ague.........
Beriberi.........
Total Order 3.........
ORDER 4.---Zoogenous.
Hydrophobia.........
Glanders.........
Splenic fever.........
Cow-pox and other effects of vaccination.........
Total Order 4.........
ORDER 5.---Venereal.
Syphilis141327
Gonerrhœa, stricture of urethra, ulcer of groin2...2
Total Order 5161329
ORDER 6.---Septic.
Phagedæna.........
Erysipelas6612
Pyæmia, septicæmia131124
Puerperal fever, pyæmia, septicæmia...1919
Total Order 6193655
Total Class I.450359809
II.---PARASITIC DISEASES.Thrush426
Other diseases from vegetable parasites.........
Hydatid disease11920
Worms...11
Other diseases from animal parasites.........
Total Class II.151227
III.---DIETETIC DISEASES.Starvation325
Want of breast-milk347
Scurvy2...2
Intemperance---
Chronic alcoholism28937
Delirium tremens2...2
Other dietetic diseases6511
Total Class III.442064
IV.---CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES.Rheumatic fever111930
Rheumatism101323
Gout3...3
Rickets...33
Cancer263208471
Tabes mesenterica, tubercular peritonitis301949
Tubercular meningitis, acute hydrocephalus354075
Phthisis322275597
Other forms of tuberculosis, serofula262248
Purpura, hæmorrhagic diathesis213
Anæmia, chlorosis, leucocythæmia101424
Diabetes mellitus242448
Other constitutional diseases6511
Total Class IV.7426431,385
V.---DEVELOPMENTAL DISEASES.Premature birth132119251
Atelectasis4711
Cyanosis8513
Spina bifida437
Imperforate anus...11
Cleft palate, hare-lip.........
Other congenital defects121022
Old age183160343
Total Class V.343305648
VI.---LOCAL DISEASESORDER 1.---Diseases of Nervous System.
Inflammation of the brain or its membranes584199
Cerebro-spinal meningitis...55
Apoplexy13583218
Softening of brain11718
Hemiplegia, brain paralysis202141
Paralysis (undescribed)473279
Paralysis agitans112
Insanity, general paralysis of insane351853
Chorea.........
Epilepsy211637
Convulsions6750117
Laryngismus stridulus...11
Idiopathic tetanus112
Paraplegia, diseases of spinal cord241236
Locomotor ataxia9211
Other diseases of nervous system362561
Total Order 1465315780
ORDER 2.---Diseases of Organs of Special Sense.
Otitis, otorrhœa6612
Epistaxis, and diseases of nose...11
Ophthalmia, and diseases of eye.........
Total Order 26713
ORDER 3.---Diseases of Circulatory System.
Endocarditis, valvular disease328193521
Pericarditis235
Hypertrophy of heart213
Fatty degeneration of heart282250
Angina pectoris19524
Syncope8046126
Aneurism16117
Senile gangrene549
Embolism, thrombosis5611
Phlebitis...11
Varicose veins, piles...11
Other diseases of circulatory system448
Total Order 3489287776
ORDER 4.---Diseases of Respiratory System.
Laryngitis9615
Croup291140
Other diseases of larynx and trachea.........
Asthma, emphysema231639
Bronchitis169124293
Pneumonia219111330
Pleurisy261541
Other diseases of respiratory system502878
Total Order 4525311836
ORDER 5.---Diseases of Digestive System.
Stomatitis, cancrum oris336
Dentition182240
Sore throat, quinsy448
Dyspepsia527
Hæmatemesis336
Melæna538
Diseases of stomach, gastritis384179
Enteritis9068158
Ulceration, perforation, of intestine12113
Ileus, obstruction of intestine211637
Stricture or strangulation of intestine415
Intussusception of intestine8614
Hernia151025
Fistula112
Peritonitis312960
Ascites2...2
Gall-stones3710
Cirrhosis of liver26935
Other diseases of liver, hepatitis, jaundice361551
Other diseases of digestive system20929
Total Order 5345250595
ORDER 6.---Diseases of Lymphatic System and Ductless Glands.
Diseases of lymphatic system4610
Diseases of spleen112
Bronchocele41418
Addison's disease437
Total Order 6132437
ORDER 7.---Diseases of Urinary System.
Acute nephritis151833
Bright's disease8764151
Uræmia6814
Suppression of urine213
Calculus7...7
Hæmaturia2...2
Diseases of bladder and prostate42446
Other diseases of urinary system (kidney diseases undescribed)11718
Total Order 7172102274
ORDER 8.---Diseases of Reproductive System.
(a.) Diseases of organs of generation,---
Ovarian disease...66
Diseases of uterus and vagina...2020
Disorders of menstruation.........
Pelvic abscess.........
Perineal abscess.........
Diseases of testes, penis, scrotum, &c..........
(b.) Diseases of parturition,---
Abortion, miscarriage...1717
Puerperal mania...22
Puerperal metritis.........
Puerperal convulsions...1313
Placenta prævia (flooding)...1010
Phlegmasia dolens...44
Other accidents of child-birth...2626
Total Order 8...9898
ORDER 9.---Diseases of Organs of Locomotion.
Caries, necrosis11415
Arthritis, ostitis...11
Other diseases of organs of locomotion358
Total Order 9141024
ORDER 10.---Diseases of Integumentary System.
Carbuncle3...3
Phelgmon, cellulitis123
Lupus1...1
Ulcer, bed-sore...11
Eczema415
Pemphigus2...2
Other diseases of integumentary system112
Total Order 1012517
Total Class VI.2,0411,4093,450
ORDER 1.---Accident or Negligence.    
Fractures, contusionsVII.---VIOLENCE.18126207
Gunshot wounds15...15
Cut, stab3...3
Burn, scald251540
Sunstroke2...2
Poison7411
Drowning10712119
Suffocation241135
Otherwise211031
Total Order 138578463
ORDER 2.---Homicide.   
Murder, manslaughter426
Wounds in battle.........
Total Order 2426
ORDER 3.---Suicide.   
Gunshot wounds21...21
Cut, stab10616
Poison729
Drowning314
Hanging22123
Otherwise3...3
Total Order 3661076
ORDER 4.---Execution.   
Hanging2...2
Total Class VII.45790547
VIII.---ILL-DEFINED AND NOT-SPECIFIED CAUSES.Dropsy...11
Marasmus, &c.154119273
Mortification, gangrene.........
Tumour325
Abscess415
Hæmorrhage1...1
Sudden (cause unascertained)18119
Other ill-defined and not-specified causes8210
Total Class VIII.188126314
General totals4,2802,9647,244

MORTALITY FROM PRINCIPAL ZYMOTIC AND FEBRILE DISEASES

The deaths in 1898 from specific febrile or zymotic diseases amounted to 809, a proportion of 10.99 in every 10,000 persons living, and an increase of 200 on the number of deaths in 1897, when the proportion was only 8.44. The chief causes of increase lie in the prevalence of influenza and measles during the last year.

The following are the diseases in this class that have caused the greatest mortality during the past ten years:—

Diseases.1889.1890.1891.1892.1893.1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.
Measles211..52514..1156
Scarlet fever and scarlatina193124415..422
Diphtheria113116861951289276744945
Whooping-cough1982242115551901502426
Influenza97021014410623312589120219
Diarrhœal diseases355290319329193207232334257275
Enteric or typhoid fever1181451191349711594124106120
Puerperal fever25192729243832101819

ZYMOTIC AND FEBRILE DISEASES

Measles, which was epidemic in 1893, caused only 16 deaths in the four succeeding years; but in 1898 the mortality rose to 56 deaths. Scarlatina was fatal in two cases in 1898. The mortality from diphtheria fell from 49 deaths in 1897 to 45 in 1898, while in the year 1892 the deaths were 195 in number, and 128 in the following year.

Whooping-cough, which in 1894 had destroyed 190 lives, and 150 in 1895, was in 1896, 1897, and 1898 much less fatal, the figures showing 24 deaths, 2 deaths, and 6 deaths respectively for those years.

Influenza, the deaths from which had fallen from 233 in 1894 to 89 in 1896, and 120 in 1897, contributed 219 deaths in 1898, being the most fatal of all the diseases in the group for last year, excepting only the diarrhœal diseases. From these diarrhœal complaints the deaths in 1898 were 275, or 18 more than in 1897; while in 1896 the mortality reached the height of 334 deaths, and in 1889 was even higher (355), with a much smaller population than in 1898.

Enteric or typhoid fever, which stands third in the order of fatality of zymotic diseases for 1898, with 120 deaths, shows a slight increase over 1897 (106 deaths). The highest mortality during the decennium was in 1892, when the deaths numbered 134 for the colony.

The proportions for the several Australasian Colonies for the years 1887–92 were:—

DEATHS FROM TYPHOID FEVER, 1887–92, PER 10,000 PERSONS LIVING.
 1887.1888.1889.1890.1891.1892.
Queensland7.076.3110.283.403.113.05
New South Wales4.324.265.352.822.352.81
Victoria6.215.138.355.463.102.59
South Australia4.923.844.373.132.522.70
Western Australia3.121.651.160.422.349.83
Tasmania8.376.128.063.415.573.01
New Zealand2.822.301.982.401.892.20

VACCINATION

From small-pox there were no deaths. By means of further expenditure in remunerating vaccination inspectors, the number of vaccinations registered was raised from 8,523 in 1895, to 10,349 in 1898. Figures for ten years are shown; but there is every indication that a collapse is imminent, consequent on the alteration of the law in England, where vaccination is in effect no longer compulsory.

 Proportion of Successful Vaccinations of
Year.Total
Vaccinations
registered.
Number
of Births
registered.
Children under 1
Year of Age to
Total Births. Per Cent.
Children under
14 Years of Age
to Total Births.
Per Cent.
189810,34918,95529.0554.60
189712,44018,73332.8966.41
189611,91718,61230.7864.03
18958,52318,54631.7244.34
18949,32218,52832.4250.31
18937,41218,18728.0940.75
18928,21617,87632.4145.96
18919,28418,27338.8150.81
18909,35718,27842.6651.19
188911,91318,45748.3764.55

One child in every three is shown to have been successfully vaccinated, and for a matter so peculiar as vaccination, and so differently regarded by many persons (see evidence taken by the Royal Commission in England), the above results are not to be despised. Comparison with such colonies as New South Wales shows New Zealand to have been hitherto more careful in regard to the prevention of smallpox than some others.

Mr. Coghlan, for instance, writes that “Vaccination is not compulsory in New South Wales, and is resorted to chiefly in times of scare, when an epidemic of small-pox is thought to be imminent. It is easy to discern,” says he, “from the returns the years when the community was threatened by the disease.” Thus, in 1881, the Government Vaccinators in New South Wales vaccinated 61,239 persons; in 1883, only 896; of late years averaging about 2,000 per annum, but only 945 in 1896.

An extract from the latest report of the Registrar-General of England is given, which is highly interesting in its reference to the epidemic at Gloucester:—

Small-pox.—The deaths referred to small-pox in the year 1896 were 541 in number, and corresponded to a rate of 18 per million of the population, as compared with rates of 49, 27, and 7 per million respectively in the three preceding years. Of the total deaths from small-pox registered in England and Wales, not fewer than 443 occurred in the registration district of Gloucester, in the course of the epidemic which prevailed there. Within the first two quarters of the year 1896 there were registered it. The City of Gloucester 716 deaths from all causes, and of these as many at till deaths, or 59 per cent., were ascribed to small-pox. During the first half of the year, therefore, the mortality of the city was increased on account of small-pox alone by 143 per cent. In England and Wales, out of the 541 persons whose deaths were caused by small-pox during 1896, 45, or 8.3 per cent., were certified to have been vaccinated, and 118, or 21.8 per cent., to have been unvaccinated, whilst with respect to the remaining 378, or 69.9 per cent., no sufficient statement as to vaccination appeared in the certificates. In addition to the deaths definitely referred to small-pox, 151 deaths were attributed to chicken-pox, and 42 to effects of vaccination; so that in the year 1896 the total number of deaths either certainly or possibly caused by variola, and of deaths alleged to have been caused by measures taken to prevent that disease, was 734, or 24 per million of the population.

The 42 deaths ascribed to the effects of vaccination include not only the deaths which were directly referred to vaccination, but also those which were stated in the certificates, or were found on inquiry to have been caused by the entrance of any noxious material whatever at the site of vaccination.

The main features of the new English law include a system of domiciliary visitation by public vaccinators, in substitution for that requiring children to be taken to vaccination stations, and exemption of parents and others from any penalty for not vaccinating children on production to the proper officer of a magistrate's certificate to the effect that he is satisfied as to the conscientious objections raised. Vaccination with glycerinated calf lymph, or other lymph issued by Local Government Boards is offered by the Government. The Act continues in force until the beginning of the year 1904.

PARASITIC DISEASES

There were 27 deaths from parasitic diseases, the proportion per 10,000 living being 0.37. Deaths from hydatids increased from 8 in 1897 to 20 in 1898, a very marked rise.

DIETETIC DISEASES: MORTALITY IN LIQUOR TRADE (ENGLAND)

Under the class “Dietetic Diseases” are included 39 deaths from intemperance. But these cannot be said to represent the full extent of the mortality really caused by the abuse of alcoholic liquors. Many deaths of intemperate persons are attributed to disease of the liver, kidneys, &c., in the medical certificates.

The mortality of persons engaged in the liquor trade has been calculated for England, and the conclusions drawn are quoted: “The mortality of persons directly engaged in the supply of spirituous liquors still continues to be enormous. Up to the age of twenty-five years brewers experience little more than the average mortality, but after that age the baneful influence of their employment rapidly becomes apparent. Their mortality throughout the main working period of life exceeds that of occupied males by about 50 per cent. At all ages after the twentieth year publicans are subject to a death-rate which is much higher than the average among occupied males, while at the age-groups 25–5 and 35–45 years the rates are just double the average… . The comparative mortality figure of brewers is 1,427, that of publicans is 1,838 in London, 1,948 in the industrial districts, and 1,348 in the agricultural districts, as against 953—the standard figure for occupied males… . Taking publicans without distinction of locality, a table shows that they die seven times as fast as do occupied males from alcoholism, 6 1/2 times as fast from diseases of the liver, six times as fast from gout, and more than double as fast from diseases of the urinary system, from rheumatic fever, from diabetes, and from suicide.

“Among publicans in London the case is in some respects worse. Their mortality from all causes is nearly double that of all occupied males taken as a standard. They die nearly ten times as fast from alcoholism, 3 3/4 times as fast from diseases of the liver, and more than twice as fast from affections of the urinary organs and from suicide.”

CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES: PHTHISIS, CANCER, ETC.

The deaths from constitutional diseases in 1898 numbered 1,385, or 18.81 per 10,000 of population, and 19 out of every 100 deaths from all causes. This class of disease is more fatal than any other except that defined as “Local diseases,” on account of the great numbers of deaths from cancer and phthisis, with other tubercular complaints, which are classed as “Constitutional.”

From phthisis there are more deaths than from any other cause. The number of deaths was 597 in 1898, against 596 in 1897 and 523 in 1896. The deaths in 1898 were in the proportion of 8.11 in every 10,000 persons living, against 8.26 in the previous year.

Figures for ten years are quoted, showing that the total number of deaths from this disease for 1898 was the highest recorded during the decennium, though the rate has been slightly higher in the past.

Year.Deaths from
Phthisis.
Rate per 10,000.
18894998.16
18905208.38
18914957.86
18925248.16
18935458.24
18945768.48
18955537.99
18965237.46
18975968.26
18985978.11

The death-rate from phthisis in New Zealand is the lowest for the Australasian Colonies, as will be seen from the figures quoted below:—

DEATH-RATES FROM PHTHISIS PER 10,000 PERSONS LIVING.
 1890.1891.1892.
Queensland13.3512.3810.17
New South Wales9.349.218.62
Victoria14.5812.9313.60
South Australia9.2910.369.41
Western Australia8.979.568.40
Tasmania9.609.008.44
New Zealand8.387.868.16

In all the Australasian Colonies the rate is materially increased by the deaths of persons who have come out either already suffering from phthisis or predisposed thereto. There is no reason for believing that this circumstance has more effect on the death-rate in Australia than in New Zealand; so that the lower rate obtaining in this colony may be taken as proof of the superiority of its climate for withstanding consumptive tendencies.

The death-rate of England and Wales from phthisis, though declining, is far higher than that of New Zealand. In 1896 it stood at 13.07 per 10,000, which is the lowest rate on record.

Phthisis is now known to be and is treated as an infectious preventable disease caused by the bacillus tuberculosis, which is communicable in many ways. Certain constitutions are far more predisposed than others to receive this bacillus, especially under conditions of life unfavourable to robust health, when a nidus is formed for the development of the bacillus.

Legislative action has been recommended to safeguard the life and health of the people from tubercle; and the complete isolation of consumptive patients, with the disinfecting of their sputa, and of everything that has been in contact with them, is suggested from time to time as a necessary measure.

From other forms of tuberculosis the deaths in 1898 were 172, or 2.34 per 10,000 of population. Thus a large addition has to be made to the deaths from phthisis to appreciate the full mischief done by tubercular disease.

Cancer

The deaths from cancer during the year 1898 were 471. There were more deaths of males than of females, the numbers being, males 263, females, 208. The rate of mortality per 10,000 living was 6.40. The apparent increase in deaths from this disease is shown below and compared with that of England. But the increase is not believed by all authorities to be a fact to the extent represented, but partly the result of more careful certification of the causes of death, and of improved diagnosis, in cases of what is termed inaccessible cancer.

It is certain, however, that out of a total of 7,244 deaths from all causes in New Zealand during 1898, 471, or 6.50 per cent., were caused by cancer.

DEATHS FROM CANCER IN EVERY 10,000 PERSONS LIVING.
Year.New Zealand.England.
18812.695.20
18863.685.90
18914.686.92
18965.507.64

The English rate for 1896 is the highest on record there.

The following table gives the death-rates from cancer in New Zealand of males and females for the years 1886, 1890, 1894, and 1898:—

DEATHS FROM CANCER IN EVERY 10,000 PERSONS OF EACH SEX LIVING IN NEW ZEALAND.
Year.Males.Females.
18863.693.67
18904.724.79
18946.655.27
18986.775.98

The increase since 1881 is well exhibited in respect of each sex, and in regard to the higher ages which are the periods at which the cancer deaths occur, by a proportional statement:—

PROPORTIONS OF DEATHS FROM CANCER PER 10,000 MALES AND FEMALES LIVING AT THREE AGE-PERIODS.
 40 to 50.50 to 60.60 to 70.
Year.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
18815.589.8011.1022.5722.8643.78
18989.0716.5921.6426.0955.2147.44

The actual number of deaths of persons of either sex and all ages registered in New Zealand during the last ten years was:—

 MalesFemales.Totals.
1889144116260
1890156139295
1891154141295
1892173134307
1893188144332
1894240168408
1895208175383
1896205184389
1897210185395
1898263208471
          Totals1,9411,5943,535

MORTALITY FROM DEVELOPMENTAL DISEASES

The total of deaths from developmental diseases was 648, or 8.80 per 10,000 persons living. The mortality from premature birth comprised 251 deaths, and that from atelectasis, cyanosis, and other congenital defects 54 deaths. The proportion of deaths from premature birth varies from 9 to 12 out of every 1,000 births, and that from congenital defects from 2 to 4 per 1,000 births. Particulars for five years exhibit the annual rates:—

NUMBER AND PROPORTIONS PER 1,000 BIRTHS.
Year.Deaths from
No.
Premature Birth.
Proportion
per 1,000.
Deaths from
No.
Congenital Defects.
Proportion
per 1,000.
189421411.55743.99
18951839.87784.21
189623012.36462.47
189721111.26522.78
189825113.24542.85

Stating the result in another way, there was one death from premature birth to every 76 births in 1898, and one death from congenital defect to every 351 births. In England the proportion of deaths from premature birth to every 1,000 births was as high as 18.98 in the year 1895.

OLD AGE

Deaths from old age in 1898 numbered 343, against 275 in 1897.

The remarks of Mr. James Pullar, F.F.A., in a paper read before the Insurance Institute of Victoria on the 9th September, 1896, are important, but disquieting to persons who have thought that longer life may be expected in these days than formerly by persons who have passed middle age. The concluding lines refer to one possible effect of legislation in the direction of old-age pensions. He says:—

I do not think I can do better than to submit some of the points brought forward by Sir J. C. Browne in an address on “Old Age” delivered at the opening of the Yorkshire Medical Department a few years ago.

The increased vitality of the nation, as evidenced by comparative ratios of mortality, when investigated, is shown to be mainly amongst infants, children, and young persons. After age forty-five the decline was insignificant, and from sixty-five to seventy-five there had actually been an increase in the death-rate. Premature old age is held to be accountable for this.

“Certain groups of diseases which must be mainly traced to the excessive wear and tear of modern life were the cause. While increasing mortality from degenerative diseases diminished the prospect of enjoying a ripe old age, the increasing prevalence of minor degenerative changes enhanced the probability that men and women would be plunged into a premature old age, and become decrepit, while still in what used to be considered the prime of life.

“Men and women were growing old before their time. Old age was encroaching on the strength of manhood, and the infirmities associated with it were stealthily taking possession of the system some years earlier than they were wont to do in former generations. Deaths due simply to old age were now reported between forty-five and fifty-five years of age, and in large numbers between fifty-five and sixty; and there had been a reduction in the age at which atrophy and debility killed those who had passed middle life. Senile insanity, due to atrophy of the brain, or exaggerated dotage, was far more common than it ever was, and, on the average, declared itself at an earlier age than formerly.”

The preceding quotations are a heavy indictment against the restless spirit of the age; and, while it is held to be quite beyond the power of medical science to promote a typical old age on a large scale, we can all give our support to movements which have for their basis the betterment of the race. It has been strongly maintained—and with good warrant, I believe—that one of the most important factors in averting madness and in prolonging life was the great life-insurance movement of the present century. We must, however, admit that this has not been so successfully brought into touch with the poorer classes of the community in this colony as in Britain; and the whole tendency of the old age pension movement would undoubtedly be towards an increase of that tranquillity of mind which a guarantee of a provision in old age would be certain to induce.

MORTALITY FROM LOCAL DISEASES

Deaths by diseases of the nervous system were 780, or 10.77 out of every 100 deaths from all causes, and 10.59 out of every 10,000 persons living. Of the 780 deaths, 218 were credited to apoplexy, 117 to convulsions, and 99 to inflammation of the brain and its membranes. Paralysis, including hemiplegia, paralysis of the insane, and paraplegia, caused 175 deaths, and locomotor ataxia 11 deaths. Paraplegia, with diseases of the spinal cord, caused 36. Deaths from nervous diseases (excluding convulsions of children) numbered 663, or 9.00 per 10,000 persons living.

Diseases of the circulatory system resulted in 776 deaths, being 10.71 out of every 100 from all causes, and 10.54 per 10,000 persons living. Of the total number in this order, endocarditis and valvular disease of the heart contributed 521 deaths. From angina pectoris there were 24 deaths, from syncope 126, from aneurism, 17; and from other forms of heart disease (hypertrophy, fatty degeneration, and pericarditis) 58.

Diseases of the respiratory system show 836 deaths, of which 623 were attributable to bronchitis and pneumonia. Taken together, these two complaints were the cause of more deaths than was phthisis, and adding 41 from pleurisy, 40 from croup, 15 from laryngitis, and 117 from other respiratory diseases, the mortality in the order is found to be 11.54 per cent. of the total deaths, and 11.36 per 10,000 of the population.

Deaths from diseases of the digestive system also formed a large proportion of the whole (8.22 per cent.), the number being 595. Enteritis was most fatal, showing 158 deaths, and gastritis 79, liver diseases coining next with 86 deaths.

Of 274 deaths from diseases of the urinary system in 1898, the deaths from Bright's disease of the kidneys (albuminuria) numbered 151.

VIOLENT DEATHS

Deaths by violence form a large item in the total mortality. In 1898 the proportion per 10,000 of persons living was 7.43, the total number of deaths having been 547.

Of 457 males who died violent deaths, 66 were suicides. The deaths of females by violence were far fewer than those of males, amounting to 90, and out of these only 10 committed suicide. The table on page 122 gives the full list of deaths from external or violent causes for the year 1898.

Accidental deaths numbered 463, males 385 and females 78. Of the total male deaths, 181 resulted from fractures or contusions, and 107 from drowning. Of the female deaths, 12 were due to drowning.

The following figures, taken from the Victorian Year book of 1894, show the death-rate from violence in the Australasian Colonies and the United Kingdom, from which it would appear that the rate in New Zealand was then higher than in the Home-country, South Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania, but lower than in New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia:—

Colonies or Countries.Proportion of Deaths by Violence
per 100,000 living.
Queensland163.8
Western Australia161.7
New South Wales111.7
New Zealand95.7
Victoria94.6
United Kingdom77.5
Tasmania74.5
South Australia74.2

NUMBER OF MEDICAL MEN

At the time of the census, April, 1896, there were in the colony 411 medical men stated to be in practice, against 362 returned in 1891. (The number of medical practitioners registered in the colony is 689, including 64 whose addresses are not known and 150 who have left New Zealand.) Medical students numbered 48. There were 82 persons who are grouped in the detailed tables of the census as irregular medical practitioners, including, among others, 5 Chinese doctors, 31 herbalists and 11 assistants, and 11 medical galvanists.

HOSPITALS, LUNATIC ASYLUMS, BENEVOLENT ASYLUMS, AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS

Hospitals

Prior to the abolition of provinces the hospitals of the colony were supported mainly out of provincial revenues. After that event the expenditure for hospitals was for the most part charged against the revenue of counties and municipal corporations, until October, 1885, when “The Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1885,” came into force.

The portion of the colony included within the three principal islands—the North, Middle, and Stewart Islands—was by the above Act divided into twenty-eight hospital districts, each consisting of one or more counties with the interior boroughs, to be presided over by elective Boards, designated “Hospital and Charitable Aid Boards.”

The revenues of these Boards accrue from the following sources:—

  1. Rents and profits of land and endowments vested in the Board, or set apart for the benefit of particular institutions;

  2. Voluntary contributions;

  3. Grants from contributory local authorities; and

  4. Subsidies from the Consolidated Fund (these being at the rate of 10s. for every £1 of bequests, but in no case exceeding £500 in respect of any one bequest; £1 4s. for every £1 of voluntary contributions; and £1 for every £1 received from any local authority).

The contributory local authorities (being the County and Borough Councils, and Boards of road and town districts where the Counties Act is not in force) are empowered by the Act to raise by special rates the amounts assessed by the Hospital District Boards as their proportionate contributions to the Hospital and Charitable-aid Fund.

The District Boards undertake the general management and control of those hospitals that are not incorporated in terms of the Act, and are required to contribute to the support of the incorporated hospitals. To be incorporated a hospital must have as many as 100 subscribers, contributing not less than £100 annually by amounts of not less than 5s., and must have been declared by the Governor in Council, after receipt by him of a duly signed petition, to be a body politic and corporate, under the government of trustees.

There are 42 hospitals in the colony, of which 22 are incorporated institutions, while 20 are directly managed and controlled by District Boards. In 1898 these hospitals afforded accommodation for 1,122 male and 522 female patients, a total of 1,644. The number of cubic feet of space included within the walls of all the sleeping-wards was 2,319,404, which gave an average of 1,410 cubic feet to each bed. 7,071 males and 3,499 females were admitted as patients during the year 1898, and 679 male and 212 female patients were inmates at the end of the year. The total number of indoor patients during the year was 11,558—viz., 7,788 males and 3,770 females.

Outdoor relief was also given to a very large number of persons; but, as in some of the hospitals no records are kept of the outdoor patients, it is impossible to state the number of distinct persons who received such relief.

The total revenues of the various hospitals as at five different annual periods were:—

 1886.1888–89.1891–92.1894–95.1897–98.
 £££££
Voluntary contributions and bequests7,3966,5738,2297,91511,521
Payments by patients5,3407,4909,31810,22812,728
From Government31,47234,56430,65936,37338,687
From Hospital Boards and local authorities26,05926,34423,56027,75831,524
Rents and other sources5,3043,6584,1285,5225,429
          Totals£75,571£78,629£75,894£87,796£99,889

Benevolent Asylums and Charitable Institutions

The various benevolent asylums and charitable institutions are placed on a similar footing to the hospitals. Most of the Boards of hospital districts are also Charitable-aid Boards; but, for the purpose of distributing charitable aid only, some of the hospital districts have been united into larger districts, so that, although there are thirty Boards for hospital purposes, there are only twenty-three for charitable-aid purposes.

Returns were received from sixteen benevolent asylums (not including orphanages), established for the support of indigent persons. The number of inmates in these institutions at the end of 1898 was 1,180, of whom 713 were males and 467 females. Outdoor relief was given by four of these institutions to 2,960 persons, including 1,373 children.

Auckland Sailors' Home

There is a Sailors' Home at Auckland for the use of seafaring men resident in or visiting the town. The late Edmund Costley having left a large sum for charitable purposes, it was resolved to employ the bequest in building and endowing an institution where sailors might be received without distinction of race or religious belief, and board, lodging, and refreshments provided for them, together with such instruction and amusements as might tend to promote their social comfort and general welfare.

The Home, built in 1887, has room for 35 inmates, who are charged 15s. a week for board and lodging. It is managed by a council of eight members elected by the subscribers to the institution, with the Primate of New Zealand (the Right Rev. W. G. Cowie), who first originated the scheme, as Life President.

Orphan Asylums

There were in 1898 four orphan asylums in the colony, one maintained by a District Hospital Board, one by the Church of England authorities, and two by clergy of the Roman Catholic Church; three of them receiving, at the charge of the State, orphan, destitute, and other children committed to them by a Stipendiary Magistrate.

Exclusive of the children so committed, 20 male and 24 female orphans were received during the year 1898, and 58 male and 87 female orphans remained as inmates at the end of the year.

Orphanages receiving committed children are, for that purpose, constituted “industrial schools.”

Lunatic Asylums

There are seven public lunatic asylums in the colony, maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private asylum, licensed by the Governor for the reception of lunatics.

The amount of sleeping-accommodation provided in each of the public asylums is shown in tabular form, giving separately the number and cubic contents of the sleeping-rooms intended for one person only, and of the dormitories occupied by several inmates conjointly, together with the number of patients actually in the asylums on the 31st December, 1898:—

Sleeping-rooms for One Person only.Dormitories for more than One Person.
Number.Aggregate Number of Cubic Feet.Inmates (Patients) on 31st December, 1898.Number.Aggregate Number of Cubic Feet.Inmates (Patients) on 31st December 1898.
Auckland9484,4999422218,015340
Wellington6760,6636716100,173157
Porirua108,380109220,910328
Nelson3228,342321535,484104
Hokitika2114,22421974,016101
Christchurch8069,6518034220,296442
Seacliff139105,88613939216,792488
        Totals443371,6454431441,085,6861,960

At Ashburn Hall, Waikari, there are 69 rooms, each for one person only, with an aggregate cubic content of 101,400 ft. The number of inmates on the 31st December, 1898, was 41, and two patients were out on trial.

At the end of 1898, 1,472 male and 1,008 female patients were under the care of the asylum officers of the colony. Of these, 1,370 males and 931 females were regarded as incurable, 13 males and 23 females were out on trial, and 89 males and 54 females were supposed to be curable. 232 male and 180 female patients were discharged during the year.

The following shows the proportion of insane—or, rather, of inmates of lunatic asylums and those out on trial—to the population (exclusive in each case of Maoris) at the end of the years stated:—

1884, 1 insane person to every 393 of population.
1886, 1 insane person to every 370 of population.
1888, 1 insane person to every 365 of population.
1890, 1 insane person to every 348 of population.
1892, 1 insane person to every 339 of population.
1894, 1 insane person to every 316 of population.
1896, 1 insane person to every 308 of population.
1898, 1 insane person to every 300 of population.

It must not be overlooked that the proportions are increased by the admission into the asylums of inebriates, idiots, and others, who should not properly be there.

The Inspector of Hospitals and Asylums, in his report for the year 1897, specifies the causes of insanity in 349 cases (males, 201; females, 148) out of a total of 544 (300 males and 244 females) admitted during that year. In 64 of these (29 males, 35 females) the cause is given as “congenital or hereditary,” and in 49 (males, 39; females, 10) as “drink.” The proportion of cases due to drink to the total number of specified causes was therefore 14.04 per cent. against a similar proportion of 13.78 in the year 1896.

DEAF AND DUMB

There were 202 persons—111 males and 91 females—returned at the census of 1896 as deaf and dumb, or dumb only: of these 47 were inmates of the Sumner Institution, leaving 155 deaf-mutes who were living at home or in some other private residence. The total shows a proportion of 2.86 persons per 10,000 living, against 2.65 ascertained in 1891. The proportions of the deaf and dumb taken according to the sexes did not differ much. The figures are given for six census years.

DEAF AND DUMB (IN SEXES).—PROPORTIONS PER 10,000 OF POPULATION.
 Males.Females.
Census 18742.051.71
Census 18782.252.18
Census 18812.232.45
Census 18862.372.22
Census 18912.802.49
Census 18962.992.71

The numbers at the census of 1896 for quinquennial age-periods are:—

 M.F.
All ages11191
Under 5 years12
  5 years to 10 years2510
10 years to 15 years2323
15 years to 20 years1615
20 years to 25 years139
25 years to 30 years810
30 years to 35 years89
35 years to 40 years44
40 years to 45 years51
45 years to 50 years32
50 years to 55 years34
55 years to 60 years2..
60 years to 65 years....
65 years to 70 years....
70 years to 75 years..1
75 years to 80 years....
80 years and upwards....
Unspecified..1

The highest numbers are shown at the ages 5 to 10 and 10 to 15.

The occupations of the deaf and dumb were returned in 1896 as under:—

OCCUPATIONS OF THE DEAF AND DUMB.
 Persons.Males under 20.Males over 20Females under 20.Females over 20.
Domestic servant2..1..1
Hairdresser1..1....
Saddler2..2....
Tailor413....
Dressmaker3......3
Bootmaker11......
Brewer's assistant1..1....
Sawmiller1..1....
Carpenter, joiner4..4....
Slater1..1....
Labourer, undefined413....
Farmer2..2....
Relative assisting farmer11110....
Labourer (farm)3..3....
Threshing-machine assistant2..2....
Gold-miner (alluvial)2..2....
Independent means3..2..1
No occupation3..1..2
Domestic duties37....1027
Government. scholar43..1..
Receiving tuition at home21..1..
Dependent relative4831..17..
Inmate of lunatic asylum4......4
Inmate of deaf and dumb in institution4726..21..
Occupation not stated8..5..3
 20265465041

In 1891 deaf-mutes were found to exist in the Australasian Colonies in the following proportions, with which is given the proportion for New Zealand in 1896:—

DEAF-MUTESIM IN AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES, 1891.
South Australiahad 1 deaf-mute to every 1,369 persons.
Queenslandhad 1 deaf-mute to every 2,557 persons.
Tasmaniahad 1 deaf-mute to every 2,716 persons.
New South Waleshad 1 deaf-mute to every 2,867 persons.
Victoriahad 1 deaf-mute to every 3,133 persons.
Western Australiahad 1 deaf-mute to every 4,526 persons.
New Zealand (1896)had 1 deaf-mute to every 3,482 persons.

BLIND

In 1896 there were 211 males and 133 females, making a total of 344 persons returned as blind, including 43 who were given in the schedules as “nearly” or “partly” blind. Of the above total number, 37 were inmates of the Jubilee Institute for the Blind at Auckland. It would thus appear that only one out of every nine persons in the colony who suffered from blindness had been received into the institution. The number of blind persons in 1891 was 274. The proportions in every 10,000 of population show a continuous rise at successive censuses, and that there is more blindness amongst males than females.

PROPORTIONS OF BLIND TO EVERY 10,000 PEOPLE.
 Persons.Males.Females.
18742.842.452.18
18782.562.422.73
18812.822.932.68
18863.223.652.70
18914.374.913.74
18964.905.694.01

The proportion of the blind per 10,000 persons living is: for England, about 8.79; for Ireland, 11.30; for Scotland, 6.95; for Germany, 7.93; for France, 8.37; and for Italy, 7.63. For the Australian Colonies the figures are: Victoria, 8.72; New South Wales, 6.59; Australian Continent, 7.38.

The number of the blind in quinquennial periods of age is stated for each sex. Of 211 males, 73 were under and 138 upwards of 50 years old. Of 133 females, 62 were under 50, and 71 over that age.

NUMBERS OF THE BLIND AT AGE-PERIODS.
 Persons.M.F.
All ages344211133
Under 5 years844
  5 years to 10 years963
10 years to 15 years1486
15 years to 20 years261313
20 years to 25 years1284
25 years to 30 years1055
30 years to 35 years1486
35 years to 40 years1495
40 years to 45 years734
45 years to 50 years21912
50 years to 55 years28226
55 years to 60 years402812
60 years to 65 years392514
65 years to 70 years322111
70 years to 75 years21156
75 years to 80 years261412
80 and upwards231310

Of the total number of the blind, 344 persons, there were 55 in regard to whom no occupation was stated; 56 (females) were returned as engaged in domestic duties, 68 persons as inmates of hospital, asylum, or blind institute, 21 as dependent relatives, 22 as of no occupation, 19 as farming, 12 of independent means, and the rest (91) of various occupations in small numbers each. A complete statement is added, in regard to which it must be remarked that many of the occupations are evidently the past occupations of persons whom blindness has prevented from continuing to work at their usual calling.

OCCUPATIONS (PAST OR PRESENT) OF THE BLIND.
  M.F.
Persons.Under 20.Over 20.Under 20.Over 20.
Barrister (not in practice)1..1....
Teacher of the blind2..2....
School - teacher (retired1..1....
Teacher of music2..2....
Boarding-house keeper2..2....
Assistant, hotel1..1....
Capitalist1..1....
Landowner1..1....
Stationer's traveller1..1....
Dairyman2..2....
Grain merchant1..1....
Fruiterer1..1....
Grocer1..1.... 
Ironmonger2..2....
Shopkeeper, storekeeper4..3..1
Hawker1..1....
Clerk1..1....
Mariner1..1....
Lumper2..2....
Message-boy11......
Basket maker4..4....
Piano-tuner2..2....
Saddler1..1....
Tanner1..1....
Bootmaker, shoemaker  2....
Milliner, dressmaker1......1
Mat maker1..1....
Baker2..2....
Cordial maker1..1....
Soap-maker1..1....
Road contractor1..1....
Sawyer1..1....
Carpenter3..3....
Plasterer's labourer1..1.... 
Labourer (undefined)8..8.... 
Gardener4..4.... 
Farmer19..18..1
Relative assisting farmer211.... 
Farm labourer3..3.... 
Dairy-farmer1..1.... 
Sheep-farmer1..1.... 
Fisherman1..1.... 
Bushman1..1.... 
Miner, quartz1..1.... 
Miner, alluvial1..1.... 
Miner, undefined1..1.... 
Pensioner2..2.... 
Annuitant1..1.... 
Independent means12..9..3
Settler1..1....
No occupation22..13..9
Domestic duties56....155
Government scholar32..1..
Private school2....11
Receiving tuition at home22......
Dependent relatives2115..6..
Inmate of hospital11..7..4
Inmate of benevolent asylum16..13..3
Inmate of lunatic asylum4..3..1
Inmate of blind institute3791495
In receipt of charitable aid5..2..3
Occupation not stated55127819
 3443118026107

Blindness in the Australasian Colonies existed in 1891 in the following proportions, contrasted with which are the 1896 figures for New Zealand:—

BLINDNESS IN AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES, 1891.
Tasmaniahad 1 blind person to every 889 persons.
Western Australiahad 1 blind person to every 922 persons.
Victoriahad 1 blind person to every 1,146 persons.
South Australiahad 1 blind person to every 1,297 persons.
New South Waleshad 1 blind person to every 1,517 persons.
Queenslandhad 1 blind person to every 1,978 persons.
New Zealand (1896)had 1 blind person to every 2,045 persons.

Chapter 29. SECTION III.—THE MAORIS: PROBABLE ORIGIN, AND PRESENT NUMBERS

RESULT OF RESEARCHES AS TO ORIGIN.

THE following notes on this subject are supplied by Mr. S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S.:—

In extension of the article under the head of “Maoris,” given on page 4, ante, it may be stated that progress in the sciences of ethnology and philology has made some strides since those pages were first penned. Although an origin for the Maoris cannot be stated with certainty at present, it will serve a useful turn if some indication is given of the direction in which these researches, undertaken by several people, are tending. It is impossible in the brief space of a page or two to give the evidence on which the following is based; and, moreover, there are conflicts of detail which require further discussion, but the main outlines of the history of the Polynesians—of which race the Maori forms the most important section—can be given as a tentative theory.

It is obvious that the further back in point of time these researches are carried the more uncertain become the conclusions. But there is a point in the history of the race where their carefully treasured traditions become history. Comparison of the traditions preserved by various branches of the race all point to the West as their origin; and when we take up the direction thus indicated, and follow it out by the light shed on the subject by ethnology and philology, it will take us very far from the present home of the race.

It appears, then, from these indications, that the race once inhabited a mainland, which is believed to be India—inland India, the plains and foot-hills of the Himalaya, with their borders touching the sea on the Persian Gulf. Ages must have passed whilst the people dwelt in those parts; they became navigators, crossed the neighbouring seas, acquired many customs from some race of a Semitic origin, together with some words of their language. This neighbouring race was probably dwelling in Arabia and the shores of the Persian Gulf. But a time came when the Aryan race began to make its appearance in India, a race of superior mental calibre, and probably more numerous. Before this intruding race the ancient Polynesian gradually retreated; but not at once. There was a period when much intercourse took place between the two races, when they mutually borrowed words and customs, and probably intermarried. How long this intercourse lasted there is no means at present of saying; but, in the course of centuries, probably, the intrusive race gradually forced the Polynesians southwards and seaward, where they acquired increased powers of navigation and the knowledge of surrounding lands. Voyages were made far East, to Indonesia, where the Polynesians found in occupation a negrito race, which is connected with, if not the same as the Papuan.

Pressure from behind, as the Aryans increased in numbers, added to the knowledge of the east acquired by the Polynesians, now induced that people to remove in large numbers to Indonesia, where their superior physique and intelligence would soon render them the masters of the former inhabitants. The race as a whole, however, did not migrate, for there are strong reasons for thinking that some of the hill tribes of India represent those who remained. Along the shores of the many-isled Indonesia the people formed their homes; the very nature of this islet-dotted sea exciting their powers as navigators and rovers. It cannot yet be said how long the race remained in that part of the world, but it must have been counted by centuries. There is strong reason for thinking that their voyages extended far into the Pacific, and to the north. Tradition begins now to take its part in the history of the race, and it is probable that the original names of Atea, Hawaiki-te-varinga, Vavau, Herangi, and many others must be looked for in these regions. But here comes in a difficulty in tracing these early names, due to the fact of the subsequent irruption of other races, who brought their own names with them, and applied them to those places already named by the Polynesians, which thus became lost, except where preserved in the traditions of the emigrants.

‘About the first and second centuries of the Christian era the Polynesians came into touch with another ethnic wave—the Malay race, from the west and north-west. Again were the same scenes enacted as in distant India. At first wars, then periods of peace, when an interchange of customs and language took place. After a time of considerable duration, the Polynesians again moved on, nearly always to the east. The pressure of the Malay race forced them onward. Expert navigators and daring sailors as they were, the unknown was to them an attraction rather than a deterrent. There is little doubt that their patriarchal form of government had existed from the most ancient times, and that they were organized in tribes, owing allegiance to their own Arikis or supreme chiefs. Thus some tribes, and those that felt the outward pressure most, started away from Indonesia independently of the others, carrying with them their tribal gods and tribal customs. It is probable that at this time, some one tribe or more, varying the route that they had hitherto taken, retraced their steps, and finally reached Madagascar, where their descendants, the Hovas, are still found. But this was not the general direction of the movement. The larger number proceeded to the Hitinga or sunrise. This was the first migration into the Pacific. Tracing them by their own histories, and by such lights as modern science throws on the darkness of the past, it appears probable that these early voyagers, coasting along Northern New Guinea, the Solomon, the New Hebrides, and Fiji Islands—islands already occupied by the Papuan and Melanesian races—finally reached Samoa, or Hawaiki, as all that group is still called by the eastern Polynesians, but under the form Hawaiki-raro, or Leeward Hawaiki, to distinguish it from Hawaiki-runga, or Windward Hawaiki, the Tahitian and neighbouring group. This first migration, no doubt, extended its voyages very far. The Menehune people of Tahiti, and of Hawaii, the first inhabitants of New Zealand (the same people as the Moriori of the Chatham Islands) and the first inhabitants of Marquesas perhaps formed part of it.

But the pressure of the Malay races became more and more pronounced as they increased in numbers, and shouldered those of the Polynesian race remaining in Indonesia. The traditions refer to this as a time of trouble and unrest. Many of the Polynesians left for new fields; others who remained were eventually, and to a considerable extent, forced to the mountains, where, it is believed, their remnant may be seen to this day in several of the islands of Indonesia. Those who came east followed the footsteps of their countrymen who had preceded them, until they reached the Fiji group. This later migration appears to have been composed of a more warlike and more capable people than the first—centuries of contact with the Malays had influenced them—for we can trace them all through their migrations as the conquerors, whether pitted against their own race or the Melanesian. In Fiji, they occupied the Lau, or eastern group, but held frequent communication with the other islands, to all of which they gave names, differing from those known to the Fijians of today. It is obvious they mixed in blood with the original Melanesians, and thus acquired that strain that may be recognised in some branches of the Polynesians to-day. Doubtless, the original Fijians, occupying as they did the most easterly outpost of Melanesia, were the most adventurous of that race, and the best navigators. It is probable for this reason, and for others now obscure, that the Polynesian, with his high idea of caste, and racial dislike of black people, condescended to mix with the Fijians, which there is reason for thinking he did not do, or only to a limited extent with other Melanesians, on the passage south past the Solomons, New Hebrides, &c.

During the occupation of Fiji, voyages were not infrequent to the neighbouring islands of Samoa and Tonga. This is apparent from both Samoan and Tongan histories. Here it is necessary to remark that a close study of the above traditions leads to the conclusion that when the Fijians are mentioned therein, it is the Polynesian immigrants that formed the later migration into the Pacific that are referred to, not the native Fijians.

A time, however, came in the history of the race when great troubles arose in Fiji; there was much fighting and general unrest—much voyaging to and fro to the neighbouring groups and to more distant ones. Eventually a combination of forces took place between the Fijian Polynesians and the Tongans of Vavau and Haapai, and a descent was made on Samoa. This group was practically conquered, and the Samoans driven to the mountains, whilst the invaders occupied the coasts. This occupation of Samoa covered some generations; and during this time—which was, roughly, about from the tenth to the twelfth century—these capable, warlike. Fiji-Polynesians, warriors and sailors, spread far and wide over the Pacific. These are the people who formed the southern and later migration to the Hawaiian Islands referred to by Fornander, and who, on their arrival in that group, soon acquired the leading position, which they have held down to the present day. The same thing occurred in other groups. They occupied Tahiti and the neighbouring islands, the Paumotu group, the Marquesas, Rarotonga, and, after some time, turned their faces south-westward and settled in New Zealand, where they arrived in a fleet of canoes in about the year 1350. These are the people who are generally termed Maoris, and who, on their arrival and after settling down in the land, by their masterful ways, greater intelligence, force of character, and probably superior physique, eventually became the conquerors of the people belonging to the prior migration into the Pacific, whom they found in occupation of these Islands.

These people were daring voyagers, in comparison with whom the most noted European navigators of the middle ages were mere coasters. The Polynesian chronicles relate voyages extending from Fiji to Easter Island, from New Zealand to the Hawaii group, and even to the antarctic regions. They were never equalled as voyagers until the sixteenth century, which saw such an extension of nautical enterprise, originating in Europe.

PRESENT NUMBERS OF THE MAORIS

The census of the Maori population—that is, full-blooded Maoris, with all half-castes living as members of a Native tribe—was taken under the supervision of the officers of the Justice Department in the latter part of February, 1896. The enumeration of the Natives cannot be effected for one particular night, as is done with Europeans, and the instruction given to Enumerators was that the work should be done in as short a period of time as possible, beginning in the third week of February, and leaving the remainder of that month, and the month of March, for the work of examining, correcting, and completing the returns.

The names of the Natives were given in the Sub-Enumerators' books, besides information as to sex, age, principal tribe, sub-tribe, or hapu to which belonging, and particulars as to extent of cultivations owned individually or communally, with live stock.

Enumerators for the Maori census were directed to report on the general state of health of the Natives, and any other matters of interest relating to them.

The Enumerators for the northernmost counties reported fairly good health among the Natives, but that a habit of camping in low swampy places during the gum-digging season was injurious. Digging for kauri-gum is their principal occupation throughout the country north of Auckland.

In the country over which the Maori “King,” Mahutu, has influence, Sub-Enumerators experienced great difficulties, being told that the “King” had already taken a census, and no other was required. The Maoris also seemed to connect the census with taxation, and objected to it on those grounds.

The Sub-Enumerators for Waikato, Kawhia, and Thames Counties reported very little sickness. In Counties Tauranga, Whakatane, Rotorua, and Taupo (East and West) no unusual sickness was found.

The Natives round Tauranga are stated to be more industrious than formerly, and taking to agricultural pursuits.

In the Counties of Cook and Waiapu the Maoris were stated to be in very good health, and, as a rule, comfortably off; most of the young and middle-aged were working at bush-falling, shearing, &c., and making good wages.

For Counties Wairoa and Hawke's Bay the accounts were not so good. In parts there had been fever of a typhoid character. Paucity of children and old people was observed by several Sub-Enumerators.

Around New Plymouth there had been no sickness. The same was reported for Hutt County.

In the Middle Island, where the Native population is only a little over two thousand people, the reports speak of satisfactory health, and, for parts in respect of which comment is made, of a sufficiently prosperous condition.

Although the above leads to the conclusion that the Maoris were fairly thriving at the time of the census, there is reference in some of the reports to epidemics sweeping away numbers of the people during the five years 1891–96; and the actual results of the census indicate either (1) a decrease of population, or (2) that at the enumeration of 1891 some Natives must have been counted more than once, and where names had not been given, the number returned was greater than the reality. The comparison of the figures is as under:—

MAORIS (INCLUDING HALF-CASTES LIVING AS MEMBERS OF MAORI TRIBES).
 Persons.Males.Females.
April, 189141,99322,86119,132
April, 189639,85421,67318,181
          Apparent decrease in five years2,1391,188951

The numbers for the different counties cannot be compared for the two census years to much purpose, because of the movements of the Maoris during the quinquennium, but the Enumerator for Waikato distrusts the degree of decrease shown for his whole large district, though of the belief that there has been a decrease to a lesser extent. He considers that more Maoris are working for Europeans than formerly, and these are liable to be missed. Probably at next census the schedule left at the dwellings of Europeans should have a slip attached on which might be taken particulars relating to Maoris working on their farms, and not living in the kainga Maori.

In February, 1896, the numbers of Maoris on the principal islands of New Zealand was as shown on the next page:—

 Maoris.Half-castes living as Members of Maori Tribes (included in the preceding Numbers).
Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.
North Island37,10220,34316,7592,4771,3951,082
Middle Island2,2071,1661,041895485410
Stewart Island11759581044955
Chatham Islands—
      Maoris1799485271512
      Morioris20119......
Maori wives living with European husbands229..229......
          Total39,85421,67318,1813,5031,9441,559

Besides the half-castes included in the above table, there were 2,259 half-castes (males, 1,123; females, 1,136) living with and enumerated as Europeans at the time of the census.

In these numbers will be noticed 20 of the old aboriginals, termed Morioris, at the Chatham Islands, and 229 Maori wives of European husbands. These Native wives of Europeans numbered 251 at the census of 1891, and 40 Morioris were then enumerated.

HALF-CASTES

The half-caste population consists of those who live as members of Maori tribes, and others living with and counted as Europeans in the census. Adding the numbers of the two kinds gives the following figures for three censuses:—

Census.Half-castes living
as Members of
Maori Tribes.
Persons.
Half-castes
living as Europeans.
Persons.
Total Half-caste
Population.
Persons.
18812,2541,9584,212
18912,6812,1844,865
18963,5032,2595,762

These numbers indicate an increasing population of half-castes, notwithstanding the apparent decrease of the Maori population, before alluded to as probably in part correct.

PROPORTIONS OF DIFFERENT AGE-GROUPS

It has been stated that the decrease shown by the census of 1896 in the Maori population can scarcely be considered a certainty to the full degree exhibited. It remains to see if consideration of the proportions of the people under and over fifteen years tends to confirm the conclusion. The proportions are accordingly given for six successive census years:—

PROPORTIONS PER 100 PERSONS LIVING—MAORIS.
 Males.Females.
Under 15 Years.Over 15 Years.Under 15 Years.Over 15 Years.
189635.2864.7236.8263.18
189133.2266.7835.2264.78
188631.6468.3633.5666.44
188133.6566.3534.6465.36
187832.0068.0031.6368.37
187435.1664.8436.3963.61

The figures here, taken over the full range of years, would seem to indicate almost unchanged conditions. The proportions per cent. under 15 years of the young people of either sex are somewhat different from those found in the European population—viz.: Males under 15, 34.81; over 15, 65.19; and females under 15, 38.01; and over 15 years, 61.99. But there is nothing to indicate decrease of numbers.

Dividing the whole Maori population into ten age-periods, the proportions per 100 living of each sex at these ages are next compared with those of the European population. The proportions for persons under 5 years for the two races are very nearly the same.

Ages.New Zealand European Population, 1896.Maori Population, 1896.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
Under 5 years11.4512.4210.8811.86
  5 and under 10 years11.7512.8014.4315.02
10 and under 15 years11.6112.799.739.59
15 and under 20 years10.8812.1710.2911.90
20 and under 30 years17.4919.1317.9418.80
30 and under 40 years12.4711.9213.2212.71
40 and under 50 years9.938.3210.289.19
50 and under 60 years8.216.077.506.30
60 and under 70 years4.863.253.823.08
70 and upwards1.351.131.911.55
 100.00100.00100.00100.00

DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAORI POPULATION

The localization of the Maoris is shown by the numbers found to be living in the several counties, as under:—

Counties.Persons.
Mongonui1,616
Whangaroa656
Hokianga1,839
Bay of Islands2,509
Hobson1,011
Whangarei606
Otamatea264
Rodney193
Waitemata260
Eden177
Great Barrier Island60
Waiheke Island58
Manukau676
Coromandel638
Thames1,010
Ohinemuri483
Piako291
Waikato324
Waipa294
Raglan1,269
Kawhia1,444
West Taupo961
East Taupo519
Rotorua1,047
Tauranga1,099
Whakatane3,524
Waiapu2,393
Cook1,402
Clifton368
Taranaki1,069
Stratford226
Hawera816
Patea280
Waitotara293
Wanganui1,133
Rangitikei411
Oroua307
Manawatu149
Horowhenua886
Wairoa1,766
Hawke's Bay1,326
Waipawa325
Patangata170
Pahiatua30
Wairarapa North319
Wairarapa South349
Hutt256
Sounds139
Marlborough167
Kaikoura77
Collingwood32
Waimea98
Buller26
Westland82
Ashley165
Selwyn62
Akaroa238
Levels141
Waimate74
Waitaki180
Waikouaiti168
Peninsula71
Taieri61
Clutha24
Bruce20
Southland121
Wallace261
Stewart Island117
Chatham Islands199

229 Maori wives of European husbands have not been included in these figures.

Chapter 30. SECTION IV.—REPRESENTATION, AND THE GENERAL ELECTION OF 1896

REPRESENTATION

ON the basis of the results of the census of 1896 the colony is divided in accordance with the Representation Act Amendment Acts, 1887 and 1889, into sixty-two districts for purposes of European representation—fifty-eight rural districts having one member each, and four city electorates three members each. The Act of 1889 directed that in computing for electoral purposes the population of the colony 28 per cent. should be added to the country population—i.e., all persons living outside towns of 2,000 inhabitants and over. The total population of the colony (other than Maoris), with the addition aforesaid, having been ascertained, was then divided by the number of members (70), and the quotient thus obtained formed the quota. The four city electoral districts (which have three members each) were so defined in extent that the population should be three times the quota. Inasmuch as it would be impossible to divide the country into a given number of districts all having exactly the precise quota of population, the law permits the Commissioners to make an allowance of 750 persons by way of addition to or deduction from the population of rural districts, and of 100 in case of city electorates; and due consideration is given to community of interest, facilities of communication, and topographical features, as far as possible, in forming the districts.

“The Representation Act Amendment Act, 1896,” provides for two permanent Commissions, called the “North” and “Middle” Island Representation Commissions. These sit together as a joint Commission for the purpose of fixing the number of districts for the North and Middle Islands respectively, but afterwards act separately and independently of one another, the duties and functions of each being confined to their respective island.

The North Island with its adjacent islands includes 30 electoral districts, having 34 members; the Middle and Stewart Islands having 32 districts and 36 members. In 1893 the North Island returned 31 and the Middle Island 39 members. But movement of population has resulted in the addition of three members to the North, and a corresponding reduction in the Middle Island.

These districts are, as above stated, for purposes of European representation. But the colony is again divided into four districts for purposes of Maori representation, under the electoral law, each district having one Native member elected by the Maoris; so that the House of Representatives consists of 74 members altogether—70 Europeans and 4 Maoris.

THE ELECTORAL ACTS

By the principal Act, which came into force in 1893, the great step was taken of admitting women to the franchise. The Amendment Act of 1896 abolished the non-residential or property qualification, with a saving clause in favour of then-existing registrations in respect of such qualification.

[Electors are enrolled on sending to the Registrar a claim and declaration according to a prescribed form. There are no fixed periods for making up fresh electoral rolls, but the rolls are revised and printed before a general election, and also for any district in which a bye-election is to take place. Nor are there any fixed periods for the revising and purifying of the rolls. It is the duty of the Registrar of each electoral district to keep the rolls revised and complete.]

THE GENERAL ELECTION OF 1896

For European Representatives.
(Polling-day, 4th December, 1896. Number of Polling-places, 1,521.)

Dealing with the population of both sexes, it is found that the total number of persons on the rolls was 339,230, out of a total adult population estimated at 356,658. These results give a proportion of 95.11 per cent. of adults who were registered as electors, as against 94.98 at the previous election in 1893. The number of persons who voted was 258,254, or 76.13 per cent. of the number on the rolls, a slightly higher proportion than obtained in 1893, which was 75.25 per cent.

Date of General Election.Total Adult Persons.Number on Rolls.Proportion of Adult Persons registered as Electors.Number of Persons who voted.Proportion of Persons on Rolls who voted.
1893319,010302,99794.98220,08275.25*
1896356,658339,23095.11258,25476.13

Dealing with men only, the number on the rolls was 196,925, or almost the full number of adult males in the colony as estimated from the census. It would seem that the rolls must have been, at any rate, more accurate than in 1893, when the number of male names was actually fourteen thousand above the estimated adult male population. The males who voted in 1896 were 149,471, or 75.90 per cent. of those on the rolls, against 69.61 per cent. in 1893.

Date of General Election.Total Adult Males.Number on Rolls.Proportion of Adult Males registered as Electors.Number who voted.Proportion of Males on Rolls who voted.

* Excluding figures for three electorates in which there was no contest.

† The number on rolls was in excess of the estimated adult male population at the date of the election.

1893179,539193,536129,79269.61*
1896197,002196,92599.96149,47175.90

The figures relating to women show that a larger proportion (89.13 per cent.) of adults were registered as electors in 1896 than in 1893 (78.48 per cent.), which would indicate an increasing disposition to use the franchise. But the number of women who voted, 108,783, is only 76.44 per cent. of the females on the rolls, while in 1893 there were 90,290 who voted, giving the higher proportion of 85.18 per cent.; so that as to actual voting (assuming the figures to be correct) there is no proof of a greater willingness now on the part of the females to go to the poll than at the time the franchise was conferred upon them.

Date of General Election.Total Adult Females.Number on Rolls.Proportion of Adult Females registered as Electors.Number who voted.Proportion of Females on Rolls who voted.

* Excluding figures for three electorates in which there was no contest.

1893139,471109,46178.4890,29085.18*
1896159,656142,30589.13108,78376.44

The following table shows for the different districts the number of electors of each sex on the rolls, with the voters, and the estimated population:—

District.Number of Members.Estimated Population, 4th Dec., 1896.Electors on Roll.Number of Voters who recorded Votes.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
Bay of Islands19,9802,8341,1541,837770
Marsden19,7972,6281,4821,9411,132
Waitemata19,5363,1941,6872,554705
Eden110,6172,7692,4341,8631,708
City of Auckland336,03910,8729,3326,7306,304
Parnell110,8932,6552,8661,8381,908
Manukau110,5922,9392,5931,6121,577
Franklin110,1472,6412,0922,2121,682
Thames110,2223,5091,6322,6801,295
Ohinemuri19,6004,1811,4862,811968
Waikato110,0342,2501,4381,5951,015
Bay of Plenty19,5372,4361,5131,8641,194
Waiapu19,5443,1001,7812,4301,484
Hawke's Bay19,7173,0231,7232,4351,395
Napier111,4342,7422,3902,2441,921
Waipawa18,7452,7211,6662,1871,524
Pahiatua18,6372,6251,4322,0281,131
Masterton19,6382,9631,5782,2231,185
Wairarapa18,6702,7421,5952,2231,321
Egmont19,5232,7061,4402,1601,136
Taranaki110,7362,9122,3322,3741,872
Hawera18,7072,4871,6182,0231,360
Patea18,6582,7711,2141,862930
Wanganui110,4122,8812,3712,1821,960
Rangitikei19,5723,3791,6572,5231,207
Palmerston110,3422,7011,8981,8091,347
Manawatu18,7252,5531,6171,8931,257
Otaki18,6502,3291,6001,8501,288
Suburbs of Wellington110,7172,8642,7302,1851,951
City of Wellington336,02011,0288,2767,3775,791
City of Nelson110,8792,4002,1232,0121,767
Motueka19,3422,2101,4561,8171,161
Wairau110,5382,9582,1652,3381,745
Buller19,7413,1841,8292,7181,615
Grey110,0202,9081,6002,3071,134
Westland19,4683,2441,3702,3141,217
Ashley19,4962,5351,5242,1081,249
Kaiapoi19,9232,5012,2022,1561,875
Avon19,8272,0372,1361,6461,392
City of Christchurch336,0329,2449,1957,5077,599
Lyttelton110,7892,2432,0391,8631,617
Riccarton19,1002,2761,8441,7871,490
Ellesmere19,5792,1561,5711,8161,235
Selwyn19,4012,5101,5492,0421,128
Ashburton110,3312,8781,9732,0021,604
Geraldine19,1302,5281,8262,0451,530
Timaru110,3002,4982,2751,9471,775
Waitaki19,6612,7871,5862,2181,261
Oamaru110,2922,5242,0912,0721,751
Waihemo19,8832,4841,5932,0311,267
Waikouaiti19,5762,1821,8091,6941,409
City of Dunedin335,4968,9079,6647,1337,450
Caversham111,5112,7182,8412,1492,253
Taieri19,6132,2651,5941,7141,124
Bruce18,8772,3611,6791,7591,259
Tuapeka19,4212,5131,3942,0381,119
Clutha19,9522,8081,8362,2421,444
Mataura19,9043,0051,9922,3431,560
Wakatipu19,5672,7651,2811,9821,001
Wallace19,4012,5651,3622,0661,064
Invercargill110,9092,8692,8442,2902,253
Awarua19,6452,4271,4351,7701,117

Particulars are given for the four city electorates, where the electors have the right of voting for three members. The number of votes exercisable is more than ten thousand in excess of those recorded, so that some of the electors evidently voted for only one or two candidates:—

City.Number of Members returned.Electors on the Rolls.Voters who recorded Votes.Number of Votes recorded.Number of Votes exercisable by Persons who voted.
Men.Women.Total.Men.Women.Total.
Auckland310,8729,33220,2046,7306,30413,03436,81939,102
Wellington311,0288,27619,3047,3775,79113,16837,62439,504
Christchurch39,2449,19518,4397,5077,59915,10642,55145,318
Dunedin38,9079,66418,5717,1337,45014,58340,04743,749
          Total1240,05136,46776,51828,74727,14455,891157,041167,673

A return is added showing the number of votes recorded for each candidate:—

Electoral Districts and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.
For each Candidate.Total

* An election petition against the return of Mr. G. Fisher, lodged by Mr. A. R. Atkinson, the candidate who stood fourth at the poll, was tried in February, 1897, before two Judges sitting as an Election Petition Court. A re-count and scrutiny of votes polled by Messrs. Fisher and Atkinson resulted in a report that “the said George Fisher was found to have polled 5,829 votes, and the said Arthur Richmond Atkinson 5,789 votes, giving thereby the said George Fisher a majority of forty votes.” The Court determined that the said George Fisher was duly elected. For full grounds of petition see Hansard, Sess. I., 1897, p. 7.

The same Court determined that the election of Mr. T. M. Wilford was void, the grounds of the petition being corrupt and illegal practices. Mr. Charles Wilson was elected for Suburbs of Wellington on 23rd April, 1897: the votes recorded being—for Mr. Wilson, 2,036: for Mr. Atkinson, 1,900. The same Court upheld the election of Henare Kaihau, after hearing a petition against it.

† Sir R. Stout resigned his seat on 10th February, 1898, and Mr. J. Duthie was elected on 12th March, 1898. Mr. Duthie was opposed by Mr. R. C. Kirk, and the votes recorded were—for Mr. Duthie, 7,304; for Mr. Kirk, 6,270.

Bay of Islands:
      Houston, R. M.1,599 
      Press, John1,0082,607
Marsden:
      Thompson, R.1,761 
      Mason, A. H.1,3123,073
Waitemata:
      Monk, R.1,715 
      Jackman, W. H. H.1,5443,259
Eden
      Bollard, John1,892 
      Palmer, Jackson1,6793,571
City of Auckland:
      Thompson, T.7,192 
      Holland, J. J.6,298 
      Crowther, W.6,004 
      Rosser, A.4,676 
      Button, C. E.4,008 
      Mitchelson, E.3,620 
      Fowlds, G.3,152 
      Fawcus, J.906 
      Shera, J. McE609 
      Eugster, E.35436,819
Parnell:
      Lawry, F.1,773 
      Vaile, S.1,303 
      Withy, A.6703,746
Manukau:
      O'Rorke, Sir G. M.1,702 
      Buckland, W. F.1,4873,189
Franklin:
      Massey, W. F.2,184 
      Harris, B.1,7103,894
Thames:
      McGowan, J.2,149 
      Taylor, E. H.1,8263,975
Ohinemuri:
      Cadman, A. J.2,908 
      Edwards, E.8713,779
Waikato:
      Lang, F. W.1,811 
      Walker, E.7992,610
Bay of Plenty:
      Herries, W. H.1,596 
      Kelly, W.1,4623,058
Waiapu:
      Carroll, J.2,142 
      Fitzroy, C. A.1,7723,914
Hawke's Bay:
      Russell, W. R.2,341 
      Fraser, A. L. D.1,4893,830
Napier:
      McLean, R. D. D.2,456 
      Carnell, S.1,709 4,165 
Waipawa:
      Hunter, G.1,961 
      Hall, C.1,750 3,711 
Pahiatua:
      O'Meara, J.1,000 
      Manisty, R.963 
      McCardle, W. W.848 
      Taylor, J.232 
      Whitcombe, G.116 3,159 
Masterton:
      Hogg, A. W.1,859 
      Duncan, D. J.1,549 3,408 
Wairarapa:
      Buchanan, W. C.1,940 
      Hornsby, J. T. M.1,604 3,544 
Egmont:
      Symes, W.1,489 
      Monkhouse, W.1,142 
      Harkness, J. G.665 3,296 
Taranaki:
      Brown, H.2,008 
      Smith, E. M.1,852 
      Bellringer, C. E.386 4,246 
Hawera:
      McGuire, F.1,182 
      Robbins, B. C.1,146 
      Major, C. E.1,055 3,383 
Patea:
      Hutchison, G.1,534 
      Remington, A. E.1,258 2,792 
Wanganui:
      Carson, G.2,098 
      Willis, A. D.2,044 4,142 
Rangitikei:
      Lethbridge, F. Y.1,992 
      Bailey, W. A. L.1,738 3,730 
Palmerston:
      Pirani, F.1,608 
      Buick, D.1,548 3,156 
Manawatu:
      Stevens, J.1,333 
      Bruce, R. C.1,264 
      Kellow, F. P.553 3,150 
Otaki:
      Field, H. A.1,799 
      Newman, A. K.1,339 3,138 
Suburbs of Wellington:
      Wilford, T. M.*2,194 
      Hislop, T. W.1,942 4,136 
City of Wellington:
      Hutcheson, J.6,411 
      Stout, Sir R.†6,306 
      Fisher, G.*5,859 
      Åtkinson, A. R.5,831 
      Wilson, C.5,570 
      Menteath, A. A. S.5,560 
      Fraser, F. H.1,811 
      Powell, J. J. K.185 
      Warburton, A.9137, 624
City of Nelson:
      Graham, J.2,061 
      Piper, J.1,7183,779
Motueka:
      McKenzie, R.1,306 
      Hursthouse, R.1,180 
      Franklyn, W. N.4922,978
Wairau:
      Mills, C. H.2,068 
      Buick, T. L.2,0154,083
Buller:
      O'Regan, P. J.2,310 
      Colvin, J.2,0234,333
Grey:
      Guinness, A. R.2,653 
      Bell, R. F.7883,441
Westland:
      Seddon, R. J.2,707 
      Grimmond, J.8243,531
Ashley:
      Meredith, R.1,700 
      Reece, H. F.1,328 
      Renner, G.3293,357
Kaiapoi:
      Moore, R.2,145 
      Buddo, D.1,8864,031
Avon:
      Tanner, W.W.1,552 
      McIntyre, G.1,095 
      Swann, G.307 
      Burgess, C.843,038
City of Christchurch:
      Lewis, C.6,570 
      Smith, G. J.5,940 
      Taylor, T. E.5,445 
      Collins, W. W.5,309 
      Ell, H. G.4,705 
      Beswick, H. J.3,874 
      Donnelly, M.3,709 
      Cullen, W.3,365 
      Marciel, J. A. H.2,982 
      Taylor, R. M.555 
      Partridge, J. T.9742,551
Lyttelton:
      Joyce, J.1,734 
      Jacques, W.1,288 
      Webb, S. R.4583,480
Riccarton:
      Rolleston, W.1,834 
      Russell, G. W.1,4433,277
Ellesmere:
      Montgomery, W. H.1,806 
      Anson, F. A.1,2453,051
Selwyn:
      Wason, J. C.1,676 
      Saunders, A.1,4943,170
Ashburton:
      Wright, E. G.1,320 
      McLachlan, J.1,078 
      Sawle, J. W.981 
      Ivess, J.2273,606
Geraldine:
      Flatman, F. R.1,893 
      Rhodes, A. E. G.1,6823,575
Timaru:
      Hall Jones, W.2,181 
      Smith, F. H.1,5413,722
Waitaki:
      Steward, W. J.2,012 
      Sutherland, D.1,013 
      Clarke, C. V.299 
      Parker, H. R.1553,479
Oamaru:
      Duncan, T. Y.2,297 
      Sievwright, J. D.1,5263,823
Electoral Districts and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.
For each Candidate.Total

* Mr. H. S. Fish died on 23rd September, 1897, and Mr. A. Sligo was elected on 18th October, 1897. Mr. Sligo was opposed by Messrs. H. Gourley and W. Hutchison; the votes recorded being 5,045 for Mr. Sligo, 4,065 for Mr. Gourley, and 2,030 for Mr. Hutchison.

† The Tuapeka seat became vacant by the death of Hon. W. J. M. Larnach on 12th October, 1898, and Mr. Charles Champion Rawlins was elected in his stead on 2nd November, 1898. Mr. Rawlins was opposed by Messrs. Ramsay, Gilkison, Symes, and Sim, the votes recorded being 1,118 for Mr. Rawlins, 844 for Mr. Ramsay, 504 for Mr. Gilkison, 296 for Mr. Symes, and 14 for Mr. Sim.

‡ Hon. G. F. Richardson's seat was declared vacant on 19th April, 1898, and Mr. R. McNab was elected in his place on 26th May, 1898. Mr. McNab was opposed by Mr. W. F. Ward, and the votes recorded were 1893 for Mr. McNab and 1505 for Mr. Ward.

§ Hon. J. G. Ward resigned his seat on 14th July, 1897, and was re-elected on 13th August, 1897. Opposed by Mr. Cowan. Votes recorded—2,041 in favour of the Hon. J. G. Ward, and 913 in favour of Mr. Cowan.

Waihemo:
      McKenzie, J.1,926 
      Duncan, J., jun.1,3723,298
Waikouaiti:
      Allen, E. G.1,427 
      Ramsay, J. J.661 
      Green, J.588 
      Thomson, A.370 
      Clark, G. J.573,103
City of Dunedin:
      Mackenzie, M. J. S.7,821 
      Millar, J. A.6,236 
      Fish, H. S.*6,067 
      Pinkerton, D.5,723 
      Hutchison, W.5,016 
      Begg, A. C.4,412 
      Earnshaw, W.2,421 
      Gore, J.1,300 
      Burton, A. H.374 
      Aston, M.272 
      Lester, F. M.209 
      Nicol, D.19640,047
Caversham:
      Morrison, A.2,307 
      Sidey, T. K.1,126 
      Wardrop, W.664 
      Barron, W.3054,402
Taieri:
      Carncross, W. C. F.1,679 
      Graham, J.1,1592,838
Bruce:
      Allen, J.2,039 
      Auld, W.9793,018
Tuapeka:
      Larnach, W. J. M.†1,589 
      Rawlins, C. C.1,5683,157
Clutha:
      Thomson, J. W.1,991 
      Edie, J.1,076 
      Ayson, T.415 
      Blair, J.2043,686
Mataura:
      Richardson, G. F.‡2,052 
      McNab, R.1,8513,903
Wakatipu:
      Fraser, W.1,595 
      George, J.1,260 
      Graham, H.1282,983
Wallace:
      Gilfedder, M.820 
      Neave, T.655 
      Valentine, H. S.645 
      Hirst, H.510 
      Mackintosh, J.5003,130
Invercargill:
      Kelly, J. W.2,238 
      Sinclair, J.1,659 
      Scandrett, W. B.6464,543
Awarua:
      Ward, J. G.§1,836 
      Cowan, C.1,6512,887
1896.1893.1890.
|| Total number of electors who recorded their votes: 258,254 in 1896, and 220,082 in 1893.
Number of votes recorded for members elected184,929153,66388,150
Number of votes recorded for defeated candidates174,475149,41361,875
          Total votes recorded||359,404303,076150,025
Number of names on rolls in districts uncontested..10,53913,688
Number of names on rolls in districts where elections were contested339,230292,458169,483
          Total number of electors339,230302,997183,171
Total population at last census703,119626,359573,557

For Maori Representatives
(Polling-day, 19th December, 1896.)

Of a Maori population amounting to 39,854 persons, 13,008 voted at the general election. In 1893 the voters numbered 11,269, or 1,739 persons fewer than on the last occasion. As the Native population did not increase between 1891 and 1896, but rather diminished somewhat, it would appear that Maoris are taking more interest as to their representation in Parliament than formerly, or that there is now more convenience for attending to vote and better knowledge of political affairs. The numbers of voters for the several districts were:—

Electoral DistrictsPopulation.Number who voted.Per Cent. of Population at all Ages.
Males.Females.Totals.
North Island—
      Northern Maori5,1654,0109,1752,10422.93
      Eastern Maori6,9316,06412,9954,16432.00
      Western Maori8,2476,89315,1406,07240.11
Middle Island—
      Southern Maori1,3301,2142,54466826.26
          Totals21,67318,18139,85413,00832.64

The votes recorded for each candidate were:—

Electoral Districts and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.
For each Candidate.Total.
Northern Mari Electoral
        District:
      Hone Heke1,706 
      Eparamia Kapa3982,104
      Wi Pere2,549 
      Tamati Tautuhi805 
      Tare Mete563 
      Maika Taruke182 
      Eriata Nopera65 4,164 
Western Maori Electoral
        District:
      Honare Kaihau1,601 
      Ropata te Ao887 
      Mehia Keepa te Rangihiwinui866 
      Ngarangi Katitia662 
      Hone Omipi577 
      Te Aohau Niktini435 
      Pepene Eketone351 
      Wiremu Ngapaki261 
      Reha Aperahama185 
      Te Ramana Nutana168 
      Wirihana Hunia49 
      Hohepa Horomana22 
      Te Kahui Kararehe86,072
Southern Maori Electoral
        District:
      Tame Parata262 
      Tame Rangiwahia Erihana149 
      Riki te Mairaki Taiaroa144 
      Teoti Pita Mutu113668
            Total 13,008
GENERAL ELECTIONS FOR EUROPEAN REPRESENTATIVES HELD FROM THE YEAR 1853.
Parliament.Date of General Election.Number of Names on Roll Electors.Number of Members returned.Number of Members returned unopposed.Number of Votes recorded (or of Voters recording Votes).Population of the Colony at end of Year.Average Number of
Persons to each Member.Persons to each Elector.Electors to each Member.

* Information not obtainable.

1 Including 100, the estimated number in Akaroa District, for which there is no return.

2 Including 800, the estimated number in the electorates of Town of New Plymouth. Gray and Bell, and Omata, for which districts there are no returns.

3 Electors for the Electoral District of “The Otago Goldfields” not included.

4 Men and women.

5 Voters recording votes.

First18531 5,93437**30,0008115.1160
Second18552 10,32437**37,1921,0053.6279
Third186113,46653**79,7111,5045.9254
Fourth1866333,33872**190,6072,6475.7463
Fifth187147,27574**248,4003,3575.3639
Sixth187561,75584**375,8564,4746.1735
Seventh187982,271841443,776463,7295,5215.6979
Eighth1881120,972911169,985500,9105,5054.111,329
Ninth1884137,686911174,672564,3046,2014.111,513
Tenth1887175,410915111,911603,3616,6303.41,928
Eleventh1890183,171706136,337625,5088,9363.42,617
Twelfth18934302,99770345220,082672,2659,6042.24,328
Thirteenth18964339,23070..45258,254714,16210,2022.14,853

Chapter 31. SECTION V.—EDUCATION

THE replies given by householders to the inquiry on the census schedules for 1896 showed that in every 100 persons living (excluding Chinese), 80.60 per cent. could read and write, 2.89 could read only, and 16.51 were unable to read. The proportion per cent. unable to read fell from 23.72 in 1878 to 21.19 in 1886, and further to 16.51 in 1896. Of those who could read only, the proportion diminished from 6.76 in 1878 till in 1896 it stood at 2.89 per cent.

The following shows the percentages at each census period:—

 Read and Write.Read only.Cannot read.
Persons.M.F.Persons.M.F.Persons.M.F.
187869.5272.1166.336.765.917.8023.7221.9825.87
188171.3273.3168.945.635.016.3923.0521.6824.67
188674.0175.4072.414.804.365.3121.1920.2422.28
189177.2777.9776.483.973.744.2418.7618.2919.28
189680.6081.0680.092.892.713.0816.5116.2316.83

Besides the improvement in the degree of education shown above, which is observed in respect of females as well as males, it will be noticed that whereas the difference in the percentage able to read and write is very considerably in favour of the male sex for the year 1878, the proportions approximate more closely at each successive census year, until in 1896 there are found to have been 80.09 per cent. of the female sex who could read and write, against 81.06 of males. Doubtless when the results of the next census are known, the education of the females, taking as a standard the knowledge of reading and writing, will be equal to that of the males. But with a system of free and compulsory education this would be expected in time, and the census results have no longer the degree of importance or interest they had years ago.

In considering the proportions of the population at different age-periods the improvement in education is even more clearly proved. It is found that in 1896, of persons at the age-period 10–15 years, 98.73 per cent. were able to read and write, while 0.65 per cent. could merely read, and 0.62 per cent. were unable to read. The proportion who could not read increased slowly with each succeeding quinquennial period of age until at 50–55 years it stood at 4.04 per cent. At 75.80 years the proportion was 7.05, and at 80 and upwards it advanced to 8.07. Similarly, the proportion of persons who could read only increased from 0.65 at 10–15 years to 3.66 at the period 50–55 years, and again to 9.74 at 80 and upwards. The better education of the people at the earlier ages is thus exhibited.

Further evidences of improved education will be found in the portion of this work relating to marriages, where it is shown that the proportion of persons in every 1,000 married who signed by mark has fallen very greatly since 1881. The figures for the sexes in the year 1881 were 32.04 males and 57.94 females, against 6.19 males and 7.02 females in 1896.

SCHOOLS

It has been found impossible to collect the full statistics relating to schooling for the year 1898 in time for this work, and the figures for the previous year are accordingly given.

The number of schools, teachers, and scholars, as in December 1897, is shown in the following summary:—

Description of Schools.Number of Schools.Teachers.Scholars.
                    EUROPEAN.
Public (Government) schools (scholars other than Maoris and half-castes)1,5853,628129,937
Public (Government) schools (half-castes living among Europeans)1,002
Colleges, grammar, and high schools (aided or endowed) 24184 2,709
Private schools (excluding Maori scholars) 27876514,447
Industrial schools and orphanages8.. 727
Native village schools, European children attending.... 296
Private Native boarding-schools, European children attending....32
School for deaf-mutes1647
Jubilee Institute for Blind1216
          Totals—Europeans1,8974,585149,213
                    NATIVE.     
Native village schools supported by Government (excluding European children stated above)741342,568
Private Native boarding-schools (maintenance of scholars paid by Government)41475
Private Native boarding-schools (maintenance of scholars paid from endowments)131
Private Native day-schools3477
Public (Government) schools, Maoris attending....1,101
Public (Government) schools, half-castes living as Maoris attending....157
Private schools for Europeans, Maoris attending....77
          Totals—Natives811524,186

Thus at the end of 1897 there were 1,978 schools of all classes at which members of the European and Maori races were being educated. This was an increase of 47 on the number in 1896. The public primary schools numbered 1,585 in 1897, against 1,533 in 1896. The number of aided or endowed colleges, grammar, and high schools was 24, the same as in the previous year. The number of private schools from which returns were received by the Registrar-General was 278, a decrease of 5. There were also 8 industrial schools and orphanages, public and private, as well as a school for deaf-mutes subsidised by Government, and a school for the blind.

The number of schools established for the education of the Native or Maori race was 81, the same number as in 1896.

Education at the public schools is free (except that, at such as are also district high schools, fees are charged for the teaching of the higher branches) and purely secular. The attendance of all children between the ages of 7 and 13 is compulsory, except when special exemptions are granted, or a child is being otherwise sufficiently educated.

The subjects of instruction at the primary schools are required by the Education Act to be the following: Reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar and composition, geography, history, elementary science and drawing, object-lessons, vocal music, and (in the case of girls) sewing and needlework, and the principles of domestic economy. Provision must also be made for the instruction in military drill of all boys in these schools.

Technical Education

“The Manual and Technical Elementary Instruction Act, 1895,” provides for the granting of subsidies to classes established for instruction in such branches of science and art as are encouraged by the Science and Art Department (South Kensington) and the City and Guilds of London Institute, and also to workshops connected with public schools; and the same Act allows part of the ordinary school-time to be given to elementary manual instruction. During 1897, subsidy was paid on classes in drawing and painting, clay-modelling, carpentry and other woodwork, upholstery, plumbers' work, painters' work, ironwork, mechanical engineering, mechanics, physics, chemistry, agricultural analysis, laundry work, dressmaking and millinery, cookery, mathematics and geometry, shorthand, and bookkeeping. In several of the high schools manual and technical instruction is given as part of the school course.

There are four fully-equipped Schools of Art, the classes in which during 1897 were attended by about 1,335 students.

In connection with the Canterbury College there is an endowed School of Engineering and Technical Science, the students in which work for the university degree of B.Sc. in Engineering. Eighty-five students attended in 1897.

The Canterbury Agricultural College has an endowment of over 60,000 acres of land, and possesses extensive buildings, and an experimental farm of a very complete character. The students work for the university degree of B.Sc. in Agriculture. There were 38 students in 1897.

There are two Government Schools of Mines located in districts in which mining is actively carried on, and the Otago University maintains a professorial chair of mining and metallurgy, to which the Government makes an annual grant of £500. The number of students in mining in 1897 was 252.

As stated, the Act makes it lawful for any Education Board to order that manual instruction be given in any public school under its control as if manual instruction had been included in the list of subjects prescribed in the Education Act.

With the view of encouraging attendance at technical schools and classes, arrangements have been made with the Railway Department by which teachers of classes registered with the Minister of Education may give certificates to their pupils which will enable them to obtain railway tickets at special rates.

During the year examinations were hold upon papers supplied by the Science and Art Department (South Kensington), and the City and Guilds of London Institute.

The following table shows the number of papers worked at the English examinations held in the colony, and the number of successes:—

LONDON TECHNICAL AND ART EXAMINATIONS, 1897.
Subjects of Examination.Auckland.Wanganui.Wellington.Wellington Sub centres.Nelson.Christchurch.Dunedin.
Candidates.Passes.Candidates.Passes.Candidates.Passes.Candidates.Passes.Candidates.Passes.Candidates.Passes.CandidatesPasses.

Total of papers, 1,037; total of passes, 751.

* Pahiatua, Masterton, Featherston, Levin, and Westport.

  SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT.
                    Art.
Drawing in light and shade (elementary)3287423015512123224
Drawing in light and shade (advanced)21772323551717
Perspective (elementary)11431614435211821
Perspective (advanced)11
Model drawing (elementary)221356241855339265641
Model drawing (advanced)21431616441212
Freehand drawing of ornament (elementary)1084235664626165542347851
Freehand drawing of ornament (advanced)421291111661919
Geometrical drawing (art)22112220
Design (elementary)31
Design (advanced)22 
Painting from still life3639611
Drawing from the life4133
Drawing from the antique1054322
Painting ornament in monochrome1111
Principles of ornament (elementary)1111
Students' works177281171
                    Science.
Practical plane and solid geometry102715272169
Mathematics, stages 1, 2, 3331161
Magnetism and electricity…11  
Machine construction and drawing159877 
Building construction7311911 
Practical inorganic chemistry1 
Inorganic chemistry (theory)1
Applied mechanics33
  CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE.
Painters' and decorators work11
Telegraphy11
Mechanical engineering1111
Plumbing (preliminary)22
Plumbing (written)22121255
Plumbing (practical)337744
                Totals59421127835225146252517142109301229

The expenditure on technical education for the year 1897 was approximately as follows: Technical classes and examinations, £2,932; Schools of Art, £4,302; School of Engineering, £1,489; Agricultural College, £5,554; Schools of Mines, £2,001: total, £16,278. Of this sum, £4,933 was paid by the Government; £4,788 was from endowments, or from funds derived indirectly from the Government; and £6,557 was from fees, sale of farm produce, &c.

The Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act Amendment Act, passed in 1897, provided for raising a sum of £25,000 for the purposes of building and equipment of technical schools.

Extracts from the reports of the Committee of Council of Education for the United Kingdom, 1895 and 1896, are quoted, as highly instructive, being explanatory of the aim and objects of technical education:—

1895

Much attention has been given of late years to the need of giving right direction to the activity and intelligence of children, especially in the earlier stages of their school life. It is felt that one of the chief aims of education should be to train the scholar to acquire knowledge for himself by observation and experiment. This power, however, so far from being developed, is actually stunted and suppressed when the scholar is treated as the passive recipient of information. If the child does not really assimilate what he learns the natural activity of the mind is deadened, and he may leave school with healthy interests unawakened. and with the faculty of accurate and independent observation still untrained. The effects of such mechanical instruction may at the moment appear satisfactory, but are, in fact, superficial and transitory, and must therefore prove in the end disappointing, if not actually harmful. We have, therefore, done what is in our power to encourage a more living form of education by means of teaching designed to cultivate the habit of observation, and the further use of the various powers of expression. Deftness of hand, correctness of eye, power with the pencil and the brush, the study of actual objects at first hand, and the habit of using the faculty of intelligent observation, have, we are glad to think, all become in recent years a more important part of the educational aim of our elementary schools. Not so much because training of this kind prepares the scholar more readily to acquire in due time practical dexterity in his occupation or trade, but because it develops a many-sided interest in his school-work, and because it forms a valuable element in mental and moral discipline, and tends to the more harmonious development of the whole of a child's faculties, we have approved its introduction in various forms into the curriculum of elementary schools. Experience has already shown that this form of teaching, where wisely arranged, has been attended with success… . .

1896

The movement for the introduction of manual training into all classes of schools as a corrective to an excess of book-work seems to be gaining strength in this as in other countries. It is felt that the exercise of hand and eye, as well as of the memory and the powers of verbal expression, is necessary to true education. It appears to be true that the process of growth in a child's mind is furthered by manual training, and that the latter promotes the attainment of power and accuracy in other studies. These considerations point to a closer correlation between manual training and the other subjects of school curriculum, the former being rightly regarded as an integral part of school training, and not as an optional or disconnected appendix to it. In this wider sense the training of hand and eye finds a place in the kindergarten as well as in schools for older scholars, but in the latter case it naturally takes other forms. Varied occupations in the former class of schools, and, in the latter, brushwork, clay modelling (with special reference to lessons in history and natural science), and cardboard work, have all been found useful in stimulating the activity and developing the inventive powers of the children. But in the case of the schools for older scholars there is some danger lest manual training should be advocated and introduced less for the purpose of cultivating the general powers of the child than from a mistaken desire to impart premature dexterity in some particular craft or home employment. It is happily the case that manual training, when wisely planned, does carry with it the incidental advantage of enabling the scholar to acquire useful skill which will increase the comfort and economy of home life. Yet it is not on this side of the matter, important as it is, but on the educational value of the training that stress must be laid, if we are to escape the disappointment which followed on the excessive attention paid to narrow forms of manual instruction in the older schools of industry.

We are glad, therefore, to observe that increasing attention is being given in our public elementary schools to such subjects as cookery, housewifery, woodwork, and gardening. When properly arranged these lessons have great influence on the efficiency of the school. Many children who are backward in literary expression show a compensating aptitude for expression with their hands, and others are saved from the dangerous discouragement which sometimes forces them without desert into the dunce's place. Carpentry is a delight to most boys when they are old enough to use the necessary tools; and we have sanctioned during the past year an addition to our building rules with the object of securing that rooms for woodwork should be planned with the simplicity and economy suitable for workshops. The manual training of girls naturally takes the form of needlework, cookery, and laundry-work, and is therefore specially liable to the errors of treatment which convert what should be an educational discipline into a premature form of technical instruction. At the same time we observe with satisfaction that more thought is being given to the ways of teaching these subjects, and we are far from desiring to substitute unreal or fanciful forms of instruction for the more homely, but withal scientific, lessons which best arouse the interest of the children, because they are nearer to their personal experience of daily needs and to the actual circumstances of their home life. It is a grave blunder in a cookery lesson to ignore the humbler and more ordinary forms of food, or to provide stoves or appliances of a kind necessarily unknown in cottage life. Equally serious, on the other hand, is the mistake of giving merely rote instruction in subjects which admirably lend themselves to the teaching of the principles underlying wise action, and to the training of those powers of observation and judgment which are essential to the wise husbanding and economical employment of narrow means. We observe, however, from the general reports of the Directress of Needlework and of the Inspectress of Cookery, that much still needs to be done in order to raise the educational value of the instruction in cookery and needlework in many schools. In others, on the other hand, the teaching of cookery has been so efficient that the lessons have been found to produce a perceptible and satisfactory improvement in the homes of the working-classes.

Victoria College

In December, 1897, an Act was passed by the General Assembly establishing, in commemoration of the sixtieth year of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, for the promotion of higher education, a college at Wellington, to be styled “The Victoria College,” and to be in connection with the New Zealand University. It is governed by a Council of sixteen members. Three of these are appointed by the Governor in Council. Another three are elected by such members of the Legislative Council as are resident in any of the Wellington, Nelson, Westland, Marlborough, Hawke's Bay, and Taranaki Provincial Districts, and by such of the members of the House of Representatives as for the time being represent electoral districts in those provincial districts. A group of three is elected by such of the graduates of the New Zealand University as are for the time being on the books of the College (meanwhile by holders of university degrees in the districts named above), and another group of three elected by adult persons holding certificates under section 45 of “The Education Act, 1877,” and resident in the above provincial districts. A further group of three members is elected by members of the Education Boards wholly or partly in the above-named provincial districts, and one member elected by the Professorial Board of the College itself.

Provision is made for appropriation and endowment for the purpose of bringing higher education within reach of deserving scholars in the colony: six Queen's scholarships, tenable for five years, are to be offered for competition every year, each of an annual value of £20, to holders studying where their home is situated, and £40 if studying elsewhere.

New Zealand University

The New Zealand University is not a teaching body; undergraduates have hitherto for the most part kept their terms at one or other of the following affiliated institutions: the Auckland University College, the Canterbury College, and the University of Otago, each of which has a staff of professors and lecturers. On the 1st June, 1898, the number of graduates who had obtained direct degrees was 603. The number of undergraduates on the roll of the University at that date was 1,897 (exclusive of such as had not performed any academical act for a period of ten years), but only 863 were keeping terms, of whom 603 were males and 260 females. Sixty-six of the males and 10 of the females were medical students. The numbers of students attending lectures at the affiliated institutions during the year 1897–98 were as follow: At the Auckland University College, 68 matriculated and 137 non-matriculated; at Canterbury College, 144 matriculated and 54 non-matriculated; at the Otago University, 223 matriculated and 27 non-matriculated. The establishment of the Victoria College, before-mentioned, will afford further facilities for University students.

Private and Denominational Schools

There were 278 private schools in the colony at the end of 1897, a decrease of 5 on the number in 1896: 28 were for boys, 43 for girls, and 207 for children of both sexes. The number of pupils attending them was 14,447—namely, 5,974 boys and 8,473 girls, not counting Maoris, 14 boys and 63 girls. The number of European pupils at these schools was more than in 1896 by 500. Of the private schools, 120 were Roman Catholic, with an attendance of 9,642 pupils.

The following gives, for the past ten years, the number of private schools and of Europeans attending them, the number of Roman Catholic schools and pupils being also shown separately:—

Year.Number of Private Schools.Pupils.Included in Previous Numbers.
Boys.Girls.Totals.Roman Catholic Schools.Pupils at Roman Catholic Schools.
18882995,8747,97913,853969,346
18892935,7787,68013,458959,024
18902985,7597,86713,6261089,474
18912816,2347,90814,14211010,144
18922746,3218,13514,45610510,111
18932996,4318,49114,92211110,263
18943026,1178,51014,6271179,953
18952986,1878,47214,65911410,458
18962835,8458,10213,9471159,590
18972785,9748,47314,4471209,642

The total number of children of European descent (including such half-castes as live among Europeans) known to be receiving education at school at the end of 1897 was 149,213; of these, 142,429 were from 5 to 15 years of age. The census showed also 6,352 children receiving tuition at home in 1896, against 8,178 in 1891. No doubt increased school accommodation in country places does away with the need for tutors and governesses to a certain extent.

The distribution of the private schools in the various provincial districts of the colony is shown in the two following tables:—

Private Schools, 1897.—Summary by Provincial Districts
Provincial Districts.Number of Schools.Number of Teachers.Number of Scholars.Daily Average Attendance.
Boys.Girls.Mixed.Total.Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.

* Exclusive of 77 Maoris (14 boys, 63 girls).

NOTE.—Denominational schools, such as Roman Catholic and Anglican, are included in the above as private schools. Particulars for the Roman Catholic schools in December, 1897, are as under:—

Auckland696277411401811,5062,0893,5951,29218543,146
Taranaki1121323032153296449128257385
Hawke's Bay3391593039398388786302331693
Wellington6113148431141571,2271,7222,9491,0771,5512,628
Marlborough1..561212130156286101132233
Nelson23101583139293478771254415669
Westland17831922240299539200253453
Canterbury6103955161411571,1001,6962,7969381,5222,460
Otago363241111151269271,3492,2767941,1801,974
          Totals28432072781336327655,9748,47314,447*5,1467,49512,641
SUMMARY OF ROMAN CATHOLIC SCHOOLS.
Provincial Districts.Number of Schools.Number of Teachers.Number of Scholars.Daily Average Attendance.
Boys.Girls.Mixed.Total.Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.
Auckland462333969788071,1691,9765561,0221,678
Taranaki13416169217827075153228
Hawke's Bay114631821278308586250258508
Wellington3410172454787791,1061,8856841,0131,697
Marlborough123881231152389494188
Nelson12692121183362545149308457
Westland16731821225284509188244432
Canterbury3512201167788271,1221,9496971,0081,705
Otago3117211059697829021,6846918041,495
          Totals172083120603303904,0965,5469,6423,4844,9048,388

Schools for Natives

The number of Native village schools at the end of 1897 either supported or subsidised by the Government was 74 — the same number as in 1896. In addition, there were four boarding-schools for Native children, the cost of whose maintenance was paid either by the Government or from endowments, and three private Native day-schools.

The number of Maori children attending schools at the end of 1897 was 4,186—namely, 2,341 males and 1,845 females. These included 310 half-castes at the Native village schools who were living as members of Maori tribes, and 157 at public European schools.

The numbers at the several schools in 1897 and 1896 were as follow:—

Schools.Maori Children attending Schools.
BoysGirls.Total of both Sexes.
1897.1890.1897.1896.1897.1896.
At public European schools7466675124191,2581,086
At Native village schools1,4241,3551,1441,1042,5682,459
At subsidised or endowed boarding-schools10310210389206191
At private European or Native schools68688648154116
          Totals2,3412,1921,8451,6604,1863,852

There was thus, in 1897, an increase of 149 in the number of Maori boys, and an increase of 185 in the number of Maori girls attending school.

Income and Expenditure of Education Boards

The total income of the various Education Boards for the year 1897 was £496,176. The grants by Government amounted to £452,039, an increase of £58,380 on the grants in 1896. These grants consist of (a) a statutory allowance of £3 15s. per child in daily average attendance, (b) a further capitation allowance of 1s. 6d. for scholarships, and (c) a varying sum for school-buildings. The income from reserves amounted to £38,857, and that from local receipts, interest, and miscellaneous sources to £5,280.

The total expenditure in 1897 amounted to £493,864, of which the sum of £407,786 was laid out on the maintenance of the schools, £12,537 used to meet expenses of the Boards, £12,615 spent on inspection of schools and examination of pupil-teachers, £60,486 on school-buildings, and £440 on miscellaneous services.

The receipts and expenditure of the Education Boards, which number ten altogether, are tabulated below, with further particulars:—

RBCEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE OF EDUCATION BOARDS.
      Dr.£s.d.
To Balance, 1st January, 189712,005133
Government grants—
          Maintenance393,358143
          Building57,52713
          Technical1,15390
      Reserves revenues38,85719
Local receipts—
          Fees, donations, &c.3,85903
          Rents, sales, &c.859144
      Interest17528
      Refunds, deposits, &c.386148
 £508,182115
      Cr.£s.d.
By Boards'administration12,5361411
      Inspection and examination12,614185
      Teachers' salaries and allowances, and training362,985117
      Incidental expenses of schools36,918410
      Scholarships7,88335
      Interest20557
      Buildings, sites, plans, &c.60,483187
      Refunds and sundries2341610
      Balances14,317173
 £508,182115

Scholarships

Particulars of the scholarships and the expenditure of the Boards thereon in 1897 are given in detail. The only institutions for the training of teachers are in North Canterbury and Otago. These two institutions have received grants-in-aid of £300 each.

SCHOLARSHIPS.
Education Districts.Number held in Dec., 1897Boys.Girls.Period of Tenurie.Boards'Expenditure on Scholar-ships in 1897.Annual Value, &c.
    Years.£s.d. 
Auckland77473031,7071879 at £30, 15 at £25, 22 at £20, 31 at £15.
Taranaki6512213633 at £35, 3 at £10.
Wanganui13103Varies523171110 at £40,1 at£20,2 at £15.
Wellington3821172731139 at £30, 29 at £15.
Hawke's Bay281711254714010 at £30 4s., 18 at £10 4s.
Marlborough312212000£40.
Nelson6332334120£52 12s.
Grey8533100004 at £25 and tuition, 4 tuition only.
Westland86221131002 at £23, 1 each at £15 10s., £12, £5 10s., £3 at £8.
North Canterbury34211321,0423712 at £40,22 at £20.
South Canterbury22111124041296 at £34, 2 at £28, 1 at £17, 1 at £14,1 at £9, 11 at £4.
Otago563620Varies1,37510910 at £40, 5 at £35, 1 at £24, 3 at £22, 17 at £20, 1at £17, 19 at £15.
Southland20164Varies5541849 at £35, 11 at £20.
          Totals, 18973191991207,76955 
          Totals, 18963051891167,665911 

Industrial Schools

The cost of the Government schools and the amount recovered (from Charitable Aid Boards, from parents, from sale of farm produce, &c.) are next shown:—

COST OF GOVERNMENT INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, 1897.
School.Gross Cost of School.Cost of Boarding out (Included in preceding Column).Recoveries.Net Cost.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Auckland1,1199949320242199876100
Burnham7, 524742,8471592,6421824,88192
Caversham7,115313,5051153,9481353,16698
          Totals15,759026,846926,8341148,924810
Salary and expenses of Visiting Officer398810
Inmates maintained at other institutions34643
Contingencies1160
                    Total9,680711

The Government expenditure on the private industrial schools shows a net expenditure of £235 more than the corresponding amount for the preceding year.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON PRIVATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, 1897.
School.Payments.Recoveries.Net Expenditure by Government.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
St. Mary's, Ponsonby (Auckland)548202454523168
St. Joseph's, Wellington495195513043989
St. Mary's, Nelson2,333118353281,98090
          Totals3,376155433102,943145

The total number of inmates of the two kinds of industrial schools is given for the years 1896 and 1897, and the variations in the numbers boarded out, in residence, or at service:—

INMATES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, 1896 AND 1897.
Boarded out.In Residence.At Service, &c.Totals.
Dec., 1896.Increase.Decrease.Dec., 1897.Dec., 1896.Increase.Decrease.Dec., 1897Dec., 1896.Increase.Decrease.Dec., 1897.Dec., 1896.Increase.Decrease.Dec., 1897.
Government Schools—
      Auckland30....30101..1141..43781..378
      Burnham176..11165105..510024321..2645245..529
      Caversham211..211907612..8819519..21448210..492
Private Schools—
      St. Mary's, Auckland........4616..6220..3176613..79
      St. Joseph's, Wellington4....466..462102..1280..278
      St. Mary's, Nelson7....72535..258661..673266..332
          Totals428..323965563495815754376111,5593451,588

The inmates discharged from industrial schools during the year 1897 numbered 150, and the new inmates 179, so that the increase in the number on the books is 29.

In the Government schools the policy is to board out all children of suitable age and character. The authorities of the private schools do not adopt the boarding-out system.

Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Institutions

The children at the deaf-and-dumb institution at Sumner, near Christchurch, were 47 in December, 1897. The institution is under Government control. The expenditure for the year 1897 was £3,277. The children are taught to speak with the mouth, and to read articulate speech by observing the movement of the lips. The census of 1896 showed a total number of 115 deaf-and-dumb persons under 20 years of age residing in the colony, so that more than one third of the full number would appear to be living at the institution.

The blind pupils formerly sent to Melbourne or Sydney are now provided for in the Jubilee Institution for the Blind at Auckland. The number at the end of the year was 16. In cases where necessity has been shown, the Education Department pays at the rate of £25 a year for each pupil, recovering what is possible from parents. The number of blind persons under 20 years of age returned at the census of 1896 as living in the colony was 57.

Sunday-schools

As to attendance at Sunday-schools, figures can only be given for years when the census was taken. For these, a comparison can be made if the teachers be included with the scholars. Proceeding on these lines, a large development is found since 1878:—

ATTENDING SUNDAYSCHOOLS (INCLUDING TEACHERS).
Census Year.Totals.Males.Females.
      187862,27330,70731,566
      188699,88448,50951,375
      1896116,04554,06361,982

The excess of females over males would seem as time goes on to grow greater, both numerically and in proportion to the numbers attending Sunday-school.

The number of scholars at the Sunday-schools in 1896 was 104,934, of whom 50,096 were boys and 54,838 girls. The teachers were 11,111 of both sexes, 3,967 being males and 7,144 females.

PLACES OF WORSHIP

The total number of buildings returned as used for public worship in 1896 was 1,987, of which 1,431 were churches or chapels. These last increased by 234, or 19 per cent. on the number returned in 1891. The schoolhouses used for worship in 1896 and 1891 were 366 and 241 for the respective years; 190 dwelling-houses were used as churches or chapels at last census. Sitting accommodation was found for 334,509 persons in all buildings utilised for public worship; and the numbers attending services amounted in the aggregate to 209,731. These numbers show increase at the rate of 20.28 and 18.46 per cent. respectively since 1891, while the increase of population during the interval between the two censuses was at the rate of 12.24 per cent.

The following gives the buildings in use for purposes of public worship by the various denominations, as returned at the census of April, 1896. The number of persons belonging to each denomination in the colony was stated under the head of “Religion” on page 107 of the Year-book, 1898:—

Denominations.Churches and Chapels.School-houses used for Public Worship.Dwellings or Public Buildings used for Public Worship.Number of Persons.
For whom Accommodation.Attending Services.
* Includes United Free Methodists and Bible Christians, which bodies amalgamated with the Wesleyan Methodist Church on 13th April, 1896.
Church of England4141053376,81148,117
Roman Catholics2128752,26736,080
Catholic Apostolic Church1....10050
Presbyterians3011524575,88148,751
Methodists—
      Wesleyan Methodists*249602755,77235,445
      Independent Wesleyans11..259180
      Primitive Methodists45949,3255,436
      Scandinavian Methodists1....8050
Other Denominations—
      Baptists34118,6305,652
      Congregational Independents20516,7003,475
      Lutherans151..1,510806
      Society of Friends1....6025
      Brethren27..95,3092,049
      Christian Disciples2..1262222
      Church of Christ15154,7652,738
      Christadelphians3..4395138
      New Church (Sweden-borgian)1....10040
      Seventh-day Adventists5....700254
      Students of Truth1....1,200500
      New and Latter House of Israel1....5013
      Salvation Army61103024,17815,777
Undenominational1513239,2653,503
Hebrews5....810380
Confucians1....8050
Buildings open to more than one denomination (included in the above)[15][22][9][3,855][2,062]
          Totals, 18961,431366190334,509209,731
          Totals, 18911,197241161278,114177,055

The number of buildings, in each provincial district of the colony, used for public worship in 1896 was:—

Provincial Districts.Churches and Chapels.Schoolhouses used for Public Worship.Dwellings or Public Buildings used for Public Worship.Number of Persons.
For whom Accommodation.Attendig Services.
Auckland329986178,10445,270
Taranaki6251613,1737,378
Hawke's Bay83201317,52611,485
Wellington209222649,32031,973
Marlborough28124,8093,361
Nelson93341117,96310,521
Westland42327,9555,001
Canterbury277611562,88442,615
Otago3081224482,77552,127
          Totals, 18961,431366190334,509209,731
          Totals, 18911,197241161278,114177,055

PUBLIC LIBRARIES, LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS

Although the number of these institutions only increased from 298 to 304 between the years 1891 and 1896, according to the census returns, it will be found that the membership increased from 14,489 to 17,638, or at the rate of 21.73 per cent. There was also a large increase of books (23.83 per cent.), which numbered 330,770 in 1891, and 409,604, in 1896. In considering these facts it must be borne in mind that the population increased 12.24 per cent. in the quinquennium. The details for all provincial districts are given, which shows that Auckland and Otago had 75 institutes each, and Canterbury 73. In membership Otago stands highest, and Auckland second; but according to number of books Auckland takes first place, Canterbury next, and Otago third.

Provincial DistrictsNumber of Institutions.Number of Members.Number of Books.
Auckland753,741106,577
Taranaki63787,700
Hawke's Bay171,51322,955
Wellington213,02949,712
Marlborough52347,783
Nelson2567927,363
Westland73556,602
Canterbury733,64793,981
Otago754,06286,931
          Totals, 189630417,638409,604
          Totals, 189129814,489330,770
          Totals, 188630313,684292,108
          Totals, 188122512,868198,520
          Totals, 187818712,092173,021

Chapter 32. SECTION VI.—LAW AND CRIME

CIVIL CASES

SITTINGS of the Supreme Court are held for trial of civil cases at Auckland, Gisborne, New Plymouth, Napier, Wellington, and Wanganui, in the North Island; and at Blenheim, Nelson, Hokitika, Christchurch, Timaru, Oamaru, Dunedin, and Invercargill, in the Middle Island.

The number of writs of summons issued in the Supreme Court in 1897 was 460 against 529 in 1896, 511 in 1895, and 664 in 1894. The number of civil cases tried increased from 153 in 1896 to 157 in 1897. Of these, 11 were tried before common juries, 28 by special jury, and 118 by Judge without jury. The total of amounts for which judgments were recorded in 1897 was £60,817. There were 56 writs of execution issued during the year.

Fifty-three cases were commenced at seventeen District Courts in 1897. Ten of these cases were tried before juries, and 23 before a Judge only, making a total of 33 cases tried. Fourteen cases lapsed or were discontinued, and six remained pending. The total of amounts sued for was £7,742, and judgments were recorded for £1,534. Before the Magistrates' Courts 20,249 cases were tried, against 19,708 in 1896; the aggregate sum sued for being £303,155, and the total for which judgment was given £165,644.

COURT OF APPEAL

Three Crown (criminal) cases were reserved from the superior Courts and brought before the Court of Appeal in 1897. In two cases the convictions were affirmed, and in one the conviction was quashed. There were appeals from 22 civil cases, of which 7 were allowed and 15 dismissed. Judgments were given on 5 other cases removed to the Court of Appeal.

BANKRUPTCY

The petitions in bankruptcy during 1897 numbered 419 (including 4 cases in which no statement was filed), of which 387 were made by debtors and 32 by creditors. This number is 7 greater than the number of petitions for the preceding year.

Of the bankruptcies in 1897: in 16 cases the liabilities were under £50; in 107, from £50 to £100; in 139, from £100 to £250; in 80, from £250 to £500; in 41, from £500 to £1,000; in 22, from £1,000 to £2,000; in 7, from £2,000 to £5,000; and in 3, £5,000 and upwards.

The following gives the number of petitions, the total amount of the unsecured assets, the amount of debts proved, and the amount paid in dividends and preferential claims for the years 1887, 1890, 1893, 1896, and 1897:—

Year.No. of Petitions in Bankruptcy.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realised by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
18871,036311,745135,633503,759109,255
1890652262,733112,951381,124122,276
1893484111,48368,843464,27337,721
1896412115,45571,712256,87037,492
189741573,46640,942133,34445,015

A special article on the present bankruptcy law of New Zealand was printed in the Year-book of 1894. Reference is made in it to a mode of private assignment which has come into such frequent use as to prevent conclusions being drawn from a comparison of the figures above given.

DIVORCE

Last year the Legislature of New Zealand passed a statute entitled “The Divorce Act, 1898,” and the signification of Her Majesty's assent thereto was duly notified by His Excellency the Governor in a Proclamation dated the 1st April, 1899. (Gazette No. 32, of 13th April, 1899.)

The new Act places persons of either sex practically on an equality as regards petitions for dissolution of marriage; the same grounds, in substance, for a decree of divorce applying to man or woman.

Besides this important alteration of the law, the grounds for divorce are extended as under:—

  1. Adultery, on either side.

  2. Wilful desertion continuously during five years or more.

  3. Habitual drunkenness on the part of husband, along with failing to support wife; or drunkenness and neglect, with unfitness to discharge household duties on the part of the wife.

  4. Conviction, with sentence of imprisonment or penal servitude for seven years or upwards, for attempting to take life of petitioner.

Every decree for dissolution of marriage is in the first instance to be a decree nisi, not to be made absolute till after the expiration of such time, being not less than three months from the pronouncing thereof, as the Court shall by order from time to time direct.

The petitioner need not necessarily move to make absolute any decree nisi that may be pronounced.

A decree for a judicial separation may be obtained either by the husband or wife on the ground of adultery, or of cruelty, or of desertion without cause for a period of two years.

The petitions in 1897 under “The Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1867,” were 58 in number, 3 fewer than in 1896: 48 were for dissolution of marriage, and 10 for judicial separation; 33 decrees for dissolution of marriage were granted. The proceedings under the Act for the years 1887: 1890, 1893, 1896, and 1897 were as follows:—

Year.Petitions forDecrees for
Dissolution of Marriage.Judicial Separation.Dissolution of Marriage.Judicial Separation.
1887266161
1890248213
1893349251
1896556362
18974810331

The proportion of petitions and decrees for dissolution of marriage to the number of marriages has hitherto been higher in New Zealand than in England and Wales, but lower than in New South Wales or Victoria. The effect of the operation of the new law in New Zealand will, however, have to be experienced.

As early as 1889 an Act was passed in Victoria to allow of divorces being granted for wilful desertion, habitual drunkenness with cruelty or neglect, imprisonment under certain circumstances of either party, and adultery on the part of the husband. This multiplication of the causes for divorce has largely increased the proportion of decrees in that colony.

An Act of a similar tenor was passed in New South Wales in 1891, and brought into working in August of the following year, under which, in addition to adultery since marriage on the part of the wife, and adultery and cruelty on the part of the husband, petitions for divorce can now be granted in that colony on any of the following grounds:—

Husband v. wife: Desertion for not less than three years; habitual drunkenness for a similar period; being imprisoned under a sentence of three years or upwards; attempt to murder or inflict grievous bodily harm, or repeated assaults on him within one year previously.

Wife v husband: Adultery, provided that at the time of the institution of the suit the husband is domiciled in New South Wales; desertion for not less than three years; habitual drunkenness for the same period; being imprisoned for three years or upwards, or having within five years undergone various sentences amounting in all to not less than three years; attempt to murder, or assault with intent to inflict grievous bodily harm, or repeated assaults within one year previously.

To entitle either party to seek relief on these grounds, he or she must have been domiciled in the colony at the time of instituting the suit for three years or upwards, and should not have resorted to the colony for the purpose of the suit. When a wife seeks for a decree on the ground of three years' desertion, if she was domiciled in New South Wales when the desertion commenced, she shall not be deemed to have lost her domicile by reason of her husband having thereafter acquired a foreign domicile.

Figures will be found in the Year-Book of 1898 showing operation under the divorce law for the three colonies compared for late years.

CRIMINAL CASES

Charges before Magistrates

The number of charges heard before the Magistrates' Courts in 1897 was 20,585. Repeated charges against the same person are counted as distinct. Of the charges in 1897, 636 were against persons of the aboriginal native race, an increase of 175 on the number for the previous year.

If the Maoris be excluded, the number of charges in 1897 is found to have been 19,949, an increase of 1,134 upon the number for 1896; and the proportion per 1,000 of population was 27.36, against 26.35 in 1896.

The figures, both numerical and proportional, covering a period of sixteen years are subjoined:—

CHARGES BEFORE MAGISTRATES
Year.Number.Proportion
per 1,000 of
Population.
188222,10843.41
188522,70939.61
188818,82930.82
189117,18927.29
189417,35325.55
189719,94927.36

The general results shown in the next table are borne out in a most satisfactory manner by the statistics relating to prisoners in gaol (see post), which also show a marked decrease in crime during the above period.

Summary Convictions, and Convictions in Superior Courts

The summary convictions in 1897 numbered 15,325, including 450 Maoris. 581 persons, 28 of whom were Maoris, were committed for trial at the Supreme and District Courts, an increase of 35 on the number committed in 1896.

“The Justices of the Peace Act, 1882,” provides that sundry indictable offences may with the consent of the accused be summarily dealt with by Magistrates. The increasing use of this provision may have affected the number of convictions in the higher Courts shown in the table hereunder.

Including 12 Maoris, the convictions in the superior Courts numbered 315 (persons).

A comparison of the number of persons in New Zealand summarily convicted during the years 1888, 1891, 1894, and 1897 shows a decrease in the proportion of these convictions per 1,000 of the population, not only on the total, but also in regard to offences against the person, against property, and other offences taken separately. Dealing with the convictions in the superior Courts for all offences, the proportion per 1,000 of population is exactly equal for 1897 to that for 1888, and similarly for offences against the person. For offences against property there is a slight rise, and for other offences a fall in the proportion. The figures given exclude the Maoris:—

 Years.SUMMARY CONVICTIONS.CONVICTIONS IN SUPERIOR COURTS.
Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Mean Population
1888—
      Offences against the person7151.18420.07
      Offences against property1,2462.061780.29
      Other offences12,29820.31350.06
          Totals14,25923.552550.42
1891—
      Offences against the person7511.19310.05
      Offences against property1,3122.081410.23
      Other offences10,98817.45420.07
          Totals13,05120.722140.35
1894—
      Offences against the person7241.07360.05
      Offences against property1,2841.891990.29
      Other offences10,60515.61650.10
          Totals12,61318.573000.44
1897—
      Offences against the person7811.08490.07
      Offences against property1,4121.962400.33
      Other offences12,68217.57140.02
          Totals14,87520.613030.42

Drunkenness

During the five years, 1893 to 1897 inclusive, the consumption of beer in the colony per inhabitant would seem to have been maintained; indeed the figures for 1897 are very slightly greater than those for 1894. Wine and spirits show a very small decrease in the consumption per head of population. The calculations are made to show the results, including and excluding Maoris.

CONSUMPTION OF BEER, WINE, AND SPIRITS PER HEAD OF POPULATION (INCLUDING AND EXCLUDING MAORIS).
 Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
Beer. Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.Beer. Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.
18937.2550.1590.6567.7160.1700.697
18946.9610.1360.6117.3910.1440.648
18956.9960.1270.5937.4210.1350.629
18967.4530.1330.6057.8730.1410.639
18977.7900.1380.6288.2200.1460.663

The actual quantities of beer, wine, and spirits used in the colony were, for the five years:—

 Beer for Consumption. Gals.Wine for Consumption. Gals.Spirits for Consumption. Gals.
18935,102,983112,115461,283
18945,019,97397,934440,305
18955,138,17093,138435,431
18965,565,04099,473451,679
18975,931,550105,060478,136

A comparison of the convictions for drunkenness shows that excessive drinking was not so prevalent in 1897 as it was seven years previously. The proportions per 1,000 of population were 8.39 convictions in the year 1889 and 9.14 in 1890, diminishing to 6.60 in 1895 and 6.82 in 1896. And among the New-Zealand-born population of European descent there is evidence of less drunkenness than among persons who have come to the colony from abroad. At the census of 1896, out of the total population of New Zealand over 15 years of age, not less than 43.71 per cent, were found to have been born here; while the proportion of the convictions for drunkenness of New-Zealand-born Europeans to the total convictions was in that year less than 15 per cent.

The prison statistics show for several years back the number of distinct prisoners received into gaol after being convicted of drunkenness. The figures for the years 1885–97 are as follow (readmissions of the same person not counted):—

DISTINCT PRISONERS CONVICTED OF DRUNKENNESS RECEIVED INTO GAOL.
Year.Number.
18851,200
18871,038
1889802
1891694
1893619
1895469
1897486

Here the decrease proceeds rapidly and almost uniformly from year to year. It is true that the option of a fine is generally given to a person convicted of drunkenness, but there is nothing to show that the proportion of fines for this offence has increased of late, so that a fall in the number of distinct persons imprisoned may fairly be accepted as corroborative evidence of growing sobriety among the people.

In New South Wales and Victoria the consumption per head of alcoholic liquors is greater than it is here. The figures for 1896, according to Mr. Coghlan, as given in the “Seven Colonies of Australasia,” are:—

 Beer.
Gal.
Wine.
Gal.
Spirits.
Gal.
Victoria11.431.350.73
New South Wales9.140.610.73

In each of these colonies, as also in Queensland, charges for drunkenness are, in proportion to population, far more numerous than in New Zealand. The order of the colonies in this respect is, to quote Mr. Coghlan again, as under:—

CHARGES OF DRUNKENNESS IN PROPORTION TO POPULATION.
* In 1897 the proportion was 7.1.
New South Wales15.1 per 1,000
Victoria9.3 per 1,000
Queensland13.1 per 1,000
New Zealand*7.0 per 1,000

“The Inebriates Institutions Act, 1898.”

Under this law, the Governor in Council may direct that any building or establishment which is the property of the Crown shall be an institution for inebriates; and he may appoint superintendents, with other officers.

Power is also given to make regulations for the management, supervision, and inspection of these institutions, any of which may be separated into two divisions, with different scales of accommodation, and fees to be paid by patients.

An inebriate may himself make application to a Judge or Magistrate for an order committing him to an institution. Or, if the husband, wife, or any relation or friend of any inebriate applies, the Judge or Magistrate may summon the inebriate to show cause why he should not be committed; when, if necessary, he may be compulsorily dealt with.

There are penalties for improper treatment of patients, and a patient is also liable if misconducting himself. It is also enacted that, during the continuance of an order, an escaped inebriate may be retaken.

Crime amongst Maoris

The Native population of the colony may be regarded as stationary, and comparisons of the numbers of summary convictions by the higher and lower Courts are given. Compared with the convictions in 1887 and 1888, the figures for the lower Courts are now showing a rising tendency, but the number for 1897 is swelled by 108 persons convicted of trespass, and those relating to the convictions by the superior Courts are small and fluctuating.

SUMMARY CONVICTIONS OF MAORIS.
Year.Number.
1887279
1888213
1891298
1892293
1895316
1896332
1897450
CONVICTIONS OF MAORIS IN SUPERIOR COURTS.
Year.Convictions.Number of Persons convicted
18871113
18881010
18917 
18921615
18951715
18961919
18971612

Prisoners in Gaol

The total number of prisoners received in the different gaols of the colony during the year 1897 was 3,616, including persons awaiting trial but not convicted within the year, and counting as distinct persons repeated admissions of the same person, as well as transfers from gaol to gaol of convicts undergoing sentence. In 1896 the number received was 3,392, so that the figures for 1897 show an increase of 224. Of 3,616 admissions for 1897, 46 were for debt, and 72 on account of lunacy; while 340 were Maoris imprisoned for various offences. If the debtors, lunatics, and Maoris be excluded, the number of persons received into gaol is reduced to 3,158, against 3,096 in 1896. In 1881, when the mean population was only 493,482 persons, the corresponding number of admissions was 4,207.

The number of persons in gaol (including Maoris) at the end of the year 1897 was not quite equal to that for 1887, notwithstanding the increase of population:—

PRISONERS IN GAOL (31ST DECEMBER).
Year.Undergoing Sentence.Debtors and Lunatics.On Remand and awaiting Trial.Total.
1887633553691
1897623..51674

Of the prisoners previously convicted received in 1897, 331 men and 42 women had been convicted once; 183 men and 24 women twice; 837 men and 419 women three or more times: making a total of 1,351 men and 485 women.

Besides the returns from the Prisons Department, a separate card for each admission is furnished for every gaol. Such cards as show convictions are arranged alphabetically, and where several are found referring to the same person, all are thrown out but one; then the number of cards retained equals the actual number of distinct convicted prisoners received in the various gaols during the year. In 1897 this number (excluding Maoris) was 1,884, a decrease of 52 on the number in 1896. These figures do not include children committed to the industrial schools simply on the ground that they are neglected or destitute.

The following table shows the number of distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) received into gaol after conviction during 1897, classified according to nature of offence, religion, birthplace, and age:—

DISTINCT CONVICTED PRISONERS RECEIVED INTO GAOL, 1897.
[NOTE.—In this and the following tables a prisoner convicted of more than one offence during the year is reckoned once only, under the heading of the principal offence—e.g., a prisoner convicted three times of drunkenness, twice of vagrancy, and once of theft, is counted only once, under the heading “Theft.” Debtors and lunatics received into gaol, and children committed to the industrial schools not convicted of any crime, are omitted.]
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Miscellaneous. 
Convicted on Indictment.Summarily convicted.Theft and Deceit.Mischief.Vagrancy.Drunkenness.  Other Offences. Totals.
Religions—M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
      Church of England17542254191229737155421762765104
      Roman Catholic6147312611122443612647922453102
      Presbyterian81118095308611756225137
      Wesleyan415126113392925710
      Others2102968252231032
          Totals3721277515403641828437611035681,629255
Birthplaces—
      England and Wales1412621486111751711828122451459
      Scotland26413521859164718127
      Ireland425261157229191014246427384
      New Zealand13403187136383038158240461
      Australian Colonies3110261276146147614
      Other British possessions1611136172
      China437
      Other countries11942141123433361578
          Totals3721277515403641828437611035681,629255
Ages—
      Under 10 years11
      10 and under 12 years11
      12 and under 15 years33…3
      15 and under 20 years37655361012010515
      20 and under 25 years111262882417101945421919
      25 and under 30 years61317833219321470124128
      30 and under 40 years628132101323428944077438484
      40 and under 50 years62328587241191132671334660
      50 and under 60 years473408227766174519135
      60 years and over1324443615191913814
          Totals, 18973721277515403641828437611035681,629255
          Totals, 189624214155152835314064405110419451,679257

The number of distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) imprisoned after conviction, in the past ten years, counting one offence only when the same person was imprisoned more than once, with the proportion per 10,000 prons living, is added:—

Distinct Persons imprisoned after Conviction.
YearPrisoners.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
18882,53141.81
18892,39939.00
18902,39738.61
18912,11333.55
18922,16433.69
18932,11131.92
18941,95528.78
18951,93027.87
18961,93627.11
18971,88425.84

There has been since 1888 a decrease of 26 per cent. in the number of distinct convicted prisoners, and a reduction of 16 per cent. in the proportion to population. In New South Wales the proportion for 1892 was 75 per 10,000 persons.

It must be understood that the actual number of imprisonments was much in excess of the figures given, as many persons were several times imprisoned, either for offences differing in kind or for repetitions of the same offence. Thus, persons returned as imprisoned for larceny underwent other imprisonments for drunkenness, &c. Some returned as convicted of drunkenness were several times in gaol during the year for the same offence, or for another, such as assault, riotous or indecent conduct, Sec. Often there were several charges preferred against the same person at the one time, of which the most serious followed by conviction has been selected.

The proportions in every 100 distinct convicted prisoners belonging to each of the four principal religious denominations, with proportions of prisoners at each age-period, and particulars as to birthplaces, will be found in the statistical volume for 1897, on pages 447 and 448.

Cost of Prisoners

The prisoners in gaols during the year 1897 were maintained at a net cost to the State of £33 9s. 8d. per head, against £31 3s. 6d. in 1896.

Crime amongst the New-Zealand-born

While the New-Zealand-born formed at the last census 63 per cent. of the whole population of the colony, they contributed in 1896 not more than 25 per cent. of the prisoners received in gaol. Of the New-Zealand-born population, however, a large number are under 15 years of age, a period of life at which there are very few prisoners; and, therefore, another comparison is necessary. It is found that the New-Zealand-born over 15 years formed 44 per cent. of the total population; but, as before stated, New-Zealanders constituted less than 25 per cent, of the total number received in gaols.

The total number of New-Zealand-born distinct prisoners (excluding Maoris) received for the year 1897—465 persons—is found to be 149 in excess of the number for 1890. Of those received in 1897, 98 were under twenty years of age. As before stated, the plan adopted in preparing the foregoing tables is to count each prisoner only once, and to exclude all who are not convicted prisoners, besides dealing only with the number received during the year, instead of with the full number in gaol, which would, of course, include those brought forward from the previous year. The comparative results for a series of years given by this method are held to be more valuable than those brought out by one which includes prisoners merely awaiting trial, and continual repetitions of the same individuals.

First Offenders' Probation Act

Ninety-one persons were placed on probation in the year 1897, against 72 in 1896. Of these, 27 were discharged after satisfactorily carrying out the conditions of their licenses, 6 were rearrested, and 58 remained under the supervision of Probation Officers.

Of the 914 persons placed on probation since the introduction of the Act in October, 1886, no less than 763 had, by the end of the year 1897, been discharged after satisfactorily carrying out the conditions of their licenses, 58 were rearrested and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment, 1 committed suicide, 2 died, 21 absconded, and 69 remained fulfilling the conditions of their terms of probation.

The Inspector of Prisons remarks: “This information must be admitted by the most sceptical opponents of the Act as highly satisfactory, and reflects credit on Probation Officers for the judicious selections made in their recommendations, and should be an encouragement for a far more extensive resort to the use of the Act than hitherto. It may be argued that because 21 probationers have absconded, out of a total of 914, there is a considerable danger to the community; but this melts away, and is infinitesimal, when the numbers who have been saved from the infliction of the cruel ‘tar brush’ of the gaol stigma, and probably a career of crime, is taken into account.”

Inquests

The number of bodies on which inquests were held in 1897 was 897, including 10 Maoris. In 692 cases the bodies were of males, and in 205 of females. The verdicts may be classified as under:—

Nature of Verdict.Inquests on Persons.
Males.Females.Total.
Accident31064374
Disease and natural causes314119433
Intemperance11112
Homicide538
Suicide421153
Execution2..2
Not classed8715
 692205897

Of the accidental deaths, drowning is still the most fatal form. The verdicts show that 163 bodies were found drowned, giving a percentage of 43.58 on the accidental deaths from all causes.

The inquests on suicidal deaths in 1897 show a decrease on the number for five previous years:—

YearInquests on Suicides.
Males.Females.Total.
189250858
1893491564
1894581775
1895661076
1896581270
1897421153

Fire Inquests

The inquests on fires held during 1897 were 49. In ten cases the verdict was incendiarism; in eight, accident; in thirty, no evidence was forthcoming; and in one case insufficient evidence.

Chapter 33. SECTION VII.—GOVERNMENT VALUATION OF LAND AND ITS IMPROVEMENTS

Results of the General Valuation made for March, 1898

IN the year 1896 an Act intituled the Government Valuation of Land Act was passed, providing for the appointment of a Valuer-General, and for the periodical valuation of all land in the colony. The Valuer-General is the Commissioner of Taxes for the time being. The valuations on the general roll are used for the assessment of land-tax, stamp duties, and duties on deceased persons' estates; for local rates, except in places where these are levied on the annual value; also, for the purposes of advances and investments on mortgage of land by the Post Office, Government Insurance Department, Public Trust Office, Government Advances to Settlers Office, and the Commissioners of the Public Debts Sinking Funds. The valuation is also used for the guidance of the Government in transactions under “The Land for Settlements Act, 1894,” and “The Public Works Act, 1894.”

The term “land” means and includes all lands, tenements, buildings, and hereditaments, whether corporeal or incorporeal, and also includes all chattel interests in land.

A certified copy of any entry in the general valuation-roll is supplied by the department on payment of the prescribed fee.

The general valuation-roll continues in force until a fresh roll is made, but whilst in force it may be altered and amended from time to time. The rolls for rating purposes are supplied to local bodies by the Valuer-General on the request of the local authority. The aim is to insure a standard valuation for taxation, local rating, and loan purposes.

Owners and occupiers dissatisfied with their valuations have the right of objection, the procedure being that laid down by “The Rating Act, 1894,” and the regulations under “The Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896.”

The cost of making the valuation is divided proportionally between the departments mostly using it and the local authorities, while separate fees are provided for by regulation for supplying individual valuations to persons requiring them.

The general valuation-roll shows the capital value of the property, of improvements, and the unimproved value of the land.

The surface-value only of gold mines is included, and the value of the Government railways has been excluded.

All land is included, whether occupied or unoccupied, whether owned by private individuals, by the Crown, by Natives, by local authorities, Education Boards, School Commissioners, Churches, corporations, companies, or societies of all kinds, and whether subject to or exempt from taxation or rates.

The work of valuing all the lands in the colony is very great, and the Valuer-General points out that some idea of its magnitude may be gathered from the fact that 231,965 separate valuations were needed, of which 119,258 were in the North Island, and 112,707 in the South.

The result of the valuation of land as in March, 1898, is given in the report of the Valuer-General, presented to both Houses of Parliament. Comparative figures are here given for 1888 and 1898 of the results of the assessments made in those years, and the increase, staling separately the unimproved value and the value of improvements; and it is noteworthy that, whereas between 1888 and 1898 the unimproved value of land has risen only by 11.79 per cent., the value of improvements is greater by no less than 52.05 per cent.

COMPARISON OF CAPITAL VALUES, 1888 and 1898.
   Increase, 1888 to 1898.
1888.1898.Amount.Rate percent.
£££ 
Unimproved value75,497,37984,401,2448,903,86511.79
Value of improvements35,640,33554,190,10318,549,76852.05
                    Total111,137,714138,591,34727,453,63324.70

In the figures for the North and South Islands the relative degree of increase is exhibited, and the rapid rate of progress in the North Island shows in strong contrast to that of the other Island. There has been great spread of settlement in the Wellington and Taranaki Districts.

CAPITAL VALUES
 1888.1898.Increase.
£££
North Island49,607,87371,680,95222,073,079
South Island61,529,84166,910,3955,380,554
Totals111,137,714138,591,34727,453,633

The increase for the North Island of £22,073,079 represents an advance of 44.50 percent. on the value in 1888, and that of £5,380,554, for the South Island, 8.74 percent. The increase for the whole colony, as shown previously, was £27,453,633, or 24.70 percent.

The statement on the next page gives the capital value of land and improvements in counties and boroughs as at the assessments of 1891 and 1898.

CAPITAL VALUE OF LAND IN COUNTIES AND BOROUGHS.
 1891.1898.
££
Counties85,818,16795,710,266
Boroughs36,406,86242,881,081
            Totals122,225,029138,591,347

The increase in the capital value of land, with improvements, in counties for the seven years is £9,892,099, or 11.53 percent., while that for boroughs is £6,474,219, or 17.78 per cent.; but the value of property in boroughs has been added to since 1891 by the constitution of ten new boroughs, and that of the counties correspondingly reduced, so that the actual rate of increase in the value of country lands is higher than indicated by the above figures, and in urban lands considerably less.

The results of the assessment of 1898 are given in detail in the tables which follow. For still fuller information, including particulars of road and town districts, besides ridings of counties, reference must be made to the statistical volume of 1898, which also gives comparisons in respect of counties and boroughs separately.

COUNTIES, 1898.
County.Capital Value.Unimproved Value.Value of Improvements.
£££
Mongonui213,214148,05165,163
Whangaroa77,10748.62228,485
Bay of Islands354,354223,210131,144
Hokianga411,808341,49370,315
Whangarei554,905328,973225,932
Hobson374,443241,653132,790
Otamatea303,113186,903116,210
Rodney305,677150,675155,002
Waitemata644,552363,628280,924
Eden2,249,5751,153,1341,096,441
Manukau1,513,178800,861712,317
  Islands (Great and Little Barrier, &c., Waiheke)149,01179,63469,377
Waikato624,102284,829339,273
Raglan437,962300,417137,545
Waipa493,786256,782237,004
Kawhia383,131334,67848,453
Coromandel380,232256,725123,507
Thames364,135241,087123,048
Ohinemuri512,330298,665213,665
Tauranga335,864231,206104,658
Piako713,963371,973341,990
Rotorua468,015387,99680,019
Whakatane733,027603,103129,924
East Taupo252,681241,89110,790
West Taupo237,482214,32323,159
  Islands (Mayor and Motiti)5,7803,6962,084
Waiapu732,232402,194330,038
Cook2,569,4001,560,0731,009,327
Wairoa1,040,618759,735280,883
Hawke's Bay3,541,6022,397,0601,144,542
Waipawa2,591,1871,470,6341,123,553
Patangata1,837,5981,131,077706,521
Clifton624,295507,856116,439
Taranaki1,534,634893,622611,012
Stratford992,931574,883418,048
Hawera1,888,624940,906947,718
Patea1,081,957700,322381,635
Waitotara914,206620,967293,239
Wanganui1,704,2261,237,185467,041
Rangitikei1,960,7071,146,725813,982
Kiwitea756,059396,791359,268
Pohanigina397,194238,465158,729
Manawatu950,957593,758357,199
Oroua1,908,3381,080,844827,494
Horowhenua1,147,850678,049469,801
  Islands (Kapiti and Maria)10.4849,3781,106
Pahiatua902,481481,734420,747
Wairarapa North2,631,7301,416,6061,215,124
Wairarapa South2,348,8041,401,296947,508
Hutt1,272,436612,129660,307
Collingwood300,119192,224167,895
Waimea1,338,280806,879531,401
Sounds276,735169,387107,348
Marlborough1,814,2851,304,020510,205
Buller673,391474,842198,549
Inangahua946,174595,295350,879
Grey817,957579,498238,459
Westland792,307668,688123,619
Kaikoura368,045277,67290,373
Cheviot573,324486,79586,529
Amuri688,106508,777179,329
Ashley3,853,0943,050,303802,791
Selwyn7,312,3085,194,1252,118,183
Akaroa1,190,101881,158308,943
Ashburton4,006,2923,061,970944,322
Geraldine1,839,4741,397,601441,873
Levels1,493,1351,098,928394,207
Mackenzie799,755646,091153,664
Waimate2,403,8221,906,579497,243
Waitaki2,540,3802,006,026534,354
Maniototo553,700374,584179,182
Waihemo409,062274,698134,364
Waikouaiti587,814320,442207,372
Peninsula417,251243,754173,497
Taieri1,282,724925,259357,465
Tuapeka833,968539,371294,597
Bruce944,163639,669304,494
Clutha1,175,618814,022361,596
Vincent437,987282,458155,529
Lake318,564234,32884,236
Fiord143,584137,2096,375
Wallace1,656,8641,177,764479,100
Southland4,251,2752,967,3501,283,925
Stewart Island159,690134,37825,312
  Islands (Antipodes, Auckland, and Campbell)13,87513,875..
                Totals95,710,26668,782,51631,977,750
Boroughs, 1898.
Borough.Capital Value.Unimproved Value.Value of Improvements.
£££
Whangarei90,00032,35757,643
Birkenhead94,18546,61147,574
Devonport471,867199,325272,542
Auckland5,676,6952,980,8602,695,835
Parnell399,480185,278214,202
Newmarket175,65782,37493,283
Newton262,946144,553118,393
Onehunga267,123130,359136,764
Hamilton118,26750,41067,857
Cambridge79,51926,26853,251
Thames294,695114,703179,992
Tauranga87,30129,37957,922
Te Aroha56,92525,52031,405
Gisborne305,763132,139173,624
Napier1,263,227585,854677,373
Hastings497,862279,997217,865
Dannevirke147,33978,60568,734
Woodville98,47444,08154,393
New Plymouth572,216325,391246,825
Hawera220,11598,863121,252
Patea63,62622,66740,959
Wanganui813,205461,743351,462
Marton112,07542,40669,669
Feilding233,367104,788128,579
Palmerston North631,796309,019322,777
Foxton100,05142,41257,639
Onslow202,971107,28695,685
Karori161,936110,05351,883
Wellington8,052,5124,814,6773,237,835
Melrose314,002205,224108,778
Pahiatua112,23950,46261,777
Masterton472,291207,845264,446
Carterton111,10646,73564,371
Grey town130,03648,45681,580
Lover Hutt269,821166,969102,852
Petone283,285140,593142,692
Richmond85,38045,15340,227
Nelson833,562342,029491,533
Picton74,83327,27147,562
Blenheim334,990127,635207,355
Westport189,91676,756113,160
Grey mouth335,88987,144248,745
Brunner69,66111,52958,132
Kumara36,7215,46131,260
Hokitika150,09155,58094,511
Ross29,4428,87120,571
Rangiora175,29273,011102,281
Kaiapoi154,28148,200106,081
St. Albans611,154271,805339,349
Christchurch364,9211,605,1371,759,784
Sydenham770,059284,718485,341
Linwood445,210169,582275,628
Woolston193,42594,79898,627
New Brighton94,71945,99748,722
Sumner114,14363,11751,026
Lyttelton841,719238,274603,445
Akaroa50,96817,70533,263
Ashburton244,02794,217149,810
Timaru539,659188,212351,447
Waimate93,69927,29760,402
Oamaru437,089156,348280,741
Hampden15,7216,0299,692
Naseby30,0753,97526,100
Palmerston43,74710,72933,018
Hawksbury47,35420,43626,918
Port Chalmers220,29159,828160,463
West Harbour133,26961,83971,430
North East Valley256,458104,230152,228
Maori Hill173,02773,97099,057
Roslyn481,554218,093263,461
Mornington301,107109,150191,957
Dunedin4,339,7442,071,5482,268,196
Cavcrsham460,845186,911279,934
South Dunedin296,61991,964204,655
St. Kilda130,57372,18658,387
Green Island39,15412,22926,925
Mosgiel119,46646,87572,591
Roxburgh26,8363,28123,555
Lawrence89,24522,12567,120
Tapanui16,4682,51413,949
Milton109,27328,69180,582
Balclutha70,28724,25746,030
Kaitangata59,95827,93332,025
Arrowtown26,5474,72221,825
Queenstown60,20112,22754,034
Cromwell34,81810,78224,036
Alexandra31,0899,28721,802
Gore172,93264,239108,693
Mataura83,48128,62454,857
Winton29,33110,73918,592
Gladstone34,05715,99118,066
Avenal23,4888,40115,087
North Invercargill40,99017,22123,769
East Invercargill52,48717,38035,107
Invercargill982,482430,704551,778
South Invercargill97,24937,91959,330
Riverton58,56615,16143,405
Campbelltown165,41286,42978,983
                Total of boroughs42,881,08120,668,72822,212,353

Chapter 34. SECTION VIII.—LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES

Counties, Boroughs, etc

FOR purposes of local government New Zealand is divided into counties and boroughs. Although the boroughs, of which there were 97 in March, 1898, lie geographically within the counties, yet by the law they are not considered as part of them. On the 31st March, 1898, the counties numbered 81. The number is increased from time to time as need is found for further division, and in November, 1898, two new counties, Akitio and Eketahuna, were constituted, being cut out of Wairarapa North County. In the year 1878 there were only 63 counties. Interior to the counties are the road and town districts, but much of the country is outlying, many road districts having been merged, especially on goldfields territory. There were, however, 235 road districts (4 without Boards) in existence in March, 1898, and 39 town districts. One of these latter is the special Town District of Botorua, constituted under “The Thermal-Springs Districts Act, 1831.” Besides the above there were 30 river protective districts (excluding Inch Clutha, in Bruce County, which is also a road district), 1 drainage district (Christchurch), 2 water-supply districts, and 13 land drainage districts under the Land Drainage Act of 1893. The Harbour Boards numbered 26.

These bodies levied rates in the financial year 1897–98, to the amount of £644,552, of which £439,418 consisted of general rates, and £205,134 special and separate rates. The sum of £76,960 was raised by licenses, and £18,406 by other taxes, making £739,918 altogether, which sum is equivalent to £1 Os. 5d. per head of the mean European population. In the year 1896–97 the local taxation was 19s. 6d. per head, or 11d. less than in 1897–98.

It will be seen from the following table that since 1881 revenue derived from rates has considerably more than doubled, having increased from £249,087 in 1880–81 to £644,552 in 1897–98. Revenue from Government and other sources has, on the other hand, decreased in the same period—eighteen years. Receipts which cannot be classed as “revenue” were £889,705 in 1880–81 against only £304,645 in 1897–98; but these figures vary from year to year according to circumstances, such as large operations by way of construction of works, for which money has to be specially raised.

The indebtedness of local governing bodies on account of outstanding loans has increased by nearly 125 per cent., from £3,039,807 to £6,834,361, exclusive of moneys borrowed from Government under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882,” and “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886,” which represented a further indebtedness of £743,242 at the end of March, 1898.

The receipts (distinguishing revenue from other sources of income) and expenditure of the various local bodies, with the amount of rates collected, and the amount of indebtedness on account of loans for each of the past eighteen years, are shown in the following table:—

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—RATES, RECEIPTS, EXPENDITURE, AND LOANS, 1881 TO 1898.*
Year.Receipts of Local Bodies.Expenditure of Local Bodies.†Outstanding Loans of Local Bodies (excluding Government Loans, for which see the following Columns).Government Loans to Local Bodies.
Revenue.Receipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.Under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882.”Under “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886” (including Debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act converted).
From Rates.From Government and other Sources.

* The figures for the Christchurch Drainage Board and the Harbour Boards included in this table are for the calendar years ended three months previous to the financial years.

† Not including balances, contractors' deposits returned, amounts paid to sinking funds and for redemption of debentures.

‡ On the 30th June.

§ In February.

 ££££££££
Year ended 31st March, 1881249,087814,142889,7051,952,9341,871,7523,039,807....
Year ended 31st March, 1882297,328694,652419,6081,411,5881,637,3373,277,584....
Year ended 31st March, 1883327,129600,450311,4661,239,0451,397,8633,540,046....
Year ended 31st March, 1884398,659744,527331,9941,475,1801,499,1173,962,33077,439..
Year ended 31st March, 1885401,393841,895430,5611,673,8491,653,7064,313,223123,086‡..
Year ended 31st March, 1886410,639882,618514,7281,807,9851,644,7064,943,270134,534..
Year ended 31st March, 1887434,237790,063992,6332,216,9331,885,0015,620,747113,072..
Year ended 31st March, 1888433,832795,067511,5941,740,4931,819,7875,812,80318,635191,687
Year ended 31st March, 1889445,929676,428316,1391,438,4961,560,6055,892,05010,495273,289
Year ended 31st March, 1890460,303707,725206,6881,374,7161,476,5405,978,0599,676319,603§
Year ended 31st March, 1891463,581662,765236,9021,363,2481,381,3206,042,6934,317367,715
Year ended 31st March, 1892488,824693,296214,1241,396,2441,400,4676,081,9344,245449,532
Year ended 31st March, 1893508,157709,676340,5381,558,3711,482,5486,203,8693,465525,173
Year ended 31st March, 1894551,412681,831623,0381,856,2811,589,1246,614,8242,685547,679
Year ended 31st March, 1895581,868683,857328,7981,594,5231,584,5186,685,5102,015621,903
Year ended 31st March, 1896592,903738,146269,1451,600,1941,627,0796,737,5781,442667,451
Year ended 31st March, 1897598,526765,047246,9191,610,4921,636,7166,793,3981,077709,282
Year ended 31st March, 1898644,552790,602304,6451,739,7991,733,0166,834,361712742,530
TAXATION BY LOCAL BODIES.
Local Bodies.Rates.Licenses.Other Taxes.Total.
General.Special and Separate.

* For year ended 31st March, 1898.

† For year ended 31st December, 1897.

‡ Wharfage dues, charges, fees, tolls, rents, &c., amounting to £288,778 13s. 4d., have not been classed as taxation.

§ Equal to £1 0s. 5d. per head of the mean European population of the colony for the financial year 1897–98.

 £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
Counties*160,699 5 331,258 19 619,274 0 011,064 6 3222,296 11 0
Boroughs*128,212 5 11157,699 15 451,483 2 65,486 6 3342,881 10 0
Town Boards*3,682 8 10229 17 14,295 17 9275 6 88,483 10 4
Road Boards*84,587 5 312,224 13 91,907 8 01,579 16 9100,299 3 9
River Boards*5,830 6 21,556 1 47,386 7 6
Land-drainage Boards*1,434 9 91,035 25 112,473 5 8
Christchurch Drainage Board†17,025 0 817,025 0 8
Waimakariri-Ashley Water-supply Board*1,125 11 01,125 11 0
Harbour Boards†37,947 8 437,947 8 4‡
    Totals439,418 10 2205,133 13 1176,960 8 318,405 15 11739,918 8 3§

Receipts and Expenditure, 1897–98

A summary of all the transactions for the year 1897–98 is given on pages 189, 190. The total revenue of the local bodies for the financial year was £1,435,154, and they further received a sum of £304,645 which could not properly be termed “revenue,” making altogether a grand total of receipts amounting to £1,739,799. The rates formed 45 per cent. of the revenue proper. Licenses, rents, and other sources yielded 42 per cent., and 13 per cent. was granted by the General Government.

While the revenue proper of the counties amounted to £355,923, of which these bodies raised £191,958 by way of rates, the Road Boards' revenue was only £152,287, out of which £96,812 represented the result of their rating. The boroughs had the far larger revenue of £503,288, including £285,912 of rates, and their receipts under the heading of licenses, rents, and other sources amounted to the considerable sum of £203,877. In the matter of receipts from Government, of which a table is printed on the next page, the counties received the bulk of the money.

The expenditure of the local bodies amounted to £1,733,016. In the counties the cost of management, including salaries, travelling-expenses, rent, printing and advertising, collection of rates or tolls, legal expenses, and sundries, was £42,189. The Borough Councils expended in the same way £52,226, and the Road Boards £15,946. The percentages borne by the cost of management to the total receipts and total expenditure were,—

Cost of Management per Cent. ofTotal Receipts.Total Expenditure.
Counties8.68.5
Boroughs8.99.0
Road Boards9.38.9

The financial operations of the County Councils for the year under review were much larger than those of the Road Boards, and the amount raised by rates more than double.

The details of amounts received, representing Government support to the various bodies, are stated in the following table:—

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—RECEIPTS FROM GOVERNMENT, 1897–98.
Counties.Boroughs.Town Boards.Road Boards.River Boards (excluding Inch-Clutha, also Road Board).Land Drainage Boards.Waimakariri Water-supply Board.Harbour Boards.Totals.
 £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
Rates on Crown and Native lands210 13 159 3 1111 6 6411 2 8
One-third receipts from land sold on deferred payment and from perpetual lease25,780 8 445 11 611,915 2 037,741 1 10
One-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs2,265 13 6133 19 82,399 13 2
Goldfields revenue and gold duty55,156 4 11,119 11 55 9 8300 17 956,582 2 11
Subsidies under the Local Bodies' Finance and Powers Act36,753 2 411,695 19 2719 4 316,763 2 065,931 7 9
Fees and fines under the Financial Arrangements Act620 9 9370 1 35 14 95 10 31,001 16 0
Other receipts4,908 16 8253 16 3229 16 77,440 9 3200 0 05,065 18 918,098 17 6
        Total Revenue Account125,725 7 913,498 11 21,005 16 936,670 7 5200 0 05,065 18 9182,166 1 10
Loans under Government Loans, to Local Bodies Act38,987 0 04,991 2 0369 14 916,280 18 62,000 0 08,087 0 070,715 15 3
Grants for special works, &c.68,637 5 72,393 16 71,452 2 01,100 0 073,583 4 2
        Total receipts from Government233,349 13 420,883 9 91,375 11 654,403 7 112,000 0 08,287 0 01,100 0 05,065 18 9326,465 1 3
LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—RECEIPTS, EXPENDITURE, AND LOANS, 1897–98.
Financial Year ended 31st March, 1898.
Counties.Boroughs.Town BoardsRoad Boards.River Boards (excluding Inch-Clutha, also Road Board).Land Drainage Boards.Waimakariri Water-supply Board.Totals.

* For amounts under various heads see preceding table; also for specification of loans under Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, and special grants, which are here included with “Receipts not revenue.”

† For rates of interest see page 193.

‡ Not including loans, amounting to £743,242 repayable by instalments under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882,” and “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886.”

NOTE.—The return of receipts and expenditure in this summary represents the net receipts and expenditure of the year, exclusive of credit and debit balances, bank overdrafts, deposits, amounts paid to sinking funds, and for redemption of debentures.

Receipts:—        
  Revenue from—£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
    Rates191,958 4 9285,912 1 33,912 5 1196,811 19 07,386 7 62,473 5 81,125 11 0580,579 15 1
    Licenses, rents, and other sources38,233 17 8203,877 5 87,686 19 411,709 9 104,908 8 989 17 7224 17 2266,735 16 0
    Government*125,725 7 913,498 11 21,005 16 936,670 7 5200 0 0177,100 3 1
    County318 10 27,095 8 37,413 18 5
        Total revenue355,922 10 2503,287 18 112,923 12 2152,287 4 612,294 16 32,763 3 31,350 8 21,040,829 12 7
    Receipts not revenue134,922 12 181,252 11 5723 5 319,638 15 32,274 1 88,453 10 61,212 5 2248,477 1 4
        Total receipts490,845 2 3584,540 9 613,646 17 5171,925 19 914,568 17 1111,216 13 92,562 13 41,289,306 13 11
Expenditure:—        
    Public works362,321 7 2217,685 2 37,797 4 6125,290 18 106,810 15 18,942 9 94,216 11 0733,064 8 7
    Charitable aid and hospitals36,484 1 1127,943 8 2298 19 68,844 16 573,571 6 0
    Management42,188 17 452,225 18 52,358 17 715,945 11 11,102 8 7221 6 11388 16 9114,431 16 8
    Other expenditure57,027 8 4293,256 15 12,836 0 428,346 10 36,610 17 10986 9 11819 5 9379,883 7 6
        Total expenditure498,021 14 9581,111 3 1113,291 1 11178,427 16 714,524 1 610,150 6 75,424 13 61,300,930 18 9
Liabilities (including loans)684,118 1 113,156,178 9 106,909 5 2345,623 19 758,012 6 924,298 8 218,716 15 84,293,857 7 1
Loans11,710 0 02,834,306 0 0620 0 06,400 0 039,745 0 018,200 0 02,910,981 0 0‡
Financial Year ended 31st December, 1897.Total—all Local Bodies
Drainage Board.Harbour Boards.
Receipts:—   
  Revenue from—£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
    Rates17,025 0 837,947 8 4644,552 4 1
    Licenses, rents, and other sources946 16 5333,339 13 11601,022 6 4
    Government*5,065 18 9182,166 1 10
    County7,413 18 5
        Total revenue17,971 17 1376,353 1 01,435,154 10 8
    Receipts not revenue56,167 13 2304,644 14 6
        Total receipts17,971 17 1432,520 14 21,739,799 15 2
Expenditure:—   
    Public works3,469 7 8120,063 0 6856,596 16 9
    Charitable aid and hospitals73,571 6 0
    Management1,016 11 812,152 4 0127,600 12 4
    Other expenditure15,309 18 0280,053 9 6675,246 15 0
        Total expenditure19,795 17 4412,268 14 01,733,015 10 1
Liabilities (including loans)205,674 15 33,828,832 0 08,328,364 2 4
Loans†200,000 0 03,723,380 0 0‡6,834,361 0 0

Loans of Local Bodies

The outstanding loans of local governing bodies form the subject-matter dealt with in the two next tables. From them it will be seen that the total amount owing was, on the 31st March, 1898, £6,834,361. But against this accrued sinking funds to the value of £598,564 were held, leaving a net debt of £6,235,797, exclusive of moneys borrowed from the General Government and repaid by annual instalments.

The total annual charge (excluding exchange and commission) stood at £395,257, of which £363,569 were for interest, and the remainder, £31,688, contributions to sinking fund accounts.

Of the total indebtedness in 1897–98 the debt of the Harbour Boards, £3,723,380, formed the largest item, while the Borough Councils owed £2,834,306.

Referring once more to the comparative table on page 187, and to the great advance in local bodies' debts, it will be found that between 1885–86 and 1895–96 the gross indebtedness increased from £4,943,270 to £6,737,578, an addition of £1,794,308 for the period, or 36.30 per cent. Between the same (census) years population advanced from 578,482 to 703,360, the increase having been 124,878 persons, or 21.59 per cent. The wealth of the colony was estimated at about £170,000,000 in 1886 and £215,000,000 in 1896, an accretion of £45,000,000 during the ten years. Thus, while the population of New Zealand increased by 21.59 per cent. in ten years, and wealth by 26.47 per cent., the debt of the local governing bodies advanced at the higher ratio of 36.30 per cent. during the same period.

In the second table (page 193) will be found a summary of the amounts raised by loan, classified according to the rates of interest paid, distinguishing loans raised in the colony from those raised abroad. It will be noticed that the amount raised abroad (£5,491,200) is more than four times as great as that raised in New Zealand (£1,343,161). The lowest rate of interest paid was 3 per cent., but the large sum of £3,067,392 was raised at 5 per cent., and £2,531,444 at 6 per cent., while £193,510 bore interest as high as 7 per cent.

LOANS OF LOCAL BODIES, MARCH, 1898.—NET INDEBTEDNESS AND ANNUAL CHARGE.
Amount of Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Amount of Accrued Sinking Fund.Net Indebtedness.Annual Charge (excluding Exchange and Commission).
Interest.Sinking Fund.Total.

* Repayable by annual instalments of £47,419, representing 5 per cent. per annum on £948,372, the amount inscribed to 1st February, 1898. Payments for 26 years of 5 per cent. per annum on the amount inscribed (£948,372, including £89,878 debentures under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882,” exchanged) would be £1,232,883. The actual repayments to date are £267,594, leaving £965,289 to be paid by way of interest and sinking fund on a present indebtedness of £742,530.

† Amount for 1897–98.

 ££££££
Counties11,71059111,11973980819
Boroughs2,834,306309,3422,524,9455,56811,613167,181
Town Boards62048572371552
Road Boards6,4002116,18933070400
River Boards39,7457,41532,3302,1064402,546
Water-supply Board18,2006518,13588065945
Harbour Boards3,723,380255,2353,468,145191,90917,405209,314
Drainage Board200,00025,657174,34312,0002,00014,000
                    Totals6,834,361598,5646,235,797363,56931,688395,257
Inscribed debt of local bodies under “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886” (including inscribed stock exchanged for debentures under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882”)742,530..742,530*....47,419
Outstanding debentures under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882”712..712....365†
                    Totals7,577,603598,5646,979,039....443,041

Loans of Local Bodies, raised within and without the Colony

TABLE showing the Amount of Indebtedness of Counties, Boroughs, Town, Road, River, and Water-supply Boards, as on the 31st March, 1898, and of Harbour and Drainage Boards as on the 31st December, 1897, classified according to the Rates of Interest paid, distinguishing Loans raised in the Colony from those raised elsewhere. (See note‡.)
Loans raised in the Colony.
Local Bodies.No Interest.3%4%4 ½%5%5 ¼%5 ½%5 ¾%6%6 ½%7%Total

* Including £500 at 4⅜ per cent.

† Including £2,000 at 5.7 per cent.

‡ Not including loans, amounting to £743,242, repayable by annual instalments under “The Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882,” and “The Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886.”

 ££££££££££££
Counties........2,300......3,400..6,01011,710
Boroughs25,000..21,14045,325*82,21718,00064,9005,000†247,8242,600122,300634,306
Town Boards................620....620
Road Boards......1,8002,700......1,900....6,400
River Boards......2,0002,275..3,320..6,150....13,745
Water-supply Board......6,00012,200............18,200
Harbour Boards..14,538110,00049,000445,000..35,992..3,450..200658,180
    Total raised in colony‡25,00014,538131,140104,125*546,69218,000104,2125,000†263,3442,600128,5101,343,161‡
Loans raised outside the Colony.
Boroughs....33,000254,400800,200......1,047,400..65,0002,200,000
River Boards........21,000......5,000....26,000
Drainage Board................200,000....200,000
Harbour Boards....250,000100,0001,699,500......1,015,700....3,065,200
    Total raised outside colony....283,000354,4002,520,700......2,268,100..65,0005,491,200
Total Loans raised.
Counties........2,300......3,400..6,01011,710
Boroughs25,000..54,140299,725*882,41718,00064,9005,000†1,295,2242,600187,3002,834,306
Town Boards................620....620
Road Boards......1,8002,700......1,900....6,400
River Boards......2,00023,275..3,320..11,150....39,745
Water-supply Board......6,00012,200............18,200
Drainage Board................200,000....200,000
Harbour Boards..14,538360,000149,0002,144,500..35,992..1,019,150..2003,723,380
    Total loans raised‡25,00014,538414,140458,525*3,067,39218,000104,2125,000†2,531,4442,600193,5106,834,361‡

The aggregate interest-charge for the year under review was £363,569, and £293,939 of this was payable on loans raised outside the colony. The average rate of interest payable to bondholders was rather more than £5 6s. 9d. per cent., as shown hereunder:—

Loans raised by Local Bodies.Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Interest-charge.Average Rate of Interest.
 ££%

* The £25,000 on which no interest is paid has not been taken into account in computing the average rate of interest.

In the Colony25,000Nil...
1,318,16169,6305.206
Outside the Colony 5,491,200293,9395.353
    Total (excluding loans from Government)6,834,361* 363,5695.339

While the average rate of interest on the above-mentioned debt is found to be 5 1/3 per cent., three millions were raised at 5 per cent., and two and a half millions at 6 per cent.

Rateable Value of Property in Counties and Boroughs

The aggregate value of rateable property in all boroughs, road, town, and outlying districts in the colony on the 31st March, 1898, was:—

Local Bodies.Rateable Property.Total.
££

† By “The Rating Act, 1894,” “the ‘rateable value’ of any property means the rent at which such property would let from year to year, deducting therefrom 20 per centum in case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and 10 per centum in case of land and other hereditaments, but shall in no case be less than 5 per centum on the value of the fee-simple thereof.” The values stated in the tables are taken from returns rendered by the local bodies.

‡ Exclusive of property in Counties of Rotorua, East Taupo, West Taupo, Kawhia, and Sounds, where there are no local bodies raising revenue.

Boroughs4,247,099 
Boroughs (annual value, £2,184,174,† capitalised at 6 per cent.)36,402,900 
  40,649,999
Counties—  
    Road districts38,599,042 
    Town districts879,126 
    Town districts (annual value, £29,611,† capitalised at 6 per cent.)493,516 
Outlying35,335,454 
  75,307,138‡
Total rateable value of property..£115,957,137

Here the total value of rateable property in counties amounts to £75,307,138, and that in boroughs to £40,649,999.

The total value of rateable property in the colony, therefore, according to returns furnished by the local bodies, amounted, in March, 1898, to £115,957,137, exclusive of five counties where there are no local bodies raising revenue.

Some of the boroughs and town districts rate on a capital value, but most of them upon an annual value of property. In the foregoing statement the annual value has, where necessary, been capitalised at 6 per cent.

In case of the boroughs, the Act under which the valuation is made provides for a reduction from the renting-value of 20 per cent. on houses and buildings, and 10 per cent. on land. The actual annual value of the properties will, therefore, be greater than the rating value by from 11 to 25 per cent.

The figures given on the preceding page are taken from returns furnished by local bodies from information obtained prior to the general valuation of land and improvements by the Commissioner of Taxes, which has been described in the previous section.

“The Municipal Franchise Reform Act, 1898.”

This is a law extending and amending the franchise in the case of boroughs, and provides that, in addition to the persons who are already entitled to be enrolled, every person shall be so entitled who possesses the freehold or residential qualifications stated in the Act.

The possession of the freehold qualification is defined as being the beneficial owner of a freehold estate in land of the capital value of not less than £25, situated in the borough, not with standing that the person may be already enrolled, or entitled so to be, as a ratepayer of the borough.

Every person is deemed to possess a residential qualification within a borough if he is, and for at least three months last past has been, a residential occupant within such borough.

No person may be entered in the burgess lists in respect of more qualifications than one; but (except in the case of a ratepayer) any person who has more than one qualification may select the one in respect of which he wishes to be entered.

In the case of husband and wife, any qualification possessed by one of them is deemed to be possessed by each.

No person enrolled on a burgess roll has more than one vote, and no person enrolled by virtue of the residential qualification can vote on any proposal relating to loans or rates.

Rating on Unimproved Value

“The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896,” gives power to local governing bodies to levy rates upon the unimproved instead of upon the capital (or annual) value of real property, provided that the proposal to do so has been demanded by the required proportion of ratepayers, submitted to the ratepayers' vote, and declared carried by a majority of the valid votes recorded by at least one-third of the ratepayers on the roll.

Rates made and levied under this Act must be so adjusted as to equal as nearly as may be, but not exceed in their producing capacity, rates made and levied on the capital (or annual) value under “The Rating Act, 1894,” see special article in Part III.

Up to the end of March, 1899, twelve local governing bodies (six boroughs, four counties, one town district, and one road district) had notified in the New Zealand Gazette that the proposal to levy rates on the unimproved value of land had been carried, while in eight cases (four boroughs and four counties) the proposal had been rejected.

The amount of rates levied by the various Borough Councils, County Councils, Town Boards, and Road Boards, and the value of the rateable property in each as returned by these bodies, with other particulars for the 31st March, 1898, were:—

BOROUGHS, 1897–98.
Name of Borough.Estimated Area (including Town Belt) in Acres.Population.Number ofAmount of Rate levied in the Pound.Estimated Annual (or renting) Value of Rateable Property in March, 1898.Capital Value of Rateable Property. March, 1898.
Dwellings.Ratepayers.Rateable Properties.General.Separate.Special.Water.Library.

* To be known as “Grey Lynn” from 16th August, 1899.

(1) To consumers only.

(2) Maximum under “Municipal Corporations Act, 1886.”

(3) 2 ½ to 1 per cent., according to value, or 1s. 3d. per 1,000 gallons by meter.

(4) On unimproved value, £41,446.

(5) Not collected.

(6) 3 ½ per cent. on dwellings, and 2 per cent. on stores, &c.

(7) 9/64d., and 3/16d.; drainage rate, ¾d.; S. Waimakariri River Board, 3/64d.

(8) Maximum under “Municipal Corporations Act, 1886.”

(9) In terms of section 325, “Municipal Corporations Act, 1886.”

(10) Maximum under “Municipal Corporations Act, 1886.”

(11) 7, 6, 3 ½, and 2 ½ per cent. on rateable value.

(12) 6d. in the pound where water is laid on, and 3d. where not.

(13) Maximum under “Municipal Corporations Act, 1886.”

      s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.££
Whangarei1,8251,2503002653500 0 ¾..........84,829
Birkenhead2,803750..1852101 30 2 ¼0 2 ¼....6,000..
Devonport6403,1506415931,0451 0..0 99 3/5 d., or 4 per cent...23,020..
Auckland1,77238,6207,8707,4607,9841 0..1 02 ½ per cent.(1)0 0 ½322,376..
Newton*9002,6005285487651 0..0 44 to 6 per cent...17,338..
Newmarket1501,9503802823481 3..0 74 to 6 per cent...11,610..
Parnell4804,3308605549131 3..0 94 per cent...27,127..
Onehunga1,2002,9136206749600 9....4 per cent...14,067..
Thames2,5605,500..8941,5231 00 6..2 ½ per cent.0 129,714..
Hamilton1,6001,2504004016311 0........7,694..
Cambridge1,0838652502156881 0........4,760..
Tauranga1,0001,0503704056011 0..1 3....4,365..
Gisborne1,2602,5004854347501 3..0 6....26,072..
New Plymouth8504,1007457891,1141 3..0 106d. and 1s...28,200..
Hawera5002,2005004057001 3........14,423..
Patea1,4207402101905401 3..0 4 ⅜0 1 ¾..5,040..
Wanganui1,0006,4001,2259201,4550 10..1 5....46,000..
Marton1,4231,2002272544041 1..1 0..0 110,303..
Feilding3,5002,1504254267951 3..1 0..0 116,000..
Palmerston North4,5936,0001,2431,1082,5380 1 ⅝..0 2 ⅞(2)....554,623
Foxton..1,1402182164471 3......0 16,961..
Hastings5,7403,3007637341,2781 3..0 9....39,630..
Napier8799,2311,8169042,4810 6..1 7(8)..82,450..
Dannevirke1,2221,6003503841,0361 3..0 9....11,313..
Woodville1,2401,1503314634500 3 ⅝(4)..........98,474
Pahiatua7501,2002803724431 3..0 2 ½....8,866..
Masterton4,3113,8007376261,1201 0..0 5(5)..0 130,578..
Carterton1,8801,3002702403040 1..........88,361
Greytown3,9071,1272402163601 0......0 17,958..
Lower Hutt3,2551,5503082563670 0 ¾0 0 ¼........246,505
Petone9523,2005864878841 0..0 9....18,589..
Onslow2,8701,3002703303700 0 15/160 0 ¼........157,737
Wellington1,10040,2207,3584,5009,2661 30 5 ¼3 ½d. & 4 ½d.0 9 3/50 1379,000..
Karori5,1271,0241962222980 0 15/16..........117,682
Melrose3,9622,2754556457390 0 15/160 0 ¼........238,000
Picton5608001582749800 0 ¾0 0 1/5..⅞d. and 7/16d.....65,614
Blenheim1,5713,0007194801,4341 1 ½0 20 2 ½....24,852..
Nelson4,8006,8041,4101,1602,2791 1..0 1(6)..51,233..
Richmond2,3005951241281430 0 ¾....4 per cent.....84,955
Westport7133,2007128021,1040 0 15/160 0 ⅝0 0 11/16......163,625
Greymouth2,0003,2007435571,1181 3........22,489..
Brunner5,7001,2002932303161 3..1 4....5,598..
Kumara8421,1502582463890 0 ¾0 1 ½........24,911
Hokitika1,2802,1007255429700 0 15/160 2 ½0 1......81,257
Ross4,1967503003544140 0 ¾0 1 ¼........27,214
Rangiora1,0401,8713903455520 0 ¾..........153,882
Kaiapoi1,0201,8804023465971 0........9,495..
Christchurch1,24917,2593,9122,4044,6991 00 2 ½0 3....192,300..
Linwood6506,3481,3251,1341,3520 0 ¾(7)........438,895
St. Albans1,5005,9501,2861,2001,3010 0 ¾0 0 1/12........599,373
Sydenham1,19010,6302,1741,7802,1740 0 ¾¾d., 3/64d., 7/48d.........699,779
Woolston1,2762,1004364655700 0 ¾0 0 5/32........177,779
Sumner4,8765841722313711 0..0 72 per cent...6,736..
New Brighton1,4008001505656991 00 20 10....6,400..
Lyttelton2,0144,0537785288271 0........22,950..
Akaroa2216301331391950 0 15/16..........45,680
Ashburton6802,100485506..1 0........19,756..
Timaru5403,8007285501,1020 6..1 02 ½ to 5 per cent...33,320..
Waimate6491,5005003115001 0........7,220..
Oamaru1,1115,3271,0621,0951,5301 3..1 6(8)..30,760..
Hampden640320801251870 0 ¾..........12,103
Palmerston South8007751772483600 0 ½..........37,421
Hawksbury2,7007301402204400 0 ½..........48,400
Port Chalmers3352,1004874625631 0..0 6(9)..11,400..
North-east Valley3,9803,5007401,1901,2001 0..0 6....17,691..
Maori Hill3,7001,4803153123551s. & 1s. 3d.........10,064..
West Harbour1,6701,5002914496321 0..1 0....9,154..
Dunedin1,80022,8154,7692,7954,4011 3..0 3(10)..233,248..
Roslyn2,0004,1008028911,0241 00 1......28,033 
Mornington6543,6527978109821 0..0 1 ½....21,584..
Caversham1,0734,9009537691,1351 30 30 35 per cent...29,743..
St. Kilda4631,1982383711,3361 0..0 6....8,780..
South Dunedin4134,9509908551,0511 30 30 66 per cent...20,774..
Green Island1037001501811711 0........2,917..
Mosgiel9671,4503102964941 0........8,126..
Milton2651,3002402203001 0........5,998 
Kaitangata1,1561,4002962755411 0..0 6....6,062..
Balclutha5689252302552901 0......0 15,299..
Lawrence6401,0102302652731 0....6d. and 3d...7,620 
Roxburgh400450105721221 0........1,512..
Tapanui40450130....1 3........1,879 
Naseby1125001431301641 0....(11)..2,346..
Cromwell6405501681562401 3..0 2 ½0 10..3,450..
Alexandra84040090871001 0........2,055..
Arrowtown3904091201112401 0....1 0..2,165..
Queenstown9237502681757141 0..0 6(12)..4,921..
Gore1,1502,5004805881,3171 0........14,479..
Mataura1,5308002101774751 0........3,890..
Winton162400861111541 3........2,414..
Invercargill1,0006,2501,1609001,7001 0..1 0(13)..55,882 
North Invercargill3269201922423191 0..1 8....3,908..
South Invercargill4,0001,9203666039091 3..1 11....5,940..
East Invercargill1219801772142141 3..0 9....3,943..
Avenal8040060671001 0........1,898..
Gladstone240380661351351 0..0 6....2,693..
Campbelltown2,0001,1223003305531 3........7,618..
Riverton7181,0002402204371 3........4,125..
        Totals....................2,184,1744,247,099
TOWN DISTRICTS, 1897–98.
Town DistrictsPopulation, Census, April, 1896.Number ofAmount of Rate levied in the Pound.Capital Value of Rateable Property.Annual Value of Rateable Property.
Dwellings.Ratepayers.Rateable Properties.

* Special town district under “The Thermal-Springs Districts Act, 1881.”

† The figures are for 1896–97, later accounts not being procurable.

     s. d.££
Kamo2227183960 0 ¾15,087..
Helensville5641161001330 3..2,719
Papakura274731542020 0 ¼18,550..
Te Aroha6722153003141 0..5,340
Te Awamutu3474566660 0 ¾19,338..
Kihikihi202601201580 0 ½9,270..
Ngaruawahia235601441440 0 ¾13,057..
Rotorua*499............
Opotiki6412201902810 0 ½29,565..
Waitara (Raleigh)5171452202990 0 ¾27,500..
Opunake4001001645390 0 ½25,971..
Inglewood6581601533850 0 ¾27,234..
Normanby396801001000 1 ½13,457..
Stratford1,2562803486900 0 ¾66,684..
Manaia471801612000 0 ¾26,929..
Waverley4421001001000 0 ¾20,801..
Lethbridge (Turakina)2515347650 8..1,624
Bull's5211181201731 0..3,635
Halcombe376971637301 0..1,605
Clyde (Wairoa)5791201682920 0 ¾43,612..
Taradale8071481361830 0 ½72,464..
Ormondville†4531901602150 6..2,513
Waipawa7641531321950 10..6,251
Kaikora North301621031351 0..2,320
Featherston7111091501900 0 ¾46,005..
Johnsonville49392901460 0 ½45,830..
Havelock3659695..0 117,242..
Amberley43793931300 0 ¾27,525..
Southbridge4942001252450 0 ¾34,165..
Hampstead1,2142002683140 0 ½62,974..
Tinwald5381001191890 0 ¾46,301..
Geraldine8411701963070 0 ¾39,660..
Temuka6601501546000 0 ¾52,330..
Arowhenua7892153705000 0 ½29,488..
Allanton (Greytown)27410470870 0 ½6,737..
Outram4528666660 0 ¼27,640..
Clinton474901231351 0..1,375
Wyndham4831041043541 0..2,229
Otautau367841051050 0 ¾13,710..
        Totals..........879,12629,611
ROAD DISTRICTS, 1897–98.
County and District.Population, Census, 1896.Number ofValue of Rateable Property.Amount of Rate levied in the Pound.
Dwellings.Ratepayers.Rateable Properties.

(1) No rate struck.

(1) On annual value.

(2) ⅝d. special.

(3) ⅜d. special.

(4) 5/16d., West Mauku Ward; ½d., 1d. Patumahoe Ward.

(5) 1/3d. special.

(6) ¼d. special.

(1) No rate struck.

(2) ⅜ d. and ¾d. special.

(3) ½d., 2d., and 2 ¼d. special.

(4) 3-16d. special.

(5) Cut out of Poverty Bay.

(1) No rate struck.

(2) ½d. and 5-6d. special.

(3) ¾d. special, portion of district.

(4) ¼d. special.

(5) Special, various; ¾d. separate.

(6) Special, various.

(1) Special, various.

(2) Special, 3-16d.; separate, various.

(3) 5-16d. special.

(4) No rate struck.

* Counties of Akitio and Eketahuna constituted, 5th November, 1898.

(1) Special, various.

(2) 2 ⅛d. and ⅜d. special.

(3) ¼d. special.

(4) ⅜d. special.

(5) No rate struck.

(1) ½d. special, part of district.

(2) Separate, 1s., ¾d., 2 3-7d.

(3) 1-7d. special, H. and C.A.

(4) No rate struck.

(5) 5-16d. special.

Mongonui—    £d.
    Oruaiti (merged)91..........
    Oruru534108....27,471½
Whangaroa(No road districts.)      
Bay of Islands      
Hokianga      
Hobson      
Whangarei—        
    Hikurangi  3541158512021,838¾
    Kaurihohore  21232455516,846¾
    Kensington  3242029327,478¾
    Maungakaramea  2274810210223,032¾
    Maunu  55713014014041,438¾
    Otonga  20752555713,301¾
    Otonga East  246688010516,490¾
    Parua Bay  29915520525520,018¾
    Ruarangi  11720586511,182¾
    Waikiekie  1803119626517,068¾
    Waipu North  20946868618,081¾
    Whareora  1016378806,736¾
Otamatea—        
    Mangawai  27252888821,092¾
    Matakohe  3285016916927,479¾
    Whakapirau (no Board)  ........35,000..
Rodney—        
    Albertland North  611048487,696¾
    Albertland South  3477622923426,364¾
    Ahuroa  361258644,530¾
    Komokoriki  791239426,622¾
    Mahurangi East  13534717110,790(1)
    Mahurangi Upper  83317127735962,225¾
    Mainene  541534456,098(1)
    Matakana East  1091722227,966¼
    Matakana West  194607013013,646¾
    Omaha  3378615817321,271¾
    Puhoi  4658012713032,856¾
    Tauhoa  4096993..21,175¾
    Wharehine  10120543115,912¾
Waitemata—        
    Kaukapakapa  5779017024442,585¾
    Pukeatua  6508020335026,874¾
    Whangaparaoa  1072235417,403¾
Eden—        
    Avondale  90120026832284,402..
    Arch Hill  1,55735028357291,8331s.(1)
    Eden Terrace  1,60436929943887,737¾(2)
    Epsom  660125114123142,695½
    Mount Albert  1,668270414437147,564¾
    Mount Eden  3,677850800900315,226¾(3)
    Mount Roskill  49588170230129,297½
    Mount Wellington  876162195576135,587
    One-tree Hill  975150170214170,229½
    Panmure Township  323768813213,362½
    Point Chevalier  59131374430,142¾
    Remuera  2,034380367450357,770¾
    Tamaki West  382809311788,703¾
Manukau—        
    Awhitu  37210012014026,446¾
    Howick Town  2206911210311,000¾
    Hunua  2303013515020,640¾
    Karaka  189607216020,150¾
    Mangare  854161154210151,426¾
    Manurewa  213568412028,466¾
    Maraetai  962222339,274¾
    Mauku  4239613317148,394½(4)
    Maungatawhiri  29346648828,597½
    Mercer Township  21535557310,989¾
    Opaheke  4628811012641,474¾
    Opaheke North  3679516221132,829¾
    Otahuhu  94229625833077,395¾
    Pakuranga  34666709448,270¾
    Papakura  393749610341,670¾
    Paparata  4078211216037,240¾
    Paparoa  10737646914,670¾
    Papatoitoi  1763665..51,498½
    Pokeno  40573899331,563¾
    Pollok Settlement  13322324510,693¾
    Pukekohe East  88423525025077,778½
    Pukekohe West  1,104208216220113,525¾
    Tamaki East  66811112116089,750¾
    Turanga  20944617021,396¾(5)
    Waipipi  82718026040081,336¾(6)
    Wairoa  85917022526082,250¾
    Waiuku  45410018518559,187¾
Coromandel(No road districts.)      
Thames      
Ohinemuri      
Piako—      £d.
    Matamata  23140525787,841¾
    Waitoa  979252218270239,369¾
Waikato—        
    Cambridge  538909393111,095½
    Kirikiriroa  823150251251235,997½
    Tamahere  20222383060,350¾
    Whangamarino  4077720641963,020¾ and ½
    Huntly  84430019622467,810¾
Waipa—        
    Newcastle  3939615016057,290¾
    Pukekura  802172370450122,820½
    Rangiaohia  5499011311372,854
    Tuhikaramea  8920515119,414¾
Raglan—        
    Karamu (no Board)  74..........
    Onewhero  17046586112,500(1)
    Te Akau (no Board)  51..........
Kawhia(No road districts.)      
    West Taupo      
East Taupo      
Rotorua      
Tauranga—        
    Katikati  397564814526,353¾
    Te Puke  3977011518445,598¾
    Te Puna  1653013514024,801(1)
Whakatane—        
    Opotiki  584120214252105,705½
    Whakatane  46720025027276,388¾
Waiapu (no road districts).        
Cook—        
    Kaiti  5659516045059,100¾ (2)
    Ngatapa  434937477224,572(1)
    Ormond  46110010022270,553½
    Patutahi  58287127266195,992(1)
    Pouawa  55457511094,000(3)
    Poverty Bay1087(5)  109121121130,490½ (4)
    Taruheru  45515180,600(1)
    Te Arai  2856935135164,458
    Waikohu  139303085316,121(1)
    Waimata  259474750130,459½
    Whataupoko  93616023027067,580¾
Clifton (no road districts).        
Taranaki—        
    Barrett  37284849536,038(1)
    Carrington  23249717931,954¾ (2)
    Egmont  6679413013165,303½ (3)
    Elliot  21539505315,894¾
    Frankley  27855626226,439¾
    Henui  39176829328,554¾
    Hurford, Upper  691818187,955¾
    Mangorei  24647606030,030¾
    Moa  2,451430490500225,800¾ (4)
    Oakura  32050127..39,272¼
    Okato  30660708843,736¼
    Omata  29155465336,065½
    Parihaka  1,187230350748217,157¼ (5)
    Tataraimaka  12626353625,502¼
    Waitara West  85116016022292,685¾
    Waiwakaiho  3936711217635,946¾
Stratford—        
    Manganui  1,478320350889145,692¾ (6)
Hawera—        
    Waimate  2,229420461600470,131¾ (6)
Patea—        
    Kohi  19532303050,139¾
    Motoroa  3716191924,071¾
    Okotuku  14424293349,455(1)
    Patea East  38465104355120,072(1)
    Patea West  799170213626186,504(1)
    Wairoa  9822292949,943¾
    Waitotara-Momohaki  492112118357109,869¾
    Whenuakura-Waitotara  334404242127,697¼
Waitotara (no road districts).        
Wanganui—        
    Kaukatea  161355010888,341¾
    Kaitoke  537100112174133,017½
    Mangawhero  715200277277210,309½
    Purua  839175171195182,260¾
    Upper Wangaehu  4508686132137,303¾ (1)
Rangitikei—        
    Hunterville (merged)  ..150189..26,649¾
Oroua—        
    Fitzherbert  564132277376309,653¾
    Manawatu  2,163412460693555,257¾
    Manchester  3,3477256081,820909,234⅝ (2)
    Pohangina(No road districts.)      
Kiwitea      
Manawatu      
Horowhenua—        
    Otaki  1,198201307707200,006¾ (1)
    Te Horo  40574134342175,078⅝ (3)
    Wirokino  ..8604751,021618,282½ (1)
    Wairoa(No road districts.)      
Hawke's Bay      
Waipawa—        
    Kumeroa  404100120238118,554½d. & ¼d.
    Maungaatua  249425824774,606¾
    Norsewood  1,043170236250100,874¾
    Ruataniwha North  5811029292278,560¾
    Takapau  523806070196,416
    Waipawa  327556910260,605½
    Waipukurau  816111102126298,310
    Woodville  1,001200225331118,441¾
Patangata—        
    Oero  198344545292,147¾
    Patangata  339444499132,211¼
    Porangahau  4746262102235,161¾
    Taumumu  228191919457,3605/16
    Wallingford  244181833296,671¼
    Wanstead  121545472110,147(4)
    Weber  46979131158195,262¾
Pahiatua (no road districts.)        
Wairarapa North—*        
    Akitio  453373948242,801½
    Castlepoint  6579084106290,498½
    Eketahuna  2,159..5001,030244,2107/16 (1)
    Masterton  2,062380350438610,9647/16, 5/16, ⅜(1)
    Mauriceville  1,086263253315138,789
    Upper Taueru  21146535699,000⅜ (2)
Wairarapa South—        
    Featherston  2,2045004406001,081,444¾
    Taratahi-Carterton  2,494660648852702,576¾ (1)
Hutt—        
    Makara  278445313882,724½ (3)
    Seatoun  17560618130,220¾
Sounds (no road districts).        
Marlborough—        
    Awatere  432704663502,431¾
    Omaka  1,617250349403279,688
    Pelorus  1,407260264380190,245¾ (4)
    Picton  866181158250120,826¾
    Spring Creek  769120135139150,838¾ & 3/16
    Wairau  874138132200365,350½
Kaikoura (no road districts).        
Collingwood—        
    Collingwood  1,01927232790082,457¾
    Takaka  1,405327295690121,760¾
Waimea—        
    Dovedale  32748727229,393¼
    Motueka  976175163..83,768¾
    Moutere Upper  40910097..35,764..
    Riwaka  624125128..74,104½
    Stoke  1,244..210..214,415(5)
    Suburban North  59311012122488,421(5)
    Waimea West  42275707078,027..
Buller(No road districts.)      
Inangahua      
Grey      
Westland      
Amuri      
Ashley—        
    Ashley  686140180215299,709½
    Cust.  771157137157124,099½
    Eyreton  1,726320272272377,584
    Eyreton West  397857777189,962¼
    Kowai  1,967....683488,964⅝ (1)
    Mandeville and Rangiora  2,488520425591576,661
    Oxford  2,213452469690337,076¾
    Waipara  1,2272602343911,109,808½
Selwyn—        
    Avon  4,5321,0858021,160469,8661s.(2)
    Courtenay  2,491410433602721,5271/3
    Ellesmere  3,841..5615641,023,440
    Halswell  1,179220200210289,036½
    Heathcote  2,369464625673374,9604/5 1/6 (3)
    Lake Coleridge  141303751211,264(4)
    Lincoln  1,322268233283343,690⅝, 9/16
    Malvern  707175153249123,287½
    Malvern East  628129164246116,179½
    Malvern South  4839015030393,470½
    Rakaia  889185190287311,394¼
    Riccarton  5,2069209601,190765,382
    Spreydon  1,278300299329131,690
    Springs  1,984450390508484,922½
    Taitapu  376100606096,500¾
    Templeton  2,048420478591385,279½
    Upper Waimakariri  12221144164,039(4)
Akaroa—        
    Akaroa and Wainui  1,416220242356292,827¾
    Le Bon's Bay  27155798066,083⅝ (5)
    Little River  820250160283343,216½
    Okain's Bay  567103116125111,663¾
    Pigeon Bay  352585266109,893¾
    Port Levy  132283945100,087½
    Port Victoria  32880889264,676¾
Ashburton—        
    Anama  6914172052,514½
    Ashburton Upper  1,811350450550574,385¼ to ¾
    Coldstream  365617088219,399¼
    Longbeach  1,400..227327433,768½, ⅜, 5/16 9/16
    Mount Hutt  1,157250278372685,841¼
    Mount Somers  918182225225191,116
    Rangitata  703156208236361,682¼
    South Rakaia  1,558311337420487,680¼
    Wakanui  1,087187230230350,2815/16 to ⅜
Geraldine—        
    Geraldine  2,424470471550465,179¾
    Mount Peel  5179288103411,662½
    Temuka  2,268410505634646,9819/16
Levels(No road districts.)      
Mackenzie      
Waimate      
Waitaki      
Waihemo      
Waikouaiti      
Peninsula—        
    Otago Heads  306......33,502..
    Peninsula  1,294218333393187,453¾
    Portobello  877..356366141,864¾
    Tomahawk  16823334429,685¾
Taieri (no road districts.)        
Bruce—        
    Balmoral  370536583224,720..
    Inch-Clutha (Road and River)  42067677466,361¾
    Mount Stuart  708115115130108,930½
Clutha(No road districts.)      
Tuapeka      
Maniototo      
Vincent      
Lake      
Southland—        
    Invercargill (no Board.)  1,382..........
    Knapdale  1,391290255274257,788½
    Otaraia  656250169269125,748¾
    Oteramika  1,894365466..272,971¾, ½
    Tuturau  73295101110140,092¾
    Waimumu(Merged 1st June, 1897)574117127191171,591..
    Wyndham31644506878,789..
Wallace(No road districts.)      
Fiord      
Stewart Island      
        Totals............38,599,042 
COUNTIES, 1897–98.
Counties.Area in Square Miles.Population, Census, April, 1896.Value of Rateable Property in Counties (including Town and Road Districts, and Outlying).Rates struck by County.
General.Other.

* No local governing body raising revenue.

*No local governing body raising revenue.

† New Counties of Akitio and Eketahuna cut out of Wairarapa North on 5th November, 1898.

‡ On outlying.

§ County, 3-16d.; Whareama outlying, ¾d.; Alfredton outlying district, ¾d.

* Not including value of property in counties where there are no local governing bodies.

† ¾d. outlying; ⅜d. road district.

   £  
Mongonui9341,889133,949¾d. 
Whangaroa16096936,4511 ½d. 
Hokianga9721,909197,1391d. 
Bay of Islands8262,723175,5221d. 
Hobson6883,750270,0001 ½d. 
Whangarei9286,847708,465¾d.¾d. separate.
Otamatea3642,483237,973¾d.Separate on outlying, part ¾d., part ½d.
Rodney5663,464270,495¾d.Separate ½d. in Hoteo Riding; special ¾d. part of Mahurangi Riding.
Waitemata6136,762630,872¾d.Separate ½d. in four ridings; ¾d. separate in three ridings.
Eden4315,9401,694,547.. 
Manukau79112,1851,286,456.. 
Coromandel4034,987184,0001 ½d.¾d. Native rate on property, value £26,807.
Thames4944,515191,8601 ½d. 
Ohinemuri4784,761125,8681 ½d. 
Piako1,0952,706704,934½d.Separate ¼d., Te Aroha and Taotaoroa Ridings, ½d. Patetere Riding; special, ½d. Te Aroha Riding, 1/10 d. Patetere Riding.
Waikato5912,814538,272¼d. 
Waipa2823,584440,240¾d.½d. separate, Mangapiko and Hamilton; ¾d. in Pirongia outlying districts.
Raglan8241,545241,945¾d., ¼d.1/16d. H. and C.A.; ¼d. special Karioi loan, ¼d. separate.
Kawhia1,515598*.. 
West Taupo1,594156*.. 
East Taupo2,581232*.. 
Rotorua984840*.. 
Tauranga5771,622212,278¾d.1/10d. H. and C.A.; special ¼d.; 1/6d. special Maketu, ⅛d. Waimapu, 1/11d. Katikati Ridings.
Whakatane3,1561,988279,573¾d. 
Waiapu1,121447319,928¾d.¾d. special Tokomaru and Tuakau loan.
Cook1,9505,2871,816,250¾d.Various, from 1/12d. to 11/4d.
Clifton1,4461,450227,8011d. 
Taranaki5839,9701,039,035¾d.¾d. H. and C.A.; 31/3d. special.
Stratford7685,141645,166¾d.¾d. separate, East, West, and South Ridings.
Hawera4386,9341,193,813¾d., ½d.¼ separate, Eltham, Mokoia, Okaiawa, Mangatoki Ridings; ½d. Hawera Riding.
Patea6913,084795,940¾d.¾d. separate, Kapara Riding; 1 4/15d. special, Kapara loan; 1 1/3d. Omuoa loan.
Waitotara3432,737648,1181 ¼d.5/16d., 1 5/16d., and 43/16 d. special, on special, rating districts.
Wanganui1,9423,095814,058¾d. and ¼d.⅛d., 16/16d., special, Long Acre; 6/16d. Waikupa; 7/16d. Denlair Subdivisions.
Rangitikei8526,0301,540,985⅞d.Special, various, in special rating districts.
Kiwitea3362,428628,384¾d.Special, ⅛d. Otara, Makino, ¼d. Oroua districts; separate, ¼d. Waituna, Kimbolton, Ongo; ½d. Makino, Hautapu; ¾d. Apiti and Rangiwahia Ridings.
Oroua3976,4501,800,894.. 
Pohangina2951,351294,175¾d.Separate, ½d., ¾d.; special, 1 5/16d., 1 1/7d., and 1/5d.
Manawatu2672,709786,052½d.Separate, ¼d. Mt. Stewart, ½d. Sandon and Awahou, ⅜d. Waitohi, Campbell, Carnarvon, and Kawakawa Ridings.
Horowhenua5918,792993,366⅝d., ¾d.Special, various.
Wairoa1,8871,490745,062¾d.Special, 3 1/6d. on whole county, and 5/16d., 5/32d., and 1/64d. on part.
Hawke's Bay3,2326,8943,475,584½d. 
Waipawa1,1548,8662,167,344⅝d., 1 ⅜d.‡Special, 3/10d., 0.113d., ¾d., 0.756d., and 3/10d. for interest on Government loans.
Patangata7472,3741,757,625¾d.⅜d. Harbour Board levy.
Pahiatua3023,208898,4291 ¼d.Various; 34 special rates.
Wairarapa North†1,4437,2091,883,5103/16d., ¾d., ¾d.§Various, special and separate.
Wairarapa South1,2815,4091,830,025..Separate, 1/10d., H. and C.A.
Hutt5905,7501,029,038¾d., ¼d.Separate, ½d.; special, 1/3d., 1/6d., ⅝d., and 6/16d.
Sounds573747*.. 
Marlborough3,8126,3301,626,620.. 
Kaikoura6731,575351,316¾d. 
Collingwood1,0292,509215,177½d¼d. special.
Waimea1,6628,5911,063,774¾d.1/5d. separate, H. and C.A., and 1/10d. on Stoke Riding; ¼d. special in special rating district.
Buller1,8184,833293,1401 ½d. 
Inangahua2,2564,254563,4461 ½d., 1d. 
Grey1,4524,592426,7331 ½d.⅜d. separate, H. and C.A.
Westland4,4204,723178,0001 ½d. 
Amuri2,362916619,514½d.6/16d., 7/16d., and ¾d., special.
Cheviot3221,042503,4101d.3/16d. special.
Ashley1,62711,9133,531,388.. 
Selwyn2,59530,0906,040,090..1/7d. separate, H. and C.A.
Akaroa3533,8861,088,445⅜ d.¼d. special.
Ashburton2,54210,8203,465,941¼d.1/6d. special.
Geraldine9497,4991,645,300¼d. 
Levels2737,7231,288,9621d.Maintenance Seadown Water-race, 1 ½d. per acre; ¼d. Seadown Water-race interest.
Mackenzie2,5371,514735,613⅝d. 
Waimate1,3434,7772,253,9029/16d.1/3d., ⅝d., ⅝d., ⅞d., 1d., separate.
Waitaki2,3338,8762,325,006½d.1/16d. separate, Waiareka Riding; 8/16d. Moeraki and Otepopo Ridings.
Waihemo3362,148377,282⅝d. 
Waikouaiti3184,389480,000¾d. 
Peninsula372,645392,504.. 
Taieri9306,9501,221,909¾ d.Separate, ⅛d., H. and C.A.; ¾d. special, Henley Drainage District.
Bruce5034,828945,572⅜d., ¾d.†3/16d. separate, H. and C.A.; ⅜d. Matau and Waihola Ridings; special, various.
Clutha9466,5641,014,459¾d.3/16d. separate, H. and C.A.; special, 1/6d. Richardson Riding; 1/5d. South Molyneux; 3/10d. Clinton Riding; and ½d. Catlin's Riding.
Tuapeka1,3656,477795,340¾d. 
Maniototo1,2393,742472,541¾d. 
Vincent2,6844,090481,3741d.1 ½d. and 2 ½d., special.
Lake3,7122,663300,5821 ½d. 
Southland3,85221,6033,502,545¾d.1/6d. separate, H. and C.A.; ½d. special in special rating districts.
Wallace3,4046,6571,208,700¾d.⅛d. separate, H. and C.A.; ⅜d. separate in three ridings; ½0d. special, part Waiau Riding.
Fiord3,040151.... 
Stewart Island6512447,1321d.¼d. separate, H. and C.A.
Totals....75,307,138*.. 

Chapter 35. SECTION IX.—LICENSES AND LICENSED HOUSES, Etc

Licenses and Licensed Houses

DURING the year ended the 31st March, 1898, 2,393 licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors were granted. Of these, 1,526 were publicans' and accommodation licenses, 9 New Zealand wine, 53 packet, 125 wholesale, and 680 conditional. The fees paid amounted to £54,000, and formed part of the revenue of the local governing bodies of the districts in which the licenses were issued. Particulars are given in the following table:—

NUMBER OF LICENSES GRANTED DURING THE YEAR 1897–98, AND THE AMOUNT OF FEES PAID TO LOCAL BODIES THEREFOR.
Licenses.In Counties.In Boroughs.Total.
Publicans' licenses   615   677   1,292
Accommodation licenses    234   ..   234
        Total licensed houses   849   677   1,526
New Zealand wine licenses   ..   9   9
Packet licenses   15   38   53
Wholesale licenses   8   117   125
Conditional licenses   495   185   680
        Total licenses granted   1,367   1,026   2,393
Amount of license-fees paid to local bodies   £20,234   £33,766   £54,000

The average number of persons to each licensed house in counties and boroughs respectively, for 1897–98, is next shown:—

 Number of Licensed Houses.*Estimated Population.Average Number of Persons to each Licensed House.

*I.e., houses holding publicans' or accommodation licenses.

†Excluding persons on shipboard and adjacent islands.

Counties849397,830469
Boroughs677329,552487
          Totals1,526727,382†476

In 1896–97 the number of licensed houses in counties was 862, and those in boroughs 676, giving a total of 1,538 houses, or 12 more than in 1897–98. The average number of persons to a house increased from 455 in 1896–97 to 469 in 1897–98 in counties, and in boroughs the average increased from 476 to 487.

The annual fees paid for licenses are—

(1.) For a publicans' license£
        (a.) Within the limits of a borough or town district40*
        (b.) Outside the aforesaid limits25
(2.) For a New Zealand wine license1
(3.) For an accommodation license, a sum to be determined by the Licensing Committee, not exceeding20
(4.) For a packet license—
        (a.) For a vessel exceeding 50 tons register10
        (b.) For a vessel not exceeding 50 tons register5
(5.) For a wholesale license20
(6.) For a conditional license, according to duration of license, a sum not exceeding30

The approximate capital value of the licensed houses in the counties was stated at £688,438, and the same for certain of the boroughs at £152,032. There was, besides, an annual value of £109,520 for other licensed houses in the boroughs, which, capitalised at 6 per cent., would represent £1,825,333. The capital value of all licensed houses would therefore be about £2,665,800.

The total number of persons engaged in or connected with the sale or manufacture of wine, spirits, beer, cordials, &c., was returned at the census of 1896 as under:—

 Males.Females.Persons.
*Between the hours of six in the morning and ten at night. For an eleven o'clock license an additional £5 must be paid.
Hotel keeper1,3342041,538
        Relative assisting157348505
        Manager, clerk671178
Hotel, club, &c., servant1,1362,0753,211
Manager, secretary, steward of club-house32335
Barman, barmaid196210406
Wine, spirit, ale merchant43..43
        Assistant516
        Clerk, book-keeper, accountant, traveller, storeman44..44
        Cordial, &c., merchant, salesman5..5
Brewer, bottler2344238
        Manager, clerk, traveller53..53
        Relative assisting, apprentice18..18
        Cellarman, assistant, carter, &c.1511152
Maltster and assistants118..118
Distiller, bottler2..2
Wine-maker, -bottler9..9
Cordial, &c., maker2936299
        Clerk, book-keeper, traveller6..6
                Totals3,9032,8636,766

Remarks on the high rate of mortality ruling amongst men connected with the liquor trade in respect of various diseases, as compared with the death-rate of males engaged in other occupations, will be found on page 125, in Section II., dealing with vital statistics.

Local Option Poll

Under “The Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act, 1893,” each electoral district constituted for the election of a member of the House of Representatives is a licensing district, and electors for the House of Representatives are also electors under the Licensing Acts.

Under the Amendment Act of 1895 the licensing poll is taken at the same time as the general election of members of the House of Representatives. The questions for the decision of the voters are,—

  1. Whether the number of licenses existing in the district shall continue?

  2. Whether the number shall be reduced?

  3. Whether any licenses whatever shall be granted?

The voter may vote for one or two of these proposals, but no more.

The method of determining the result of the poll in each district by the Returning Officer is as follows:—

  1. If the number of votes recorded in favour of the continuance of existing licenses is an absolute majority of all the voters whose votes were recorded, the proposal is to be deemed to be carried, and the licenses continue until the next poll, subject to certain provisions in special cases.

  2. If the number of votes recorded in favour of a reduction in the number of licenses is an absolute majority of all the voters whose votes were recorded, the proposal is deemed to be carried, and supersedes the proposal for continuance of licenses. The Licensing Committee then reduces publicans' licenses by not less than 5 per cent. or more than 25 per cent. of the total number existing, excluding forfeitures. Provision is made that when a reduction vote is carried the licenses shall be reduced by one at least when the total number does not exceed ten, two when not over twenty, and three at least when the licenses exceed thirty.

  3. If the number of votes recorded in favour of the proposal that no license shall be granted is not less than three-fifths of all the voters whose votes were recorded, the proposal is declared to be carried, and supersedes the proposal for reduction and for continuance, and no licenses can be granted.

  4. If none of the proposals respecting licenses are carried by the prescribed majority the licenses continue as they are until next poll, subject to certain provisions in special cases.

The result of the poll taken on 4th December, 1896, for each licensing district is as follows:—

RESULT OF LOCAL-OPTION POLL, 1896.
District.Number on Roll.For Continuance.For Reduction.For no License.Total Number of Persons who voted at Poll.Informal Votes.Result of Poll.
Men.Woman.Total.
Bay of Islands3,9881,4818348921,8427702,61259Continuance carried.
Marsden4,1101,2811,3311,5831,9511,1223,073..No proposal carried.
Waitemata4,8811,7491,2201,3142,0751,2303,30573Continuance carried.
Eden5,2031,8691,4491,4721,9301,6963,626118Continuance carried.
City of Auckland20,2046,2695,3174,7836,7306,30413,034456No proposal carried.
Parnell5,5211,9261,5381,3601,8771,9083,78539Continuance carried.
Manukau5,5321,6941,2391,1011,6361,4903,132..Continuance carried.
Franklin4,7331,9591,6701,6072,2361,5543,790127Continuance carried.
Thames5,1412,0171,5321,7752,6931,2953,988126Continuance carried.
Ohinemuri5,6672,0661,1441,5332,8789683,846194Continuance carried.
Waikato3,6881,5779019391,6471,0292,67673Continuance carried.
Bay of Plenty3,9491,6991,0931,1311,9061,1943,100130Continuance carried.
Waiapu4,8811,9111,6101,8962,4781,4843,96284No proposal carried.
Hawke's Bay4,7462,1621,2101,5242,4501,4243,874203Continuance carried.
Napier5,1322,0861,7691,6272,1111,8593,970150Continuance carried.
Waipawa4,3872,0101,0931,4442,2941,4173,71155Continuance carried.
Pahiatua4,0571,4171,1061,5612,0571,1283,18586No proposal carried.
Masterton4,5411,7891,2161,4232,2361,1853,421..Continuance carried.
Wairarapa4,3372,1421,0481,1612,2501,3593,609..Continuance carried.
Egmont4,1461,5531,2511,5272,1821,1343,31678Continuance carried.
Taranaki5,2442,6681,8152,0072,4521,8344,286..No proposal carried.
Hawera4,1051,4401,5311,7942,0411,3723,41366No proposal carried.
Patea3,9851,3541,0941,2951,8979402,83798No proposal carried.
Wanganui5,2522,3071,5911,7482,2461,9604,206..Continuance carried.
Rangitikei5,0362,1201,2681,4692,5691,2073,776134Continuance carried.
Palmerston4,5991,7011,2551,2741,8091,3473,156..Continuance carried.
Manawatu4,1701,7771,0301,2211,9381,2573,195..Continuance carried.
Otaki3,9291,7807476291,8661,2883,154..Continuance carried.
Suburbs of Wellington5,5942,0001,6591,6232,2081,9634,171270No proposal carried.
City of Wellington19,3046,8265,6634,9517,3775,79113,168458Continuance carried.
City of Nelson4,5232,1201,3161,0201,9761,7523,72855Continuance carried.
Motueka3,6661,6728028541,8241,1612,985124Continuance carried.
Wairau5,1232,5361,1601,1232,3631,7454,108149Continuance carried.
Buller5,0132,2811,3871,4982,7401,6154,3557Continuance carried.
Grey4,5082,1341,1201,1272,3591,1313,490..Continuance carried.
Westland4,6142,1969509822,3291,2173,546194Continuance carried.
Ashley4,0591,9369341,1862,1171,2593,376..Continuance carried.
Kaiapoi4,7032,0791,6711,7962,1821,8494,031..Continuance carried.
Avon4,1731,8179869791,6701,4163,086115Continuance carried.
City of Christchurch18,4398,2355,9525,2617,9117,19515,106572Continuance carried.
Lyttelton4,2822,0041,0481,1201,8911,6033,494125Continuance carried.
Riccarton4,1202,1089929491,8081,5063,314121Continuance carried.
Ellesmere3,7271,6531,0781,1731,6821,2872,969..Continuance carried.
Selwyn4,0591,8371,1021,1642,0561,1283,18414Continuance carried.
Ashburton4,8512,1001,3261,5652,3631,6133,976203Continuance carried.
Geraldine4,3541,9381,1001,4222,0451,5303,575..Continuance carried.
Timaru4,7732,0601,5311,5601,9341,7753,70994Continuance carried.
Waitaki4,3731,7511,3171,6252,1651,3003,465..Continuance carried.
Oamaru4,6152,1631,6031,6152,1521,7513,90380Continuance carried.
Waihemo4,0771,8801,1201,2942,0781,2673,345116Continuance carried.
Waikouaiti3,9911,6351,1871,2781,6941,4093,10353Continuance carried.
City of Dunedin18,5717,8975,2844,4667,1337,45014,583..Continuance carried.
Caversham5,5592,7261,5421,2642,1972,2524,449140Continuance carried.
Taieri3,8591,5901,0981,1241,7661,1242,89058Continuance carried.
Bruce4,0401,4111,4281,5411,8221,2593,08174No proposal carried.
Tuapeka3,9071,8949451,0522,0981,0973,195..Continuance carried.
Clutha4,6441,6181,6301,9892,2831,4443,72760No proposal carried.
Mataura4,9972,1451,4311,6572,3681,5653,93368Continuance carried.
Wakatipu4,0461,9737789402,1741,0013,175117Continuance carried.
Wallace3,9271,9517841,0272,1111,0643,175..Continuance carried.
Invercargill5,7132,5581,7701,8242,2882,2554,543..Continuance carried.
Awarua3,8621,6529591,1131,7941,1282,92269Continuance carried.
 339,230139,58094,55598,312151,235108,663259,898..Continuance carried.

It will thus be seen that 139,580 votes were recorded in favour of continuance of existing licenses, 94,555 for reduction, and 98,312 for no license. In fifty-two districts the majority of voters were in favour of continuance, and in ten districts none of the proposals were carried. In four of the districts—namely, Marsden, Hawera, Bruce, and Clutha—a majority of those who polled voted for prohibition, but not the necessary three-fifths required to carry that issue.

Fire Brigades

On the 31st December, 1898, there were eighty-four fire brigades in the colony, with a total strength of 1,634 (244 officers and 1,390 men). Compared with the numbers in 1897, these figures show an increase of one brigade, fourteen officers, and thirty-eight men. There is also a salvage corps in Auckland, consisting of one captain and six men, not included in the figures given above, which works in conjunction with the city and suburban fire brigades.

Chapter 36. SECTION X.—IMPORTS: CUSTOMS AND EXCISE REVENUE

Imports

The quantities and values of imports used in making up the figures given in this portion of the statistical report are obtained from Customs entries, verified where necessary, as with goods subject to an ad valorem duty, by examination. For exports, the “free on board in New Zealand” value is given; but, as regards the main items, the Collector of Customs examines carefully the amounts stated, and compares them with current price-lists, to prevent any over-estimate. Goods transhipped at a foreign port are regarded as imported from the country where they were originally shipped, and exports as destined for the country where it is intended to land them. The countries named, however, may not be those of origin or destination, as no attempt is made to trace the goods beyond the ports disclosed by the documents presented to the Customs. Very little cargo in transitu passes through New Zealand.

The total declared values of the imports in 1898 amounted to £8,230,600, being an increase on the corresponding total in 1897 of £175,377. These figures, however, include specie. The value of coin brought into the colony in 1898 was £19,191, against £61,022 in the previous year, and if these items are excluded, the increase on the values of all other articles will be found to reach the sum of £217,208.

The value of imports for each of the past eleven years was:—

Year.Imports, inclusive of Specie.Imports, exclusive of Specie.
 ££
18885,941,9005,430,050
18896,308,8635,980,583
18906,260,5055,928,625
18916,503,8496,431,101
18926,943,0566,742,544
18936,911,5156,494,279
18946,788,0205,990,177
18956,400,1296,115,953
18967,137,3207,035,379
18978,055,2237,994,201
18988,230,6008,211,409

It will be seen that the value of imports, exclusive of specie, rose from £5,430,050 in 1888 to £6,742,544 in 1892, then fell to £5,990,177 in 1894, after which there ensued a steady advance year by year to £8,211,409 in 1898. The movement for the period 1894–98 is a rise at the rate of 37 per cent. in money value, or a sum of £2,221,232. In quantities of various imports the increases vary, and full particulars of every kind of article imported in 1898 are to be found in detail further on, which may be critically examined with those in similar tables for 1897 and 1896, given in the previous Year-books.

It is desirable to consider not only the total value of the import trade for different years by comparing these figures, but to ascertain the rates per capita of population, to judge whether the imports are relatively greater or less than they have been. And the calculations must be made after deducting specie imported, for in the year 1894, as an instance, no less than £797,843 was brought to the colony in coin.

The figures for each year from 1888 stand thus:—

Years.Imports per head of mean Population, excluding Maoris.
Including Specie.Excluding Specie.
 £s.d.£s.d.
188891648195
188910569156
189010029110
189110661043
18921016310911
189310909165
1894919118165
189594108168
1896101119191
189711331117
189811371131

Using the figures exclusive of the specie, it will be seen that, though comparisons for years since 1888 do not show by any means a steady rise since that year, the position is that whereas the imports proper were only £8 19s. 5d. per head of population in the first period of the table, they had increased by £2 3s. 8d. per head in 1898, and increase is observed in each year's figures since 1894, amounting to £2 6s. 8d. in the last four years.

By means of the accompanying table, in which the articles imported are arranged in groups according to their nature, the increases in value can be traced to their specific heads:—

Imports for Five Years

Group of Principal Articles imported.1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.
* Includes methylated and perfumed spirits, and spirits of wine.
 £££££
Apparel and slops301,774316,179370,516362,389354,940
Boots and shoes139,455122,462127,985132,203130,912
Cotton piece-goods342,446374,366434,673414,673417,733
Drapery294,800288,995336,839344,539343,820
Haberdashery71,50584,62568,47370,85385,985
Hats and caps46,78554,19358,31063,31066,416
Hosiery59,23762,23782,98483,79675,736
Linen manufactures43,85148,02957,32557,03956,572
Millinery23,48024,59128,86632,24536,074
Silks57,96559,18969,74274,40079,910
Woollens178,668187,782254,580293,449286,911
       Totals1,559,9661,622,6481,890,2931,928,8961,935,009
Agricultural implements3,9424,5996,89411,09517,234
Cutlery16,91315,65817,38419,63622,722
Hardware and ironmongery171,179164,745182,313228,465248,665
Iron rails and railway bolts, &c.33,95441,30129,59290,48942,773
Iron, pig, wrought, wire, &c.344,434318,362502,725529,204554,124
Steel and steel rails10,16412,152502,725529,204554,124
Machinery156,199131,843251,905368,416422,011
Nails27,96825,96532,30433,27936,792
Railway plant8,8435,6873,06246,08257,224
Sewing-machines21,79722,16624,64121,54230,618
Tools, artificers'41,19639,12444,38657,90370,631
       Totals836,589781,6021,095,2061,406,1111,502,794
Sugar460,071389,609422,134373,407425,270
Tea136,986173,343166,860178,350183,717
       Totals597,057562,952588,994551,757608,987
Beer39,39342,67635,12339,61437,844
Spirits*153,560164,166160,648178,344187,020
Tobacco124,757123,843149,905164,889161,836
Wine40,41241,10940,87950,20248,514
       Totals358,122371,794386,555433,049435,214
Paper117,259110,539117,577127,980133,901
Printed books105,597101,958111,344116,485109,961
Stationery71,52477,59586,62892,87198,469
       Totals294,380290,092315,549337,336342,331
Bags and sacks62,49769,93555,961104,401111,116
Coals105,19197,62194,13898,139105,223
Fancy goods71,25771,27389,072100,824103,786
Fruits (including fresh, preserved, bottled, dried)133,829125,250145,016183,133181,447
Oils111,654134,913128,138163,793162,523
Other imports (excluding specie)1,859,6351,987,8732,246,4572,686,7622,722,979
       Total Imports (excluding specie)5,990,1776,115,9537,035,3797,994,2018,211,409
Specie imported797,843284,176101,94161,02219,191
Total Imports6,788,0206,400,1297,137,3208,055,2238,230,600

Of £8,211,409 the total value of goods imported during 1898, the chief items were as under:—

Articles.Value.Proportion
 £per Cent.
Clothing, drapery, &c.1,935,00923.56
Metal, machinery, and implements1,502,79418.30
Tea and sugar608,9877.42
Wine, beer, spirits, and tobacco435,2145.30
Paper and books342,3314.17
Other imports3,387,07441.25
 8,221,409100.00

The declared value of the clothing, drapery, &c., imported increased from £1,928,896 in 1897 to £1,935,009 in 1898. In 1894 the value of the import was £1,559,966. The iron, machinery, and implements imported in 1898 were valued at £1,502,794, an increase of £721,192 on the corresponding figures for 1895 (£781,602).

To the total value of “Other imports (excluding specie),” in 1898 (£2,722,979), shown in the table above, arms, ammunition, and explosives contributed a sum of £99,259; bicycles, tricycles, and fittings, £141,451; drugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares, £166,212; patent medicines, £36,137; manures, £112,846; musical instruments, £81,947; glass and glassware, £87,912; earthenware, £38,917; floorcloth and oilcloth, £56,167; furniture, cabinetware, and upholstery, £46,210; cement, £41,221; leather, £73,476; seeds, £78,183; and timber, £68,440.

Goods imported by means of the “Parcels Post” system during 1898 were valued at £57,627.

Value of Free and Dutiable Imports

The values of the imports into New Zealand during the year 1898 are given in the next table, classified according to the duties to which they were liable, and are arranged so as to show the declared value of goods on which specific or ad valorem duties at various rates are payable and of those admitted free of duty:—

Duties to which Imports liable.Value of Imports, 1898.
 ££
Specific duties..2,126,685
Ad valorem duties—
     5 per cent.254,409 
     10 per cent.131,685 
     15 per cent.37,684 
     20 per cent.1,857,460 
     22 ½ per cent.131,091 
     25 per cent.775,219 
     40 per cent.37,219 
     Various2,284 
Parcels-post (various)57,627 
  3,284,678
Duty-free (excluding specie)..2,800,046
Specie imported..19,191
        Totals..£8,230,600

The proportions of free and dutiable goods imported during 1897 and 1898 are compared with similar figures for 1894, the year preceding that in which the altered tariff came into force:—

 1894.1897.1898.
Merchandise—£££
     Free1,871,7722,675,9312,800,046
     Dutiable4,118,4055,318,2705,411,363
        Imports (less specie)5,990,1777,994,2018,211,409
 £££
        Total net duty received1,572,4671,915,6931,965,404
Duty, per cent. of imports—Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
     (a.) On dutiable imports38.1836.0236.32
     (b.) On all merchandise26.2523.9523.94

Sugar

The value of sugar (including glucose, molasses, and treacle) imported in 1898 was £425,270, an increase of £51,863 on the amount for 1897 (£373,407). This import for the last three years has averaged only £406,937 per annum; but for the three years, 1882, 1883, and 1884, the average, with a much smaller population, was £615,207 for each year. The smaller average amount for the last three years is due, not to a reduction in the quantity imported, but partly to a fall in the price of sugar and partly to the fact that the proportion of refined to raw sugar has vastly decreased.

The following figures, giving the consumption per head of sugar in the Australasian Colonies, are, saving those for New Zealand—and excluding a proportion (30 lb. per head) deducted on account of Maoris—taken from Mr. Coghlan's “Seven Colonies of Australasia, 1897–98.” The figures stating the consumption of tea, given further on, are taken from the same source:—

Annual Consumption of Sugar per Head in the Australasian Colonies

 Lb.
Queensland110.5
Western Australia106.3
New Zealand98.5
South Australia97.9
New South Wales95.9
Victoria92.9
Tasmania82.9

Tea

The quantity of tea entered for consumption in 1898 was 4,720,522 lb. Supposing Maoris to use, on an average, 1lb. per head per annum, the consumption of tea per head of the population, exclusive of Maoris, would be 6.4 lb. in 1898.

Annual Consumption of Tea per Head in the Australasian Colonies

 Lb.
Western Australia9.5
Queensland7.8
New South Wales7.8
South Australia7.7
Victoria7.2
Tasmania6.4
New Zealand6.4

Beer, Spirits, and Wine

During 1898 excise duty was paid on 6,013,120 gallons of beer; and 191,580 gallons of beer, 491,846 gallons of spirits, and 107,595 gallons of wine were entered at the Customs for home consumption.

The actual quantity of beer made and used in the colony has increased from 4,402,720 gallons in 1885 to 6,013,120 gallons in 1898:—

Beer manufactured in New Zealand on which Excise Duty was paid

 Gal.
18854,402,720
18864,243,760
18874,264,160
18884,050,560
18894,402,480
18904,676,240
18914,567,920
18924,752,720
18934,873,600
18944,807,360
18954,936,400
18965,382,960
18975,741,200
18986,013,120

The following table gives the consumption per head of alcoholic liquors by the people, excluding and including Maoris, showing separately the proportions of beer, wine, and spirits from 1883 to 1898. To the amount of beer manufactured in the colony in each year on which excise duty was paid has been added the amount brought into consumption from imports:—

Years.Beer.Spirits.Wine.
Excluding Maoris.Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.Including Maoris.
 Gal.Gal.Gal.Gal.Gal.Gal.
18839.4358.7091.0881.0050.3150.291
18867.8617.3330.8200.7650.2120.198
18897.6247.1360.5980.5600.1760.165
18927.8077.3280.7080.6640.1740.163
18957.4216.9960.6290.5930.1350.127
18988.4277.9950.6680.6340.1460.139

A comparison of the annual consumption of beer, spirits, and wine per head in the Australasian Colonies is added:—*

* See “The Seven Colonies of Australasia, 1897–98.”

Beer.Spirits.Wine.
 Gal.Gal.Gal.
Queensland12.360.910.60
New South Wales9.140.730.61
Victoria11.430.731.35
South Australia9.130.401.98
Western Australia21.502.211.38
Tasmania7.190.380.09
New Zealand (including Maoris)7.990.630.13

Tobacco

The tobacco entered for consumption in 1898 was 1,694,800 lb., and the consumption per head of population, including Maoris, 2.18 lb.

Average Annual Consumption per Head of Tobacco in various Countries

 Lb.
Holland6.92
United States4.40
Turkey4.37
Western Australia4.07
Austria-Hungary3.77
Denmark3.70
Switzerland3.24
Belgium3.15
Germany3.00
Queensland2.96
New South Wales2.57
New Zealand2.18
Victoria2.15
Canada2.11
France2.05
South Australia1.92
Sweden1.87
Tasmania1.80
Spain1.70
United Kingdom1.41
Italy1.34
Russia1.23

Imports from Different Countries

The imports from the United Kingdom to New Zealand in 1898 were valued at £5,148,833, or a decrease of £243,905 on the imports from this source for the previous year. From British colonies and possessions the imports were £1,927,817, an increase of £264,832 on the amount in 1897.

The following are the values of imports from different countries or places in 1897 and 1898, given in the order of the increase or decrease from each:—

Country.1897.1898.Increase.
 £££
United States, East Coast521,939700,555178,616
Fiji223,663320,88697,223
New South Wales547,424641,80494,380
Victoria290,619332,42241,303
Queensland105,695119,74314,048
Bengal188,676201,84313,167
Japan30,15539,4769,321
Canada47,30354,4347,131
Malden Island9,51114,1004,589
Belgium33,47138,0134,542
France16,38220,6934,311
Tasmania31,61035,8214,211
Singapore12,12216,3034,181
British Columbia13,62217,0573,435
South Australia25,59928,8023,203
Burmah..2,5082,508
Denmark2681,3521,084
Hongkong26,03026,615585
Sweden5,3525,596544
Austria9661,321355
Norfolk Island404750346
Western Australia56273217
Norway22146124
Newfoundland..9898
Bombay306737
New Brunswick..1919
Russia..1414
Falkland Islands242
Natal671
Country.1897.1898.Decrease.
 £££
United Kingdom5,392,7385,148,833243,905
Mauritius25,564..25,564
China17,3606,30111,059
Pacific Islands50,01543,4506,565
United States, West Coast106,10599,8566,249
Holland15,39810,7804,618
Germany157,066153,1023,964
Philippine Islands9,0185,2513,767
Greece8,5906,0772,513
Switzerland5,4033,7561,647
West Indies1,8624231,439
Asia Minor9,9969,043953
Italy5,4234,519904
Madras771385386
Ceylon114,147113,813334
Egypt611301310
Portugal2,3472,154193
Spain1,6251,453172
Canary Islands731558
Malta54..54
Java48147
Cape Colony776314
South African Republic422
Argentine Republic1..1

Imports, by Provincial Districts

The values of imports in each provincial district during 1890 and 1898 were as under:—

 1890.1898.
 ££
Auckland1,406,4772,228,386
Taranaki24,57569,265
Hawke's Bay162,097181,486
Wellington1,282,8212,071,184
Marlborough19,54712,053
Nelson151,422152,897
Westland93,42653,082
Canterbury1,269,5721,471,504
Otago1,836,7541,933,116

The value of imports by parcel-post (£13,834 in 1890 and £57,627 in 1898) must be added to the above figures in order to make up the totals (including specie) of £6,260,525 and £8,230,600 for the respective years.

Imports, North and Middle Islands

Separating the value of the imports for the North Island from that of the Middle Island, it is found that whereas in 1890 the former received imported goods to the value of £2,875,970, against £3,370,721 for the Middle Island, in the year 1898 the North Island imports far exceeded those of the other, the values being respectively £4,550,321 and £3,622,652, or an excess for the North of 25.61 per cent.

Details of all Articles of Import

Details of all imports for 1898, giving quantities and values of articles introduced into the colony, with the amounts entered for Home consumption, and the amount of duty received, are next shown:—

General Imports into the Colony of New Zealand during the Year 1898. (For rates of Duty, see Tariff, p. 66.)

Articles.Total Quantities Imported.Value of Total Imports.Entered for Home Consumption on Importation and ex Warehouse.Amount of Duty received.
Acid— £ £ s. d.
     Acetic209,230 lb.2,562286,975 lb.1,793 11 10
     Carbolic34,057 lb.613....
     Salicylic1,987 lb.209....
     Sulphuric281,904 lb.2,301....
     Tartaric72,772 lb.4,14760,222 lb.250 18 6
     Unenumerated95,071 lb.1,640....
Alkali—
     Potash and caustic potash1,716 cwt.2,033....
     Soda ash11,781 cwt.3,883....
     Soda, carbonate and bicarbonate9,601 cwt.4,0249,846 cwt.492 5 10
     Soda, caustic12,516 cwt.7,457....
     Soda, crystals78 cwt.2696 cwt.9 11 9
     Soda, silicate3,614 cwt.1,364....
     Unenumerated4,342 cwt.2,278....
Alum1,166 cwt.454....
Animals, Living—
     Birds167 No.263....
     Cattle, horned26 No2,19126 No.13 0 0
     Dogs111 No.607....
     Horses560 No.13,330553 No.553 0 0
     Horses3 No.400....
     Lions (cubs)2 No.10....
     Opossums129 No.129....
     Pigs4 No.111....
     Poultry142 No.275....
     Sheep157 No.1,994....
     Turtles3 No.3....
Apparel and slops n.o.e...353,258£354,12188,530 3 0
Apparel and slops n.o.e...448....
Apparel made to the order of residents in the colony..1,366£1,323529 3 7
Arms, ammunition, and explosives—
     Accoutrements..812....
     Caps, percussion5,799,800 No.901....
     Cartridges, shot, 10- to 24-bore3,698,825 No.11,7053,692,200 No.2,769 3 6
     Cartridges n.o.e.4,292,968 No.3,219£3,216643 3 7
     Cartridges n.o.e.1,023,500 No.6,614....
     Cartridge-cases555,380 No.814553,700 No.207 12 7
     Detonators for dynamite1,571,990 No.3,108....
     Dynamite139,100 lb.11,277....
     Firearms4,111 No.8,071£7,8231,564 12 5
     Firearms4,594 No.11,910....
     Fuse157,826 coils4,511....
     Fuse900 coils307....
     Ordnance stores..3,478....
     Ordnance stores..365....
     Powder, blasting334,000 lb.7,506....
     Powder, sporting31,2173,55829,717 lb.742 18 6
     Powder, sporting6,000 lb.312....
     Shot399 cwt.403399 cwt.199 11 1
     Swords60 No.157....
     Other explosives250,950 lb.19,040....
     Unenumerated..1,191....
Asphalt53 cwt.36....
Bacon and hams5,429 lb.1805,380 lb.44 16 8
Bacon and hams1,944 lb.83....
Bags and sacks—
     Corn sacks512,326 doz.106,711....
     Unenumerated10,564 doz.392£40981 16 0
     Unenumerated14 doz.5£20 7 0
     Unenumerated26,254 doz.4,008....
Bagging and sacking..23£233 9 0
Bagging and sacking..210....
Basket and wicker ware..1,827£1,819363 16 0
Beer161,534 galls.37,844191,567 galls.19,156 14 2
Belting, leather35,781 lb.4,05535,759 lb.595 19 8
Belting, leather290 lb.33....
Belting, other than leather..12,910....
Beverages, non-alcoholic—
     Aerated and mineral waters3,705 doz.810£866173 3 10
     Coffee, essence..5,124£5,3241,064 14 1
     Limejuice, sweetened2,460 galls.538£609152 2 7
     Limejuice, unsweetened32,439 galls.3,139....
     Unenumerated..463£501125 5 0
Bicycles and tricycles8,012 No.76,196£79,06815,813 13 7
Bicycles and tricycles1 No.9....
     Materials for..33,573£33,8606,772 1 9
     Unenumerated..31,673....
Biscuits—
     Fancy, and other kinds.15,795 lb.65215,426 lb.128 11 0
     Ships', plain28 cwt.3626 cwt.3 19 0
Blacking..3,260£3,236647 2 1
Blacking..9....
Blacklead..2,395£2,681536 3 7
Blue192,735 lb.5,388153,312 lb.1,277 12 0
Boats19 No.835....
Bones2,096 tons8,916....
Books, printed..109,961....
Boots and shoes63,224 doz.prs122,371£122,35127,528 19 0
     Nos. 0 to 32,567 doz.prs1,877....
     Gum-boots653 doz.prs6,664....
Borax1,551 cwt.1,673....
Brass—
     Pigs, bars, tubes, or sheets738 cwt.2,801....
     Tubing and stamped-work in the rough105 cwt.441....
     Manufactures..6,486£6,4841,296 17 5
     Manufactures..88....
Bricks—
     Building80,600 No.421....
     Fire79,382 No.300£30060 0 0
     Fire2,500 No.12....
     Other kinds18,406 No.87....
Brushware and brooms—
     Brooms3,363 doz.1,602£1,647411 16 9
     Brushes (clothes, hair, hat, and toilet)..3,476£3,461692 2 2
     Unenumerated..5,803£5,9201,480 0 8
     Unenumerated..53....
     Materials for..4,369....
Buckets and tubs—
     Iron3,300 doz.1,727£1,727430 7 10
     Wood141 doz.67£6713 8 0
Building materials, unenumerated..184....
Butter758 cwt.4,085....
Candles1,767,368 lb.26,7191,796,695 lb.14,972 9 3
Canes and rattans..1,127....
Canvas..31,356....
Caramel, brewers'12,972 lb.2109,477 lb.118 9 3
Cards, playing38,261 packs74944,669 packs1,116 14 6
Carpeting and druggeting..30,897£30,7946,158 15 3
Carriages, &c.—
     Carriages108 No.2,106£2,436487 4 7
     Carts, drays, and wagons111 No.877£742148 8 0
     Perambulators and go carts64 No.104£10420 16 0
     Materials for..3,992£4,307861 7 7
     Materials for..13,259....
     Axles, axle-arms, and boxes..8,410....
     Carriage and cart shafts, spokes, and felloes in the rough..7,150....
Cases, empty2,281 No.1,715£1,716343 4 0
Cases, empty115 No.75....
Cement83,292 barrels39,51483,167 barrels8,316 14 0
Cement3,502 barrels1,707....
Chains and chain-cables8,228 cwt.5,044....
Charcoal12,164 cwt.2,008....
Cheese4 No.17£173 8 0
Cheese8 No.41....
Chicory323 lb.13323 lb.4 0 8
Chicory504 lb.7....
China, porcelain, and parianware..16,029£16,0773,215 6 2
     Ditto..608....
Clocks35,298 No.10,251£10,2092,041 16 1
Clocks89 No.125....
Coals115,427 tons105,223....
Cocoa and chocolate252,632 lb.26,412256,269 lb.3,203 7 4
Cocoa-beans44,342 lb.1,684....
Coffee—
     Raw274,100 lb.11,190264,198 lb.2,201 13 0
     Roasted3,224 lb.1612,598 lb.54 2 4
Coke1,210 tons2,960.. 
Combs..1,539£1,536307 4 2
Confectionery—
     Chocolate confectionery: plain trade packages98,203 lb.4,68696,776 lb.1,209 13 11
     Chocolate confectionery: fancy packages..4,129£4,024804 14 11
     Unenumerated364,196 lb.11,735354,371 lb.2,953 1 9
Copper—
     Nails239 cwt.945....
     Pig, bar, sheet, and tube3,576 cwt.11,715....
     Rod and bolt83 cwt.239....
     Sheathing533 cwt.1,406....
Copper manufactures593 cwt...£593118 12 0
Copra828 tons8,085....
Cordage3,635 cwt.8,819£8,7871,757 7 8
Cordage10 cwt.11....
     Hawsers of 12 in. and over132 cwt.157....
     Iron and steel7,306 cwt.13,460....
Cork, cut..5,804£5,7501,150 0 3
Cotton piece-goods—
     Butter- and cheese-cloth..2,159....
     Calico, white and grey..121,817....
     Corduroy, moleskin, and beaver-skin..10,009....
     Leather-cloth..4,576....
     Shirtings, coloured cotton..30,525....
     Shirtings, flannelette..6,634....
     Shirtings, union, of 6d. per yard and under..4,074....
     Tubular woven cotton cloth..6,434....
     Waterproof material..29,454....
     Unenumerated98,738£98,24919,649 14 9 
     Unenumerated..103, 313£102,05410,205 8 11
Cotton—
     Raw9,729 lb.135....
     Waste2,611 cwt.3,547....
     Wick78, 941 lb.3,114....
Cutlery..22, 722,£23, 0474,609 6 7
Doors—
     Plain5 No.35 No0 10 0
     Glazed with ornamental glass1 No21 No0 4 0
Drapery..215,133£215,01543, 002 18 7
     Lace and laces n.o.e...28,884£28,7037, 175 13 8
     Ribbons and crape17,073£17, 0744, 268 10 7 
     Tailors' trimmings..82,730....
Drugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares—
     Baking powder, yeast pre-parations, &c...506£44989 16 0
     Chemicals, unenumerated..3,317£3,195639 1 7
     Chemicals, unenumerated..1....
     Cream of tartar601,985 lb.23,272630,884 lb.2,628 13 8
     Drugs, druggists' sundries, and apothecaries' wares..58,841£58,12411,624 17 0
     Tinctures and medicinal spirits22,194 lb.1,39225,462 lb.1,273 2 0
     Ditto5,047 lb.3415 845146 2 3
     Anhydrous ammonia..1,198....
     Arsenic1,660 cwt.1,978....
     Disinfectants..2,528....
     Food preservative..1,790....
     Gums..1,824....
     Insecticides and tree washes..1,468....
     Maltine..642....
     Medicinal barks, leaves, &c..932....
   Phosphorus..1,423....
     Potassium cyanide5,276 cwt.31,437....
     Sheep-dip..21,961....
     Sheep- and horse-drenches and sheep-licks..468....
     Unenumerated..10,898....
Dyes..14,175....
Earthenware..38,785£38,8467,769 2 0
Earthenware..132....
Eggs5 doz.3....
Engine-packing1,518 cwt.5,038....
Essences, flavouring—
     Spirituous1,360 gals.3,6481,340 gals.1,071 18 11
     Unenumerated..257£20530 16 9
Essential oils—
     Eucalyptus7,110 lb.1,913£1,925385 0 0
     Other kinds28,158 lb4,590....
Fancy goods..100,840£100,74320,148 11 0
Fancy goods..2,946....
Felt sheathing..3,737....
Fire-engines16 No.426....
Fire-hose and other appliances..1,521....
Fireworks..638£622124 6 11
Fireworks..108....
Fish—
     Anchovies, salted6 cwt.27....
     Dried, pickled, and salted2,308 cwt.3,8462,290 cwt.1,145 2 6
     Ova..50....
     Potted and preserved1,274,163 lb.27,6111,278,321 lb.10,652 13 6
     Ditto2,832 lb.104....
Fishing tackle—
     Artificial flies..251£25162 15 0
     Fish-hooks..603....
     Unenumerated..2,875£2,674534 14 0
Flock93 cwt.98£989 16 0
Floorcloth and oilcloth..55,994£55,93211,186 9 6
Floorcloth and oilcloth..173....
Flour10,633 centals4,98910,531 centals526 11 2
Foods, animal—
     Chaff16 tons6616 tons15 12 0
     Unenumerated..2,089£2,144428 14 1
Foods, farinaceous—
     Arrowroot98,740 lb.1,305....
     Macaroni and vermicelli81,702 lb.1,066....
     Maizena and corn-flour820,972 lb.10,138808,836 lb.842 10 9
     Sago and tapioca16,904 cwt.8,830....
     Unenumerated..2,473....
Fruits, bottled and preserved38,110 doz.9,641£9,6172,404 3 3
Fruits, dried—
     Currants2,507,130 lb.22,2502,661,343 lb.22,177 17 3
     Raisins1,932,925 lb.31,0501,846,218 lb.15, 385 3 1
   Unenumerated923,749 lb.13,666946,394 lb.7,886 12 4
Fruit, fresh—
     Apples, pears, plums, &c.716,391 lb.10,073716,391 lb.2,984 19 3
     Apples and pears666,854 lb.7,093666,854 lb.1,389 5 7
     Currants, raspberries, &c.64,726 lb.92564,726 lb.134 16 11
     Lemons383,164 lb.4,231383,164 lb.798 5 2
     Lemons600 lb.7....
     Other kinds18,821,511 lb.79,845....
     Lemon- and orange-peel, in brine204,9111,524....
     Preserved by sulphurous acid56,260 lb.1,00156,260 lb.234 8 4
     Pulp and partially-preserved fruit6,608 lb.1416,283 lb.39 5 4
Fungus175 cwt.222....
Furniture, cabinetware, and upholstery..31,155£30,0717,517 17 5
     Ditto..21....
     Kapok3,407 cwt.10,140....
     Unenumerated..4,894....
Furniture-, knife-, and plate-powder and polish..4,059£3,788757 10 0
Furs..3,982£3,962990 10 0
Gelatine and isinglass53,703 lb.4,594£4,455890 19 0
Glass—
     Bottles, empty..26,506....
     Mirrors and looking-glasses..4,568£4,5591,139 15 0
     Plate, bevelled, &c...4,310£4,2811,070 5 0
     Plate, other kinds211,838 sup. ft.6,595£6,5011,300 5 11
     Window2,349,365 sup. ft.15,4072,348,800 sup. ft.2,348 17 0
Glassware26,069..£26,6715,334 5 7
Glassware..3,857....
Glue and size66,400 lb.1,41067,287 lb.420 10 10
Glue and size1,476 lb77....
Gold-leaf..726....
Grain and pulse—
     Barley15,861 centals6,43815,810 centals1,580 19 9
     Beans and peas986 centals600984 centals 36 18 0 
     Beans and peas31 centals27....
     Oats119 centals53119 centals4 9 2
     Wheat36,496 centals11,95536,481 centals1,368 1 0
     Wheat20 centals12....
     Unenumerated5,411 centals2,4185,439 centals203 19 11
     Unenumerated178 centals47....
     Ground, unenumerated7,719 centals5,3427,151 centals357 11 1
     Ground, unenumerated233 centals114....
Grease2,900 cwt.2,117£2,108421 13 0
Grease14 centals35....
Grindery—
     Heel-plates..672£709159 10 6
     Unenumerated..16,682....
Haberdashery..15,396£15,3773,075 9 8
   Buttons, &c...22,279....
     Sewing-cottons, silks, and threads..45,501....
     Unenumerated..2,809....
Hair353 cwt.1,440....
Hardware, holloware, and ironmongery..200,303£199,45839,891 10 5
     Ditto..7,842....
     Coffin furniture..1,395£1,096219 4 0
Hats and caps71,737 doz.66,372£66,09416,523 9 8
Hats and caps35 doz.44....
Hatters' materials..4,483....
Hemp131 tors2,585....
Hides4,493 No.3,997....
Honey695 lb.111,559 lb.12 19 10
Hops186,222 lb.7,527149,232 lb3,730 16 3
Hops150 lb.8.. lb...
Hosiery..75,736£75,69315,138 14 8
Indiarubber and gutta-percha goods..2£20 8 0
     Ditto..9,337....
Ink—
     Printing127,293 lb.4,032....
     Writing..1,442£1,442288 8 0
     Writing..193....
Instruments, musical—
     Harmoniums and organs809 No.7,387£7,5021,500 9 1
     Pianofortes2,907 No.63,517£63,13012,626 0 5
     Unenumerated..9,325£8,9681,793 11 6
     Unenumerated..191....
     Materials for..82£7715 8 0
     Materials for1,445.... 
Instruments, other kinds—
     Optical..2,264....
     Scientific..4,534....
     Surgical and dental..14,877....
     Surveying..659....
     Unenumerated..3,402....
Iron and steel—
     Angle372 tons3,102....
     Bar, bolt, and rod10,380 tons87,918....
     Bolts and nuts3,078 cwt.2,935£2,856571 3 6
     Bolts and nuts6,923 cwt.8,028....
     Castings for ships24 tons1,411....
     Galvanised manufactures..1,147£1,142285 7 10
     Hoop1,307 tons.12,046....
     Hoop, galvanised2,212 cwt.1,5462,211 cwt.165 15 10
     Pig6,470 tons23,647....
     Pipes and fittings5,395 tons56,086£56,0712,803 10 10
     Pipes and fittings7 tons86....
     Rails6,550 tons37,720....
     Railway bolts and fastenings8 tons79£7915 16 0
   Railway bolts and fastenings346 tons4,974....
     Sheet and plate4,832 tons42,003....
     Sheet, galvanised, corrugated187,124 cwt.136,789185,728cwt.18,572 16 4
     Ditto140 cwt.147....
     Sheet, galvanised, plain29,348 cwt.22,39729,285 cwt.2,196 7 8
     Staples and standards447 tons4,976£4,818963 13 10
     Tanks2,654 No.7,3862,648 No.1,324 0 0
     Tanks609 No.1,173610 No.152 10 0
     Wire, fencing, barbed4,024 tons41,940....
     Wire, fencing, plain8,428 tons71,044....
     Wire, telegraphic and telephonic101 tons1,206....
     Wire-netting..18,860....
     Wire, unenumerated432 tons6,016....
     Unenumerated742 tons2,235....
Jams, jellies, and preserves375, 199 lb.6,023368,947 lb.3,074 11 3
Jellies, concentrated37,0841,48036,678 lb.611 5 11
Jewellery..18,007£17,9923,598 9 4
Jewellery..459....
Lamps, lanterns, and lamp wick14,809£15,3083,06114 0
     Ditto..182....
Lead—
     Pigs and bars502 tons7,212....
     Pipe (including composition)550 cwt.549524 cwt.91 13 3
        Ditto30 cwt.28....
     Sheet15,761 cwt.12,51715,692 cwt.1,176 17 7
     Sheet801 cwt.836....
     Manufactures..99£9919 16 0
     Leather401,924 lb.53,937404,576 lb.2,802 2 1
     Leather90,522 lb.10,437....
     Leather chamois..530£528105 11 9
     Leather chamois..22....
Leather manufactures—
     Boot and shoe vamps, uppers, and laces..7,597£7,5121,690 3 0
     Unenumerated..451£489110 0 6
     Unenumerated..502£49999 16 0
Linen piece-goods—
     Forfar, dowlas, and flax sheeting n.o.e...14,673£1,672334 9 0
     Ditto..25....
     Forfar, dowlas, &c., cut up under supervision....£10,521..
     Hessians and scrim..27,293....
     Unenumerated..14,581£14,4192,883 16 3
Linseed383 tons3,9437,658 cwt.382 17 8
Liquorice..2,573£2,533506 13 9
Machinery and machines—
     Agricultural..21,681£19,693984 12 9
   Agricultural..59,508....
     Ploughs and harrows..17,234....
     Dairying..5,170£5,554277 14 5
     Dairying..9,160....
     Dredging..7,511£7,411370 11 0
     Electric..14,320£14,5931,459 5 2
     Electric..24,009....
     Engines, steam26 No.4,450£4,372874 8 0
     Engines, gas153 No.12,729....
     Engines, boilers for37 No.3,332£3,110622 0 0
     Flour-milling..4,402£4,432221 11 10
     Gas making..10,622£10,3551,035 11 0
     Gas making..10,903....
     Mining..71,628£72,0613,603 1 0
     Mining..3,477....
     Paper-milling..103£1035 3 0
     Paper-milling..88....
     Portable and traction engines38 No.14,424£14,424721 3 10
     Printing..32,828£32,8361,641 16 0
     Printing..488....
     Refrigerating..23,226£22,6031,130 2 8
     Sewing and knitting8,874 No.30,618....
     Wood-working..6,004£5,975298 15 6
     Wood-working..1,842....
     Woollen-milling..7,696£7,585379 5 0
     Woollen-milling..855....
     Unenumerated..34,771£29,1045,820 15 4
     Unenumerated..9,365....
     Unenumerated..6,982£7,127522 18 9
     Materials for and parts of..2,284£1,931250 8 0
     Materials for and parts of..18,153....
Malt1,978 bush.7631,981 bush.198 2 0
     Rice malt27,511 lb.22427,511 lb.114 12 7
Manures—
     Bone-dust7,739 tons37,781....
     Guano13,537 tons41,900....
     Unenumerated8,785 tons33,165....
Marble—
     Dressed or polished, and manufactures..3,541£3,645911 4 5
     Hewn, or rough-hewn220 tons1,503....
Matches and vestas—
     Wax18,050 gross3,35319,819 gross2,305 5 3
     Wooden19,504 gross1,86217,303 gross904 3 2
Mats and matting..6,642£6,6151,323 0 0
Mats and matting..237....
Meats—
     Potted and preserved39,173 lb.1,713£1,811362 2 11
     Potted and preserved9,064 lb.186....
Medicines, patent and pro-prietary..35,853£36,93814,775 1 4
Ditto..72....
   Sarsaparilla..212£13634 0 0
Metal, manufactures of..8,278£8,2921,658 7 3
Metal, manufactures of..1,027....
     Japanned and lacquered metalware..1,589£1,569392 4 5
     Weighbridges and weighing-machines..2,321£2,317463 9 0
     Ditto..247....
     Anchors562 No.376....
     Rivets and washers6,426 cwt.5,482....
     Tacks1,551 cwt.2,313....
     Type-writers413 No.4,475....
     Unenumerated..32,008....
Metal sheathing, other than copper473 cwt.1,402....
Milk, preserved660,104 lb.12,599£14,0253,506 3 5
Milk, preserved6,121 lb.132....
Millinery—
     Feathers, ornamental..7,889£7,9351,983 13 1
     Other kinds..28,185£28,1227,030 11 11
Mustard186,587 lb.10,248189,173 lb.1,576 8 10
Nails—
     Iron62,757 cwt.36,68162,267 cwt.6,226 13 1
     Unenumerated49 cwt11152 cwt7 14 6
Naphtha11,985 galls.1,50912,354 galls.308 16 10
Nuts—
     Almonds, in shell25,561 lb.43524,432 lb.203 11 11
     Almonds, shelled27,196 lb.1,50926,576 lb.332 4 1
     Almonds, Barbary, &c.55,701 lb.2,075....
     Cocoa180,867 No.573....
     Unenumerated51,490 lb.60452,945 lb.441 4 2
Oakum450 cwt.614....
Oars2,356 No.335....
Oils—
     Castor, bulk91,108 galls.11,16388,790 galls.2,219 15 0
     Castor, bulk5,601 galls.755....
     Castor, bottled1,939 doz. pts626£54181 4 2
     Cod liver6,541 galls.1,353....
     Colza15,380 galls.1,85014,179 galls.354 9 8
     Colza2,040 galls.299....
     Fish, penguin, and seal59,255 galls.4,781....
     Linseed185,876 galls.17,457179,185 galls.4,479 12 6
     Linseed6,000 galls.576....
     Mineral, kerosene2,610,059 galls.90,5252,372,800 galls.59,320 0 1
     Mineral, other kinds116,874 galls.9,869112,483 galls.2,812 1 6
     Mineral, other kinds33,548 galls.1,910....
     Neatsfoot2,315 galls.2372,315 galls.57 17
     Olive, bulk14,223 galls.2,20812,447 galls.311 3 9
     Olive, bottled4,213 doz.pts1,805£1,783267 10 1
     Whale 1,578 galls.118.... 
     Unenumerated, bulk123,044 galls.10,343115,021 galls.2,875 10 6
     Unenumerated, bulk14,508 galls.1,185....
     Unenumerated, bottled4,391 doz.pts1,843£2,048307 4 11
   Unenumerated82,200 galls.3,620....
Oilmen's stores..5,921£5,6501,130 0 2
Onions11,125 cwt.5,01411,013 cwt.550 13 4
Opium3,003 lb.4,7232,750 lb.5,501 9 0
Paints and colours—
     Ground in oil28,683 cwt.33,59027,513 cwt.3,439 3 7
     Ground in oil468 cwt.500....
     Mixed, ready for use5,227 cwt.12,9965,049 cwt.1,262 6 7
     Unenumerated9,494 cwt.9,890....
Paper—
     Bags, coarse149 cwt.129172 cwt.64 6 3
     Bags, other kinds2,499 cwt.4,364£4,2731,068 5 9
     Butter-paper2,356 cwt.4,844....
     Hangings996,260 pieces24,228£24,2843,642 12 10
     Printing82,755 cwt.78,234....
     Wrapping4,318 cwt.4,805£4,0721,018 0 8
     Wrapping62 cwt.77....
     Writing8,735 cwt.16,271....
     Unenumerated549 cwt.949....
Pearl barley2,846 cwt.2,0752,846 cwt.142 5 8
Peas, split924 cwt.452923 cwt.92 6 6
Peel, candied and dried10,745 lb.26611,120 lb.139 0 0
Perfumery—
     Perfumed spirits1,454 galls.5,3251,357 galls.2,034 16 4
     Toilet preparations..5,848£5,7401,434 18 2
     Unenumerated..1,731£1,777444 5 0
Photographic goods (including chemicals)..3,136£3,095619 0 0
     Ditto..247....
     Copper, glass, and zinc plates for photo-litho graphic work..606....
     Photographic cameras and lenses3,937.... 
     Sensitised surfaces for photographic purposes..7,794....
Pickles6,539 galls.1,6175,681 galls.852 2 4
Pictures, paintings, drawings, engravings, and photographs..2,708£2,730545 18 6
     Ditto..213....
     Family portraits..29....
     For museums..740....
Picture-frames and mounts..1,521£1,522304 7 0
Pitch842 cwt.477....
Plants, shrubs, &c...2,564....
Plaster of Paris2,564 cwt.760....
Plate and plated ware..26,793£26,5195,303 15 3
Portmanteaux and travelling bags..3,989£3,985996 5 9
     Leather bags and leather-cloth bags..135£14629 5 11
Potatoes59 tons437£43787 8 0
Potatoes71 cwt.40....
Printing materials—
     Stereotypes and matrices..40£4010 0 0
     Stereotypes and matrices..10....
     Type and materials, n.o.e...10,060....
Provisions n.o.e...5,281£5,2321,046 9 1
Provisions n.o.e...13....
Pumps..3,741£3,235647 0 2
Pumps..108....
Putty4,852 cwt.2,0164,896 cwt.489 11 6
Quicksilver14,260 lb.1,525....
Rags93 tons402....
Railway plant—
     Locomotives22 No.38,586....
     Unenumerated..99£9919 16 0
     Unenumerated..18,539....
Resin14,763 cwt.4,216....
Rice59,660 cwt.43,36657,745 cwt.16,204 12 11
Rugs, all kinds..9,607£9,7621,952 6 8
Saccharine3,239 ozs.3973,076 oz.230 14 0
Saddlery and harness (including whips)..22,746£22,7054,541 1 7
     Ditto..6....
     Collar-check..2,863....
     Harness-oil, composition, and leather-dressing..2,337£2,332466 8 0
Saddlers' ironmongery..15,817....
Salt9,706 tons22,7739,697 tons4,848 14 11
     Rock588 tons1,483....
Saltpetre99 tons1,895....
Sashes, glazed1 pair31 pair0 4 0
Sauces11,871 galls.8,22711,306 galls.2,261 5 4
Sausage-skins253,222 lb.8,865144,714 lb.1,808 18 8
Seeds—
     Grass and clover31,355 cwt.59,774....
     Unenumerated..18,409....
Shale151 tons524....
Shells331 cwt.1,044....
Ship-chandlery, n.o.e..3,157....
Silks, &c...79,910£79,58419,895 17 11
     For flour-dressing..110....
Silver611 oz.96....
Skins and pelts—
     Fur-skins7,061 No.208....
     Kangaroo and wallabi skins16,421 No.684....
     Unenumerated8,566 No.426....
Slates, roofing271,604 No.2,258....
Soap—
     Powder, extract of soap, &c...3,928£3,953790 10 11
     Common4 cwt.44 cwt.0 17 7
     Common1 cwt.2....
     Unenumerated932,867 cwt.20,541£19,3034,825 16 1
   Copper..800....
     Gold..18,185....
     Silver..176....
Specimens illustrative of natural science..379....
Spices—
     Ground20,450 lb.90020,633 lb.343 17 7
     Unground396,495 lb.10,510364,892 lb.3,040 15 5
Spirits—
     Bitters, cordials, and liqueurs1,814 gals.1,9371,773 gals.1,418 4 0
     Brandy76,718 gals.31,95170,888 gals.56,710 3 3
     Geneva and gin, unsweetened57,774 gals.13,19652,162 gals.41,729 6 2
     Methylated590 gals.77480 gals.24 0 6
     Rum14,679 gals.2,74517,482 gals.13,985 15 10
     Sweetened6,111 gals.1,7396 656 gals.5,324 19 4
     Whisky361,925 gals.126,072336,815 gals.269,451 17 10
     Unenumerated8,218 gals.2,1252,384 gals.1,907 6 8
Spirits of wine26,892 gals.1,8532,348 gals.1,878 15 10
     Methylated, in bond....21,866 gals.546 13 1
Sponges4,699 lb.461£46192 4 0
Sponges100 lb.80....
Starch712,257 lb.8,351740,467 lb.6,170 11 2
Stationery—
     Manufactured..34,977£34,8758,718 12 7
 ..2,225....
     Unenumerated..31,055£30,7526,150 9 7
     Unenumerated..6,612....
     Apparatus and appliances for teaching purposes..4,251....
     Bookbinders' materials..5,696....
     Materials for cardboard-boxes..6,211....
     Unenumerated..7,442....
Stearine202,379 lb.3,492202,230 lb.1,263 18 9
Stone—
     Building230 tons550....
     Flagging½ tons4....
     Granite, and other stone, dressed or polished..1,740£1,740435 0 0
Stones–Grind-, mill-, oil-, and whet-..2,354....
Sugar—
     Raw569,314 cwt.284,6711,568 lb.3 5 4
     Refined179,412 cwt.134,54770,984,220 lb.147,883 15 10
     Glucose5,458 cwt.2,980396,426 lb.1,651 15 6
     Molasses and treacle9,721 cwt.3,0722,311,102 lb.4,814 15 11
     Molasses and treacle, mixed with bone-black....3,268 cwt...
Sulphur2,124 cwt.898....
Tallow4 tons80....
Tanning materials, crude—
     Bark4,374 tons33,280....
     Other kinds..7,759....
Tar..631....
Tarpaulins and tents..777£777155 8 0
Tarpaulins and tents..907....
Tea4,847,442 lb.183,7174,720,522 lb.78,675 7 3
Textile piece-goods other than silk, cotton, linen, or woollen..8,087£8,1181,623 12 5
     Articles made up from, other than apparel..10,898£10,8702,717 9 11
     Ditto..325....
Timber—
     Laths and shingles644,458 No.675645,000 No.64 9 9
     Logs1,669 No.5,614....
     Logs, hewn2,426,653 sup. ft.23,662....
     Palings430,224 No.2,444430,200 No.430 4 6
     Posts10,600 No.38110,60042 9 0
     Rails11,700 No.33111,700 No.23 8 0
     Sawn, undressed3,499,087 sup. ft.24,0433,499,100 sup. ft.3,499 1 1
     Sawn, undressed768,030 sup. ft.6,987....
     Sawn, dressed89,602 sup. ft.1,61589,400 sup. ft.178 15 8
     Unenumerated..2,688....
Tin—
     Block2,200 cwt.7,982....
     Foil19,419 lb.644....
     Sheet46,999 cwt.31,034....
Tinware..9,318£9,1962,298 18 2
Tinware..3....
Tinsmiths' furnishings and fittings..1,326....
Tobacco—
     Unmanufactured62,432 lb.2,82244,832 lb.4,483 4 0
     Manufactured1,417,576 lb.105,5791,445,912 lb.253,034 10 9
     Cigars77,497 lb.21,80571,891 lb.25,161 16 1
     Cigarettes137,372 lb.31,41452,003 No. 3,885 oz.45,502 13 10
     Snuff1,863 lb.2161,904 lb.666 8 0
Tobacco-pipes and cases..16,900£17,0174,254 7 5
Tools and implements—
     Axes and hatchets..10,713....
     Engineers' machine tools..10,187....
     Scythes..1,275....
     Sheep-shears..3,427....
     Spades, shovels, and forks..14,918....
     Unenumerated..70,631....
Tramway plant..392£39278 8 0
Turpentine, driers, and terebine88,255 gals.9,206....
Twine—
     Binder1,037 cwt.1,753....
     Nets and netting..611£669133 16 0
   Unenumerated237, 041 lb.8,754£8,2391,647 17 0
     Unenumerated2,000 lb.120....
     Unenumerated..114....
Umbrellas and parasols..15,748£15,7393,147 17 8
     Materials for..2,447....
Varnish and gold size41,379 gals.18,52536,422 gals.3,642 3 11
Vegetables, fresh, dried, and preserved..681£640128 0 5
Vinegar63,945 gals.6,68658,927 gals.1,473 3 7
Watches29,179 No16,423£16,6773,335 8 1
Watches2 No137....
Watchmakers' materials..757....
Wax—
     Paraffin1,124,314 lb.11,6521,177,603 lb.7,360 0 5
     Paraffin12 lb.1....
     Beeswax95 cwt.602....
Whalebone5 cwt.2....
Whiting and chalk10,799 cwt.1,51210,794 cwt.539 14 3
Wine—
     Australian43,512 galls.14,80443,428 galls10,856 19 10
     Sparkling6,376 galls.12,0096,878 galls3,094 19 2
     Other kinds61,114 galls.21,70157,286 galls17,185 16 9
Woodenware..10,761£10,7782,155 12 3
Woodenware..8,897£9,0471,357 0 4
Woodenware..10,203....
Wool, greasy8,930 lb.261....
Woollen piece goods..266,516£267,62353,524 12 8
Woollen piece goods..3....
     Blankets33,394 pairs14,438£14,1762,835 3 0
Woolpacks36,531 doz.26,525....
Wool-packets578 doz.282....
Yarns..5,954£5,7691,153 14 4
     Coir, flax, and hemp..5,761....
Zinc—
     Perforated sheet386 cwt.673....
     Plain sheet6,896 cwt.8,203....
     Spelter4,418 cwt.4,665....
Zinc manufactures—
     Tiles, ridging..63£8416 16 0
     Tiles, ridging..1....
     Unenumerated..174£17243 0 0
Minor articles required in the making-up of apparel..5,971....
Articles and materials suited only for and to be used solely in the fabrication, of goods in the colony..13,862....
Goods, miscellaneous—
     Manufactured..7,510....
     Unmanufactured..8,229....
Parcels Post..57,627..11,725 0 7

Customs Revenue

The Customs and excise duties received during the last five years are shown in detail, also the rate of revenue per head of mean population, inclusive and exclusive of Maoris, for each year:—

1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.
* Including £89 excise duty on culinary and flavouring essences.
Customs Duties.£££££
Spirits338,457340,972362,923384,218395,513
Wine28,41227,10228,84630,51831,138
Ale, Beer, &c.15,94617,12018,20819,03519,158
Cigars, Cigarettes, and Snuff43,13249,57458,78865,34771,430
Tobacco216,125233,770239,988244,669257,516
Tea103,16194,71673,85876,08178,676
Coffee, Cocoa, &c.6,1455,6775,4955,7225,463
Sugar and Molasses133,107137,493141,933148,748154,355
Opium7,0615,9695,4095,6255,501
Other Goods by Weight155,557160,482172,733187,498187,758
ad valorem429,594447,749562,961634,043637,506
Other Duties90,43093,88486,841102,025105,987
Parcels Post5,3405,4627,0908,63211,725
        Totals, Customs Duties1,572,4671,619,9701,765,0731,912,1611,961,726
Excise Duties.    
Tinctures—New Zealand..53200983*1,244
Cigars, Cigarettes, and Snuff—New - Zealand - manufactured1,544879916191152
Tobacco — New - Zealand - manufactured2,2391,4311,6632,3582,282
Beer—New Zealand60,09261,70567,28771,76575,164
        Totals, Excise Duties63,87564,06870,0675,29778,842
 £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
Revenue from Customs Duties per head of mean population (excluding Maoris)2 6 42 6 92 9 112 13 02 13 3
Ditto (including Maoris)2 3 72 4 22 7 32 10 32 10 6
Revenue from Excise Duties per head of mean population (excluding Maoris)0 1 10.60 1 10.20 1 11.80 2 1.00 2 1.7
Ditto (including Maoris)0 1 9.30 1 8.90 1 10.50 1 11.70 2 0.4

The Customs revenue for the year 1898 amounted to £1,961,726, and the excise duties to £78,842. The revenue from Customs was £2 13s. 3d. per head of population excluding Maoris, and £2 10s. 6d. if they be included. In 1888 the Customs revenue was £2 6s. 2d. per head of European population, and from that time the proportion increased slowly year by year until 1892, when it reached £2 11s. 6d. per head. During the next two years there was a falling-off; but 1895, 1896, 1897, and 1898 show increases, the proportion for 1898 being higher than in any year since 1883. Details for ten years are given:—

Customs Revenue per Head of European Population

 £s.d.
18892710
1890293
1891297
18922116
18932104
1894264
1895269
18962911
18972130
18982133

Dating from 1890, the taxation by way of Customs and excise duties together only increased from £2 11s. 2d. in that year to £2 11s. 11d. in 1896, to £2 15s. 1d. in 1897, and to £2 15s. 4d. in 1898.

There was an alteration of tariff in 1895 in certain items, but the amount of duty paid for 1898 does not bear a higher proportion to the total value of imports (less specie) for that year than the duty paid in 1894, prior to the new tariff, to the imports of that year.

Under these circumstances a rise in revenue from Customs taxation would seem to indicate a greater import of taxable articles, and show that purchasing power had increased. It is at least certain that the value of imports rose from £5,990,177 (excluding specie), in 1894, to £8,211,409 in 1898, notwithstanding the change of tariff.

The new tariff of 1895 has been given in full in this book (see page 66). The rates of duty levied during the year included 16s. per gallon on spirits; 30s. per gallon on perfumed spirits; 7s. per pound on cigars and snuff; 17s. 6d. per 1,000 of 2 ½ lb. and under, and 6d. per ounce weight over 2 ½ lb. per 1,000, on cigarettes; 3s. 6d. per pound on manufactured and 2s. on unmanufactured tobacco. Sparkling wine is charged 9s. a gallon; Australian, 5s.; other kinds, 6s.; ale and beer, 2s. The duty on tea is 4d. the pound; on cocoa, chocolate, and chicory, 3d.; raw coffee, 2d.; roasted, 5d. Sugar, molasses, and treacle pay ½d., and glucose 1d. per pound. Opium is charged 40s. per pound. The remainder of the Customs revenue, with small exception, is made up of charges on goods by weight, ad valorem duties, ranging from 5 to 40 per cent., and receipts from the foreign parcels post. There is also an excise duty of 1s. per pound on tobacco; 1s. 6d. per pound on cigars, cigarettes, and snuff; 3d. per gallon on beer; 9d. per pound on tinctures, &c.; manufactured in the colony, containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, and 3d. per pound when less than 50 per cent.

By “The Tobacco Excise Duties Act, 1896,” the excise duty on cigarettes made in the colony is now (from the 31st December, 1896) 2s. 6d. per pound on machine-made and 1s. per pound on hand-made cigarettes.

“The Tobacco Act Amendment Act, 1896,” enacts that all packages of manufactured tobacco shall be labelled before leaving the manufactory, and provides for the issue of warrants to use cutting-machines for cutting duty-paid manufactured tobacco for sale (or to be used in the manufacture of cigarettes by hand), and to manufacture cigarettes by hand, under certain conditions.

Chapter 37. SECTION XI.—EXPORTS AND TOTAL TRADE

The value of all the exports in 1898 was £10,517,955; the value of New Zealand produce exported, £10,324,988: being at the rate of £13 17s. 9d. per head of population, against £13 6s. for the previous year. The increase in the value of exports of New Zealand produce for 1898 over that for 1897 amounts to £728,721, or at the rate of 7.59 per cent. This is a considerably higher rate of increase than the results for the year 1897 showed over those of 1896, when the amount was £418,931, and the percentage 4.56.

A comparative statement of exports according to value for the two years is given, showing the amounts for various principal articles, being the produce or manufacture of the colony, classified according to their nature into groups:—

 Year 1897.Year 1898.Increase in 1898.Decrease in 1898.
      The Mine££££
Coal69,59550,381..19,214
Gold980,2041,080,691100,487..
Silver, and minerals31,14443,47112,327..
      Total1,080,9431,174,54393,600..
The Fisheries.
Fish17,19815,609..1,589
Oysters1,6444,3732,729..
Other185358173..
      Total19,02720,3401,313..
The Forest.
Fungus10,2407,093..3,147
Kauri-gum393,010586,767188,757..
Timber—
   Sawn and hewn154,169164,72210,554..
   Other2,1202,787667..
      Total564,539761,370196,831..
Animals and Produce.
Bacon and hams13,5608,211..5,349
Beef (salted)6,1516,379228..
Butter402,605403,6901,085..
Cheese150,517135,776..14,741
Hides10,02127,23217,211..
Live-stock11,97419,7087,734..
Preserved meats78,23597,17118,936..
Frozen meat1,566,2861,698,750132,464..
Rabbit-skins47,47251,6074,135..
Sausage-skins48,32845,539..2,789
Sheepskins and pelts188,121244,57956,458..
Tallow259,964302,14142,177..
Wool4,443,1444,645,804202,660..
Other5,9537,4931,540..
      Total7,232,3317,694,080461,749..
Agricultural Products.
Bran and sharps30,2793,690..26,589
Chaff6,08233..6,049
Flour104,2145,946..98,268
Grain—
   Barley5,353456..4,897
   Beans and peas15,1286,933..8,195
   Maize2,05412,47610,422..
   Malt30,96225,868..5,094
   Oats167,22987,924..79,305
   Wheat14,7032,463..12,240
Hops13,5656,252..7,313
Oatmeal19,02217,001..2,021
Potatoes20,992141,077120,085..
Seeds (grass and clover)46,94778,51931,572..
Other18,64522,0393,394..
      Total495,175410,677..84,498
Manufactures.
Apparel4,4182,331..2,087
Leather98,155103,8385,683..
Phormium (New Zealand hemp)30,67474,55643,882..
Woollen manufactures12,3709,634..2,736
Other manufactures51,98463,44611,462..
      Total197,601253,80556,204..
Miscellaneous6,65110,1733,522..
Total exports (colonial produce and manufactures)9,596,26710,324,988728,721..
Specie275,77168,117..207,654
Other exports (British and foreign)144,955124,850..20,105
      Total exports£10,016,99310,517,955500,962..

The class designated “Animals and Produce” shows by far the greatest value, the sum being for 1898 £7,694,080, which includes £4,645,804 for wool and £1,698,750 for frozen meat. The total value of exports in this class increased during the year by £461,749 on a total of £7,232,331 in 1897.

“The Mine” takes second place among the classes, with an export of coal, gold, silver, and other minerals amounting to £1,174,543 for 1898, being an increase of £93,600 on £1,080,943, the export for the previous year.

“The Forest” shows the export for last year to be £761,370, which, on account of the development of the kauri-gum industry, gives an increase of £196,831, or 34.87 per cent. since 1897.

“Agricultural Products,” principally grain, potatoes, and seeds, compose the fourth group, and here a decrease has to be noticed of £84,498, or 17.06 per cent. on £495,175 of exports in 1897, the value for 1898 amounting to £410,677. This decline is attributable to the fall in the export of grain, which was so considerable as to effect the above result, notwithstanding the enormous increase in value of potatoes sent out of the colony, which advanced from £20,992 in 1897 to £141,077 in 1898.

“Manufactures” returned £253,805 in 1898, being £56,204 more than in the previous year. Leather is the most important item, the export for 1898 being £103,838. Phormium shows an excellent advance on the operations for 1897, with an increase of £43,882 on an export of only £30,674 in 1897. Woollen manufactures sent abroad receded.

The smallest group in respect to value is “The Fisheries,” which shows an advance in the export of oysters, but a decrease in other fish. The total for the group is only £20,340 for last year.

The exports of New Zealand produce or manufacture for the two last years have also to be considered in relation to quantity, and the articles are again grouped in the next table according to the same classification as that used for purposes of comparing the values.

Quantities of the Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce Exported

Items.Year 1897.Year 1898.Increase in 1898.Decrease in 1898.
The Mine:—
   CoalTons76,07356,332..19,741
   GoldOz.251,647280,17528,528..
   SilverOz.183,892293,851109,959..
   MineralsTons2,9573,532575..
The Fisheries:—
   FishCwt.10,1918,794..1,397
   OystersDoz.235,654787,240551,586..
The Forest:—
   FungusCwt.6,3844,526..1,858
   Gum (kauri)Tons6,6419,9053,264..
Timber (sawn and hewn)Ft.39,326,39640,721,6321,395,236..
Animals and Produce:—
   Bacon and hamsCwt.4,1282,372..1,756
   Beef (salted)Cwt.5,7936,223430..
   ButterCwt.99,00296,801..2,201
   CheeseCwt.77,68368,711..8,972
   HidesNo.10,74632,89722,151..
   Live-stockNo.3,7657,2403,475..
   Meat (preserved)Cwt.45,05555,76610,711..
   Meat (frozen)Cwt.1,407,9211,551,773143,852..
   Sausage-skinsCwt.10,1009,865..235
   Skins (rabbit)No.8,099,3346,607,934..1,491,400
   Skins (sheep)No.3,688,0514,995,3251,307,274..
   TallowCwt.310,200347,16036,960..
   WoolLb.135,835,117149,385,81513,550,698..
Agricultural Products:—
   Bran and sharpsTons9,117922..8,195
   ChaffTons1,7138..1,705
   FlourTons9,816655..9,161
   Grain (barley)Bush.34,9862,665..32,321
   Grain (beans and peas)Bush68,96728,188..40,779
   Grain (malt)Bush124,61297,748..26,864
   Grain (oats)Bush1,600,458816,210..784,248
   Grain (wheat)Bush72,16710,090..62,077
   Grain (maize)Bush18,69791,07972,382..
   HopsCwt.2,703915..1,788
   Meal (oat)Tons1,8141,568..246
   PotatoesTons7,69222,50714,815..
   Seeds (grass and clover)Bush.144,117274,557130,440..
Manufactures:—
   LeatherCwt.19,43119,992561..
   PhormiumTons2,7694,8502,081..

The numerical increases in such articles as wool, frozen and preserved meats, tallow, sheepskins, live-stock, hides, kauri-gum, gold, seeds, potatoes, and phormium are all most satisfactory, and in some cases very striking, while, on the other hand, the grain export, as also that of butter and cheese, declined in 1898. The quantities of increase and decrease are all exhibited in the table; but, to show the degree of progress, the proportions per cent. in respect of certain important items have been calculated:—

Increases

Export ofRate of Increase per Cent. in 1898–99.
HidesNo.206.13
PotatoesTons192.60
Live-stockNo.92.30
SeedsCwt.90.51
PhormiumTons75.15
Gum (kauri)Tons49.15
SheepskinsNo.35.45
Preserved meatCwt.23.77
TallowCwt.11.91
GoldOz.11.34
Frozen meatCwt.10.22
WoolLb.9.98
TimberFt.3.55
LeatherCwt.2.89

Decreases

Export ofRate of Decrease per Cent. in 1898–99.
BarleyBush92.38
WheatBush86.02
Beans and peasBush59.13
OatsBush49.00
FungusCwt.29.10
CoalTons25.95
MaltBush21.56
RabbitskinsNo.18.41
CheeseCwt.11.55
ButterCwt.2.22

The position in respect of a period of eleven years, 1888 to 1898 inclusive, is presented in a table giving the domestic exports for each. In this statement the most important items of export under the heading “Other New Zealand Produce” are coal, silver, minerals, fish, oysters, fungus, kauri-gum, timber, bacon, salted and preserved meats, tallow, sheep- and rabbit-skins, hides, sausage-skins, and live-stock. The aggregate value of these in 1898 was £1,677,771.

Exports of New Zealand Produce

Calendar Year.Wool.Gold.Frozen Meat.Butter and Cheese.Agricultural Produce.ManufacturesOther N.Z. Produce.Total
 ££££££££
18883,115,098914,309628,800197,170905,907233,3831,260,4617,255,128
18893,976,375785,490783,374213,9451,424,297569,8801,288,6479,042,008
18904,150,599751,3601,087,617207,6871,289,864547,9471,393,6879,428,761
18914,129,6861,007,1721,194,724236,933894,467420,3571,516,7559,400,094
18924,313,307951,9631,033,377318,2041,035,637367,6771,345,7039,365,868
18933,774,738915,9211,085,167354,271716,5466345,6361,365,1648,557,443
18944,827,016887,8651,194,545366,483317,655224,9581,266,6269,085,148
18953,662,1311,162,1811,262,711378,510326,029188,7021,409,8898,390,153
18964,391,8481,041,4281,251,993411,882572,355198,0811,309,7499,177,336
18974,443,144980,2041,566,286553,122495,175197,6011,360,7359,596,267
18984,645,8041,080,6911,698,750539,466410,677253,8051,695,79510,324,988

The above table shows that the value of the exports of New Zealand produce fell from £9,428,761 in 1890 to £8,390,153 in 1895, rose in 1896 to £9,177,336, in 1897 to £9,596,267, and in 1898 to £10,324,988.

Thus there was an increase of exports since 1895, or in the three years 1896, 1897, and 1898, to the value of £1,934,835, all New Zealand produce, and more than a complete recovery to the figures for 1890 and 1891, after which followed a decrease in values. With the amount of increase in money must be considered the state of prices of the various kinds of produce.

The export of wool, measured by quantity, rose from 102,817,077 lb. in 1890 to 149,385,815 lb. in 1898, or at the rate of 45.29 per cent., and that of frozen meat from 898,894 cwt. to 1,551,773 cwt.

Gold, too, which was exported to the quantity of 187,641 oz. in 1890, increased to 280,175 oz. in 1898.

Inasmuch as the values of exports for the years ended 31st March are preferred to those of the calendar years by many persons for comparative purposes, on account of late or early shipments of wool, &c., another table is given containing such figures. This has been done by special request:—

Year ended 31st March.Wool.Gold.Frozen Meat.Butter and Cheese.Agricultural Produce.ManufacturesOther N.Z Produce.Total.
 ££££££££
18893,337,122842,066666,556211,8011,063,886165,7701,440,7527,727,953
18904,204,372776,652862,184228,0911,398,999675,1321,268,8709,414,300
18914,199,421692,7751,152,948215,6781,217,048472,8651,478,1869,428,922
18924,207,8731,104,9811,194,890287,102887,856408,5851,485,0539,576,340
18934,039,202921,5601,005,536331,9551,030,904352,5491,369,9409,051,646
18944,325,246970,2211,045,707348,971609,552305,5941,315,5988,920,889
18954,198,348889,6131,295,850423,629324,708215,3701,307,9828,655,500
18964,299,4071,196,0591,318,317373,686370,57195,2141,405,5719,158,831
18974,245,1471,015,7411,203,807433,205557,713195,9241,319,8288,971,365
18984,651,995976,1991,738,934583,862473,747192,0991,436,01110,052,847
18994,273,0001,168,9291,601,157534,474436,445288,9241,760,86010,058,789

Re-exports

The re-export trade of the colony would seem from the sub-joined figures to have been almost stationary for the last ten years, the figures for 1889 and 1898 only differing by a sum of £14,497:—

Exports of British, Foreign, and other Colonial Produce (excluding Specie).

 £
1889139,347
1890140,555
1891160,765
1892125,052
1893123,402
1894136,402
1895127,966
1896122,571
1897144,955
1898124,850

With these sums may be contrasted the re-export trade of New South Wales—a colony having less than double the population of New Zealand—which, exclusive of specie, amounted in 1897 to £3,643,517.

Exports from the North and Middle Islands

The exports from the North and Middle Islands respectively, excluding “Parcels post,” during the two years were as under:—

Year.North Island £Middle Islands £Proportion to North Island.Total Export. Middle Island.
18974,428,8243,584,57955.2744.73
18985,811,1324,697,57855.3044.70

The North Island now exports 55 per cent., or more than half of the total for the two islands.

Wool exported and produced

The quantity of wool exported in 1898, as previously shown, was 149,385,815 lb., valued at £4,645,804. The annual production, however, can be better estimated by taking the exports for the twelve months immediately preceding the commencement of shearing, and adding thereto the quantity used in the colony for manufacturing purposes.

The following shows the produce for each of the last eleven years ending on the 30th September:—

Year ending 30th September.Quantity exported.Quantity purchased by Local Mills.Total Annual Produce.
 Lb.Lb.Lb.
188889,276,2684,079,56393,355,831
188995,618,5073,556,00499,174,511
1890102,522,1852,979,293105,501,478
1891108,619,4732,918,073111,537,546
1892110,860,0503,388,954114,249,004
1893119,643,8742,629,855122,273,729
1894128,480,4572,476,155130,956,612
1895129,333,7693,299,132132,632,901
1896128,309,6733,989,934132,299,607
1897134,410,9553,298,469137,709,424
1898150,401,3993,763,831154,165,230

From these figures it appears that the wool-clip has increased by 65.14 per cent. within the last eleven years.

To arrive at a perfectly correct estimate of the increase in wool production it would be necessary to take into consideration the proportion of greasy, scoured, and washed wool exported each year, the washing process of course greatly reducing the weight. The percentages of greasy, scoured, and washed wool to the total quantities exported during the last three years are:—

Years.Greasy. Per Cent.Scoured. Per Cent.Washed. Per Cent.
189677.8920.741.37
189778.8719.961.17
189878.6220.361.02

The increase in the wool-production is, of course, mainly due to the greater number of sheep—namely, 19,673,725 in April. 1898, against 15,122,133 in May, 1888. A comparative statement for six years is supplied, showing the increase of the flocks in groups of sizes:—

Number of Flocks, 1888 to 1898

Size of Flocks.1888.1890.1892.1894.1896.1898.
* From 1,000 to 2,500, 1,798 flocks; from 2,500 to 5,000, 614 flocks.
Under 5006,5797,6628,82210,31412,02812,886
500 and under 1,0001,1821,5282,0332,4272,6052,708
1,000 and under 2,0007948541,1931,4091,460* 2,412
2,000 and under 5,000524586761933892
5,000 and under 10,000287283314345340341
10,000 and under 20,000213236231230231231
20,000 and upwards166160176179147144
      Total9,74511,30913,53015,83717,70318,722

It will be apparent that the tendency of increase is towards the multiplication of the smaller flocks, whose owners are better able to cope with the rabbit difficulty than the large runholders.

Export of Rabbit-skins

Prior to 1878 rabbit-skins were a very small item in the exports, but in that year the number sent out of the colony amounted to 3,951,209. Ten years after (1888) the export had risen to 11,809,407, from which it increased to 17,041,106 in 1893, the greatest number as yet exported in a year. From 1895 the fall was rapid, and the export for 1898 only reached 6,607,934 skins.

The figures for the six years during which there has been decline are quoted:—

Year.Number of Rabbit-skins exported.
189317,041,106
189414,267,385
189515,229,314
189610,828,612
18978,099,334
18986,607,934

From the above it will be seen that the importance of the export has of late very much diminished. The fall, represented in money value, has been:—

Year.Value of Rabbit-skins exported.
 £
1893138,952
189487,993
189585,022
189665,599
189747,472
189851,607

While the amount of money received for this produce of the colony shows less profit from the industry than formerly, it may be a satisfactory result, as seemingly indicating some abatement of the rabbit pest.

Export of Sheepskins and Pelts

These form a more important article of export at the present time than the rabbit-skins, though in the year 1888 the position was the reverse as regards value in money. In 1888 the number of sheepskins and pelts sent away from New Zealand was 1,646,401, against 4,995,325 in 1898, a rise of 203.41 per cent. for the period between those years. The value increased from £83,574 to £244,579, or 192.65 per cent. Figures for the last five years are quoted:—

Year.Export of Sheepskins and Pelts.
 No.
18942,681,552
18953,230,539
18963,001,791
18973,688,051
18984,995,325

Export of Tallow

Besides wool and meat, tallow is largely exported, and since the year 1888, when 136,460 cwt. were sent away, the quantity has increased to 347,160 cwt. in 1898. In value this export considerably exceeds that of the sheepskins or rabbit-skins, and the money is indeed a little over the total for those two articles taken together. The five latest years show the following results:—

Tallow Exported

Year.Cwt.£
1894199,400204,499
1895263,560260,999
1896222,540208,821
1897310,200259,964
1898347,160302,141

Frozen Meat exported

Frozen meat now takes second place among the exports of New Zealand produce. In 1898, 1,551,773 cwt., valued at £1,698,750, were shipped in the colony. An account of the development of the industry was given in a special article in the Year-book, 1894. The total export for each year since the commencement of the trade has been:—

Year.Lb.
18821,707,328
18839,853,200
188428,445,228
188533,204,970
188638,758,160
188745,035,984
188861,857,376
188973,564,064
1890100,934,756
1891110,199,082
189297,636,557
1893100,262,453
1894114,827,216
1895127,018,864
1896123,576,544
1897157,687,152
1898173,793,576

The above figures for 1898 include 112,635 cwt. of frozen rabbits and hares in the skin. The number of the animals was 4,251,596.

To ascertain the total value of the meat-export in 1898 it is necessary to take into consideration, with the amount of £1,698,750, value of frozen meat before stated, £9,946 for frozen fish; also the value of preserved meats, £97,171; of salted beef and pork, £6,379; and of bacon and hams, £8,211.

Gold exported

The amount of gold exported in 1898 was 280,175 oz.

The total quantity of gold entered for duty to the 31st December, 1898, which may be reckoned as approximately the amount obtained in the colony, was 13,845,727 oz., of the value of £54,453,325. For fuller information see Section XVII., “Mining.”

Grain exported

The value of the grain exported in 1898 was £136,120. The grain exports were made up as under:—

 Bushels.£
Wheat10,0902,463
Oats816,21087,924
Barley2,665456
Malt97,74825,868
Maize91,07912,476
Peas and beans28,1886,933
      Total quantity and value1,045,980£136,120

The decline since 1890 in the export of wheat has been very great. The figures are:—

Year.Wheat exported. Bushels.
18904,467,026
18922,460,774
1894228,904
1896453,123
189810,090

And not only has the export of wheat fallen off, as shown in the preceding figures, but the imports of that cereal during 1898 exceeded the exports by upwards of 50,000 bushels.

Nor is the result different in the case of oats, except in degree:—

year.Export of Oats. Bushels.
18914,052,414
18923,830,444
18941,963,288
18962,247,053
1898816,210

Similarly, with barley, the export fell from 240,937 bushels in 1890 to 2,665 bushels in 1898; beans and peas show 189,340 bushels exported in 1890, against 28,188 bushels last year; maize, 287,885 bushels against 91,079 bushels. The export of malt, however, increased, the quantities having been 82,667 bushels in 1890, and 97,748 in 1898. But how greatly the loss in grain exports has been counteracted by increased production of wool, meat, hides, skins, tallow, &c., is easily seen by reference to the information previously given under those heads. And, further, a revival in export may be confidently anticipated in consequence of the good harvest in 1899, and greater breadth of land put into grain crops:—

 1897-98. Acres.1898-99. Acres.
Land in wheat315,801399,034
Land in wheat oats354,819417,320
Land in wheat barley29,92045,671

Butter and Cheese exported

The total quantity of butter and cheese exported in the past eleven years, and the amount of either commodity sent to the United Kingdom is tabulated:—

Year.Total Export of ButterButter Exported to the United Kingdom.Total Export of Cheese.Cheese Exported to the United Kingdom.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
188829,99511,46036,68225,436 ¼
188937,95521,09926,5587,633
189034,81626,57940,45131,043
189139,43028,98939,77029,565
189253,93041,50941,49330,000
189358,14952,36346,20141,567
189460,77158,84555,65554,540
189557,96455,19476,74373,369
189671,35360,09271,37258,692
189799,00279,84977,68367,681
189896,80180,81468,71141,412

Of the butter exported in 1898, 80,814 cwt., valued at £323,076, were shipped to the United Kingdom; 3,424 cwt., value £17,154, to New South Wales; 5,130cwt., value £25,829, to Victoria; 1,474 cwt., value £8,248, to Western Australia; 387 cwt., value £1,867, to Fiji; and 512 cwt., value £2,627, to the South Seas.

Of the cheese exported, 41,412 cwt., valued at £80,159, were sent to the United Kingdom; 15,493 cwt., value £31,102, to New South Wales; 4,150 cwt., value £8,720, to Victoria; 4,781 cwt., value £9,860, to Western Australia; and 2,083 cwt., value £4,232, to the other Australasian Colonies. While the quantity of butter exported in 1898, 96,801 cwt., shows an increase of 222 per cent. on the quantity exported in 1888, the increase in the export of cheese during the eleven years has been at the rate of 87 per cent.— 68,711 cwt. in 1898, as against 36,682 cwt. in 1888.

Phormium exported

Phormium, the export of which fell from 21,158 tons in 1890 to 4,850 tons in 1898, nevertheless shows an improvement in the export on comparing the figures for last year with those for 1897, when the quantity sent away was only 2,769 tons, or with the export for the year 1895, which was 1,806 tons. Outside of the question of prices, a large permanent development of this industry depends on the cultivation and careful selection of the plants used, and on improvements in the method of preparing the fibre.

Kauri-gum exported

The advance in this item to 9,905 tons exported in 1898 is a substantial one. The value was £59 4s. 9d. per ton. Full information as to the uses of this resin and the kauri-gum industry generally is given in a special article in Part III., embracing interesting matter from the report of the Royal Commission which investigated the whole subject in 1898.

Exports from different Ports, &c.

The following table gives the values of the exports from each port in New Zealand for the last two years, arranged in order of magnitude for 1898:—

 1898.1897.
 ££
Lyttelton1,934,6362,073,553
Wellington1,888,0751,509,960
Auckland1,676,1521,365,040
Napier1,113,2421,032,072
Dunedin886,6891,043,506
Invercargill and Bluff629,670664,186
Timaru512,379518,025
Poverty Bay353,155332,861
Wanganui308,120320,327
New Plymouth241,790302,195
Greymouth234,754165,084
Oamaru207,106251,373
Wairau and Picton137,113122,361
Kaipara98,664105,181
Waitara90,584..
Hokitika68,40960,910
Nelson43,58963,681
Westport43,23331,885
Patea41,35046,638
Tauranga..2

Although Auckland, as was seen previously, had the largest import trade for the year 1898, Lyttelton and Wellington take first and second places respectively in exports. Napier exported last year more value than Dunedin, which had only half the exports of Auckland and considerably less than half of those for Lyttelton and Wellington.

The increase in value of exports during 1898 was £378,115 at Wellington, £311,112 at Auckland, and £81,170 at Napier. But at Dunedin a decrease is found of £156,817, and at Lyttelton of £138,917. Invercargill also shows a decrease.

Details of all Exports, 1898

Articles exported.Quantities.Value in Sterling.
Produce and Manufactures of the Colony.British, Foreign, and other Colonial Produce and Manufactures.Produce and Manufactures of the Colony.British, Foreign, and other Colonial Produce and Manufactures.Total.
   £££
Acid, carbolic lb...80..44
Agricultural implements....1,8849522,836
Alkali: Potash, and caustic potash cwt.106..141..141
Animals, living—
   Birds No.26..8..8
Cattle (horned) No.472..3,477..3,477
   Deer No.1..1..1
   Dogs No.30..83..83
   Goats No.24..15..15
   Horses No.21088,7896609,449
   Ostriches No.12..128..128
   Pigs No.288..502..502
   Poultry No.2,769..367..367
   Sheep No.6,270..6,338..6,338
Apparel and slops....2,3311,7624,093
Arms, ammunition, and explosives—
   Caps, percussion No...15,000..33
   Cartridges No...500..44
   Dynamite lb...110..99
   Firearms No...136..427427
   Fuse coils..1,470..4949
   Ordnance stores....201,5981,618
   Powder, blasting lb...150..77
   Powder, sporting lb...1,405..9595
Bacon and hams—
   Bacon cwt.1,430..4,515..4,515
   Hams cwt.942..3,696..3,696
Bags and sacks—
   Corn sacks doz...3,861..782782
   Unenumerated doz.92710,730991,0861,185
Basketware and wicker ware....235
Beer galls.17,2255,7391,6291,1772,806
Beverages, non-alcoholic—
   Aerated and mineral waters, doz.2,6096145332485
   Coffee essence......110110
   Limejuice, unsweetened galls...14,014..877877
   Unenumerated....123
Bicycles and tricycles No.2319403,8073,847
   Materials for......920920
Biscuits—
   Fancy and other kinds lb.3,130..63..63
   Ship's plain cwt...2,282..2,2112,211
Blacking......2323
Blue lb...6,268..160160
Boats No.918651,1001,965
Bones tons26..103..103
Books, &c., printed....2,0382,0584,096
Boots and shoes doz. pairs902893711,0311,402
Bran tons514..1,747..1,747
Brass—
   Pigs, bars, tubes, or sheets cwt...20..1919
Bricks—
   Building No.11,000..27..27
   Fire No.4,400..39..39
Brushware and brooms....42125
Butter cwt.96,801..403,690..463,690
Candles lb...375..1515
Canvas......6767
Carpeting and druggeting......7777
Carriages, &c.—
   Carriages No.11122622248
   Carts, drays, and wagons No.3..26..26
   Perambulators No.3..5..5
   Materials for....9..9
Casks, empty No.7991,197225465690
Cement barrels27125197998
Chaff tons8..33..33
Chains cwt...30..2828
Cheese cwt.68,711..135,776..135,776
Chinaware......145145
Clocks No...2..2525
Coals tons56,3328,85750,3817,25857,639
Cocoa and chocolate lb...3,292..197197
Coffee—
   Raw lb...24,841..840840
   Roasted lb...176..1313
Coke tons9..14..14
Confectionery—namely, chocolate confectionery—
   Plain trade packages lb...308..2424
   Fancy packages......44
   Unenumerated lb.9,2211002605265
Copra tons..617..6,9816,981
Cordage cwt.3292575595181,077
Cordage iron and steel cwt...12..2626
Cotton piece-goods, namely,—Calico, white and grey......821821
Cottons—
   Butter- and cheese-cloth......88
   Moleskin......55
   Shirtings......4242
   Unenumerated......3,2143,214
Cotton—
   Raw lb...11,485..184184
   Waste cwt...3..55
Cutlery......146146
Doors No.250..159..159
Drapery....781,2741,352
   Lace and laces n.o.e......2222
   Tailors' trimmings......7070
Drugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares—
   Baking-powder......6363
   Chemicals n.o.e.....312272584
   Cream of tartar lb...448..2121
Drugs, druggists' sundries, and apothecaries' wares....9619841,945
   Medicinal barks, leaves, &c.....6..6
   Sheep-dip....210330540
   Sheep- and horse-drenches and sheep-licks......349349
Dyes......1919
Earthenware....1172,2562,373
Eggs doz.43..2..2
Engine-packing cwt...2 ½..66
Fancy goods and toys....2259101,135
   Curiosities....466150616
Fire-hose and other appliances......66
Fireworks......66
Fish—
   Anchovies, salted cwt...2 ½..1414
   Dried, pickled, or salted cwt.7610097166263
   Potted and preserved lb.212,75136,5306,0669336,999
   Frozen cwt.6,827 ½..9,446..9,446
   Ova....122..122
Fishing-tackle......6767
Floorcloth and oilcloth......3434
Flour tons.65575,946636,009
Foods, farinaceous—
   Maizena and cornflour lb.30032,8473647650
   Unenumerated....74..74
Fruits—
   Bottled and preserved doz.36625211461175
   Dried: Currants lb...8,691..114114
     Raisins lb...9,849..204204
     Unenumerated lb...15,178..313313
   Fresh: Lemons lb...14,027..224224
     Other kinds lb.141,75629,3521,3832061,589
Fungus cwt.4,526..7,093..7,093
Furniture and upholstery....1,0953711,466
Furniture, knife, and plate powder and polish....6..6
Furs......33
Glass bottles, empty......179179
Glassware....53188241
Glue and size cwt.821..452..452
Glycerine cwt.494..730..730
Gold oz.280,175..1,080,691..1,080,691
Grain and pulse—
   Barley bush.2,665..456..456
   Beans and peas bush.28,188..6,933..6,933
   Maize bush.91,079..12,476..12,476
   Oats bush.816,210..87,924..87,924
   Rye bush.1,116..198..198
   Wheat bush.10,090..2,463..2,463
   Unenumerated bush.401..77..77
Grease cwt...10..1212
Grindery......6262
Gum, kauri tons9,905¼586,7678586,775
Haberdashery......345345
   Sewing - cottons, silks, and threads......217217
Hair cwt.525..3,122..3,122
Hardware, holloware, and ironmongery....5463,0233,569
Hats and caps doz.12064244248
Hay and straw tons258..700..700
Hides No.32,897..27,232..27,232
Honey lb.26,070..419..419
Hops cwt.915306,2522406,492
Horns and hoofs tons35..682..682
Hosiery....312601913
Indiarubber and guttapercha goods......6464
Ink, printing lb...50..77
Instruments, musical—
   Pianofortes No...10..390390
   Unenumerated....2114116
Instruments, optical......3636
Instruments, scientific......279279
Instruments, surgical and dental......1212
Instruments, surveying......9595
Iron and steel—
   Bar, bolt, and rod tons6 ½2170207277
   Bolts and nuts cwt.26279
   Galvanised manufactures....21447261
   Sheet and plate......44
   Sheet, galvanis'd corrugated cwt..1,479..1,2501,250
   Tanks, each 400 galls. No...14..4646
   Tanks, each 200 galls. No...2..44
   Wire fencing, barbed tons..14 ½..150150
   Wire netting......9292
   Wire, unenumerated tons..9..9292
   Unenumerated tons..14 ½..417417
Jams, jellies, and preserves lb.10,6899,712223198421
Jewellery....5549104
Lamps, lanterns, and lamp wick......2424
Lard cwt.117..230..230
Load, pigs and bars tons..8..136136
Leather cwt.19,99266103,8381,019104,857
Leather manufactures, unenumerated....448
Lime bush.3,006..173..173
Linen piece-goods......3333
Linseed centals371..185..185
Machinery and machines—
   Agricultural....8,5612,47511,036
   Ploughs and harrows....20..20
   Dairying....211,1981,219
   Electric......2,1762,176
   Engines, steam No...2..9595
   Engines, gas No...4..900900
   Engines, boilers for No...2..2222
   Flour-milling......4444
   Gas-making......140140
   Mining....63220283
   Printing......6060
   Refrigerating......357357
   Sewing and knitting No...83..243243
   Wood-working......66
   Woollen-milling......3535
   Wool-pressing....373..373
   Unenumerated....33910,67511,014
   Materials for, and parts of......386386
Malt bush.97,748..25,868..25,868
Manures—
   Bonedust tons1..7..7
   Unenumerated tons83..419..419
Matches and vestas—
   Wax gross925952934
   Wooden gross..1,642..157157
Mats and matting....82715842
Meal, oaten centals31,364..17,001..17,001
Meats—
   Beef, chilled cwt.80..50..50
   Beef, fresh cwt.119..153..153
   Beef, frozen cwt.95,218..104,002..104,002
   Beef, salted cwt.6,163..6,271..6,271
   Kidneys, frozen cwt.4,987..7,223..7,223
   Lamb frozen carcases =cwt.1,168,883371,379..524..524
   Mutton, frozen (whole carcases caresses =cwt.1,719,282903,820..899,923..899,923
   Mutton (joints), frozen cwt.62,976..68,317..68,317
   Pork, frozen cwt.2..3..3
   Pork, salted cwt.60..108..108
   Veal, frozen cwt.67..92..92
   Other kinds, frozen cwt.609..1,003..1,003
   Rabbits and hares frozen in the skin No. =cwt.4,251,596112,635..93,836..93,836
   Potted and preserved =cwt.55,766997,1712697,197
   Extract of meat, Bovril lb.8,172..2,403..2,403
   Unenumerated cwt.68..138..138
Medicines, patent and proprietary....8032241,027
Metal, Manufactures of....2528591,111
   Anchors No...11..44
   Rivets and washers cwt...11..1515
   Typewriters No...4..5151
   Sheathing, other than copper cwt...5..2525
Metal, old cwt...2,232..1,3321,332
Milk, preserved lb.493,65633,8249,42965610,085
Millinery—
   Feathers, ornamental....186..186
   Other kinds......1414
Minerals—
   Copper ore tons2 ¼..70..70
   Sulphur tons1,765..4,097..4,097
   Manganese tons217..703..703
   Quartz, auriferous tons22..380..380
   Unenumerated tons41..315..315
Mustard lb...946..5252
Nails cwt...439..347347
Naphtha galls..50..1717
Nuts—
   Almonds in shell lb...1,890..5252
   Barbary lb...740..3030
Oars No.410623133
Oil—
   Castor, bulk galls...911..103103
   Castor, bottled doz. pints..44..88
   Colza galls...1,673..238238
   Cocoanut galls...1,665..169169
   Fish, penguin, and seal galls...16,692..1,2021,202
   Linseed galls...2,525..354354
   Kerosene galls...60,707..2,7512,751
   Neatsfoot galls.240..24..24
   Olive, bulk galls...1,336..191191
   Whale galls.1,932..134..134
   Unenumerated, bulk galls.2,2006,332194517711
Oilmen's stores....5407471,287
Onions cwt.43,55123716,42415916,583
Oysters doz.787,240..4,373..4,373
Paints and colours—
   Ground in oil cwt...187..247247
   Mixed ready for use cwt.99863443506
   Unenumerated cwt.9011572380
Paper—
   Bags cwt.515..435..435
   Printing cwt.23461783100
   Hangings pieces..150..44
   Wrapping cwt.488348398385783
   Writing cwt...78..140140
   Unenumerated cwt...45..4545
Peas split cwt...1..11
Perfumery—
   Perfumed spirits galls...28..3232
   Unenumerated......1010
Phormium tons4,850..74,556..74,556
   Tow tons4,850..590..590
Photographic goods....121367488
Photographic cameras and lenses......4949
Pickles galls...507..8888
Pictures, paintings, drawings, engravings, and photographs....1,2771861,463
Pitch cwt...60..1212
Plants, shrubs, &c.....5926598
Plate and platedware....501,5361,586
Pollard and sharps tons408..1,943..1,943
Portmanteaux......1313
Potatoes tons22,507..141,077..141,077
Printing materials......126126
Provisions....24643289
Pumps....210132342
Rags cwt.863..538..538
Rice..758..607607
Rugs....1,711181,729
Saddlery and harness....55398651
   Harness-oil, composition, and leather-dressing......1717
Salt tons..1..3535
Sashes, window pairs502..300..300
Sauces galls.12719461102163
Sausage-skins cwt.9,86526045,5391,20546,744
Seeds—
   Grass and clover cwt.49,02811378,51922178,740
   Unenumerated....1,7711341,905
Shells, pearl cwt...260..1,3051,305
Ship-chandlery, n.o.e.....96186282
Silk piece-goods......270270
Silver oz.293,851..33,107..33,107
Skins—
   Calf and other No.2,63742831284
   Rabbit No. = lb.6,607,934889,707..51,607..51,607
   Sheep, with wool No. = lb.227,8831,484,382..29,225..29,225
   Sheep, without wool No. = lb.4,767,4429,190,403..215,354..215,354
Soap—
   Common cwt.3,351..2,330..2,330
   Powder, extract of soap, &c.......1717
   Unenumerated lb.5,5143,620104153257
Specie—
   Gold......65,18565,185
   Silver......2,9322,932
Specimens, illustrative of natural science....80420824
Spices, unground lb...13,271..4,8224,822
Spirits—
   Bitters, cordials, and liqueurs galls...32..3232
   Brandy galls...745..422422
   Geneva and gin galls...663..183183
   Rum galls...549..103103
   Whiskey galls...3,507..1,4021,402
   Unenumerated galls...47..1616
Spirits of wine galls...255..2222
Starch lb...5,612..5050
Stationery....1,0728551,927
Stone—
   Building tons.33..43..43
   Pumice tons.1,354..4,514..4,514
   Wrought....661985
   Unwrought tons98..176..176
Sugar—
   Refined lb.1,371,452167,0728,3881,2799,667
   Molasses and treacle lb...838..77
Tallow tons16,288..281,583..281,583
   Mutton stock, and oleomargarine tons929..18,628..18,628
   Oil tons141..1,930..1,930
Tarpaulins and tents....7440114
Tanning materials—
   Bark tons249..1,565..1,565
   Other kinds....44..44
Tea lb...83,523..3,6173,617
Textile piece-goods....20184204
Timber—
   Logs, hewn sup. ft.909,050..2,478..2,478
   Sawn, undressed sup. ft.39,172,996450145,8682145, 870
   Sawn, dressed sup. ft.2,639,58630016,377416,381
   Staves No.1,400..17..17
   Unenumerated....1,161441,205
Tinware....45671527
Tobacco, manufactured lb...32,724..2,4982,498
Tobacco, Cigars lb...2,243..867867
Tobacco, Cigarettes lb...1,989..666666
Tobacco-pipes and cases, &c.......2626
Tools and implements—
   Axes and hatchets......1313
   Engineers' machine tools....23..23
   Unenumerated....3347350
Turpentine galls...3,405..489489
Twine....24527272
Twine Binder cwt.3,9832545,4013395,740
Umbrellas and parasols......126126
Varnish and gold size galls.4963421243264
Vegetables, fresh, dried, or preserved....1,372401,412
Watches No...485..1,2031,203
Whalebone cwt.14..102..102
Wine—
   Australian galls...269..121121
   Sparkling galls...219..418418
   Other kinds galls...764..344344
Woodenware....3441,7142,058
Wool—
   Greasy lb.117,447,498..3,401,320..3,401,320
   Scoured lb.16,281,950..697,831..697,831
   Sliped lb.14,132,923..490,171..490,171
   Washed lb.1,523,444..56,482..56,482
Woollen piece-goods....7,1347617,895
Woollen blankets pairs698..789..789
Zinc spelter cwt1,3261,1396948041,498
Goods, miscellaneous—
   Manufactured....132137269
   Unmanufactured....7964701,266
Parcels Post....9,245..9,245

Total Value of Trade

The value of the total trade of New Zealand advanced from £13,431,804 in the year 1886 to £18,748,555 in 1898. But of these amounts some portion was coin. Excluding the specie, the figures for 1886 are £12,853,736, and for 1898, £18,661,247.

Year.Total Trade.Imports.Exports.Imports (excluding Specie).Exports (excluding Specie).Excess of Exports over Imports (excluding Specie).
 ££££££
188613,431,8046,759,0136,672,7916,319,2236,534,513215,290
188713,111,6846,245,5156,866,1696,064,2816,680,772616,491
188813,709,2255,941,9007,767,3255,430,0507,403,2061,972,156
188915,650,7276,308,8639,341,8645,980,5839,183,9543,203,371
189016,072,2456,260,5259,811,7205,928,8959,569,3163,640,421
189116,070,2466,503,8499,566,3976,431,1019,560,8593,129,758
189216,477,9076,943,0569,534,8516,742,5449,490,9202,748,376
189315,896,8796,911,5158,985,3646,494,2798,680,8452,186,566
189416,019,0676,788,0209,231,0475,990,1779,221,5503,231,373
189514,950,3536,400,1298,550,2246,115,9538,518,1192,402,166
189616,458,4257,137,3209,321,1057,035,3799,299,9072,264,528
189718,072,2168,055,22310,016,9937,994,2019,741,2221,747,021
189818,748,5558,230,60010,517,9558,211,40910,449,8382,238,429

The trade for these years has been selected for exhibition in tabular form because during each of the series there was an excess of exports over imports, whereas previously the reverse obtained, and the colony was purchasing to an extent not covered by the value of the export.

During the last thirteen years the excess of exports over imports, excluding money sent to and from the colony, amounted to a total sum of £29,595,946.

How different the foregoing conditions were from those previously obtaining will be seen by observing the balance of trade for the years 1881 to 1885 inclusive:—

Year.Excess of Imports over Exports.
 £
18811,406,898
18821,948,485
1883761,938
1884235,981
1885539,239

The gradually declining excess of imports turned in 1886 and 1887 to a small excess of exports, but subsequently the excess of exports was very great, and attained the sum of £3,640,421 in the year 1890.

Again considering the results for the thirteen years, 1886–98, during which the balance was in favour of the exports, the external trade is shown for each year per head of population, the calculations being made exclusive as well as inclusive of specie, for the purpose of arriving at exact conclusions as regard trade in goods. In the year 1894 the imported money amounted to a sum of £797,843, making a substantial difference in the rates.

Excluding specie, the trade per head of population increased from £22 1s. 7d., in 1886, to £25 6s. 11d. in 1898: imports from £10 17s. 1d. to £11 3s. 1d., and exports from £11 4s. 6d. to £14 3s. 10d.

Year.Including Specie.Excluding Specie.
Total Trade per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).Imports per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).Exports per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).Total Trade per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).Imports per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).Exports per Head of Mean Population (excluding Maoris).
 £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
188623 1 511 12 211 9 322 1 710 17 111 4 6
188721 19 810 9 511 10 321 7 510 3 411 4 1
188822 12 119 16 412 16 721 4 08 19 512 4 7
188925 9 1110 5 615 4 524 15 99 15 615 0 3
189025 13 1010 0 215 13 824 19 49 11 015 8 4
189125 10 410 6 615 3 1025 7 1010 4 315 3 7
189225 13 210 16 314 16 1125 5 610 9 1114 15 7
189324 0 910 9 013 11 922 18 119 16 513 2 6
189423 11 99 19 1113 11 1022 7 118 16 513 11 6
189521 11 109 4 1012 7 021 2 88 16 812 8 0
189623 5 810 1 1113 3 923 2 29 19 113 3 1
189725 0 1111 3 313 17 824 11 711 1 713 10 0
189825 9 311 3 714 5 825 6 1111 3 114 3 10

The highest record of trade was that for 1873, when the rate per head was £41 19s. 3d., the imports, in consequence of the large expenditure of borrowed money, amounting at that time to £22 9s. 4d. per head, against £11 3s. 7d. in 1898.

It has been customary to leave out the Maoris in estimating the sum per head, for their industries and necessities swell the volume of trade in comparatively so slight a measure that the amount per head of European population can be more truly ascertained by omitting them altogether.

Trade with different Countries or Colonies

The trade with the United Kingdom in 1898 amounted to £13,414,332, comprising 71.55 per cent, of the total.

With the Australian Colonies and Tasmania, trade was done during 1898 to the value of £2,634,022; of which New South Wales claimed £1,552,220, and Victoria £733,195, made up as follows:—

Exports from New Zealand

 £
To New South Wales, 1898910,416
To New Victoria, 1898400,773

Exports to New Zealand

 £
From New South Wales, 1898641,804
From New Victoria, 1898332,422

The latter amounts, in each case, represent the declared values of the imports into New Zealand from the colonies mentioned, not their export value as given in the New South Wales and Victorian returns.

Included in the exports to New Zealand from New South Wales is coal to the quantity of 115,418 tons, valued at £105,203. Trade with Fiji increased from £194,729 in 1893 to £256,172 in 1897, and in 1898 to £355,119. The trade with the other Pacific Islands (including Norfolk Island) decreased from £144,786 in 1897 to £132,382 in 1898.

Of the exports to the United States in 1898 the values of the principal New Zealand products were: Coals, £689; kaurigum, £299,524; hides, £9,864; sheepskins, £2,789; rabbit-skins, £17,586; sausage-skins, £19,297; wool, £2,364; and phormium, £9,458.

The table on the following page shows the value of the total trade with the United States for each of the past ten years, 1889 to 1898 inclusive, during which period imports from that country have more than doubled in value, and exports nearly so:—

Trade with the United States

Year.Imports fromExports toTotal Trade
Atlantic Ports.Pacific Ports.Atlantic Ports.Pacific Ports.
 £££££
1889307,15635,280242,77898,584683,798
1890321,04734,348304,332218,802938,529
1891317,91343,882395,380119,822877,008
1892344,79936,828459,31461,483902,424
1893345,74333,635430,84265,706875,926
1894359,19635,495230,82950,367681,887
1895351,82342,410298,53618,103710,872
1896419,68973,151263,56463,025819,429
1897521,939106,105252,013123,0831,083,146
1898700,55599,856337,059286,0741,423,544

The development in the decennial period is at the rate of 108.18 per cent., or an increase in value £739,746.

The trade with India and Ceylon reached a total of £22,122, against £306,434 in 1897. The imports—tea, rice, castor-oil, woolpacks, &c.—were reckoned at £318,616, leaving a balance of only £3,506 for exports.

Trade of the Australasian Colonies

The following table gives the value of the imports and exports of the Australasian Colonies for the year 1897:—

Colony.Total Value ofExcess of Exports over Imports.Excess of Imports over Exports.
Imports.Exports.
 ££££
Queensland5,429,1919,091,5573,662,366..
New South Wales21,744,35023,751,0722,006,722..
Victoria15,454,48210,739,6701,285,188..
South Australia7,277,0867,070,750..206,336
Western Australia6,418,5653,940,098..2,478,467
Tasmania1,367,6081,744,461376,853..
New Zealand8,055,22310,016,9931,961,770..

In the preceding table is given the total trade inwards and outwards of each colony, counting twice over the value of goods produced in one colony and carried thence into another, and reckoning the same goods three times where they are imported from without into one colony and re-exported thence in the same year into another colony. But, in order to form a just idea of the trade of the Australasian Colonies as a whole, it is necessary to eliminate the intercolonial traffic altogether. From the following table the value of imports and exports exchanged between the various colonies has accordingly been excluded:—

External Trade of Australasia

Year.Total Trade.Imports.Exports.Excess of Imports.Excess of Exports.
 £££££
188572,220,44441,136,03831,084,40610,051,632..
189075,143,81838,451,16036,692,6581,758,502..
189184,565,77841,325,03343,240,745..1,915,712
189275,325,93334,529,50140,796,432..6,266,931
189367,788,73827,925,99039,862,748..11,936,758
189465,192,20226,063,63039,128,572..13,064,942
189567,624,31727,425,72540,198,592..12,772,867
189674,511,26234,420,59640,090,666..5,670,070
189783,569,56837,862,74145,706,827..7,844,086

It will be observed that in the year 1885 the excess of imports over exports for Australasia amounted to no less a sum than £10,051,632, and that five years later the excess of imports had fallen to £1,758,502. In 1891 the position was completely reversed, the exports exceeding the imports by £1,915,712. This excess increased to £6,266,931 in the following year (1892), and to £13,064,942 in 1894, but decreased to £12,772,867 in 1895, to £5,670,070 in 1896, and was £7,844,086 in 1897.

The trade per head of the population in each of the colonies in 1897 was:—

Trade per Head of the Population in 1897

Colony.Mean Population.Imports.Exports.Total Trade.
  £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
Queensland478,44011 6 1119 0 130 7 0
New South Wales1,310,55016 11 1018 2 634 14 4
Victoria1,172,79013 3 714 5 627 9 1
South Australia353,51820 3 219 11 1139 15 1
Western Australia155,74941 4 225 5 1166 10 1
Tasmania168,9168 1 1110 6 618 8 5
New Zealand (exclusive of Maoris)721,60911 3 313 17 825 0 11

But the values of the exports of the Australian Colonies, more especially New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, are largely increased by the inclusion of articles the produce or manufacture of other colonies and countries.

The value of home productions or manufactures exported from each colony in 1897, and the rate per head of mean population, were as follow:—

Colony.Home Produce exported.Per Head of Population.
 ££s.d.
Queensland8,831,4501892
New South Wales17,057,5431304
Victoria12,829,39410189
South Australia2,484,140706
Western Australia3,218,56920134
Tasmania1,721,95910311
New Zealand9,596,2671360

The next table sets forth the amount of the trade of each of the above-named colonies with the United Kingdom in 1897:—

Colony.Imports from the United Kingdom.Exports to the United Kingdom.Total Trade with the United Kingdom.
 £££
Queensland2,501,9523,322,7035,824,655
New South Wales7,557,0698,728,82816,285,897
Victoria6,004,7989,559,24915,564,047
South Australia2,057,5672,182,9461,240,513
Western Australia2,624,0861,736,2054,360,291
Tasmania397,510274,497672,007
New Zealand5,392,7388,168,12313,560,861

The statement appended shows the relative importance of the Australasian Colonies as a market for the productions of the United Kingdom:—

Exports of Home Productions from the United Kingdom, in 1896, to—

 £
British India and Ceylon31,103,596
Germany22,244,405
Australasia21,888,292
United States20,424,225
France14,151,512
South Africa13,821,357
Holland8,333,935
Belgium7,816,152

The exports to other countries did not amount to £7,000,000 in any one case.

The Australasian Colonies as a whole, with a population of about 4,500,000, thus take the third place in importance as consumers of British produce, the exports thereto being more than two-thirds the value of similar exports to British India, with its 290,000,000-inhabitants.

Chapter 38. SECTION XII.—MANUFACTORIES AND WORKS

Comparison of Total Results, 1896, 1891, 1886

The results of the compilation of the special returns, relating to the various manufactories, works, &c., in the colony are compared with those shown for each of the two previous censuses in the statement given further on.

It must be remembered that, while all establishments or works are included which are of the nature of a factory, employing a number of persons, using some kind of machinery or plant, and probably steam- or water-power, the smaller establishments, where only a few persons may be engaged in making articles for retail disposal, or in repairs, as a general rule are kept out of the tables, which do not therefore give the value of all the work done in such matters as boot and shoe, general clothing, and furniture making, &c. But, though it is not easy to settle in all cases what to put in and what to leave out, it can be fairly well done, and quite sufficiently so to admit of reliable comparisons being given of different census results, so as to afford a just idea of the development or otherwise of the various branches of industry. The totals for the industries do not include mining and quarrying, which are dealt with separately.

The annual value of all manufactures increased between 1890 and 1895 by the sum of £775,523, while the increase for the previous quinquennium was as great as £2,062,458. But a moderate increase in money signifies, in respect of some items, a greater increase in production. The increases of quantity are stated in the special tables for the more important industries given in the Statistical volume. It will be noticed that generally these increases were shown to be very satisfactory in case of such industries as meat-freezing, butter- and cheese-making, sawing of timber, and others which depend directly on work done upon the lands which are being developed; but, in regard to some of the smaller manufacturing industries carried on in the towns, the position in April, 1896, did not always show great development, though things have changed for the better since.

The development of the butter- and cheese-making industry by way of factory work helped greatly to make up the total increase shown between 1890 and 1895; on the other hand, the decline of the flax- and grain-milling operated unfavourably on the comparison for those years.

The great rise of the meat-freezing industry happened between 1885 and 1890, and this large increase, representing in money no less than £920,781, was probably the principal cause of the increase for the whole of the manufactures being so much greater for the period 1885–90 than for 1890–95; but there was also, amongst many other causes, the fact that flax-milling was prosperous in 1890 (showing an increase over 1885 amounting to £214,207), but in 1895 in a state of the utmost depression, the value of the product of the mills being only £32,546, against £234,266 in 1890.

Manufactories and Works, 1896, 1891, 1886

* Omitting Government Railway Workshops and Government Printing Office.

† No information available.

 April, 1896April, 1891March, 1886Increase, 1891–96.Increase. 1896–91.
 No.No.No.No.No.
Number of establishments*2,4592,2541,940205308
Hands employed—
   Males22,98622,66419,6013223,308
   Females4,4032,9692,4941,434475
      Totals*27,38925,63322,0951,7563,538
 Year 1895.Year 1890.Year 1885.Increase, 1890–95.Increase, 1885–90.
 £££££
Wages paid—
   To Males1,776,0761,705,64170,435
   To Females131,516102,99928,517
      Totals*1,907,5921,808,64098,952
 H.-p.H.-p.H.-p.H.-p.H.-p.
Horse-power28,09621,69615,4916,4000,205
 £££££
Total approximate value of manufactures or produce*9,549,3608,773,8376,711,379775,5232,062,458
Total approximate value of—
   Land1,063,9891,286,7351,477,990−222,746−191,261
   Buildings1,743,0731,483,9021,446,082259,17137,820
   Machinery and plant2,988,9552,491,1892,172,852497,766318,337
      Totals*5,790,0175,201,8205,696,930534,191104,896

Hands employed

Under the heading “Hands employed,” the males increased from 19,601 in 1886 to 22,986, or at the rate of nearly 18 per cent. in ten years; but the numerical increase was higher between 1886 and 1891 than from 1891 to 1896. On the other hand, the females employed increased in numbers between 1891 and 1896 far more than in the previous period, the increase for 1891–96 being at the rate of 48 per cent., and only 19 per cent. for 1886–91, or 77 per cent. for ten years.

The order of the principal industries, ranged according to the number of hands employed, is as follows:—

 Number of Hands.
1896.1891.
Clothing and boot and shoe factories4,4073,233
Sawmills, sash and door factories4,0593,266
Printing establishments (excluding Government Printing Office)2,3512,569
Meat freezing, preserving, and boiling-down works2,0371,568
Iron and brass foundries, boiler-making, machinists, and millwrights (excluding Railway Workshops)1,6421,787
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring establishments1,6291,196
Woollen-mills1,4161,175
Coach-building and painting works807678
Flax-mills6473,204
Agricultural implement factories581528
Butter and cheese factories576269
Breweries and malthouses560563
Furniture factories496585
Brick, tile and pottery works455494
Biscuit factories425331
Grain-mills419499
Aërated-water factories347261
Gasworks295249
Tinware factories28993
Saddlery and harness factories266184
Chaff-cutting works212205
Fruit-preserving and jam-making works193117
Soap and candle works190209
Sugar refining works160110
Rope and twine works150222
Sail, tent, and oilskin factories143124
Stocking-weaving factories13351
Cycle factories12531
Bacon-curing establishments12384
Match factories121..
Coffee and spice works11981
Chemical works11455
Ship-and boat-building yards108145
Waterproof factories93..
Brush and broom factories9281
Spouting and ridging works90100
Ammunition factories9080
Paper-bag and cardlboard-box factories8635
Paper-mills8448
Woodenware factories8151
Lime and cement works7993
Basket and perambulator factories7663
Cooperages7653
Fish-curing and-preserving works75140
Hat and cap factories72112
Confectionery works6953
Sauce and pickle works6841
Cleaning and dyeing works5848
Sausage-skin and violin-string factories5673
Colonial wine works5324
Bone-mills4625
Venetian-blind factories4529
Rabbit-preserving works32..
Graving docks and patent slips2964
Sheep-dip factories29..
Starch and soda works2713
Textile bag fabrics2214
Pumice works20..
Industries employing under 20 hands246222
 27,38925,633

The cause of the increase between 1891 and 1896 in the male hands being so low (322) was mainly the crash of the flax industry, and with it a reduction of the rope-making. Under these heads an actual decrease of 2,629 hands is accounted for. Bad times in regard to grain-growing affected the number of persons employed at these mills also, and in the iron-working. But if the figures be analysed, the increases will be found to sum up to 5,201 hands, against 3,445 of decreases; and these last persons did not leave the colony, but took to other pursuits, as is shown by the increased population of the colony in 1896 over that in 1891 (76,702 persons), and the fact that for seven consecutive years New Zealand has not only retained her natural increase, but each year added to population by an excess of arrivals over departures—a most important fact.

Nothing is more common than for a flax-mill hand to take to agricultural work, or for a saw-mill hand to do the same. But such changes move the man or youth out of industrial into farming pursuits in the classification, and manufacturing industries lose, but the group of primary producers gains.

In respect of printing, where a decrease of hands is shown between 1891 and 1896, the business has suffered interference through new machinery being introduced, and some of these men had to take to country work.

The decreases which are important, such as in hands employed at flax- and grain-mills, iron works, and printing, having been accounted for as above, it must be noticed that such items as “sausage skin and violin-string making,” “baking-powder factories,” “tobacco factories,” with “heel- and toe-plate factories,” are the most utterly insignificant matters possible, probably in an experimental condition.

There remain some other lines, by no means of the first importance, and not industries directly connected with the settlement of the country, in which decreases are exhibited; but, as previously stated, the increases altogether outweigh the decreases; and the matter of prices affecting flax and grain industries is one quite beyond control.

As before remarked, the condition of the industries has greatly improved since April, 1896, and a new account will be taken in April, 1901, which, according to present prospects, should give most satisfactory results.

The succeeding statement shows the most important industries in operation in 1896, ranged in order of the values of their output for 1895, and compared with the results obtained for 1890 and 1885:—

 Total Value of all Manufactures or Produce, including Repairs.
1895.1890.1885.
 £££
Meat-freezing and preserving and boiling-down works1,552,2751,464,659543,878
Tanning, fellmongering, and woolscouring1,237,2521,026,349634,915
Sawmills898,807832,9591,177,713
Grain mills874,656991,812754,830
Clothing and boot-and-shoe factories616,158570,315514,506
Butter and cheese factories501,274150,95743,094
Breweries and malthouses418,830380,849421,197
Printing establishments (not including Government Printing Office)389,124354,559273,886
Iron and brass foundries, boiler making, machinists, &c. (not including Government Railway Workshops)302,815403,635368,919
Woollen mills302,423279,175194,311
Gasworks199,025178,947194,653
Soap and candle works152,298155,714130,745
Coach-building and painting works148,969139,660128,346
Biscuit factories118,979127,14747,784
Agricultural implement factories102,054144,472111,823
Aërated water factories98,60991,69194,098
Bacon-curing establishments86,02283,57458,799
Furniture factories85,327131,314162,375
Chaff cutting works78,49763,23654,440
Chemical works75,32041,56834,283
Coffee and spice works74,33964,02498,234
Brick, tile, and pottery works66,14056,83091,797
Saddlery and harness factories63,73537,347..
Tinware factories63,72314,2978,500
Rope and twine works52,40076,71156,413
Fruit-preserving and jam-making works36,10827,25532,292
Confectionery works33,23517,24817,130
Flax-mills32,546234,26620,059
Sail, tent, and oilskin factories30,16631,08325,574
Ship- and boat-building works25,23335,84756,132
Spouting and ridging works23,76233,14025,478
Brush and broom factories23,36313,3407,786
Waterproof factories22,354....
Cooperages19,23311,54011,862
Cycle factories18,8175,6551,301
Woodenware factories18,2769,050..
Lime and cement works15,88119,41616,928
Sausage-skin and violin-string factories13,47210,582..
Sauce and pickle works13,4176,4073,145
Bone-mills12,2464,6288,337
Basket and perambulator factories11,9207,3814,375
Hat and cap factories10,90221,62813,695
Fish-curing and -preserving works10,29219,53712,182
Baking-powder factories10,1535,6374,120
Venetian-blind factories9,8784,7766,470
Stocking-weaving factories9,3575,6506,200
Sheep-dip factories9,138....
Colonial-wine works8,9633,4563,626
Paper-bag and cardboard-box factories7,6984,497..
Other industries in respect of which the value of the manufactures was less than £8,000463,899380,156235,148
      Totals£9,549,3608,773,8376,711,379

Wages paid at Manufactories or Works.

No attempt was made in 1886 to obtain any account of the wages paid in the factories or large industrial works dealt with in the census returns. But in 1891 the total amount returned for the year 1890 was £1,808,640, and for 1895 the sum was £1,907,592, an increase of £98,952 in the annual payment, or 5.47 per cent.

The average annual amount of wages paid to male hands was £77.27 in 1895 and £75.26 in 1890. For females, £29.87 in 1895 against £34.69 at the previous census. The wages of males would seem to have been more than maintained. In regard to females, possibly a larger proportion of girl labour may have been employed in 1895 than in 1890, which would tend to lower the average rate for females of all ages.

Horse-power, Land, Buildings, Machinery, and Plant.

The increase for the year 1896 over 1891 in the horse-power stated in the returns was 6,400, against 6,205 for 1891, over that for 1886.

The approximate value of the land used for purposes of the factories and industries retired from £1,477,996 in 1886 to £1,286,735 in 1891, and, further, to £1,063,989 in 1896. The value of the lands used for mining is not included in the above figures, and the value of Crown lands has been omitted throughout.

A very satisfactory development will be found in the value of the machinery and plant, from £2,172,852 in 1886 to £2,988,955 in 1896, being at the rate of 14.65 per cent. for the period 1886–91, and 19.98 per cent. for 1891–96. The value of the buildings also increased.

Industries in Provincial Districts

The values of the manufactures for the provincial districts, as returned for 1895 and 1890, were respectively as follow:—

 Value of Manufactures, excluding Mines and Quarries.
1895.1890.
Canterbury2,629,8222,056,412
Auckland2,163,7592,184,401
Otago2,153,4732,078,365
Wellington1,475,5171,412,465
Hawke's Bay507,954525,394
Taranaki330,886155,772
Nelson142,109146,020
Marlborough89,748161,714
Westland56,09253,294

Details of the Principal Industries

The principal industries returned at the census of 1896, and particulars relating thereto, are given in detail in the following table. These industries are arranged in classes according to their nature:—

Details of the Principal Industries

Nature of Industries.Total Number of Industries.Number of Hands employed.Wages paid.Amount of Power employed (Horse-power).Value of all Manufactures or Produce (including Repairs) for the Year 1895.Approximate Value of Land, Buildings, Machinery, and Plant.
Males.Females.Total.To Males.To Females.Total.

* In connection with these were 105 creameries, particulars relating to which are included.

* Not including the Government Railway Workshops.

† Not including the Government Printing Office.

     £££H -p.££
Meat-freezing and preserving works301,908521,960175,521304175,8257,3261,615,219697,436
Fish-curing and preserving works27741753,229133,242..10,2929,729
Bacon-curing establishments3711851237,314807,3944986,02222,518
Butter, and cheese factories*1705482857639,71644140,1571,531501,274234,006
Grain mills90419..41940,890..40,8902,333874,656355,847
Biscuit factories173458042518,8011,35520,156134118,97958,866
Fruit-preserving and jam-making works22103901935,1011,4506,5517736,10818,867
Sugar-boiling and confectionery works123930692,2535612,8142133,2358,925
Baking-powder factories1016319661201862..10,15310,155
Breweries85465..46557,327..57,327441336,734230,416
Malthouses3195..959,398..9,3985982,09637,504
Colonial wine factories194112531,925952,02068,96312,832
Aërated-water factories1323301734721,18426121,44521698,60989,44
Coffee and spice works18107121197,1662937,4598274,33931,095
Sauce and pickle factories244424681,8356222,4575713,41711,909
Soap and candle works22187319016,8822116,903252152,29858,826
Bone mills1546..462,069..2,06922012,2469,449
Sausage-skin and violin-string factories656..563,754.3,754..13,4721,500
Boiling-down works1377..774,950..4,95016637,05613,615
Cooperages2176..764,250..4,25011019,23311,175
Sawmills, sash-and-door factories2994,5544,059323,223..323,2236,409898,807586,422
Woodenware factories1981..814,147..4,14712418,27613,427
Chaff-cutting establishments52212..2127,847..7,84734478,49742,378
Paper-bag and box factories94145862,2998523,151157,6987,956
Gasworks27293229537,74710237,349126199,025766,673
Lime and cement works1479..795,560..5,56028915,88122,419
Brick, tile, and pottery works108454145528,1795028,22951966,14076,585
Tinware factories34288128919,742..19,7422763,72325,849
Iron and brass foundries, boiler-making, machinists, &c.*901,63931,642129,69964129,7631,093302,815252,135
Heel and toe-plate factories49..9460..460191,8502,371
Spouting and ridging factories990..905,758..5,7582423,76219,729
Lead-headed nail works7102124643049452,8342,325
Printing establishments†1542,1232282,351204,16512,137216,302532389,124396,915
Musical instrument factories515..151,030..1,03042,2826,070
Basket and perambulator factories17679763,3802993,679511,92010,850
Agricultural implement factories34581..58144,581..44,581217102,05471,267
Brush and broom factories156230923,9377934,7302023,3639,005
Coach-building and painting works116807..80757,377..57,377119148,969105,802
Cycle factories19125..1255,952..5,9523318,81724,831
Saddlery and harness factories232491726615,37552915,904..63,73534,559
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring establishments1171,62361,629116,715268116,9836861,237,252171,405
Ship- and boat-building yards40108..1086,724..6,7244925,23314,288
Graving-docks and patent slips629.292,785..2,7854355,422331,806
Sail and oilskin factories3992511435,6601,3617,021..30,16623,623
Furniture factories714722449633,25778734,04412785,32784,673
Chair and wash-board factories68..8272..27221,2772,020
Venetian-blind works1545..452,588..2,588149,8787,236
Mattress factories515..15593..593..1,8502,680
Chemical works711221149,104629,16612175,32044,471
Hæmatite-paint factories51111240712419451,5033,015
Sheep-dip factories6272291,290..1,290179,1382,716
Herbal-remedy factories4821032050370..2,2653,410
Woollen mills96557611,41659,58332,03691,6191,400302,423223,473
Flock mills510..10264..264441,7052,570
Cleaning and dyeing works163325581,5067052,11317,5309,980
Clothing, and boot and shoe factories922,0592,3484,407145,69364,770210,463131616,158166,739
Hat and cap factories153141722,4371,1173,554610,90210,560
Stocking-weaving factories71132133252,5162,54139,3574,565
Waterproof factories41578931,3442,5403,884222,3545,316
Rope and twine works24150..1506,840..6,84028052,40040,961
Flax mills52645264717,544..17,5445773,34631,359
Other industries5846322969235,9774,73940,711,122435,381207,569
      Totals2,45922,9864,40327,3801,776,076131,5161,907,59228,0969,549,3605,796,017

Comparison with Industries in New South Wales and Victoria

Attention is directed to a statement showing under four different heads comparative results for the principal industries in New Zealand (1896), New South Wales (1895), and Victoria (1894). Mining works are excluded throughout, but for the purposes of this comparison special returns for the Government Printing Office and Railway Workshops, New Zealand, were procured, and the figures included, as is done in the other two colonies.

Establishments.Hands employed.Horse-power of Engines.Value of Machinery and Plant.
Number.Number.H.-p.£
New Zealand (including Government Railway Workshops and Government Printing Office, but deducting mining works) 18962,47528,59828,5303,073,774
New South Wales (1895)2,40943,83342,8495,855,129
Victoria (1894)2,67541,27330,8806,640,660

New Zealand shows well as regards number of establishments, but these are evidently not of the magnitude of those in the other two colonies, from the large difference in the number of hands employed and amount of capital invested in machinery and plant. For the year 1891 the figures stood as below:—

Year 1891.Establishments.Hands employed.Horse-power of Engines.Value of Machinery and Plant.
Number.Number.H.-p.£
New Zealand2,27026,54022,1482,592,993
New South Wales2,61946,52524,9094,557,022
Victoria3,29658,17530,0786,604,322

New Zealand would, by the last statement, appear to have made a moderate advance in five years under all four heads of information. For Victoria, the number of establishments and of hands employed are shown as fewer in 1894 than in 1891, but the value of machinery and plant remains about the same. For New South Wales, the establishments and hands are fewer in 1895 than in 1891, but the value of machinery is considerably greater. These comparisons are, probably, by no means closely accurate, but in all probability they are indicative of the true conditions that have obtained, considering the disastrous financial experience of the year 1893 in Australia. The comparisons are shown in respect of each industry in the census report.

Chapter 39. SECTION XIII.—TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

Shipping

The shipping entered inwards during 1898 comprised 620 vessels, of 765,255 tonnage; while entered outwards were 622 vessels, of 765,793 tons. Comparison with the figures for the previous year shows in the entries an increase of 20 vessels and 78,356 tons, and in the clearances an increase of 35 vessels and 90,460 tons. Of the vessels inwards, 152, of 329,065 tons, were British; 399, of 369,840 tons, colonial; and 69, of 66,350 tons, foreign. Those outwards numbered 150, of 322,150 tons, British; 403, of 377,102 tons, colonial; and 69, of 66,541 tons, foreign. Compared with the figures for 1897 there was an increase of 4 vessels and 29,047 tonnage in colonial vessels entered, and an increase in the British shipping entered of 19 vessels and 53,045 tons. Of the entries, 264, of 132,450 tons, were sailing-vessels, and 356, of 632,805 tons, steamers. Of the clearances, 271, of 135,833 tons, were sailing-vessels, and 351, of 629,960 tons, steamers. The shipping inwards and outwards for ten years is given in the table following:—

Vessels entered, 1889–98

Year.Total Number.British.Colonial.Foreign.
Vessels.Tons.Crews.Vessels.Tons.Crews.Vessels.Tons.Crews.Vessels.Tons.Crews.
1889781602,63422,649158206,8255,348547319,13114,1627676,6783,139
1890744662,76923,475190280,1056,786477298,49713,5987784,1673,091
1891737618,51521,889169265,1646,817507291,80012,9516161,5512,121
1892686675,22322,038203335,5778,274411265,76911,3037273,8772,461
1893617615,60420,935166290,3237,289405272,25011,7454653,0311,901
1894609631,10021,834141271,9946,456423306,54713,2794552,5592,099
1895611672,95122,074146299,6676,837420319,31313,2094553,9712,028
1896589614,09719,857126249,6015,495395300,17612,2106864,3202,152
1897600686,89921,542133276,0206,086395340,79313,1387270,0862,318
1898620765,25524,081152329,0657,910399369,84013,8976966,3502,274

Vessels cleared, 1889–98

Note.—Coasting-vessels are not included in the above table.
1889762593,25222,647160211,8725,714527307,08313,7627574,2973,171
1890745649,70523,260195284,6357,168477283,73513,0767381,3353,016
1891744625,80722,080168271,5337,002515291,93812,9476162,3362,131
1892689656,10021,679189315,6337,934424263,50411,2417676,9632,504
1893635642,46621,448186317,1307,839400270,30811,6654955,0281,944
1894614631,25021,934140270,4646,437432310,05013,5274250,7301,970
1895597648,94621,619134281,8406,528420315,17113,0684351,9352,023
1896592627,65920,217123259,0645,637402305,92612,4486762,6692,132
1897587675,33321,409140280,2296,240378327,06812,8816968,0362,288
1898622765,79324,130150322,1507,898403377,10213,9486966,5412,284

The figures given apply to the foreign trade only; but in a new country such as New Zealand, as yet deficient in roads, but having an extensive seaboard and a number of good harbours, the coastal trade must be relatively very large, as is evidenced by the figures next given:—

Shipping entered Coastwise, 1898

 Number.Tons.
Sailing-vessels4,841297,329
Steamers15,0535,598,449

Shipping cleared Coastwise, 1898

 Number.Tons.
Sailing-vessels4,683301,896
Steamers15,0745,599,538

The total number of vessels entered coastwise was thus 19,894, of 5,895,778 tons, a decrease of 374 vessels, but an increase of 432,505 tons on the figures for 1897. The clearances coastwise were 19,757 vessels, of 5,901,434 tons, a decrease of 321 vessels, but an increase of 455,285 tons on the number for the previous year.

Registered Vessels

The number and tonnage of the registered vessels belonging to the several ports on the 31st December, 1898 (distinguishing sailing-vessels and steamers), was as under:—

Registered Vessels, 31st December, 1898

Ports.Sailing-vessels.Steam-vessels.
Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
Auckland17713,90613,3777510,1816,253
Napier7778755161,023596
Wellington244,5314,362234,0042,322
Nelson1128128110820516
Lyttelton315,4925,36471,170479
Dunedin4712,44112,3016768,81841,860
Invercargill202,3642,2793304190
      Totals31739,79338,71920186,32052,216

Railways

The history and progress of railways in New Zealand was specially described in the Year-book of 1894, as was also the line partly built by the New Zealand Midland Railway Company. An account of the line belonging to the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company was published in the Year-book for 1895.

The length of Government railways open for traffic on the 31st March, 1899, was 2,090 miles, the total cost thereof having been £16,404,076 (besides £786,891 spent on unopened lines), and the average cost per mile £7,848. The cash revenue for the year 1898–99 amounted to £1,469,665; and the total expenditure to £929,737. The net cash revenue—£539,928—was equal to a rate of £3 5s. 10d. per cent. on the capital cost; the percentage of expenditure to revenue was 63.26. The earnings on some of the lines ranged as high as £5 11s., and even £13 3s. 6d., per cent.

The following statement shows the number of miles of Government railways open, the number of train-miles travelled and of passengers carried, and the tonnage of goods traffic, for the past ten years:—

Year.Length open.Train mileage.Passengers.Season Tickets issued.Goods and Live-stock.*
* The equivalent tonnage for live-stock has been given.
     Tons.
1889–901,8132,868,2033,376,45912,3112,112,734
1890–911,8422,894,7763,433,62913,8812,134,023
1891–921,8693,010,4893,555,76416,3412,122,987
1892–931,8863,002,1743,759,04416,5042,258,235
1893–941,9483,113,2313,972,70117,2262,128,709
1894–951,9933,221,6203,905,57828,6232,123,343
1895–962,0143,307,2264,162,42636,2332,175,943
1896–972,0183,409,2184,439,38743,0692,461,127
1897–982,0553,666,4834,672,26448,6602,628,746
1898–992,0903,968,7084,955,55355,0272,744,441

The traffic in local products for the past ten years was:—

Year.Wool.Timber.Grain.Minerals.Horses and Cattle.Sheep and Pigs.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Number.Number.
1889–9091,214172,814498,199797,11741,0581,036,875
1890–9187,701153,078528,683828,07944,9991,313,155
1891–9285,888170,521442,277873,89947,6181,117,253
1892–9396,842169,910523,637884,03146,5901,359,860
1893–94101,340183,192411,191864,53851,5731,394,456
1894–95103,328198,578388,556857,91752,0751,563,213
1895–9699,363213,132374,699878,65950,7661,893,058
1896–9798,958257,825423,8881,032,25247,2562,016,437
1897–98103,055313,073427,4481,048,86854,8712,399,379
1898–9997,396310,266420,0711,147,35366,2262,552,745

The particulars of the revenue and expenditure for the past ten years are given herewith:—

Year.Passenger Fares.Parcels Luggage and Mails.Goods and Live-stock.Rents and Miscellaneous.TotalExpenditure.Net Revenue.Percentages of Expenditure to Revenue.Percentages of Revenue to Capital Cost.
Note.—For 1895–96 and subsequent years the railways have been credited with the value of services performed for other Government departments, and debited with the value of work done for the railways by other departments.
 £££££££ £ s. d.
1889–90369,34837,097655,00734,1171,095,569682,787412,78262.322 19 5
1890–91353,59338,997690,77938,3321,121,701700,703420,99862.472 18 11
1891–92304,61741,795671,46937,5501,115,431706,517408,91463.342 15 9
1892–93390,61944,801707,78538,3161,181,521732,141449,38061.973 1 0
1893–94402,01945,206686,46939,0981,172,792735,358437,43462.702 17 9
1894–95385,14943,270683,72638,7061,150,851732,160418,69163.622 14 6
1895–90389,23454,736698,11540,9561,183,041751,368431,67363.512 16 0
1896–97410,16058,084774,16343,7511,286,158789,054497,10461.353 3 10
1897–98433,43060,872837,58944,1171,376,008857,191518,81762.303 4 10
1898–99475,55366,418882,07745,6171,469,665929,737539,92863.263 5 10

The average revenue per mile of railway was £711 10s. 2d., and the average expenditure £450 2s. 3d.; equal to 7s. 5d. and 4s. 8d. per train-mile respectively.

The total number of miles travelled by trains was 3,968,708.

In addition to the above railways, there were 167 miles of private lines open for traffic on the 31st March, 1899—namely, the Wellington – Manawatu Railway, 84 miles; the Kaitangata Railway Company's line, 4 miles; and the Midland Railway, 79 miles.

The cost of the construction of the Wellington–Manawatu Railway was £767,665, being at the rate of £9,139 per mile. The term “cost of construction,” as applied to railways, includes value of equipment, rolling-stock, &c., not merely the road-line and buildings. The revenue for the twelve months ended the 28th February, 1899, amounted to £86,119, and the working-expenses to £39,310, equivalent to 45.64 per cent. of the revenue.

The traffic return from the opened part of the Midland line for the year ended 31st March, 1899, was £20,204, and the expenditure £20,000, equivalent to 99.99 per cent. of the revenue. The total expenditure on the construction of this line has been about £760,000.

Australasian Railways.

The following statement gives the number of miles of Government railways open for traffic and in course of construction in the Australian Colonies in 1897.

Colony.Railways (State).
No. of Miles of Line open on Dec.31No. of Miles of Line in course of Construction on Dec.31.Cost of Construction of Open Lines.Gross Receipts.Working Expenses.Percentage of Net Revenue to Cost.
* Including 17 miles of tramway worked but not owned by the Government Railway Department.
   £££%
Queensland2,6099717,871,4451,122,637688,0332.43
New South Wales2,691 ¼78 ¼37,719,4023,026,7481,614,6053.75
Victoria (30th June, 1897)3,129*...38,325,5172,615,9351,563,8052.75
South Australia1,724..12,669,3171,020,804628,1723.10
Western Australia (30th June, 1898)9923605,047,2611,019,677786,3184.62
Tasmania424 ¾183,526,322166,833128,5441.07
New Zealand (31st March, 1898)2,05511315,993,9031,376,008857,1913.24

In addition to the Government lines open for traffic in 1898, New South Wales had 84 ½ miles of private railway; South Australia, 20 miles; Western Australia, 464 miles; Tasmania, 78 miles, 7 ½ miles of which are worked by Government; and New Zealand, 167 miles.

Postal and Electric Telegraph

There were 1,561 post-offices in New Zealand at the end of 1898.

The number of letters, letter-cards, post-cards, books, and pattern-packets, newspapers, and parcels dealt with during the year, compared with the number handled in 1897, was as under:—

Total Number dealt with.
 1898.1897.Increase.
Letters34,737,31632,272,9232,464,393
Letter-cards917,631757,172160,459
Post-cards1,479,9641,341,821138,143
Books and pattern-packets 14,627,8321,990,269
Newspapers15,095,48714,261,345834,142
Parcels204,603197,5547,049

The average number of letters, &c., posted per head of the population in each of the past five years was,—

 1894.1895.1896.1897.1898.
† Not including letter-cards.
Letters and letter-cards38.02†39.8740.7742.9845.34
Postcards1.841.731.651.841.90
Books parcels10.3912.2717.1917.3619.72
New12.9412.9513.4714.1014.77

The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and without the colony have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 11 lb. in weight being sent to almost all the important countries of the world.

The number and weight of parcels dealt with in 1890, 1895, 1896, 1897, and 1898 are given. The word “Parcels” in the preceding table includes the parcels herein mentioned:—

1890.1895.1896.1897.1898.
No.Weight.No.Weight.No.Weight.No.Weight.No.Weight.
 Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
136,327380,521176,206582,193186,611654,333197,554676,054204,603698,301

Owing to the greatly reduced book-post rates a large number of the lighter packets of the classes formerly sent by parcel-post continue to be diverted to the packet- and sample-post. This fact accounts for the small increase in the number of parcels.

The following table shows the number of parcels exchanged with the United Kingdom, the Australian Colonies, &c., in 1897 and 1898:—

Country.Number of Parcels.
Received.Dispatched.
 1897.1898.1897.1898.
United Kingdom and foreign offices viâ London15,74217,8234,1974,023
Victoria3,1743,2921,5261,311
New South Wales3,5214,6141,6811,779
Queensland374343256267
South Australia239235179190
Tasmania243143224308
Western Australia185190270236
Samoa417117123
Rarotonga1154862
Ceylon150326126145
Straits Settlements1......
Hawaiian Islands54423918
Uruguay....715
Vancouver......37
Fiji..14..27
      Totals23,69827,0448,6708,541

The declared value of the parcels received from places outside the colony was £57,627, on which the Customs duty amounted to £13,302 11s. 4d.

Money Orders and Postal Notes.

The number of offices open for the transaction of money-order business at the end of 1898 was 417.

During 1898, 318,370 money-orders, for a total sum of £1,029,241 7s. 7d., were issued at the various post-offices in the colony. The money-orders from places beyond New Zealand and payable in the colony numbered 23,424, for the amount of £80,665 0s. 8d.

The number of offices open for the sale of postal notes at the end of 1898–99 was 472. 431,449 postal notes were sold, value £139,957 4s. (including £2,871 19s. 1d. commission).

The notes paid numbered 429,193, value £139,476 2s. 6d.

Mail-services.

The cost of the various mail-services between England and New Zealand was, in 1898, as follows:—

San Francisco Service.
 £s.d.
Payments—
   Subsidies, &c.27,245178
   Interprovincial and other charges3,658811
 £30,90467
Receipts—
   Postages received from England and the Australian Colonies10,941172
   Postages collected in the colony10,398179
   Penalty for late arrival .. 
 £21,3401411 
      Loss to the colony£9,563118 
Peninsular and Oriental and Orient Lines Services. 
Payments—£s.d. 
   To P. and O. and Orient Lines1,476162 
   Transit across Australia68114 
   European Continent1381811 
   Intercolonial services63569 
 £2,319132 
Receipts— 
   Postages collected from England and from foreign offices293109 
   Postages collected in the colony1,28100 
 £1,574109 
      Loss to the colony£74525 
Vancouver Service. 
Payments—£s.d. 
   Subsidies, &c.9,369164 
   Interprovincial and other charges3,651101 
 £13,02165 
Receipts— 
   Postages collected in the colony5,22690 
   Penalties for late arrival1,04800 
 £6,27490 
      Loss to the colony£6,746175 

The total amount of postages collected and contributions received for all these services in 1898 was £29,189 14s. 8d.

The average number of days in 1898 within which the mails were delivered between London and each of the under-mentioned ports in New Zealand was:—

 San FranciscoP. and O.Orient
London to—Service.Line.Line.
   Auckland31.9238.1539.96
   Wellington33.0839.0040.27
   Dunedin34.5440.8740.87
   Bluff35.2940.1240.12

Electric Telegraph.

There were 6,736 miles of telegraph-line open at the end of March, 1899, carrying 18,746 miles of wire. 2,960,738 telegrams were transmitted during the year; of these, the private and Press messages numbered 2,717,548, which, together with telephone exchange and other telegraph receipts, yielded a revenue of £145,294 13s. 7d.

There were eighteen telephone exchanges and thirteen sub-exchanges on the 31st March, 1899. The number of connections increased from 5,787 in March, 1899, to 6,203 in March, 1899. The subscriptions to these exchanges during the financial year amounted to £39,718 7s. 7d.

The capital expended on the equipment, &c., of the several telephone exchanges up to the 31st March, 1899, was £150,490 18s. 9d.

Chapter 40. SECTION XIV.—ACCUMULATION: PRICES AND WAGES

Banks of Issue

IN December, 1898, five banks of issue were doing business in New Zealand, the Bank of New Zealand and the Colonial Bank having amalgamated in 1895. Two of the five banks, the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand (Limited), were wholly New Zealand institutions, with a paid-up capital of £1,250,000, besides which the Bank of New Zealand has £2,000,000 of 4 per cent. guaranteed stock. The Government hold shares to the value of £500,000 in the Bank of New Zealand. The total average liabilities of ail five banks for the year 1898 in respect of New Zealand transactions were £15,299,058, and the average assets £17,013,404. The average amount on deposit during the year was £14,143,230, of which sum £670,134 belonged to the General Government. Excluding those belonging to Government, deposits to the value of £7,786,854 were bearing interest, and £5,686,242 at call. The value of the notes in circulation of these banks was £1,070,132.

The development of banking in New Zealand since the year 1857 has been very great. Taking for each year the average of the four quarters' returns made by the banks of issue, the figures for 1857, 1868, 1878, 1888, and 1898 are:—

Year.Deposits.Assets.Liabilities.
 £££
1857343,316419,860432,494
18683,102,7275,734,7453,838,220
18788,960,36915,393,63010,031,009
188811,155,77818,709,44412,108,353
189814,143,23017,013,40415,299,058

In 1878 the deposits of these banks were £21.31 per head of the mean population. In 1888 they were £18.43 per head, and in 1898, £19.21. The ratio of advances to deposits, which was 143.29 per cent. in 1878, reached its maximum in 1883, when it stood at 173.35 per cent. The proportion since that year fell, till in 1897 it was only 76.21 per cent. In 1898, however, the ratio had advanced to 80.52 per cent.

The following figures, which are taken from the published returns for the December quarter of each year, show that the value of the coin and bullion held by all the banks of issue doing business in New Zealand rose steadily from 1891 to 1895, in which year the value stood at £3,333,272:—

Quarter ended 31st December.Coin.Gold and Silver in Bullion or Bars.Total Coin and Bullion.
 £££
18902,421,530169,6592,591,189
18912,231,242126,3462,357,588
18922,381,319141,4062,522,725
18932,480,453121,4962,601,949
18943,103,355118,1213,221,476
18953,199,889133,3833,333,272
18963,171,702122,9013,294,603
18972,848,183107,6352,955,818
18982,625,896126,3492,752,245

Since 1895 there has been a decline, the amount at the end of 1898 being set down at £2,752,245; the figures shown for each quarter of the year 1898 being:—

 Coin.Bullion.
 ££
March quarter, 18982,734,504108,035
June quarter, 18982,677,259116,465
September quarter, 18982,664,515111,301
December quarter, 18982,625,896126,349

In 1886 the average amount of advances made by the banks was £15,853,420, equal to £27.23 per head of the mean population The advances gradually declined in amount and proportion to population until 1891, when they were in value £11,549,145, or £18.34 per head. During the years 1892 and 1893, however, there was a rise, but in 1894 a fall to £12,031,537 (£17.71 per head), and in 1897 to £10,892,111, or £15.09 per head, which is the lowest average since the year 1872. In 1898, however, an increase both in the average amount of advances and in the rate per head of population (£11,387,321 and £15.47 respectively) was observed. The discounts in 1898 were less in amount and in rate per head than in any year since 1872. The largest amount of discounts in any year was £6,061,959 in 1879, a rate of £13.53 per head. From 1879 there was a fall year by year until 1896, when the sum was £1,756,791, or £2.49 per head. In 1897 they totalled £1,768,845, but, with a comparatively larger population, the rate per head was only £2.45. In 1898 the amount fell to £1,719,715, and the rate per head to £2.34.

The deposits, as stated in the returns for the March quarters of the years 1898 and 1899, were:—

 £
Deposits not bearing interest, March quarter, 18985,786,303
Deposits not bearing interest, March quarter, 18995,769,555
                    A decrease of£16,748

in the amount held at call.

The fixed deposits show a reverse movement, and to a greater extent:—

 £
Deposits bearing interest, March quarter, 18987,779,32
Deposits bearing interest, March quarter, 18997,837,265
                    An increase of£57,939

Besides the above, the Government had with the Bank of New Zealand £935,463 on deposit in March, 1899. as against £745,172 in March, 1898.

Special Banking Legislation

An Act was passed in 1893 intituled “The Banks and Bankers Act Amendment Act,” under which, notwithstanding anything in previous legislation, the shareholders or proprietors of any bank may, from time to time, by extraordinary resolution, authorise its capital to be increased to such an amount and upon such terms as are deemed by them to be expedient. The holders of shares in such increased capital may be granted special privileges notwithstanding anything contained in the charter of the bank.

Any increased capital may be raised by the issue of new shares of such amount as is determined on by extraordinary resolution of the shareholders or proprietors.

The Bank-note Issue Act of the same year provides that notes issued or circulated in the colony by any bank shall, to the amount of the authorised issue, be a first charge on all the assets and property (including the paid-up capital, uncalled capital, and reserve fund—“Banking Act, 1894”) of such bank, and that the notes shall be payable in gold only at the office of the bank at the place of issue of the said notes.

The assets and property of a bank are defined as assets for the payment of debts or other obligations contracted or entered upon or due and payable in the colony.

The other clauses (Part II.) of the same Act were originally passed for twelve months only, but their operation was extended in 1894 for another twelve months —viz., till September, 1895. As amended by subsequent enactments, they run as follows: The Governor may declare by Proclamation the notes of any bank named to be a legal tender of money to the amount therein expressed to be payable. The period of time is to be limited by the Proclamation, and no such Proclamation is to be made unless the Governor in Council is satisfied that, as between the bank and its creditors, its assets in the colony exceed its liabilities in the colony. The bank must further pay all such notes in gold on presentation, after expiry of the time limited, at the office of the bank at the place of issue At any time within six months after the period limited by the Proclamation, the Colonial Treasurer, on being satisfied that a bank-note covered by the Proclamation has been presented and not paid, shall pay the same in gold to any bona fide holder.

On the 29th June, 1894, the Colonial Treasurer introduced in the House of Representatives three Bills relating to banking, which were thereupon passed through all stages and became law forthwith.

The most important of these, intituled “An Act to guarantee out of the Consolidated Fund a Special Issue of Shares by the Bank of New Zealand to the Amount of Two Million Pounds Sterling,” provided for the increase of the capital by the issue of shares* to an amount not exceeding two million pounds sterling, in guaranteed shares of ten pounds each, without further liability. These shares are preferential in respect of both capital and dividend, and the liability of the holders of ordinary shares is to secure payment of the guaranteed shares and the dividends thereon. The directors can refuse to register the transfer of ordinary shares. The guaranteed shares are to be called in at the end of ten years, and cancelled on payment of the principal sum with accrued dividend. The rate of dividend on preferential shares is not to exceed 4 per cent. per annum, and is to be paid by the bank. The guaranteed or preferential shares and dividends thereon are to be a charge upon and, in case of default by the bank, payable out of the Consolidated Fund of the colony; but if at any time any money shall be payable under the guarantee, the assets and property of the bank are to be security for the repayment of money so advanced; if the money be not repaid, the Colonial Treasurer may appoint a Receiver.

* By further Amendment Act these shares were to be issued in the form of negotiable stock certificates or warrants to bearer, of such amounts as the directors may determine. The certificates with warrants or coupons are transferable by delivery. The holders of stock certificates or warrants may exchange these for registered stock, which is made transferable in such amounts as directors may sanction. Shares or stock may be held by any person without limit as to number, provided that the total value does not exceed two millions sterling.

One-half of the sum of two million pounds authorised by the Act to be raised is to be at the disposal of the bank for use in its ordinary business, and the remainder is to be invested as the Colonial Treasurer may approve, or as may be specially provided by law. Until the guaranteed shares are called in and cancelled, no dividend is to be paid to ordinary shareholders without the consent of the Colonial Treasurer, who is empowered to satisfy himself that any proposed dividend will not unduly affect the security of the colony in respect of the guarantee.

By section 5 of the Act, the Colonial Treasurer might require the directors to call up £500,000, being one-third of the reserve capital, within twelve months, and this has accordingly been done.

As provided by the Act, the head office of the bank was removed to Wellington, and a new Board of directors elected. The Governor in Council appointed a President (office since abolished under Act of 1898, see post), and an Auditor of the business outside the United Kingdom. An Auditor of the business within the United Kingdom was appointed by the Agent General.

The shares held in the Bank of New Zealand Estates Company (Limited) by the bank are, pending the completion of liquidation, to be treated in valuing as at par.

“The Bank Shareholders Act, 1894,” provided that the directors of any bank may decline to register any transfer of shares upon which there is any liability made by a shareholder to any person of whose responsibility they may not be satisfied. “The Bank Directors and Shares Transfer Act, 1894,” gave authority to directors to refuse approval, without assigning reasons, to any transfer of shares on which there is liability. It limited the number of directors to not less than five or more than seven. (See subsequent legislation in 1898 as to directory.)

“The Bank of New Zealand and Banking Act, 1895,” and its Amendment Act

This Act was passed on the 4th of September, 1895. It provided for writing off the paid-up capital of the Bank of New Zealand (£900,000), together with the proceeds (estimated at £450,000) of the first call of £3 6s. 8d. on the reserve liability of £10 per share.

A sum of £500,000 new capital is raised by preferred shares, and issued to the colony in exchange for Government securities. The preferred shares bear interest at 3 1/2 per cent. The bank may within six years repurchase them at par. Further share capital is created by a second call of one third of the reserve liability (£3 6s. 8d. per share) in four instalments, and the final third may be called up at any time after the 31st December, 1898. The sum of one million pounds, required by the Share Guarantee Act of 1894 to be invested as the Colonial Treasurer might approve, is released for employment by the bank in its ordinary business. So long as the colony remains liable under the Act, one of the directors of the bank is to be appointed by the Governor, and one of the present directors is to resign to make way for the Government appointee. (See subsequent legislation in 1898 as to directory.)

An Assets Realisation Board is established to purchase all the assets of the Estates Company, and of the Auckland Agricultural Company, for the sum of £2,731,706, being the estimated value of the properties on the 31st of March, 1895, subject, however, to an adjustment of station accounts, the purchase-money to be paid in debentures issued by the Assets Board, having a nine years' currency and bearing interest at 31/2 per cent. per annum from the 31st March, 1895, any deficiency to be guaranteed by the Government as a charge upon the Consolidated Fund of the colony.

Provision is made for securing the Government against loss on account of this guarantee, and the Colonial Treasurer may, in the event of any deficiency, appoint a Receiver in respect of the securities with the powers of a liquidator appointed by the Supreme Court. The Assets Realisation Board is a body corporate, consisting of three members, two appointed by the Governor and one chosen by the directors of the bank.

Section 3 of “The Banking Act, 1894,” is repealed, and power is given to the Bank of New Zealand to purchase the business and assets of any other bank doing business in the colony, excepting such assets as are found to be bad, doubtful, or valueless. Any such purchase is conditional on ratification by the shareholders of the selling bank and the approval of Parliament. [The business of the Colonial Bank of New Zealand has since been purchased under the authority given, the contract being approved under the Amendment Act of 1895, section 3, and subsequently ratified by the shareholders of the selling bank.]

So long as the colony remains in any measure liable under the Act, or the Share Guarantee Act of 1894, the proprietors of the bank may not take any steps towards winding up or dissolving the bank.

The Assets Board are to draw up a balance-sheet every six months, and lay the same before Parliament.

“The Bank of New Zealand and Banking Act, 1898.”

Consequent on the report of a Committee of the House of Representatives appointed to make inquiries respecting the affairs of the Bank of New Zealand, a statute was passed in 1898 bearing the above title.

It provides for a Board of Directors consisting of six persons, instead of five, of whom four are appointed by the Governor in Council and two elected by the shareholders of the bank.

The office of President is abolished, with its power of veto; while the old constitution of the Board, under which the President and one director only were appointed by the Governor in Council, and three by the shareholders, gives way to the new one.

Of the four members in the new Board who are appointed by the Governor in Council, two retire on the 31st March, 1901, the retiring directors being decided by lot amongst the four. On the 31st March, 1902, and on the same day in each subsequent year, the two members who have been longest in office retire. The ordinary time of office of the four members is thus two years.

The two directors elected by the shareholders of the bank hold office for an ordinary term of two years, subject to the provision that one is to retire on the 31st March, 1901, it being decided by lot between the two which is to retire.

On the above-named day in 1902, and the same day in each subsequent year, the member who has been longest in office retires.

Provision was made for offering the retiring President of the old Board a sum of £4,500 by way of compensation, leaving it open to him to decline, with power of instituting proceedings to recover damages for wrongful removal from office. [The President has since retired, and is now one of the directors elected by the shareholders.]

The remuneration of the new Chairman and directors is £2,000 per annum, which they divide amongst themselves, in shares fixed by resolution of the Board.

There are sundry provisions as to the voting at meetings, and a carefully limited power of veto in respect of resolutions passed by shareholders, under certain circumstances, is given.

Amongst other various matters provided for, it may be mentioned that the Governor in Council may appoint an Assistant Auditor. The Chief Auditor is given the right to attend meetings of the Board, and empowered to suspend the operation of any act or proceedings until the Board has had an opportunity of considering the same at a future meeting.

Savings Banks

The number of post-offices open for the transaction of savings-bank business at the end of 1898 was 405.

There were 37,265 new accounts opened in the year, and 26,628 accounts were closed. The total number of open accounts at the end of 1898 was 169,968.

The deposits received during the year amounted to £3,279,611 7s. 5d., and the withdrawals to £3,194,893 16s. 7d., the excess of deposits over withdrawals having thus been £84,717 10s. 10d. The total sum standing at credit of all accounts on the 31st December, 1898, was £4,957,771 5s. 5d., which gave an average of £29 3s. 5d. to the credit of each account.

The following were the securities, &c., standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post-Office Savings-Bank Fund on the 31st December, 1898:—

Description of Securities, &c.Nominal Value.Value at Cost price.
 £s.d.£s.d.
“Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1896,” Debentures at 31/2 per cent250,00000250,00000
“Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1896,” Debentures at 3 per cent35,0000035,00000
“Consolidated Loan Act, 1867,” Debentures, 4 per cent12,0000012,48000
“Consolidated Stock Act, 1884,” Debentures, 31/2 per cent54,3000054,30000
“Defence and other Purposes Loan Act, 1870,” Debentures, 4 1/2 per cent75,0000072,00000
“Defence and other Purposes Loan Act, 1870,” Debentures, 41/2 per cent.8,100008,10000
District Railways Purchasing Acts, 1885–86, Debentures, 4 per cent.42,0000036,076178
District Railways Purchasing Acts, 1885–86, Scrip, 4 per cent.34,1000034,10000
Dunedin Garrison Hall Debentures, 5 per cent.6,000006,00000
“General Purposes Loan Act, 1873,” Debentures, 4 per cent.5,200004,34200
“Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886,” Debentures, 31/2 per cent231,00000231,00000
Greymouth Harbour Board Debentures, 4 per cent100,00000100,00000
Hamilton Borough Debentures, 51/2 per cent3,000003,00000
Hokitika Harbour Board Debentures, 5 per cent.10,0000010,00000
“Immigration and Public Works Loan Act, 1870,” Debentures, 4 per cent174,20000167,27200
“Immigration and Public Works Loan Act, 1870,” Debentures, 41/2 per cent20,9000020,527100
“Immigration and Public Works Loan Act, 1870,” Debentures, 4 per cent. (Imperial guaranteed)400,00000400,00000
Inscribed Stock, 3 per cent.1,707,140001,707,14000
Land for Settlements Acts, 1892 and 1894, Debentures, 4 per cent.129,1000029,10000
“Land for Settlements Act, 1894,” Debentures, 31/2 per cent376,69000376,69000
“Land for Settlements Act, 1892,” Debentures, 31/2 per cent45,2760045,27600
“Lands Improvement and Native Lands Acquisition Act, 1894,” Debentures, 4 per cent.264,00000264,00000
“Lands Improvement and Native Lands Acquisition Act, 1894,” Debentures, 31/2 per cent.35,0000035,00000
“Native Land Purchases Act, 1892,” Debentures, 41/2 per cent.125,00000125,00000
North Rakaia River Board Debentures, 5 percent1,000001,00000
Oamaru Borough Consolidated Loan 1893 Debentures, 5 per cent13,8000013,80000
Oamaru Harbour Bonds, 51/2 per cent.32,0000032,00000
Patea Harbour Board Debentures, 41/2 per cent.10,0000010,00000
Thames Borough Debentures, 6 per cent6,500006,50000
Thames Harbour Board Debentures, 4 per cent.10,0000010,00000
“Public Revenues Act, 1893” (Treasury Bills), 31/2 per cent349,20000349,20000
Westport Harbour Board Debentures, 4 per cent421,05000421,05000
            Totals4,987,556004,969,95478

There are seven* savings-banks in the colony not connected with the Post Office. The total amount deposited in them in 1898 was £504,153 11s., of which the deposits by Maoris comprised £20. The withdrawals reached the sum of £514,173 1s. 7d., exceeding the total deposits by £10,019 10s. 7d. The total amount to the credit of the depositors at the end of the year was £789,116 1s. 6d., of which sum £91 1s. 3d. belonged to Maoris.

Summary of all Deposits

If the total deposits at the end of the year be assumed to be equal to the average for the last quarter, then it may be affirmed that, exclusive of Government moneys, the deposits in the several banks of issue and in the two classes of savings-banks amounted at the end of 1898 to £18,974,201. In addition, there are the deposits with building societies, which in 1897 were £189,283, and it is known that there were also deposits with financial companies, of which no particulars have been supplied to the department. The known deposits reach an average of £25 15s. 6d. per head of the population, exclusive of Maoris.

* One in liquidation since 31st March, 1898.

Building Societies

There were 68 registered building societies in operation in the colony at the end of 1897. Of these, 30 were terminable societies, the rest were permanent.

The total receipts by these societies during their financial year were £568,516, of which deposits comprised £175,744.

The assets at the end of the year were valued at £937,587. The total liabilities were: To shareholders, reserve fund, &c., £734,446; to depositors, £189,283; and to bankers and other creditors, £13,858.

Friendly Societies

The Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns for the year 1897 from 388 lodges, courts, tents, &c., of various friendly societies throughout the colony. The number of members at the end of 1897 was 32,670.

The total value of the assets of these societies was £637,011, equivalent to £19 10s. per member. Of the total assets, the value of the sick and funeral benefit funds was £583,924.

The receipts during the year on account of the sick and funeral funds amounted to £75,698, and the expenditure to £54,124, of which the sick-pay to members reached the sum of £33,419. In addition to the sick-pay, the sum of £30,391 was paid out of the medical and management expenses fund for attendance given and medicine supplied to the members and their families.

Mortgages

In a return to an order of the House of Representatives last session it is stated that, during the year ended 31st March, 1898, mortgages to the value of £6,702,081 were registered in the several land registration districts of the colony, while the monetary value of those paid off amounted to £5,516,598. Compared with a somewhat similar return for the year 1895–96, the mortgages registered show an increase of £1,128,291, the total amount for the earlier year having been £5,573,790.

The total amount represented in the mortgages registered and paid off in each registration district during 1897–98 was:—

District.Amount of Mortgages Registered.Amount of Mortgages Paid off.
 ££
Auckland845,674718,152
Gisborne388,530182,902
Taranaki486,852306,974
Hawke's Bay634,842503,076
Wellington1,768,2071,094,234
Marlborough67,12949,882
Nelson181,564124,004
Westland20,5708,045
Canterbury1,359,1401,615,641
Otago519,641648,310
Southland429,932265,378
                    Totals£6,702,081£5,516,598

Classified according to the various rates of interest, the amounts in the mortgage deeds registered in 1897–98 were:—

(a) Including £1,250 at44/5 per cent. (b.) Including £13,210 at 51/4 per cent., £1,800 at 51/3 per cent., and £1,715 at 53/4 per cent. (c.) Including £483 at 61/4 per cent., £900 at 61/3 per cent., £150 at 62/3 per cent., £900 at 63/5 per cent., and £15,775 at 63/4 per cent. (d.) Including £6,000 at 71/4 per cent.

Comparison of the foregoing with the amounts at the various rates of interest in the mortgages registered during 1895–96 shows the lowering of the rates that has taken place:—

Life Insurance

There were existing in the colony at the close of the year 1897 as many as 75,692 life insurance policies, an average of nearly 104 in every 1,000 persons living. The gross amount represented by these policies was £19,723,970, an average of £261 2s. 2d. for each policy, and of £27 1s. 1d. for every European inhabitant of the colony at the end of the year.

The distribution of these policies among the various life assurance offices is shown in the following table, by which it will be seen that nearly one-half are held in the Government Life Insurance Department, respecting which institution a special article will be found in Part III. of this book.

Name of Office.Number of Years of Business in the Colony.New Zealand Business only.
Number of existing Policies at End of Year 1897.Gross Amount insured by Policies at End of Year 1897.
   £
The Australian Mutual Provident Society3623,2826,640,252
The Citizens'Life Assurance Company (Limited)41,112147,025
The Colonial Mutual Life Assurance Society (Limited)144,1041,090,936
The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States13743320,482
The Mutual Life Association of Australasia214,2171,100,641
The National Mutual Life Association of Australasia (Limited)185,9081,363,638
The New York Life Insurance Company1115258,395
The Life Insurance Department of the New Zealand Government2836,1749,002,601
        Totals, December, 1897 75,692£19,723,970
        Totals, December, 1896 72,193£19,097,455

The rate at which life insurance increased is evidenced by the difference between the amounts insured at the end of each of the two years 1896 and 1897, being a sum of £626,515, or 3.28 per cent. for a period in which the population increased by 2.09 per cent.

Industrial Life Assurance

In addition to the ordinary life insurance transactions alluded to above, there were in 1897 two industrial life assurance offices doing business in New Zealand. The number of policies in existence and the gross amount insured by such policies at the end of the year were:—

Name of Office.Number of Years of Business in the Colony.New Zealand Business only.
Number of existing Policies at End of Year 1897.Gross Amount insured by Policies at End of Year 1897.
   £
The Citizens'Life Assurance Company (Limited)412,891331,544
The Provident and Industrial Insurance Company of New Zealand87,817182,363
        Totals, December, 1897 20,708£513,907
        Totals, December, 1896 18,177£437,940

Here a rise of £75,967, or 17.35 per cent., is found to have taken place in twelve months.

The Public Trust Office

This institution is described in the Year-book for 1898. The number of estates in it increased from 1,678 in 1890 to 2,491 in 1899, while the total value rose from £1,240,097 to £2,110,316 during the same period.

Classifying the business as on the 31st March, 1899, the results are:—

 Number of Estates.Value of Estates.
  £
Wills and trusts (including sinking funds accounts)538865,446
Intestate estates821133,409
Real estates798,414
Lunatic estates507111,793
Native reserves115357,500
West Coast Settlement Reserves293620,000
Unclaimed lands13813,754
                  Total2,491£2,110,316

Private Wealth

The number and value of estates of deceased persons finally certified, on which duty was paid during the years 1896, 1897, and 1898 are shown, classified according to amount:—

Value of Estates.189618971898.
Number of Estates.Aggregate Value on which Duty was Paid.Number of Estates.Aggregate Value on which Duty was Paid.Number of Estates.Aggregate Value on which Duty was Paid.
£ £ £ £ £
100 to 500431123,283672126,146714147,280
500 to 1,000100112,430171120,438219157,709
1,000 to 2,000113159,416108153,708151214,650
2,000 to 3,00045107,9403995,90476186,749
3,000 to 4,0002068,65639132,79331106,097
4,000 to 5,0001045,8161985,78124107,117
5,000 to 7,50019112,33532197,39620121,253
7,500 to 10,00017145,47213114,47712101,264
10,000 to 15,00014163,84018156,02021254,756
15,000 to 20,0008139,98812199,6866100,395
20,000 and over18987,18010598,39213784,116
        Totals8552,166,3561,1281,980,7411,2872,281,386

The number of estates admitted to probate, and the number of adult deaths in each year, 1894 to 1898, are given, and it will be seen that no less than 27 out of every 100 adults who died during the year 1898 left property subject to estate duty.

Year.Number of Estates.Number of Adult Deaths.Proportion per Cent of Adults who died leaving Property on which Duty paid.
18946094,14814.68
18957674,03319.02
18968553,94421.68
18971,1284,25826.49
18981,2874,69627.41

On these data an attempt has been made to compute roughly the total value of private property in the colony. This method of estimating the private wealth of a people by means of the probate returns may not be strictly accurate, and is indeed strongly objected to by some statisticians, but it was nevertheless selected by the late Professor Mainwaring Brown as the best and most trustworthy plan.

Calculations of the wealth of the living on the proportional basis of amounts left by the dead have not been considered satisfactory in some of the Australian colonies, but in New Zealand, where wealth is more evenly distributed, the results have proved fairly comparable year by year, and the method can be used with a greater degree of confidence. Dividing the aggregate amount admitted to probate during a series of years by the number of deaths occurring within the same period, the average value of property left by each person dying is obtained. On the assumption that the average wealth owned by each person living is equal to that left by each person dying, the total aggregate private wealth may readily be found. For a calculation of this kind it is necessary to take the average results for a series of years, as any inference drawn from the figures of a single year would be untrustworthy; for an increase in the death-rate must necessarily give a corresponding decrease in the estimated wealth, unless the value of estates admitted to probate maintains year by year the same ratio to the number of deaths. An epidemic among young children who have no property to leave would unduly lower the average; while, on the other hand, the deaths of a few wealthy persons would raise it abnormally. It must also be remembered, when using these figures for comparative purposes, that the lowness of the death-rate in New Zealand is in great measure due to the small mortality among infants. By putting the figures for several years together, and taking the average for the term, results may be arrived at, thus:—

Years, inclusive.Amount sworn to.Total Number of Deaths.Average Amount left by each Person.Average Number of Persons living.Average Total Wealth for each Year of the Period.
 £ £s.d. £
1894–989,213,25434,052270113707,266191,360,718

It is manifest, however, that this average does not exhibit with sufficient accuracy the actual present amount of wealth. If the average amount per head were the same at the end of the year 1898 as for the period 1894–98—viz., £270.564—then the total wealth possessed by the 743,463 persons in the colony on the 31st December of that year would be £201,154,323.

These figures, however, fall short of the full amount of private wealth, as the values sworn to do not include those estates on which no stamp duty is payable—viz., land and goods passing to the husband or wife of the deceased, and a great number of properties under £100. The aggregate value of such estates must be considerable, and should give a substantial increase to the average amount per head, and therefore to the total wealth.

The estimated private wealth for each of ten years is shown by the following figures:—

Year.Amount.Average per Head.
 ££
1889133,135,134215
1890142,631,461228
1891145,780,502230
1892152,065,087236
1893156,058,273232
1894154,715,821225
1895152,918,021219
1896170,007,843238
1897183,781,780252
1898201,154,323271

The Government Statistician of New South Wales estimated the private wealth of the seven colonies of Australasia for the year 1890 at £1,169,434,000.

In the year 1885 the property-tax returns gave £40,304,000 as the value of public property in the colony, including Crown lands, educational, municipal, and other reserves, with public works—namely, railways, telegraphs, lighthouses, buildings, harbour-works, and water-supply on goldfields. In 1888 the value of the above had risen to £42,505,000, and it is supposed that in 1895 the sum would probably have been about £45,000,000. There are also from nine to ten millions of acres of lands the property of the Maoris. In 1888 the Native lands were valued at £3,000,000 sterling. The present value is probably not so much; some land has been sold, but, on the other hand, some of that retained may have increased in value.

Earnings and Income

The amount of the aggregate annual earnings of the people of New Zealand is given in the Year-book of 1897 (p. 283). To arrive at this estimate the method adopted was to allot to each person the probable income earned in respect of the occupation set down against his or her name in the household schedules collected at the census of 12th April, 1896. Exception may no doubt be taken to the plan of basing a calculation on a series of arbitrary assumptions, but there is precedent for such a course. The results of the calculation were given without any guarantee of accuracy, similar figures having been called for in the past. Indeed it is important to make clear that the figures must only be considered as put forward with the greatest diffidence, and rather of necessity than otherwise. They may indeed give a fair idea of the facts, but the responsibility of using them for any particular purpose is not accepted by the Registrar-General.

Wages

The aggregate of wages paid in the colony for the year 1896, as given in the Year-book of 1897 (p. 284), was arrived at by assigning to each wage-earner the probable annual income each would derive from the profession or occupation followed. As in the case of income, the calculations made were put forward merely by way of an attempt to get as closely as possible to the facts, and because asked for; but no assurance whatever can be given as to the exactness of the conclusions stated, and the Registrar-General does not accept any responsibility in regard to their use.

Cost of Living

An estimate was made in 1894 of the cost of living in New Zealand, including, besides what was spent on necessaries, the additional outlay on what may be termed luxuries, and on things of occasional necessity. The rate arrived at per head of population was £35 6s. 1d. per annum for that year. Fuller particulars are given in former issues of the Year-book.

The average income per head previously referred to was believed to be from £37 12s. to £44 per annum.

Mr. Mulhall, in his “Dictionary of Statistics,” gives the average expenditure per head of population for various countries specified as follows:—

Country.Average Annual Expenditure per Head.
 £s.d.
United Kingdom29149
France23194
Germany2034
Russia10111
Austria1449
Italy11110
Spain15126
Portugal1156
Sweden2084
Norway1900
Denmark28115
Holland20174
Belgium2582
Switzerland1800
United States32162
Canada2362
Australia33103
Argentina2791

The estimate for Australasia, as made in 1894 by Mr. Coghlan, then Government Statistician of New South Wales, was as high as £43 12s. 10d. per head.

Annual Consumption of Food, Stimulants, etc

The quantities used per head of population in New Zealand of some of the main articles of consumption will be found in the Year-book for 1898. The figures are averages for five years.

Prices and Wages

The average prices of produce, live-stock, provisions, &c., in each provincial district are given for the year 1898 in tabular form on pages 304 and 305. While the variations for the different districts are such as to render it in most cases inadvisable to show averages for the colony, this has nevertheless been done for the staples of food, i.e., bread, meat, and milk, also for tea and sugar, which may almost be called necessaries. Averages for the colony, taken out for the years 1878, 1888, and 1898, indicate generally a decline in prices with the advance of time. In striking these, prices on the goldfields have not been taken into account:—

1878.1888.1898.
  s.d.s.d.s.d.
Breadper lb.0201 3/401 1/2
Beefper lb.05 1/203 3/403 3/4
Muttonper lb.03 3/403 1/403
Sugarper lb.0503 1/402 3/4
Teaper lb.2923 1/2110
Butter (fresh)per lb.1409 1/409 3/4
Cheese (colonial)per lb.0100605 1/2
Milkper quart.04 1/203 1/403

Rates of Wages

The average rates of wages paid in 1898 in each provincial district for agricultural, pastoral, artisan, and servants' labour are given on pages 306 to 309.

Average Prices of Produce, Live-stock, Provisions, etc., in each Provincial District of New Zealand during the Year 1898.
Produce, &c.Auckland.Taranaki.Hawke's Bay.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland (Goldfield).Canterbury.Otago (Part Goldfield).
I. Agricultural Produce.         
Wheatper bushel (60lb.)3/6 to 4/4/4/63/4 to 4/43/94/64/64/23/ to 5/
Barleyper bushel (47lb.)3/6 to 4/4/3/3/ to 4/64/34/4/3/63/6 to 5/
Oatsper bushel (40lb.)2/3 to 3/3/33/2/3 to 2/82/102/3/33/31/10 to 4/
Maizeper bushel (56lb.)2/8 to 3/64/3/63/ to 3/63/3 1/23/34/3/62/6 to 5/
Branper bushel (20lb.)9d. to 1/1/1/69d. to 1/8d.10d.1/8d.7d. to 1/
Hayper ton£3 to £4/10£3/10£5£3/ to £5£1/3£3£4£4/10£2/5 to £5
II. Flour and Bread.         
Flour, wholesaleper ton of 2,000lb.£10 to £11/10£11£12£11 to £12£10/1£10£9£10/10£10 to £13/10
Flour, retailper bag of 50lb.5/6 to 6/96/36/66/ to 6/66/6/6/5/65/6 to 7/6
Breadper 4lb. loaf6d.7d. to 8d.6d.7d.7d.7d.7d.6d.6d. to 8d.
III. Live-stock and Meat.         
Horses, draughtper head£18 to £30£18£15 to £25£23 to £30£30£18 to £30£25£20£25 to £40
Horses, saddle and harnessper head£12 to £17/10£7 to £15£5 to £15£8/10 to £15£14£12 to £20£15£7£8 to £25
Cattle, fatper head£5/10 to £8£5/10£6£6 to £7£4 to £8£7£7/10£6/10£5 to £3/10
Cattle, milch cowsper head£4 to £6£3 to £4£4 to £5£4/10 to £6£5£4/10£6£4/10£3 to £7
Sheep, fatper head7/ to 14/7/9/8/ to 9/68/8/614/11/11/ to 16/
Lambs, fatper head7/ to 10/8/7/7/ to 8/8/8/613/11/67/ to 12/
Butchers' meat:          
  Beefper lb3 1/2d. to 5d.4d.4d.3d. to 4d.2d. to 4d.3 1/2d.5d.4 1/2d.4d. to 7d.
  Muttonper lb2 3/4d. to 4d.3d.3d.2 1/2d. to 3d.2d to 3 1/2d3d.4d.3 1/2d.2 1/2d to 6d.
  Vealper lb3d. to 6d.4d.4d.3 1/2d. to 4d.3d. to 5d.3 1/2d.6d.4 1/2d.3d. to 6d.
  Porkper lb4d. to 6d.5d.5d.4 1/2d. to 6d.5d.4 1/2d.6d.5d.5d. to 7d.
  Lambper lb4d. to 6d.3/ per qr.4d.3 1/2d. to 4d.2 1/2d.2/6 per qr3/6 per qr.4 1/2d.4d. to 7d.
IV. Dairy Produce.         
Butter, freshper lb.6d. to 1/110d.1/8d. to 1/1/9d.1/8d.7d. to 1/
Butter, saltper lb.7d. to 8d.8d.7d.6d. to 8d.9d.7d.11d.6d.6d. to 10d.
Cheese, colonialper lb.4d. to 6d.7d.6d.5d. to 6d.5 1/2d.5 1/2d.7d.4 1/2d.4 1/2d. to 7d.
Cheese, importedper lb.8d. to 1/  7 1/2d. to 1/66d.1/6 10d.8d. to 1/6
Milkper quart2d. to 3 1/2d.3d.3d.2d. to 3d.4d.4d.5d.3d.2d. to 4d.
V. Farm-yard Produce.         
Geeseper pair5/ to 7/6/6/4/ to 7/6/66/67/65/65/ to 8/
Ducksper pair3/ to 5/3/64/2/6 to 4/63/64/6/3/33/6 to 5/
Fowlsper pair2/6 to 4/3/3/2/6 to 3/2/63/3/63/2/6 to 4/
Turkeysper head5/ to 6/64/66/4/ to 6/3/64/7/63/64/6 to 10/
Baconper lb.8d.6d. to 8d.10d.7 1/4d. to 9d.7d.6 1/2d.8d.7d.7d. to 9d.
Hamper lb.8 1/2d. to 10d.8d. to 10d.1/9d. to 10d.8d.8d.9d.8 1/2d.8d. to 11.
Eggsper doz.8d. to 1/31/1/68d. to 9d.1/9d.1/69d.8d. to 1/4
VI. Garden Produce.         
Potatoes, wholesaleper ton£3/10 to £9£7£7/10£5 to £7 10/£7£6£10£5£6/10 to £12
Potatoes, retailper cwt.6/ to 12/7/6 to 10/7/66/ to 8/69/8/12/6/67/6 to 13/
Onionsper lb.1 1/2d. to 2d.3d.3d.1d. to 1 1/4d.1d.1 1/2d.3d.1 1/2d.1d. to 3d.
Carrotsper doz. bnchs.1/ to 2/1/2/1/ to 1/63/2/2/69d.8d. to 2/
Turnipsper doz. bnchs.1/ to 2/1/2/1/ to 1/62/2/2/69d.8d. to 2/
Cabbagesper doz.1/6 to 4/1/62/1/ to 2/2/62/62/610d.9d. to 4/
VII. Miscellaneous Articles.         
Teaper lb.1/6 to 1/92/2/1/6 to 2/22/1/92/1/81/7 to 2/4
Coffeeper lb.1/4 to 1/72/ to 2/31/91/4 to 1/81/81/62/1/61/8 to 2/
Sugarper lb.2 1/4d. to 2 1/2d.3d.3d.2 1/4d. 2 3/4d.2 1/2d.2 3/4d.3d.2 1/2d.2 1/2d. to 3 1/2d.
Riceper lb.3d. to 3 1/2d.3 1/2d.3d.3d.3d.2 1/2d.3d.3d.3d. to 4d.
Saltper lb.3/4d. to 1d.1d.1d.3/4d. to 1d.1d.1d.1d.3/4d.3/4d. to 2d.
Soapper cwt.10/ to 20/23/18/18/ to 21/ 16/  14/ to 28/
Candlesper lb.5d. to 8d.8d.9d.5d. to 7d.8d.6 1/2d.8d.6d.5d. to 9d.
Tobaccoper lb.5/3 to 5/65/65/65/ to 5/65/65/35/34/114/10 to 6/
Coalper ton16/ to 26/38/638/32/ to 50/38/32/619/32/69/6 to 30/
Firewoodper cord18/ to 40/30/ to 38/30/13/ to 32/24/30/25/37/615/ to 32/
VIII. Beer, Wine, Spirits.         
Beer, colonialper hhd.£4 to £6£4/15£4/10£4/10 to £5£4£4/10£4£3/15£3/15 to £5
Beer, English, bottledper doz. qts.14/ to 15/15/14/613/ to 14/13/615/14/18/13/6 to 18/
Brandyper gallon27/ to 30/32/630/26/ to 36/25/26/25/26/25/ to 36/
Rumper gallon27/ to 32/27/627/25/ to 28/25/625/25/24/20/ to 30/
Whiskeyper gallon27/ to 30/30/30/27/6 to 28/628/25/627/625/22/ to 30/
Ginper gallon22/ to 25/27/624/19/ to 28/20/..22/623/20/ to 30/
Wine, Australianper gallon15/ to 26/18/ to 20/16/12/ to 17/15/15/14/21/15/ to 27/
Wine, Europeanper gallon18/ to 26/20/25/18/ to 36/17/615/618/24/20/ to 36/
Average Rates of Wages in each Provincial District of New Zealand during the Year 1898.
Description of Labour.Auckland.Taranaki.Hawke's Bay.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland (Goldfield).Canterbury.Otago (Part Goldfield)

* 5s. 6d. per acre.

† Per week.

† 30s. per week and free house.

* With board.

1. Agricultural Labour.         
Farm-labourers:         
  With board, per week15/ to 2015/ to 20/20/ to 2520/ to 3520/ to 30/20/25/ to 30/15/ to 20/12/6 to 20/
Without board, per day4/6 to 6/6/7/6/ 5/ 5/ to 6/4/ to 7/
Ploughmen:         
  With board, per week15/ to 25/25/20/ to 25/20/ to 35/20/ to 30/20/30/17/6 to 2015/ to 20/
Without board, per day6/*7/8/6/ 5/ 5/ to 6/6/ to 7/6
Harvesters:         
  With board, per week15/ to 25/30/30/ to 40/..40/25/..30/ to 40/27/6 to 35/
  Without board, per day6/1/ per hour8/6/6 to 7/7/ to 9/6/ 7/ to 9/7/6 to 10/
Men-cooks on farms:         
  With board, per week15/ to 20/15/ to 25/20/ to 25/20/ to 25/20/20/20/25/ to 30/20/ to 25/
Female farm-servants:         
  With board, per week8/ to 10/10/ to 15/12/ to 15/12/6 to 15/10/ to 12/12/10/8/ to 13/10/ to 12/
2. Pastoral Labour.         
Shepherds, with board, per annum£52 to £65£50 to £75£52 to £75£47/10 to £75£65 to £78£52 £50 to £65£40 to £65
Stockkeepers, with board, per annum£52 to £6515/ to 20/†£52 to £75£50 to £65£52 to £65£52£75£52 to £65£45 to £60
Station-labourers, with board, per week14/ to 20/20/20/ to 25/15/ to 25/15/ to 20/20/20/15/ to 25/15/ to 25/
Shearers, with board, per 100 sheep shorn15/ to 20/17/615/ to 2016/8 to 20/17/620/20/15/ to 20/10/15/16/8 20/
Men-cooks on stations, with board, per week20/15/ to 25/20/ to 30/20/ to 30/20/ to 25/20/ 20/ to 30/20/ to 25/
3. Artisan Labour (per day, without board).         
Masons8/ to 12/12/10/ to 11/12/8/ to 10/12/12/9/ to 11/9/ to 12/
Plasterers8/6 to 12/12/9/ to 10/9/ to 12/7/ to 9/12/12/9/ to 10/9/ to 12/
Bricklayers8/6 to 12/12/10/ to 12/9/ to 12/7/ to 8/12/10/ to 12/10/ to 12/9/ to 11/
Carpenters8/ to 10/10/8/ to 11/9/ to 10/8/ to 10/8/10/ to 12/8/ to 10/8/ to 12/
Smiths7/ to 10/10/ to 12/8/ to 11/9/ to 10/9/ to 10/10/12/8/ to 9/7/6 to 11/
Wheelwrights7/ to 10/10/9/ to 11/9/ to 10/9/ to 10/10/12/8/ to 10/68/ to 12/
Shipwrights8/6 to 9/ 9/ to 11/12/ 11/12/8/6 to 11/10/ to 12/
Plumbers8/9/ to 10/7/ to 9/9/ to 12/8/ to 10/10/11/8/ to 10/8/ to 12/
Painters8/ to 8/89 to 9/7/ to 9/9/ to 10/5/ to 8/9/8/ to 12/8/ to 9/8/ to 10/
Saddlers7/ to 8/7/ to 9/8/ to 10/7/ to 8/68/ to 9/7/10/8/ to 9/7/ to 7/6
Shoemakers6/6 to 8/7/7/ to 8/7/ to 8/7/ to 8/8/9/7/ to 8/6/6 to 10/
Coopers6/8/ to 9/8/ to 10/9/8/ to 10/8/ 8/ to 10/7/ to 8/
Watchmakers8/10/10/ to 12/10/9/ to 10/10/610/9/ to 11/8/6 to 10/
4. Servants.         
Married couples without family, with board, per annum£55 to £80£65 to £80£75 to £90£70 to £85£70£75£60£60 to £75£60 to £75
Married couples with family, with board, per annum£45 to £70£65 to £80£52 to £70   £55 to £65£50 to £60
Grooms, with board, per week15/ to 18/20/ to 25/15/ to 25/15/ to 25/25/20/20/20/ to 25/20/ to 25/
Gardeners:         
  With board, per week15/ to 20/15/ to 50/20/ to 30/15/ to 25/25/25/ 22/6 to 25/20/ to 27/6
  Without board, per day6/ to 8/6/ to 9/6/ to 8/   10/6/6 to 7/6/ to 7/
Cooks, with board, per week15/ to 20/12/ to 30/15/ to 20/15/ to 25/15/ to 20/20/20/12/ to 15/15/ to 20/
Laundresses, with board, per week10/ to 16/15/15/ to 20/12/6 to 16/10/ to 15/20/20/12/ to 15/12/ to 20/
General house-servants, with board, per week8/ to 12/8/ to 15/8/6 to 12/10/ to 12/67/ to 10/11/12/68/ to 12/10/ to 15/
Housemaids, with board, per week8/ to 12/8/ to 15/8/6 to 12/10/ to 12/610/ to 12/12/612/67/ to 10/10/ to 15/
Nursemaids, with board, per week5/ to 7/5/ to 10/5/ to 7/6/ to 10/5/ to 7/66/10/5/ to 7/64/ to 5/
Needlewomen:         
  With board, per week10/ to 24/ 20/ to 30/8/ to 24/5/15/20/10/ to 12/15/ to 20/
  Without board, per day (lunch always provided)3/3/6 3/6 to 4/ 4/63/63/ to 5/2/ to 3/6
5. Miscellaneous.         
General labourers, without board, per day5/ to 8/7/ to 8/7/ to 8/7/ to 8/5/ to 7/7/8/5/ to 7/66/ to 9/
Stonebreakers, without board, per cubic yard2/6 to 4/3/ 3/ 4/ 2/ to 2/62/6 to 3/6
Seamen, with board, per month£3 to £5/10 £6 to £7/10£7/15 £7/10£6/10£4 to £5/10£4 10/ to £7
Miners, without board per day7/6 to 8/ 8/  9/10/9/ to 12/68/ to 10/
Engine-drivers, without board, per day8/ to 10/7/ to 8/8/ to 11/8/ to 9/9/ to 10/9/11/10/6 to 12/68/ to 12/
Tailors, without board, per day7/ to 9/ 9/ to 11/ 7/ to 8/7/6 8/ to 9/8/ to 10/
Tailors, without board, per week 40/ 45/ to 50/  40/ to 50/  
Tailoresses, without board, per day3/6 to 5/   5/ to 6/3/6 4/ to 5/4/6 to 6/
Tailoresses, without board, per week 12/ to 25/15/ to 25/15/ to 25/  20/ to 30/  
Dressmakers, without board, per day2/6 to 4/   4/ to 5/  4/ to 5/3/6 to 4/6
Dressmakers, without board, per week 15/2/ to 13/5/ to 15/ 10/ to £420/  
Milliners, without board, per day2/6 to 4/      5/ to 6/3/6 to 4/
Milliners, without board, per week 20/ to 60/20/ to 40/25/ to 30/20/15/ to £420/ to 50/  
Machinists, without board, per day2/6 to 4/      4/ to 5/3/6 to 5/
Machinists, without board, per week 12/ to 35/20/10/ to 25/15/ to 20/12/620/  
Storekeepers, without board, per day5/ to 10/      6/ to 8/ 
Storekeepers, without board, per week 30/ to 40/50/ to 60/45/ to 50/ 60/50/ 40/ to 60/
Storekeepers, assistants, without board, per day5/      5/ to 6/ 
Storekeepers, assistants, without board, per week 30/ to 40/20/ to 40/30/ to 42/ 40/40/ 30/ to 40/
Drapers assistants, without board, per day5/6 to 8/6      6/ to 7/ 
Drapers assistants, without board, per week 30/ to 80/40/ to 80/40/ to 50/40/ to 60/20/ to 80/50/ to 80/ 30/ to 40/
Grocers' assistants, without board, per day       6/ to 7/ 
Grocers' assistants, without board, per week30/ to 35/30/ to 50/10/ to 15/42/20/ to 40/40/40/ to 60/ 30/ to 45/
Butchers, without board, per day       6/ to 7/ 
Butchers, without board, per week20/ to 40/30/ to 45/30/*45/ to 50/50/ to 60/40/40/ 30/ to 50/
Bakers, without board, per day     8/ 6/ to 8/ 
Bakers, without board, per week30/ to 50/30/ to 45/40/ to 60/45/ to 52/650/ to 60/ 50/ to 60/ 35/ to 60/
Storemen, without board, per day    7/ to 8/  6/ to 8/ 
Storemen, without board, per week35/ to 40/35/ to 45/40/ to 50/40/ to 45/ 40/30/ 40/ to 50/
Compositors, without board, per day  8/ to 9/ 8/ to 9/9/10/9/ to 10/6 
Compositors, without board, per week40/ to 60/45/ to 50/ 35/ to 60    40/ to 60/

Labour Legislation

The legislation passed by the General Assembly of New Zealand, and termed the “Labour Laws,” comprises the undermentioned statutes and regulations made under various Acts:—

“The Conspiracy Law Amendment Act, 1894.”
“The Contractors' and Workmen's Lien Act, 1892.”
“The Employers' Liability Act, 1882,” with amendments of 1891 and 1892.
“The Factories Act, 1894,” and Amendment Act, 1896.
“The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1894,” with amendments, 1895, 1896, and 1898.
“The Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1898.”
Labour in Coal-mines: Extract from “The Coal-mines Act, 1891.”
Labour in Coal-mines: Regulations for the management and administration of funds and moneys under section 69 of “The Coal-mines Act, 1891.”
“The Master and Apprentice Act, 1865.” Master and Apprentice: Extract from “The Criminal Code Act, 1893,” sections 150 and 213.
“The Mining Act, 1898.”
“The Servants' Registry Offices Act, 1895.”
“The Shearers' Accommodation Act, 1898.”
“The Shipping and Seamen's Act, 1877,” with Amendment Acts of 1885, 1890, 1894, 1895, and 1896.
“The Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1894,” with Amendment Acts of 1895 and 1896.
“The Sunday Labour in Mines Prevention Act, 1897.”
“The Trade-Union Act. 1878,” and Amendment Act, 1896.
“The Truck Act, 1891.”
“The Wages Attachment Act, 1895.”
“The Workmen's Wages Act, 1893.”

These Acts and regulations are published in pamphlet form by the Department of Labour, with general remarks by the Secretary, which are quoted as important:—

The labour laws have been passed in the effort to regulate certain conditions affecting employer and employed. Their scope embraces many difficult positions into which the exigencies of modern industrial life have forced those engaged in trades and handicrafts. The general tendency of these laws is to ameliorate the position of the worker by preventing social oppression through undue influences, or through unsatisfactory conditions of sanitation. It will undoubtedly be found that, with the advance of time, these laws are capable of improvement and amendment; but they have already done much to make the lives of operatives of fuller and more healthy growth, and their aim is to prevent the installation of abuses before such abuses attain formidable dimensions.

The manufacturing population in New Zealand differs from that in some other of the Australasian Colonies by its wide dispersion. The capital city has hitherto been unable to draw to itself the industrial ability of the other provincial centres; and not only do Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin vie with Wellington as centres of population, but also as nuclei of commercial activity. In the second-class towns, such as Nelson, Napier, Invercargill, &c., many important works are being carried on, while even in the villages and rural districts the progress of new settlement necessitates the manufacture of articles which in older communities are produced in specialised localities. Men scattered widely at the numerous occupations of colonial country life, shearing, harvesting, bush-felling, road-making, or sailing coastal vessels, &c., require legal protection against the dangers and disabilities to which their callings expose them. This general dispersion of industry necessitates not only a wide system of supervision, but legislative measures of a peculiar character, at once sufficiently elastic to comprehend many varieties of function, and yet rigid to crush any apparent abuse.

The most important of these laws, in its general significance, is that dealing with compulsory arbitration in labour disputes. “The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1894.” (with its amending Act of 1895), exists for the purpose of encouraging industrial association, and to facilitate the settlement of trade difficulties. Societies consisting of five or more employers, or of seven or more workers, may be registered and become subject to the jurisdiction of the Board and Court appointed by the Act. Any such society may bring a disputed case before the Board of Conciliation appointed for that district, and, if the Board fails to effect a settlement, the dispute may be referred to the Court of Arbitration, whose award may be enforced in the same manner as an award of the Supreme Court. The amount, however, for which such an award may be enforced against an association is limited to £500. [There are also Amendment Acts of 1896 and 1898.]

“The Factories Act, 1894,” is a consolidation of previous legislation, with some important additions. New Zealand has been divided into factory districts under the charge of a Chief Inspector and 163 local Inspectors. As a “factory” or “work-room” includes any place in which two or more persons are engaged in working for hire or reward in any handicraft, there are few operatives who do not come within the scope of the Act. Children under fourteen years of age are not allowed to be employed, and the hours of labour, holidays, &c., of women and youths under sixteen are strictly regulated. Good ventilation, sanitary accommodation, and general cleanliness of buildings are points dwelt upon; while machinery has to be properly guarded, fire-escapes provided, and dangerous occupations especially classified. In order to assist the system of free general education which prevails in the colony, young persons are not allowed to work in factories till they have passed the Fourth Standard of the State schools, or an equivalent examination. To prevent the introduction of “sweating” into our commercial centres, articles made, or partly made, in private dwellings, or unregistered workshops, have to be labelled when offered for sale, so that goods so manufactured (often in unsanitary premises) may not be placed in the market in competition with work done in properly inspected factories. Any person removing such labels is liable to a heavy fine. The Factory Inspectors also exercise supervision over the sleeping accommodation provided for shearers in country districts. As the sheep-runs and farms are widely scattered, sometimes in the rough and remote back-country, this part of the work of inspection is no easy task. A woman Inspector of Factories also gives her assistance to the duties of the department, travelling from place to place, and particularly looking into the condition of the operative women and girls. [There is also an Amendment Act of 1896.]

The duration of the hours of business in shops is limited by “The Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1894,” and “The Shops and Shop-assistants Act Amendment Act, 1895.” These provide for the closing of all shops in towns and boroughs for one afternoon half-holiday in each week. A few shops, such as those of chemists, fruiterers, eating-house keepers, &c., are exempted from the general closing on account of their convenience to the public; but assistants in such establishments, in the bars of hotels, and in country stores, must have a half-holiday on some day of the week. Very small shops carried on by Europeans without paid assistants are also exempt from closing on the general half-holiday, but must close on one afternoon in each week. The hours of work for women and young persons are defined; sitting accommodation must be provided, and precautions as to the necessary time for meals, sanitary accommodation, &c., are enforced; the Act also enumerates the working-hours, holidays, &c., of clerks employed in banks, mercantile offices, &c. [There is also an Amendment Act of 1896.]

“The Employers' Liability Act, 1882,” added to and amended in 1891 and 1892, is designed to protect workmen from negligence on the part of employers, by defining under what circumstances compensation for injury or death may be recoverable. The Act covers all employments except that of domestic servant, and does not allow of any “contracting out” by agreement on the part of employer and employed. Another Act of this character has regard to the payment of workmen's wages, and states that if a workman shall demand payment of wages twenty-four hours or more after they are due, and the contractor does not pay such wages, the workman may legally attach all moneys due to the contractor by the employer until such wages are paid. “The Truck Act, 1891,” requires that payment of wages shall not be made in goods or “truck,” but in money, any contra account notwithstanding; but there are a few exemptions, such as for advances for food, tools, &c., to men engaged in felling bush. In order to minimise the number of cases wherein fraudulent or unfortunate contractors victimised their labourers, “The Contractors' and Workmen's Lien Act 1892,” was brought into existence. This entitles a person who has done work upon any land, building, or chattel to a lien upon such property. The lien is only to be exercised under certain restrictions, and for a limited amount, but it gives priority of claim for wages against other service, and enables legal proceedings for recovery to be taken before the attached property can be disposed of or alienated.

“The Servants' Registry Offices Act, 1895,” regulates the licensing of registry offices for domestic or farm servants. It prevents friendless or uneducated people from becoming the prey of unscrupulous persons, who formerly collected fees by duping the applicants for situations. The registry-office keepers have to pay a licensing fee to the Government, and to present a certificate of good character when applying for a license. Proper ledgers and books open to inspection must be provided, and the lending or hiring of licenses is not permitted. Registry-office keepers are not allowed to keep lodging-houses for servants, or have any interest in such houses.

Five Acts for the supervision of shipping, and the protection of sailors and passengers, are to be found in this volume. They relate to the appointment of pilots and ships' officers; the engagement and discharge of sailors; the sanitation, ventilation, and overloading of vessels; and the number of duly rated hands engaged in proportion to tonnage. They endeavour to prevent injustice to the sailor as to advance-notes, or payments in foreign money, and also specify penalties to be inflicted for desertion, disobedience, &c.

Combinations or associations of persons for regulating the relations between masters and masters, or masters and workmen, or workmen and workmen, are directed by “The Trade Union Act, 1878.” In this Act the different statutes which do not apply to trade-unions (such as the Joint Stock Act, the Friendly Societies Act, &c.) are enumerated, and the manner in which such societies may register, hold property, &c., is set out, together with the necessary provisions as to returns, penalties, &c. “The Conspiracy Law Amendment Act, 1894,” permits any combination of persons in furtherance of a trade dispute, provided that any act performed by such combination or society would not be unlawful if done by one person. Such action must not include riot, sedition, or crime against the State. [An Amendment Act was passed in 1896, altering the age of membership.]

“The Wages Attachment Act, 1895,” prevents wages below £2 a week being attached for debt. It does not interfere with any workman being sued for debt in the ordinary course, but prevents a grasping creditor from stepping in before others and seizing wages in advance before they are earned.

“The Master and Apprentice Act, 1865,” applies mainly to the indenturing of apprentices by the State, such apprentices being children of destitute parents. In other respects the law of England is held to be the law governing the relations between masters and apprentices in this colony; but special sections of the Act apply to the punishment of apprentices for absenting themselves from duty, and to the fine on a master for neglecting or ill-using his apprentice.

“The Mining Act, 1898,” consolidates and repeals all statutes of a similar nature, and includes various amendments suggested by the Conference of Wardens of goldfields, and by mining associations. The mining legislation refers to labour in any kind of mine, and deals with the position of tributers and wagesmen, the examination for certificates for mine-managers, &c., provision for ventilation, precautions against accident by blasting, &c.

In or about coal-mines women and boys are not allowed to be engaged. There is provision for the appointment of inspectors, mine-managers, engine drivers, &c., and rules are furnished as to the ages and working-hours of those employed in attending engines, machinery, winding-gear, &c. The ventilation of mines is provided for, and the necessary safeguards imposed as to blasting operations, working in foul air, protecting lights, &c. There are regulations for the management and administration of funds and moneys, which relate chiefly to the withdrawal of moneys from the Sick and Accident Fund, and returns demanded from trustees of the fund.

Co-operative Public Works

Remarks on the co-operative system of constructing public works were given in a special article in the Year-book of 1894. The numbers of workmen employed in this manner under Government departments during the financial year 1898–99 were:—

 Lands and Survey Department.Public Works Department.State Farm, Levin.Total.

(a) Also nine families;

(b)also eight families.

April, 18981,575908162,499
May, 18981,601852152,468
June, 18981,656973142,643
July, 18981,8041,042142,860
August, 18981,8891,346143,249
September, 18981,8831,38221(a)3,286
October, 18981,8941,49721(a)3,412
November, 18981,7491,47320(b)3,242
December, 18981,3971,37318(b)2,789
January, 18991,1941,16717(b)2,378
February, 18991,3471,20517(b)2,569
March, 18991,3671,11022(b)2,499

The average number of men employed in each year was as follows:—

Year.Lands and Survey Department.Public Works Department.Total.
1891–92261527788
1892–932808421,122
1893–949331,0151,948
1894–951,1039622,065
1895–961,5727642,336
1896–971,4598542,313
1897–981,5528902,442
1898–991,6131,1942,807
                Gross totals8,7737,04815,821
                Average1,0978811,978

The State Farm at Levin

The Department of Labour furnished information to a Joint Committee of the Houses of Parliament, in October, 1898, on this institution.

The area of the farm is 800 acres, all of which was in bush and scrub when operations commenced. Its value at the time of starting the farm was £4 per acre, or £3,200. Since then Parliament had voted, for carrying on the farm, sums of money as follows: £3,489 to March, 1895; £2,500 in 1895–96; £1,500 in 1896–97; and £800 in 1897–98: making altogether £8,289. Besides these the receipts for the period 1894–98 amounted to £3,876, mainly from cattle, firewood, butter, and milk, royalty on timber, rents, and general produce. Against the above there is, of course, the land, now valued at £12 10s. an acre, with stock, implements, buildings, orchard, fencing, and roads.

The average number of men employed, and their dependents, for the five years was:—

Year.Men.Dependents.
1894 (September to December)3170
18953273
18962549
18971726
1898 (to end of July)1420

In a draft report by the Hon. Mr. Bolt, the natural difficulties in hewing a settlement out of a crowded forest of heavy timber are referred to, and he points out that such an undertaking could give no promise of reward to either labour or capital until several years had passed. At the same time he remarks:—

A State farm should not be looked at from a profit-and-loss point of view, but rather as an institution the establishment of which is demanded by the exigencies of our social life, and which, like other public institutions, reimburses the State by increasing the sum of general well-being.

Considering the initial difficulties above referred to, an examination of the return and balance-sheet of the Levin State Farm will show that marked and increasing progress is being made. This will be seen from the following facts:—

The farm has been in existence for about four years. During the first two years of that period (1894–96) the sum of £5,033 3s. 1d. was paid in wages, while the value of produce sold during that period amounted to only £1,303 18s. 3d.—a difference of £3,729 4s. 10d. During the two years, 1896 to 1898, the wages amounted to £3,221 0s. 8d., while the sum realised from the sale of produce was £2,572 0s. 10d.—a difference of only £649; and, taking the past year by itself, the difference between the sum paid in wages and that obtained from the sale of products was only £338.

It is found year by year the value of timber sold diminishes, while that of the agricultural produce increases.

The conclusions drawn by the Committee, after due consideration, in respect of State farms, were:—

  1. That State farms may be so constituted as to give great relief to men who are temporarily out of employment, and that their utility would be greatly increased if manufacturing industries were carried on in connection with them wherever possible. As an instance, the Committee point out that at the present time cream is sent from the Levin State Farm to Wellington and returned to the Levin market in the form of butter. Additional employment would therefore be given if the dairying operations of the farm were extended so as to justify the establishment of a dairy factory thereon; and, in this connection, if the milk from the surrounding farms were purchased at the market rate the benefits conferred on the district would be substantial.

  2. That State farms should be placed within reasonable reach of the persons intended to be benefited.

  3. That other industries, such as market-gardening, flower-growing, fruitgrowing, jam-making, poultry-raising, &c., should also be established.

  4. The State farms should be so constituted as to preclude their being viewed in any sense as benevolent institutions.

  5. That, with the exception of what is required to supply immediate and pressing wants, no payment in respect of labour performed should be made to any person not an officer of the department until such person is leaving the settlement.

  6. That operations on the settlements should be directed towards supplying the daily wants of the people living there, and with that view, and also with the view of making the employment as far as may be suitable to the various capacities of the residents, the industries carried on should be as numerous as possible: in the attainment of these ends, locality, soil, and other conditions favourable would require to be carefully selected.

  7. That, as the restoration of our forests is a work of great national importance, it might be undertaken as an adjunct to the State settlement, and this would give occupation to men at seasons of the year when work on the settlements was slack. In this connection it would be necessary to establish nurseries on the farms where some of the older men might be employed, while the younger and more able-bodied could be employed in preparing the land and planting out young trees in such reserves in the colony as are set apart for such purposes.

  8. That State farms in the matter of instruction should have a technological side, in order that the principles which underlie the practical lessons received on the farm might be further illustrated and explained. Persons with little cash and almost devoid of knowledge regarding agricultural pursuits, but who are desirous of settling on small sections of land in the country, might avail themselves of this education.

NOTE—There were besides in 1899, 167 Miles of private Lines.

Chapter 41. SECTION XV.—METEOROLGY

Temperature, Rainfall, Atmospheric Pressure, and Wind, throughout New Zealand, as observed at Nine Stations for the Year 1898.

(From Tables prepared by Sir James Hector.)

THE OBSERVATIONS WERE TAKEN AT 9.30 A.M.
Stations and Months.Temperature in Shade.Rainfall.Mean Height of Barometer.Prevailing Wind.
Highest.Lowest.Wet Days.Fall.
Auckland (lat. 36° 50′ S.; long. 174° 50′ 40” E.; alt. 125 ft.).° Fahr.° Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
January90.049.0103.14030.100SW, W.
February78.547.530.78030.010SW, NW.
March73.047.0113.02030.080SW, NE, SE.
April74.045.080.97030.170S, SW, NE, E.
May68.040.0183.67029.990SW, NW, NE, E.
June68.041.5123.98030.190S, SW.
July62.041.0236.18029.910SW.
August61.041.0235.94030.070SW.
September65.045.0222.25030.080SW, NW.
October65.047.5194.68029.890SW.
November7848.0122.39029.970SW.
December77.053.0133.75029.920NE, SW, NNW.
Rotorua(lat. 3S° 9′ S.; long. 176° 15′ E.; alt. 990 ft.).      
January98.034.062.06030.130SW.
February87.530.032.62030.080SW.
March85.031.092.59030.190SW, S.
April74.032.0112.62030.290SW.
May67.526.0147.60030.120SW, NW.
June60.026.063.47030.250SW.
July57.528.0167.34029.920SW.
August63.025.0133.84030.110SW.
September66.029.0152.21030.230SW.
October74.035.0156.09030.050SW, W.
November84.039.0193.28030.130N, W, SW.
December78.041.0146.26030.150W, N, SE.
New Plymouth (lat. 39°3′35” S.; long. 174° 4′ 58”E.; alt. 100 ft.).° Fahr.° Fahr.NoInches.Inches. 
January82.042.072.63029.940SE, NE.
February79.038.5113.06029.890SE, NE.
March79.039.0104.73029.990SE.
April75037.593.35030.090SE.
May74.031.0153.97029.880SE, NE.
June69.032.5103.05030.100SE.
July67.035.0204.77029.720SE, SW.
August67.030.0163.70029.990SE, SW.
September67.034.5162.67030.940SE, SW.
October68.041.0155.21029.720NE, SW, SE.
November76.039.0187.42029.890NE.
December78.042.0154.50029.880NE.
Wellington (lat. 41° 16′ 25” S.; long. 174° 47′ 25” E.; alt. 140 ft.).      
January76.049.050.95129.871NW.
February75.044.081.85029.850NW.
March75.042.0142.47130.011NW, SE.
April71.041.0125.62530.094NW.
May71.036.5175.95529.923SE, NW.
June61.535.5133.27030.166NW, SE.
July63.033.8184.79829.704NW.
August62.031.9′185.76030.078SE, NW.
September65.037.0113.03329.903NW.
October75.037.0142.85429.652NW.
November71.544.0182.68529.800NW.
December77.347.0142.71029.898NW.
Levin State Farm (lat. 40° 38′ S.; long. 175° 12′ E.; alt. 80 ft.).      
January78.040.081.84029.300W.
February73.535.671.63029.440W.
March76.031.0112.37029.750W.
April70.032.5112.11029.880NW, NE, W.
May73.029.0153.68029.810NE, S, W.
June61.524.0113.22030.180S, W.
July59.226.2194.27029.820W.
August60.622.591.56030.130NE, S.
September63.431.6182.86029.920NE, W.
October76.031.5172.42529.550W.
November73.440.2184.75029.540W.
December77.540.5102.17029.320W.
Lincoln, Canterbury (lat. 43° 32′ 16” S.; long. 172° 38′ 59” E.; alt. 65 ft.).°Fahr.°Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
January94.041.040.69129.766NE, NW.
February86.841.092.01829.795SW, NW, NE.
March80.031.471.02629.968NE.
April82.335.260.50030.014NE, NW.
May74.130.9163.08529.876NE, W.
June65.125.871.66530.134NW, N, NE, W.
July65.825.981.35329.646NE, SW.
August64.827.881.18030.110NE, SW.
September74.829.950.78529.868NE, SW.
October74.628.2101.75529.607NE.
November91.035.5112.75029.695N, NW, SW.
December89.743.1101.75029.861NE, SW.
Hokitika (lat. 42° 41′30” S.; long. 170° 59′ E.; alt. 12 ft.).      
January72.044.01312.00029.921SW.
February72.540.087.77029.879SW.
March75.039.51110.77030.022SW, NW.
April73.039.51110.72030.062E, SW.
May70.030.0127.57029.813E, NE, NW.
June61.029.0911.85030.133E.
July57.530.02111.98029.734E.
August59.528.084.96030.064E, SW.
September65.032.02011.27029.818N, SW, NE.
October66.541.52515.58029.670SW.
November70.039.0199.20029.802SW, NW, N.
December83.548.51810.33029.857SW, NW, N.
Dunedin (lat. 45° 52′ 11” S.; long. 170° 31′ 7” E.; alt. 300 ft.).      
January90.040.0152.09829.660SW, W, NW.
February75.037.0173.29929.719W, SW.
March77.035.0131.59229.862SW, W, NE.
April85.038.0101.85429.888W, SW, NE.
May62.032.0142.53229.799SW, W.
June63.0300125.13430.000SW, W.
July57.027.0173.65829.544SW, W.
August63.028.0142.71030.002SW.
September65.032.0142.45229.747SW, W, NE.
October73.032.0183.21629.474SW.
November78.035.0162.62629.626SW, W, NE.
December76.040.0102.97229.774NE, SW, NW.
Chatham Islands (lat.43°52′ S.; long. 176° 42′ W.; alt. 100 ft.).°Fahr.°Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
January66.046.0101.77029.350NW, SW, W.
February66.037.0221.92029.670SW.
March62.039.0172.14029.890SW, E, NW.
April62.032.0110.88030.030SW, N.
May62.034.0223.47029.810SW, N.
June57.034.0191.77029.990SW, NE.
July55.033.0223.76029.430SW, W.
August54.030.0172.72029.930SW, W, E.
September59.039.0212.31029.450SW, NW.
October59.034.0191.79029.440SW, NW.
November65.038.0162.13029.690NW, SW, W.
December68.044.081.24029.960E, W, NW.
NINE STATIONS: COMPERATIVE TABLE; YEAR 1898.
Stations and Months.Temperature in Shade.Rainfall.Mean Height of Barometer.Prevailing Wind.
Highest, and Date.Lowest, and Date.Days on which Rain fell.Greatest Fall, and Date.
 °Fahr.°Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
Auckland90.0,4 Jan.40.0,31 May1741.920,14 Aug.30.031SW, NE, NW.
Rotorua98.0,2 Jan.25.0,1 Aug.1412.250,8 Feb.30.137SW, W, N.
New Plymouth82.0,6 Jan.30.0,26 July1621.670,18 Jan.30.002SE, NE, SW.
Wellington77.3,11 Dec.31.9,1 Aug.1621.820,5 April29.912NW, SE.
Levin78.0,21 Jan.22.5,1 Aug.1542.150,12 Nov.29.720W, NE, NW.
Lincoln, Canterbury94.0,4 Jan.25.8,22 June1012.000,13 Nov.29.861NE, SW.NW.
Hokitika83.5,30 Dec.28.0,1 Aug.1754.050,17 June29.898SW, E, NW.
Dunedin90.0,2 Jan.27.0,25 July1702.010,25 June29.753SW, W, NE.
Chatham Islands68.0,19 Dec.30.0,4 Aug.2041.500,26 May29.720SW, NW, W.

The following table, compiled from information published in the Statistical Abstract for the Colonial Possessions of the United Kingdom, shows the shade temperature for each month in New Zealand and other British Colonies. The figures given are the means of four years (H signifies highest, and L lowest):—

British Possessions (Stations and Height in Feet above Sea Level where known).Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
H.L.H.L.H.L.H.LH.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.H.L.
New Zealand—°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.°F.
Wellington (140)7845784776447043663862345 933623465376941743375447833
Queensland—                          
Brisbane (130)9264936391618554805076427539784185469150945797619739
New South Wales—                          
Sydney (155)9259895884597951724867446339704277458848875494579439
Victoria—                          
Melbourne (91)101489947994586407437643762326834743481409444964510132
South Australia—                          
Adelaide (140)108491065010048894578406738653674397941864196451014810836
Western Australia—                          
Perth (47)10750102539852965781407038703773388042834293481005110737
Tasmania—                          
Hobart (160)9145944593447538713761345933663372357735924086439433
Natal—                          
Durban (150)9963956194609458895286498848914996509153975798599949
Cape Town—                          
Royal Observatory (37)9454905192498645804276397437763783398644894890529437
Hongkong—                          
Observatory (110)7347784677498458896891739174917492709066825579499146
Straits Settlements—                          
Singapore (30)8870907091719173907390729072897289718971897189709170
Mauritius—                          
Royal Alfred Observatory (179)8469847184708270806277607559755977628062826684688469
Canada—                          
Toronto (350)47−345−35167122783186448846894782417127561345−189−3
Montreal (187)45−1442−134406924813287438850865081397027591143−1188−13
St. John (N.B.) (116)49−746−74746222693381427949774873376026561649−381−7
Halifax (122)50−146−350106322733283398448844980366929602151384−3
Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island (38)47−643−94756020703177398049794975396630581947180−9
Winnipeg, Manitoba (764)34−3732−3749−2576882209035874091348630731753−1639−2991−37
Victoria, British Columbia (10)5114552260306729733876397943764471386435553051237914
St. John's, Newfoundland (125)48−650−850116115712776338141794278336524621951981−8
Barbados—                          
Joes River (430)8167816783698470847185728470857085718571847083698567
Bahamas—                          
Military Hospital7763796879678469897288738978897387758677827077678963
Jamaica—                          
Kingston (60)9163906390629168917092719571937392709369916790639562
Trinidad (130)8667876888698870897086718671867089708870877085698967

Chapter 42. SECTION XVI.—OCCUPATION OF LAND; AND LIVESTOCK

Occupied Lands

The occupation of land must not be confused with ownership, because there are large parcels of lands held which are unused and unoccupied. Neither can lands occupied be properly compared with the returns of Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands have passed into the hands of Europeans which were never made waste lands of the Crown.

The occupied lands of the colony for 1898–99 have been returned by the Department of Agriculture at 34,386,268 acres, including Crown lands leased for pastoral purposes only, or 405,789 acres in excess of the quantity for the preceding year.

A table is given showing the numbers and acreages of holdings, grouped according to size, for the three years in which the Department of Agriculture has compiled the information.

The return of occupied holdings of 1 acre and upwards in extent shows a total of 62,639 for 1898–99, against 60,759 for 1897–98, or an increase of 1,880. The holdings are reported as having increased by the number of 3,699 in two years.

In 1895 the holdings of over 1 acre in extent, as returned to the Registrar-General, numbered only 46,676. Holdings occupied by Maoris were excluded, besides holdings of exactly one acre, also gardens and orchards attached to residences.*

* At the census of April, 1896, the actual number of persons described in the census schedules as having occupations necessitating their occupying holdings of land was 36,643. This number includes 31,577 farmers, 2,115 runholders, 1,402 market-gardeners, 619 horticulturists, 430 dairy-farmers, 225 fruit-growers, 175 nurserymen, 33 vignerons 32 poultry-farmers, 19 bee-farmers, and 16 others.

Occupied Lands: Holdings

[This and the succeeding statement deal with the full extent of occupied land, including Crown pastoral leases.]

Sizes of Holdings.No. of Holdings.
 
 1896–97.1897–98.1898–99.
1 acre to 10 acres, inclusive10,71517,13318,230
10 acres to 50 inclusive11,00811,18211,426
50 acres to 100 inclusive6,8337,0687,276
100 acres to 200 inclusive8,8049,1929 164
200 acres to 320 inclusive5,2965,4815,584
320 acres to 640 inclusive5,2445,4365,555
640 acres to 1,000 inclusive1,8291,9561,946
1,000 acres to 5,000 inclusive2,3672,4542,589
5,000 acres to 10,000 inclusive343345369
10,000 acres to 20,000 inclusive227 246220
20,000 acres to 50,000 inclusive162164175
50,000 acres and over112102105
 58,94060,75962,639

The total acreage of occupied land is given in the following table:—

Occupied Lands: Acreages.
Sizes of Holdings.1896–97. Acres.1897–98. Acres.1898–99. Acres.
1 acre to 10 acres, inclusive69,62668,92968,671
10 acres to 50 acres, inclusive316,493317,321315,651
50 acres to 100 acres, inclusive548,035558,798570,503
100 acres to 200 acres, inclusive1,369,1701,396,6991,401,171
200 acres to 320 acres, inclusive1,387,4311,431,4061,469,859
320 acres to 640 acres, inclusive2,449,4512,492,2752,568,462
640 acres to 1,000 acres, inclusive1,486,6931,611,2671,649,580
1,000 acres to 5,000 acres, inclusive4,929,5395,165,1195,364,539
5,000 acres to 10,000 acres, inclusive2,422,1972,416,1492,579,773
10,000 acres to 20,000 acres, inclusive3,293,7063,501,5763,274,623
20,000 acres to 50,000 acres, inclusive4,913,2285,251,8195,448,033
50,000 acres and over10,126,6439,769,1219,675,403
 33,312,21233,980,47934,386,268

In regard to holdings, out of a total of 62,639, the large proportion of 36,932, or 58.96 per cent., were from 1 to 100 acres in extent; 46,096 or 73.59 per cent., were from 1 to 200 acres; and 51,680, or 82.50 per cent., were from 1 to 320 acres in size. The total number over 320 acres was only 10,959, or 17.50 per cent. of the whole, thus indicating a considerable degree of moderately close settlement, although the area of the holdings over the 320 acres limit necessarily shows as very large in a table which includes the Crown pastoral leases.

The plan of excluding these leases from the table showing the holdings in classes has its advantages, though not now adopted.

From the total extent of occupied land shown for the colony, such of the area of the Crown pastoral leases as has been distinguished by the enumerators can be deducted, and comparison then made for the census years 1886 and 1891, and the Agricultural Department returns for 1898–99. The figures are:—

Census Results, March, 1886.Census Results. April, 1891.Figures returned by Department of Agriculture, 1898–99.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.
Total area of occupied land (after deducting Crown pastoral leases)17,077,07419,951,92526,302,139

But the area for 1898–99 here given is believed to be altogether too great. The acreage shown in the returns as held on Crown pastoral lease must have been understated. The table (which is given on the next page) only shows eight millions of acres, against nine millions and a half for 1897–98. Some of these leases have probably been entered in the wrong column, for the land held from the Crown under various tenures shows an extraordinary increase on the figures given a year previously (5,401,959 acres, against 3,768,816 in 1897–98).

Occupation of Land: Tenure

Provincial Districts.Total Number of Holdings.Freehold.Leased from Private Individuals or Public Bodies.Leased from Natives.Held from Crown under Different Tenures.Held under Pastoral License

*For remarks as to the division of the total of thirteen and a half millions of acres see previous page.

 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres. Acres.
     
Auckland5,040,4703,261,498488,299549,06213,486,088
Tarauaki1,029,239557,947200,269120,086
Hawke's Bay3,318,3251,886,827440,142716,829
Wellington3,701,7882,454,641440,238249,027
Marlborough2,213,260839,22784,1453,882
Nelson1,899,745981,037109,66215,516
Westland573,33150,55214,8603,780
Canterbury6,311,4912,744,281814,9619,584
Otago10,298,6192,811,7071,039,28512,836
     
    Totals34,386,26815,587,7173,631,8611,680,6025,401,959*8,084,129*

Arranged according to the number of holdings the provincial districts stand in order as under:—

Auckland15,541 holdings.
Otago13,989 holdings.
Canterbury10,854 holdings.
Wellington9,871 holdings.
Taranaki4,413 holdings.
Hawke's Bay3,271 holdings.
Nelson2,939 holdings.
Marlborough1,085 holdings.
Westland676 holdings.

The occupied holdings of the North Island now considerably outnumber those of the Middle Island, the numbers being: North Island, 33,096; Middle Island, 29,543. In 1897–98 the holdings in the North Island were returned as 30,648, and in the Middle Island 30,111. For the year 1896–97 the returns showed 29,535 holdings for the Middle Island, against 29,369 for the North, besides 36 holdings at the Chatham Islands, of which no account was taken this or last year.

The full details of holdings and acreages for the year 1898–99 will be found in the table on the following page.

Occupation of Land: Number and Area of Holdings (including Crown Pastoral Leases)

Provincial Districts.Total of Holdings.1–10 Acres, inclusive.Over 10–50 Acres, inclusive.Over 50–100 Acres, inclusive.Over 100–200 Acres, inclusive.Over 200–320 Acres, inclusive.Over 320–640 Acres, inclusive.Over 640–1,000 Acres inclusive.Over 1,000–5,000 Acres, inclusive.Over 5,000–10,000 Acres, inclusive.Over 10,000–20,000 Acres, inclusive.Over 20,000–50,000 Acres, inclusive.Over 50,000 Acres.
Auckland: Area in acres 5,040,47014,92282,205153,539335,887353,887530,451360,9631,068,907523,045432,682523,976660,006
    Number of holdings. 15,5414,9472,7831,9372,2381,3681,2054414967428177
Taranaki: Area in acres 1,029,2392,78016,19962,745172,364142,747207,718111,000230,00726,28612,66744,726
    Number of holdings 4,4136165678031,140556458140127411
Hawke's Bay: Area in acres 3,318,3255,51017,23119,57242,31345,182106,05366,631462,287341,618682,246875,489654,193
    Number of holdings 3,2711,311642250276168216822014245308
Wellington: Area in acres 3,701,78811,58545,32486,794257,410241,786496,824323,4711,001,662392,140405,726282,795156,271
    Number of holdings. 9,8712,5941,6861,0681,6079151,026368503662792
Marlborough: Area in acres 2,213,2601,6785,0968,03924,05427,92967,21640,458168,853103,766158,358467,9381,139,875
    Number of holdings 1,0854341697913476742360129159
Nelson: Area in acres 1,899,7453,17418,65831,67266,28268,400121,78088,246229,78660,73596,190385,305729,337
    Number of holdings. 2,939675642396413265268104110116127
Westland: Area in acres. 573,3311,5774,4799,32811,38313,13210,53317,39234,83089,512125,966180,52074,679
    Number of holdings 676210132100944736121614861
Canterbury: Area in acres 6,311,49113,23865,62195,469188,060206,883369,961261,938984,509421,962512,2781,224,5131,967,119
    Number of holdings. 10,8543,4332,3461,2551,26479780730749056363924
Otago: Area in acres 10,298,61914,20760,838103,345303,418309,913657,9.6379,3011,183,698620,709848,5101,462,7714,293,923
    Number of holdings. 13,9894,0102,4681,3881,9681,3921,46546958690604647
    TotalArea in acres34,386,26868,671315,651570,5031,401,1711,469,8592,568,4621,649,5805,364,5392,579,7733,274,6235,448,0339,675,403
    Number of holdings62,63918,23011,4267,2769,1645,5845,5551,9462,589369220175105

Live-stock

A comparative table is presented showing the increase in live-stock since the year 1858. The figures are taken from the census as far as 1891, but for 1895–96 and following years the results of the enumeration made annually by the Department of Agriculture under “The Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics Act, 1895,” have been made use of.

Year.Horses.Asses and Mules.Cattle.Sheep.Goats.Pigs.Poultry.

*Not enumerated.

†Numbers for April, 1895, 1896, 1897, and 1898.

185814,912122137,2041,523,32411,79740,734*
186128,275153193,2852,761,38312,19143,270236,098
186449,409339249,7604,937,27312,00561,276378,414
186765,715323312,8358,418,57911,964115,104676,065
187181,028397436,5929,700,62912,434151,460872,174
187499,859267494,91711,704,85314,276123,9211,058,198
1878137,768241578,43013,069,33814,243207,3371,323,542
1881161,736362698,63712,985,08511,223200,0831,566,114
1886187,382297853,35816,564,59510,220277,9011,679,021
1891211,040348831,83118,128,1869,055308,8121,790,070
1895–96237,4184261,047,90119,826,604†*239,778*
1896–97249,8134341,138,06719,138,493†*209,834*
1897–98252,8343931,209,16519,687,954†*186,027*
1898–99258,1155341,203,02419,673,725†*193,512*

The stock owned by Maoris in the year 1896, which is included above, comprised 314,406 sheep, and 29,125 head of cattle. The number of horses is not specified, but is known to be large.

Table showing for each County in New Zealand the Number of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs in 1898

County.Horses, November, 1898.Cattle, including Calves, November, 1898.Dairy Cows, included in foregoing.Sheep, including Lambs, April, 1898.Pigs November, 1898.

*Not including 37,649 heifers over two years old intended for dairying.

Mongonui1,9376,80679524,2932,285
Whangaroa5531,5861545,195831
Hokianga2,5795,7681,14412,6482,615
Bay of Islands2,96910,7111,61236,0192,170
Hobson1,81010,1912,02616,7721,887
Whangarei3,55224,8796,58346,3291,678
Otamatea1,38311,6821,84051,787693
Rodney1,81610,9332,71774,724775
Waitemata2,26412,6283,36337,6891,166
Eden5,2496,6984,1483,1702,425
Manukau7,52343,82015,86191,2876,115
Coromandel6933,09466212,756309
Thames1,2182,8371,0416,4221,005
Ohinemuri1,9114,1396773,7061,337
Piako2,04227,7102,219184,5161,213
Waikato2,54814,5172,52774,9481,973
Waipa3,05018,6095,31040,7014,028
Raglan2,96520,8622,78965,4484,894
Kawhia4,30312,72374320,00010,665
West Taupo1,3915,30621823,9422,195
East Taupo2074202522,255265
Rotorua6537872177,887742
Tauranga3,40214,0732,0895,6373,133
Whakatane2,6679,2041,76949,7392,052
Waiapu2,96011,720375286,3112,902
Cook6,71331,5613,689810,9611,940
Clifton1,04513,4763,64422,5371,432
Taranaki5,40160,97628,45728,3499,663
Stratford2,13134,16212,93462,0474,606
Hawera6,10570,78324,542151,6829,215
Patea2,87623,0844,754222,3651,680
Wairoa3,0796,970911528,3451,412
Hawke's Bay7,50232,6965,1231,309,0562,984
Waipawa4,54929,2616,721714,6932,564
Patangata2,71126,356670756,654497
Waitotara2,09711,3602,336170,8431,166
Wanganui4,47615,9782,911391,3452,644
Rangitikei4,54822,4842,937511,2452,763
Oroua4,84225,7388,884366,6765,295
Kiwitea1,80511,0182,553258,0781,477
Pohangina9016,5801,648102,6931,185
Manawatu2,29016,2283,982215,8262,423
Horowhenua2,36116,4193,779177,4552,555
Pahiatua1,68416,3186,349181,4722,334
Wairarapa North5,60140,9606,598857,3112,714
Wairarapa South4,89241,5438,609597,5333,777
Hutt4,37313,8577,906223,5982,667
Sounds1,0416,5391,867145,7261,488
Marlborough2,8754,8421,497515,4371,068
Kaikoura9582,607863188,575605
Collingwood1,1306,7491,87647,7501,087
Waimea4,01712,7304,903223,9994,797
Buller4183,8231,6502,246633
Inangahua7856,8511,29226,943921
Amuri1,2644,394335413,281105
Cheviot7822,150901182,697344
Grey6345,5521,68811,905762
Westland1,35510,5562,28616,075828
Ashley7,55013,9566,134794,9335,762
Selwyn14,07425,80414,427652,95813,253
Akaroa2,74018,3325,343272,3332,452
Ashburton8,5759,3893,813727,4693,955
Geraldine4,2636,3632,433439,3291,845
Levels2,9044,7362,025200,498798
Waimate4,1026,3362,199574,2951,655
Mackenzie1,2792,555679410,872195
Waitaki6,07516,7686,388507,3472,200
Waihemo1,2443,5561,271128,319849
Waikouaiti1,3728,9694,88885,8061,478
Peninsula8126,7614,4649,2271,029
Taieri6,69022,59310,065223,3843,789
Bruce3,4239,0903,476175,3181,374
Clutha4,64816,3635,433302,2541,961
Tuapeka3,6307,2752,412392,913990
Maniototo2,1746,9521,593328,704409
Vincent2,0605,0451,304315,312995
Lake1,4823,5791,046164,746644
Southland15,35660,40219,082877,5227,415
Wallace and Fiord4,76621,6104,970450,6071,371
Stewart Island10283929
Totals258,1151,203,4333,536*19,673,725193,512

Live-stock in Australasian Colonies

The following gives the number of the principal kinds of live-stock in the several Australasian Colonies for the year 1897:—

 Horses.Cattle.Sheep.Pigs.
Queensland479,2806,089,01317,797,883110,855
New South Wales497,9342,085,09643,952,897207,738
Victoria (1894)431,5471,833,90013,180,943337,588
South Australia164,820274,2555,032,54146,894
Western Australia62,222244,9712,210,74231,809
Tasmania29,898157,4861,588,61143,520
 1897–98.1897–98.30th April, 1897.1897–98.
New Zealand252,8341,209,16519,687,954186,027

New Zealand thus takes second place in order for number of sheep, and fourth for the number of her cattle and horses.

Sheep

The returns made to the Department of Agriculture show a smaller number of sheep for the years 1886 and 1891 than the census figures given previously, because the account was taken later in the year. The particulars are given for thirteen years, distinguishing the number for the North from that in the Middle Island.

According to these returns, the flocks of the North Island increased from 5,285,907 sheep in the year 1886 to 9,864,945 in 1898, or at the rate of nearly 87 per cent., while sheep in the Middle Island decreased from 9,888,356 to 9,808,780 a loss of not quite 1 per cent. in the same period. For the North Island the increase during the thirteen years was 4,579,038 sheep, while for the Middle Island there was an actual loss of 79,576.

Year.North Island.Middle Island.Total.
18865,285,9079,888,356    15,174,263
18875,506,4859,649,141    15,155,626
18885,668,9969,373,202    15,042,198
18895,990,2449,433,084    15,423,328
18906,588,3469,527,767    16,116,113
18917,159,9279,593,825    16,753,752
18928,204,02910,366,723    18,570,752
18938,685,36110,695,008    19,380,369
18949,169,35211,061,477    20,230,829
18958,994,64610,831,958    19,826,604
18969,131,73610,006,757    19,138,493
18979,540,71710,147,237    19,687,954
18989,864,9459,808,780    19,673,725

Notwithstanding a decrease of 14,229 in the number of sheep since April, 1897, by the above figures, the increase between 1891 and 1898 amounted to 2,919,973, or at a rate of 17.43 per cent. The export and local consumption of wool developed from 111,537,546 lb. for the year ended September, 1891, to 154,165,230 lb. for the corresponding year of 1898. The export of sheepskins and pelts, which in 1890 was 2,292,521 in number, rose to 4,995,325 in 1898.

The number of sheep has been well maintained, notwithstanding the slaughter needed for an export of frozen mutton increasing from 898,894 cwt. in the year 1890 to 1,338,175 cwt. (upwards of three million carcases of sheep and lambs) in 1898.

The proportion of small flocks of sheep has increased very considerably year by year, and with smaller flocks the rabbit difficulty is easier to master than with large ones.

Number of Flocks, 1886, 1891, 1896, 1897, and 1898

Size of Flocks.1886.1891.1896.1897.1898.
Under 5006,0248,27212,02812,70612,886
500 and under 1,0001,1891,6912,6052,6232,708
1,000 2,0007479691,4602,421*2,412*
2,000 5,000532666892
5,000 10,000263287340347341
10,000 20,000228239231226231
20,000 and upwards166169147145144
 9,14912,29317,70318,46818,722

The average size of the flocks is found to have been 1,659 sheep for 1886, 1,363 for 1891, 1,081 in 1896, 1,066 in 1897, and 1,051 in 1898.

 1897.1898.
From 1,000 to 2,5001,8061,798
From 2,500 to 5,000615614
 2,4212,412

Of the provincial districts that of Canterbury had most sheep in 1898, Wellington came next, and Otago occupied the third place. The full particulars, with increases or decreases since 1897, are:—

Provincial Districts.No. of Sheep in 1898.No. of Sheep in 1897.Increase.Decrease.
Canterbury4,072,6874,379,249..306,562
Wellington4,054,0753,952,984101,091..
Otago3,961,4594,021,065..59,606
Hawke's Bay3,308,7483,250,57758,171..
Auckland2,015,1421,880,692134,450..
Nelson896,916873,50223,414..
Marlborough849,738842,1857,553..
Taranaki486,980456,46430,516..
Westland27,98031,236..3,256
 19,673,72519,687,954..Nett decrease. 14,229

The decrease of 14,229 sheep is confined to three Provincial Districts, Canterbury, Otago, and Westland; the other six showing increases, and in Auckland, Wellington, and Hawke's Bay substantial ones.

It has been estimated that the annual consumption of mutton in New Zealand is equivalent to 2.25 sheep per inhabitant, and that the number of sheep required in the present year (1899) for food will be about 1,780,000. (Maoris, for the purposes of this calculation, have been included.)

Two important advantages that sheep-farming has in New Zealand are mentioned by Mr. J. A. Johnstone in the Year-book for 1894. They are: (1) the low cost of the production of mutton, (2) the high percentage of natural increase. Respecting the first point, it has been proved beyond all doubt that, under ordinary conditions, the very choicest of mutton can be so produced as to pay the grower handsomely when sold at 2d. per pound for the carcase at the nearest shipping-port. To the British sheep-farmer this statement, of course, is valueless by itself; but, when told that this mutton would cost the London butcher, delivered ex steamer at the dock, only 3 1/2d. per pound, he will be able to realise in some measure what a wonderful grazing-country New Zealand is, and to understand how it is that settlers of the right stamp have done so well. Then, with regard to the high percentage of increase, there need only be cited a few average returns from well-known flocks to show what excellent lambings New Zealand farmers obtain under good management.

Lambing Returns.—Averages

Locality.Breed of Flock.Breed of Rains.Breed of Ewes.No. of Ewes.Percentage of Lambs.Remarks.
North IslandLincolnLincolnLincoln7,51781.04Land merely surface - sown in English-grass pasture.
North IslandLincolnLincolnLincoln5,30185.05
North IslandLincolnLincoln7/8 Lincoln12,177100.00
North IslandRomneyRomneyRomney1,14196.17
North IslandLincolnSouthd'nLincoln2,03394.71
Middle IslandMerinoMerinoMerino14,76575.36Mountainous country in n'tive past're, unimproved.
Middle IslandMerinoB. Leic'strMerino4,23588.94
Middle IslandCross-bredB. Leic'strCross-bred8,62480.82In English grass-pasture.
Middle IslandHalf-bredB. Leic'strHalf-bred2,74782.79
Middle IslandB. Leic'strB. Leic'strB. Leic'str77890.77
Middle IslandLincolnLincolnLincoln45288.08
Middle IslandR. MarshR. MarshR. Marsh253111.46
Middle IslandE. Leic'strE. Leic'strE. Leic'str46493.34
Middle IslandShropshireShropshireShropshire16897.41
Middle IslandSouthd'nSouthd'nSouthd'n11496.87

The above returns are fair average ones, but much higher might have been shown if exceptional cases had been selected.

As showing the actual cost of managing two large estates in New Zealand (Middle Island), No. 1 carrying 20,000 cross-bred sheep, and No. 2 carrying 40,000, the subjoined table may prove interesting:—

 No. 1.
Per Head.
No. 2.
Per Head.
 s.d.s.d.
Cost of shearing, including scouring and putting wool f.o.b.06.506.3
Management, shepherding, dipping, &c.01009.6
Cost of providing special feed (turnips, green feed, chaff, &c.)1116.3
Cost of renewing English grass2015
    Total per head45.543.2

Cattle

The increase of cattle between 1891 and 1896 was 216,070, or at the rate of 25.98 per cent. The rapid development of the butter and cheese industry, shown on page 275, as to manufacture, also on pages 249–50 and 254, as to trade, created a requirement for milch cows, which increased in number from 206,906 in 1891 to 276,217 in 1896, or at the rate of 33.50 per cent.

The cattle as enumerated in 1898–99 for each provincial district are given in the next table. Although the total number is 6,141 fewer than in 1897–98, there is nevertheless an increase of no less than 10,592 in the number of cows and heifers for dairy purposes.

Provincial District.Bulls for Stud Purposes.Steers over Two Years Old.Cows and Heifers for Dairy Purposes.Cows and Heifers for Breeding Purposes.Cows and Heifers for Fattening.Steers and Heifers under Two Years not otherwise enumerated.Totals.

*Including heifers over two years old intended for dairying: 37,649 in 1898–99, and 36,108 in 1897–98. For actual number of dairy cows in each county see table on pages 325–27 ante.

†Decrease.

Auckland5,15168,08574,47444,34218,054113,158323,264
Taranaki3,15329,99081,0315,4447,21475,649202,481
Hawke's Bay1,21419,53415,39322,9634,04432,13595,283
Wellington3,32945,22064,62235,73912,04677,527238,483
Marlborough2521,9454,6628609255,34413,988
Nelson5876,63412,5041,7582,61112,60336,697
Westland2373,9474,5241,3849375,07916,108
Canterbury1,32111,37039,2881,4456,56927,47887,471
Otago3,43428,09774,68713,3738,63561,023189,249
    Totals, 1898–9918,678214,822371,185*127,30861,035409,9961,203,024
    Totals, 1897–9817,734210,669360,593*124,94254,389440,8381,209,165
    Increase9444,15310,5922,3666,646†-30,842†-6,141

Classified according to breed, the numbers for the two years under review are:—

Pure bred:—1898–99.1897–98.
    Shorthorn44,74261,964
    Hereford6,6026,265
    Polled Angus9,43410,774
    Ayrshire5,2416,545
    Jersey3,0963,535
    Other pure-breds2,7342,564
Crosses1,131,1751,117,518
    Totals1,203,0241,209,165

Out of a total of 1,203,024 cattle in the colony, the North Island is shown to have had 859,511, or 71 per cent., while the Middle Island had 343,513, or 29 per cent. Similarly, the dairy cows and heifers intended for dairying in the North Island numbered 235,520, and in the Middle Island 135,665.

Thus, the North Island, which now leads as regards number of sheep, contains also considerably more dairy cows and other cattle.

Of the total number of cattle (1,203,024) given above, 333,536 were dairy cows. It is found impossible to give a statement of the actual amount of butter and cheese made in 1897–98, even at the factories only. All that can be said is that there were in September, 1898, 222 cheese and butter factories and creameries, with 146 skimming-stations, reported to the Department of Agriculture. But of the 222 factories known to be in existence, 133 made no return to the department of their output for the previous year, and it is therefore impossible to arrive at the total quantity of cheese and butter made. The census returns for 1896 show there were in that year only 170 factories and 105 creameries, the annual output at that time amounting to 11,336,776 lb. of butter and 4,323 tons of cheese.

Horses

The increase in horses is shown for three census years:—

Census Years.Number of Horses.Numerical Increase.Increase per Cent.
1886187,38223,65812.63
1891211,040
1896237,41826,37812.50

At the enumeration made in 1898–99 (November to January), the number of horses was found to have increased to 258,649 (including 534 mules and asses), for which particulars then given. It will be seen that the Provincial District of Auckland had by far the most horses, Otago and Canterbury following, Wellington taking fourth place.

Provincial District.Entires.Geldings.Mares over Two Years old.Mares with Foal at Foot, or to foal this Season.Colts and Fillies under Two Years old.Totals.

*Including 534 mules and asses in 1898–99, and 393 in 1897–98.

Auckland75131,57321,3835,8119,03168,549
Taranaki1288,2416,1011,3231,76917,562
Hawke's Bay1328,6486,0241,3681,80317,975
Wellington33219,01014,7902,3423,42239,896
Marlborough492,2251,7873194974,877
Nelson1163,9492,8626028808,409
Westland289376531242491,991
Canterbury35721,33216,8392,6354,46845,631
Otago37124,04420,6113,3115,42253,759
        Totals 1898–99.2,264119,95991,05017,83527,541258,649*
        Totals 1897–982,407116,22889,44418,43326,715253,227*
        Increase..3,7311,606..8265,422
        Decrease143....598....

Classified according to breed, the numbers for the two years under review are:—

 1898–99.1897–98.
Thoroughbred5,6176,261
Hunter and hackney27,93628,057
Carriage and trotting16,77615,272
Light ordinary106,347102,238
Draught90,34988,390
Ponies under 14 hands11,09012,616
Mules and asses534393
        Totals258,649253,227

It has long been expected that the export of New Zealand horses to Australia and India would assume large proportions. So far, however, the trade has not developed to the extent anticipated. The opinion has been often expressed that more might be done than has been in the past. The following figures will show the position for the years 1885, 1890, 1895, 1896, 1897, and 1898:—

Exported to1885.1890.1895.1896.1897.1898.
Victoria1339210223441
New South Wales2,68719753532639
Tasmania1132711231
Fiji325712223
Bengal342359415155116
Brazil..2........
South Sea Islands13181514119
United Kingdom....5611
United States of America (W. Coast)10..3......
 3,022628193249152210

Pigs

Pigs have decreased since 1891, when the number was 308,812, against 193,512 in 1898–99. The figures given in the accompanying table are those compiled by the Agricultural Department, and for 1898–99 show an increase of 7,485 in the total number of pigs kept in the previous year. The Auckland Provincial District has far more pigs than any other.

Number of Pigs in each Provincial District

Provincial District.Boars for Stud Purposes.Barrows and Sows over One Year old, for Fattening.Sows kept solely for Breeding Purposes.Barrows and Sows under One Year old.Totals
Auckland1,49312,1669,04238,59261,293
Taranaki6582,1113,34720,48026,596
Hawke's Bay1961,0431,1855,0337,457
Wellington7722,9614,51522,75231,000
Marlborough915724142,0843,161
Nelson1751,8471,0425,4238,487
Westland451752151,1551,590
Canterbury4971,8173,45024,15129,915
Otago5493,0672,99317,40424,013
    Totals, 1898–994,47625,75926,203137,074193,512
    Totals, 1897–984,24727,44624,338129,996186,027
    Increase229..1,8657,0787,485
    Decrease..1,687......

The approximate numbers of the different breeds were:—

 1898–99.1897–98.
Pure Berkshire27,69532,570
Pure Yorkshire3,6964,446
Other pure-breds711394
Crosses161,410148,617
    Totals193,512186,027

Ostrich-farming

Ostrich farming has been attempted in New Zealand, both in Canterbury and Auckland. (See Year-book, 1897, page 313.) See also special article in Part III. of this book, entitled “The Heir of the Moa.”

Chapter 43. SECTION XVII.—MINING

The natural mineral resources of New Zealand are very great, and have exercised in the past a most important influence on the development and progress of the colony. Gold to the value of £54,453,325 was obtained prior to the 31st December, 1898; the value of the produce for the year 1898 having been £1,080,691. In the earliest years the gold was obtained from alluvial diggings, but at the present time much is taken from gold-bearing quartz, which is distributed widely through several parts of the colony, and thus there is a much better prospect of the permanency of this industry than alluvial diggings could give. The greater portion of the gold obtained is, however, still got from alluvial workings.

The yield of silver to the end of 1898 amounted to £235,831 in value, the quantity mined in 1898 having been 293,851 oz., valued at £33,107.

Of other minerals, the value of the product to the same date amounts to £16,056,124, of which kauri-gum yielded £9,099,619, and coal, with coke, £6,705,802.

The quantities and values of precious metals and minerals obtained during the year 1898, and the total value of all mining produce since 1853, are:—

 1898.Total Value since 1853.
 Oz.££
Gold280,1751,080,69154,453,325
Silver293,85133,107235,831
 574,0261,113,79854,689,156
 Tons.  
Copper-ore2 1/47017,938
Chrome-ore....37,367
Antimony-ore....52,361
Manganese-ore21770359,237
Hæmatite-ore....226
Mixed minerals..4,79283,574
Coal907,033453,5176,681,007
Coke (exported)91424,795
Kauri-gum9,905586,7679,099,619
  £2,159,661£70,745,280

Of the gold entered for exportation during the year ended the 31st March, 1899—viz., 303,525 oz., representing a value of £1,168,930—over 55 per cent. came out of quartz-mines; but, if the total yield of gold obtained in the colony be taken, the value of which to 31st March, 1899, is £54,813,374, about 24 per cent. came from quartz-mines, and 76 per cent., from alluvial workings.

Gold-mining

The history of the finding of gold in this colony was briefly sketched in the Year-books for 1893 and 1894, and need not, therefore, be repeated here, but a word may be said on recent developments in mining. Great changes have taken place since the early days, when a man wanted but a pick and shovel, tin dish and cradle, to enable him to earn a livelihood on the diggings. The rich shallow gravels have been to all appearances worked out, the ground is getting deeper, the inroads of water more troublesome, and greatly-improved appliances are needed in order to pump the water or wash away the masses of drift that overlie the gold-bearing layers on the bottom.

The difficulty for many years experienced in working the beds of the larger rivers has been at last overcome by the use of dredging machinery. Dredging has not only been adopted for working riverbeds, but has also been applied to great advantage on river flats, which cannot be profitably worked by any other means. So successful, indeed, has this method proved, that it seems likely to develop into a very considerable branch of the mining industry. A special account of it is given in Part III.

So numerous are rapid streams and rivers in New Zealand that water is easily available for supplying direct motive-power for all kinds of mining machinery, as well as for the generation and transmission of electric energy where the water-supply is distant from the scene of operations. It has been used at Skipper's for years to generate electricity by means of dynamos, the current being transmitted a distance of several miles over a high range for the purpose of driving a crushing battery. Great improvements have been made in the appliances since the method was first adopted, and at present some 67 per cent. of the power required to generate electricity is obtained in this way.

Skipper's was the first place in New Zealand, if not in the world, where electricity was used to drive a crushing battery; and it is now used at the Premier Mine, Macetown, on the Arrow River, for mine haulage. Electricity has been adopted with equal success at the Brunner coal-mines, near Greymouth, for working the haulage and pumping machinery. It is also used for mining purposes at the Westport Coal Company's Denniston mines.

The total number of gold-miners employed in 1897–98 was 14,198, as against 14,949 for the previous year. In some places, more especially in Otago, Nelson, and the West Coast, many of the miners do not depend entirely on mining, but employ a part of their time in farming and other pursuits.

The total quantity of gold entered for export during the years ending 31st March, 1898, and 31st March, 1899, for the several districts, and the total quantity and value of the gold exported from the colony from the 1st January, 1857, to the 31st March, 1899, are shown on the next page, but this does not necessarily include the whole of the gold produced, as no doubt much has been taken out of the colony from time to time by people who have evaded the duty, and a good deal has been used for making jewellery and ornaments:—

Table showing the Quantity and Value of Gold entered for Exportation from New Zealand for the Years ended the 31st March, 1898 and 1899, and the Total Quantity and Value from January, 1857, to 31st March, 1899.

District.Year ending 31st March, 1898.Year ending 31st March, 1899.Increase for Year ending 31st March, 1899.Total Quantity and Value from January, 1857, to 31st March, 1899.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Oz.£Oz.£Oz.Oz.£
Auckland108,490401,602148,183545,46339,6932,315,5588,715,729
Wellington..........188706
Marlborough6192,4006212,406286,231335,838
Nelson7582,8531,7206,882962255,4401,008,888
West Coast66,121264,48174,700298,8248,5795,819,17023,129,992
Canterbury....12491260241
Otago75,504304,86278,289315,3062,7855,461,89821,621,980
        Totals251,492976,198303,5251,168,93052,03313,938,54554,813,374

It will be seen from the above table that there was last year an increase in the yield of gold of 52,033 oz., or 20.69 per cent. on the figures for the preceding twelve months. Each gold-mining district showed an increased output, the Auckland fields in particular yielding no less than 39,693 oz. more than in the previous year.

Of the total quantity of gold entered for exportation last year Auckland contributed 48.82 per cent.; Marlborough, 0.21 per cent.; Nelson, 0.57 per cent.; West Coast, 24.61 per cent.; and Otago, 25.79 per cent.

Production of Australasian Goldfields.

The gold yield of the Australasian Colonies for 1896 and 1897 is given in the Australasian Insurance and Banking Record for March, 1898, as under:—

 1890.1897
Oz.Oz.
Victoria805,087812,765
Queensland610,385796,885
New South Wales296,072292,217
Western Australia281,265675,082
New Zealand263,722251,645
Tasmania62,59160,735
South Australia29,00410,322
 2,378,1262,899,651

The increase is 521,525 oz. The mint value of Australasian gold averages £3 16s. per ounce, and a comparison of value is therefore as follows: 1896, £9,036,879; 1897, £11,018,674: increase, 1897, £1,981,795.

Production of the World's Goldfields.

The following extracts from the Statist of the 25th September, 1897, show approximately the gold production of the world, and bring forcibly under notice the value of the Australasian Colonies as gold producing countries. For 1896 the production by fields was as under:—

 £
United States10,800,000
Australasia8,988,000
Transvaal8,604,000
India1,245,000
Russia and other countries15,363,000
        Total£45,000,000
Estimated World's Production, 1888–1896.
Year.£
188821,985,000
188923,835,000
189024,260,000
189126,700,000
189229,900,000
189332,600,000
189436,765,000
189541,000,000
189645,000,000
        Total£282,045,000

For Australasia, 1850 to 1896, the official grand aggregates of all the years are as follows:—

 £
Victoria243,841,000
New South Wales43,400,000
New Zealand52,393,000
Queensland39,189,000
Tasmania4,417,000
South Australia1,983,000
West Australia4,100,000
        Total, 1850 to 1896, Australasia£399,323,000

The total world production of gold since 1850 has been, approximately, 300,000,000 oz., worth, in round figures, £1,163,000,000.

The chief producers of gold over the whole period from 1850 to 1896 have been as undermentioned:—

 £
United States417,980,000
Australasia389,323,000
Transvaal42,331,000
Indian mines5,911,000
All other countries307,455,000
        Total, 1850 to 1896, the World£1,163,000,000

The Cyanide Process.

In the Otago, Reefton, and Nelson districts the gold in the reefs generally occurs in a fairly free-milling state, presenting little difficulty in its recovery. In the Hauraki goldfields, however, only a small proportion of the gold is free-milling, the remainder existing in what is known as a refractory state—that is, the gold occurs either in so finely divided a form that the ordinary methods of amalgamation fail to recover a payable percentage, or it is associated with, or entangled in, base metallic minerals which necessitate the adoption of scientific, and often costly, methods of treatment. In these goldfields the successful use of the cyanide process is steadily extending, with the result that many ores that formerly were worked at a loss by amalgamation processes now yield regular returns on the capital invested.

Indeed, the cyanide process is the most noteworthy improvement as yet introduced in the treatment of gold- and silver-bearing ores. It is particularly suitable where the gold is found in the ore in fine particles; whereas, if the gold be at all coarse, cyanide will do no more than cleanse and brighten its surface and render it fitter for amalgamation. The process may be briefly described thus: The quartz is first dry-crushed, and the dust passed through a screen. The pulverised ore is then emptied into a vat into which a cyanide solution is introduced. The gold in the ore is dissolved by the cyanide, and, in order to separate the two, the liquor is leached off and run into a trough containing zinc shavings, where the action of the zinc precipitates the gold in a pulpy form. The tailings from the leaching-vats are run over tables covered with copper-plates coated with quicksilver, and any particles of gold remaining in them are by this means arrested on the plates. It was at one time thought that dry-crushing would be a very expensive mode of reducing the ore, but the Waihi Company have proved the contrary. The cost of drying and crushing ready for the leaching-process is under 6s. a ton, and more gold is obtained in this way than was formerly the case in the ordinary way of wet-crushing. It is found that in the latter process much of the precious metal not caught in the amalgamating tables or retained in the tailings is carried off with the water. The quantity of water necessary to clear the tables was such as to carry off gold with the slimes before it could come in contact with the mercury on the tables.

The two main obstacles in the way of the process are: First, the difficulty of reducing the base metals found in gold- and silver-bearing ores, of which copper and antimony are the most refractory; second, the trouble experienced in leaching ore in a slimy state, as the slime absorbs the cyanide solution, and is thereby enriched with gold. It then sets so closely that the gold solution cannot be filtered.

Notwithstanding what has been stated above, recent experiments have demonstrated that in some respects the wet-crushing process has advantages. In this case a solution of cyanide of potassium is used in the mortar-boxes instead of water, a much less quantity of solution being necessary in keeping the boxes free than formerly, when water was used for crushing and amalgamation. Another improvement has also been effected in making an equal distribution of the finer slimes and coarser particles of the tailings, and by this means a more ready percolation is effected than is the case when the vats were charged with dry tailings. The wet crushing process has been adopted by the New Zealand Crown Mines Company, at Karangahake, by the Waitekauri Gold-mining Company, and in other places. One great benefit from it is that the dust nuisance is done away with, and the health of those working at the batteries is likely to be greatly improved in consequence.

By a statute passed in December, 1897, and termed “The Cyanide Process Gold-extraction Act, 1897,” an agreement was approved by Parliament under which the Government arranged to purchase the patent rights in New Zealand of the Cassel Gold-extracting Company, thus rendering the said patent rights available for mining purposes at reasonable rates of royalty. The process used under the patent is what is commonly known as the cyanide process, and the operation of the Act should prove highly important in the development of low-grade ores, and otherwise promote the mining industry. The royalties received by the Government up to the 31st March, 1899, amounted to £1,774 18s. 7d.

Quartz and Alluvial Workings.

The working of quartz mines and deep alluvial drifts necessitates a large outlay of money before returns can be expected, and can only be undertaken when capital is available. In the case of quartz mines, they must be sufficiently opened up to ascertain the value and extent of the reefs preparatory to the erection of reduction machinery, which must be constructed on the most modern principles to insure efficiency and economy in the handling and treatment of large bodies of ore.

The introduction of capital has the effect of enabling the claims not only to be opened up at greater depths than heretofore, but they will also be worked in a more systematic and economical manner. Modern machinery and appliances are introduced and erected for the reduction and treatment of the ores, and it is expected that a far larger percentage of the gold will be recovered than has been the case in the past.

The improved appliances introduced in dredging and hydraulic elevating and sluicing machinery have made it possible to work with profit alluvial ground and drifts that a few years ago could not be handled remuneratively.

In the successful development of alluvial drifts containing only a few grains of gold to the ton or cubic yard, a large and constant supply of water is of primary importance, and to secure this the construction of expensive races must be undertaken as the initial step towards systematic working.

In the colony there are large areas covered with auriferous drifts which will prove remunerative if a sufficient quantity of water can be obtained to work them on an extensive scale; and the number of men who can be profitably employed in alluvial workings will necessarily be in proportion to the quantity of water available.

The deep leads of the West Coast, such as those at Ross and Kumara, still attract attention, and, with systematic working and careful management, promise a continuance of profitable employment to the miner.

Coal-mining

The vast extent of coal-measures in New Zealand will make coal-mining one of the largest industries in the colony, especially on the west coast of the Middle Island, where bituminous coal exists equal, if not superior, in quality to coal of the same class in any part of the world.

The progressive increase in the output of coal from 1878 to the end of 1898 is shown below:—

Year.Raised in the Colony.Imported.Total raised in the Colony, and imported, per Annum.Exported (excluding Coal for Fuel by Ocean Steamers).Total Consumption of Coal within the Colony.Yearly increase in Consumption within the Colony.
Total.Yearly Increase.

* Decrease.

 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
1878162,218..174,148336,3663,921332,445..
1879231,21869,000158,076389,2947,195382,09949,654
1880299,92368,705123,298423,2217,021416,20034,101
1881337,26237,339129,962467,2246,626460,59844,398
1882378,27241,010129,582507,8544,245503,60943,011
1883421,76443,492123,540545,3047,172538,13234,523
1884480,83159,067148,444629,2756,354622,92184,789
1885511,06330,232130,202641,2652,371638,89415,973
1886534,35323,290119,873654,2262,862651,36412,470
1887558,62024,267107,230665,85012,951652,8991,535
1888613,89555,275101,341715,23627,678687,55834,659
1889586,445−27,450*128,063714,50839,290675,21812,340
1890637,39750,952110,939748,33633,404714,93239,714
1891668,79431,397125,318794,11229,093764,01949,087
1892673,3154,521125,453798,76828,169770,5996,580
1893691,54818,233117,444808,99224,288784,70414,105
1894719,54627,998112,961832,50725,449807,05822,354
1895726,6547,108108,198834,85226,151808,7011,643
1896792,85166,197101,756894,60727,974866,63357,932
1897840,71347,862110,907951,62026,639924,98158,348
1898907,03366,320115,4271,022,46018,3481,004,11279,131

It will be seen from the above that there has been a steady increase in the output of coal from the mines in the colony, year after year, since records have been kept by the Mines Department—with the exception of 1889. The yearly increase in output is principally due to the growing demand for consumption within the colony. During a period of twenty years the annual consumption of coal in New Zealand has increased to the extent of 671,667 tons, showing that new industries are quickly springing up, requiring fuel for generating motive-power.

The total output from the mines last year was 907,033 tons, as against 840,713 tons for 1897, an increased output of 66,320 tons. The coal imported from other countries was 115,427 tons, against 110,907 tons in 1897, an increase in the importation last year of 4,520 tons. The imports were 115,418 tons from New South Wales, 4 tons from Victoria, and 5 tons from the United States of America. The total export of coal was 65,189 tons, of which 56,332 tons were colonial produce, and 8,857 tons imported coal from other countries. Of the coal exported, 46,841 tons were for coaling direct steamers trading between the colony and the United Kingdom, and has been treated as coal consumed within the colony, these steamers trading wholly between New Zealand and Great Britain. Taking, therefore, the output from the mines and the coal imported, there is a total of 1,022,460 tons, of which 18,348 tons were exported, leaving the consumption within the colony last year 1,004,112 tons, as against 924,981 tons for 1897, an increased consumption of 79,131 tons.

The largest increase in the output last year was in the Westport district—namely, 41,770 tons. There was also an increased production from the mines in the Otago District of 24,047 tons, from the Waikato mines of 4,066 tons, from Kawakawa and Hikurangi of 3,883 tons, from the Mokau 911 tons, and from the West Wanganui Mine of 322 tons; but there was a decline in other places, the largest falling off being in the Greymouth district, 10,050 tons.

The quantities of coal produced in each district are as under:—

Name of District.Output of Coal.Increase or Decrease.Approximate total Output of Coal up to the 31st December, 1898.
1897.1898.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Kawakawa and Hikurangi53,44957,332+3,8831,031,519
Whangarei, Kamo, Ngunguru, and Whauwhau17,28516,808- 477391,861
Waikato66,12570,191+ 4,0661,021,048
Mokau3,1484,059+ 91117,712
Pelorus......711
West Wanganui9081,230+ 32250,996
Westport298,551340,321+ 41,7702,983,304
Reefton2,8655,076+ 2,21175,748
Greymouth128,676118,626−10,0502,514,554
Malvern13,71013,347- 363355,032
Timaru......10,657
Otago212,292233,003+20,7113,557,300
Southland43,70447,040+ 3,336473,204
        Totals840,713907,033+66,320 (Net)12,483,646

The following table, constructed from “Laboratory Reports of the Geological Survey” (Sir J. Hector) gives the composition of samples of New Zealand coals freshly taken from the principal mines:—

Number.Description.Locality.Analysis.Evaporative Power.*
Fixed Carbon.Hydrocarbon.Water.Ash.1.2.

*The second column headed “Evaporative Power” is obtained by the use of a multiple computed from the results of Professor Liversedge's experiments upon the coals of New South Wales. The multiple used for the first column is the one which has long been generally used for computing the evaporative power of coals; but, to prevent any unfair and prejudicial comparison of our coals with those of New South Wales, the second column is given.

1AnthraciteAcheron, Canterbury84.121.961.8012.1210.9318.50
2BituminousCoalbrookdale74.8320.501.163.519.7016.45
3BituminousCoalbrookdale70.0022.152.525.339.1015.40
4BituminousBanbury69.9725.710.993.339.0915.38
5Altered brown coalMalvern Hills68.5419.894.157.428.2712.50
6BituminousTyneside65.5929.180.824.418.5213.55
7Glance coalRakaia Gorge64.5121.276.767.468.3013.20
8BituminousWallsend62.8731.641.663.838.1713.82
9BituminousGrey River62.3729.441.996.208.0113.22
10Pitch coalKawakawa61.1628.002.518.337.9512.55
11BituminousPreservation Inlet60.8828.604.336.197.9112.80
12Pitch coalBlackball, Grey River60.2029.978.011.827.8212.20
13BituminousMokihinui59.7532.143.974.147.7611.80
14BituminousCoalpit Heath58.8138.981.021.197.6412.96
15BituminousMokihinui57.9234.943.963.187.5012.75
16BituminousBrunner Mine56.6235.681.596.117.3612.46
17BituminousBrunner Mine56.2137.731.504.567.3012.36
18BituminousWestport56.0137.172.604.227.2812.30
19BituminousMokihinui55.5938.863.162.397.2012.22
20BituminousBrunner54.1635.852.507.497.0411.91
21Altered brown coalMalvern Hills53.2932.0412.652.026.9211.50
22BituminousWallsend53.1035.471.4110.026.9011.68
23BituminousOtamataura Creek52.8936.632.198.296.9011.70
24BituminousNear Cape Farewell51.3738.724.385.536.3111.60
25Pitch coalKawakawa50.1542.634.183.046.5011.80
26Glance coalWhangarei50.1138.688.013.206.5011.75
27Pitch coalKamo50.0137.699.612.696.5011.17
28Brown coalMalvern Hills49.9935.4211.792.806.4910.90
29Brown coalFernhill49.9536.9512.001.106.4910.99
30Brown coalAllandale47.3134.2612.416.026.1510.96
31Brown coalKaitangata46.4833.4814.665.386.0410.22
32Brown coalShag Point46.2132.6516.025.126.0010.16
33Brown coalHomebush44.9236.0015.833.255.839.87
34Pitch coalHikurangi, Whangarei44.5047.005.992.515.789.79
35Brown coalHokonui44.2838.2216.501.005.759.77
36Brown coalKaitangata44.1138.3215.442.135.749.96
37Brown coalNightcaps43.6233.6818.334.375.679.59
38Pitch coalShag Point43.1930.0515.8210.945.619.52
39Brown coalSpringfield42.6833.6618.655.015.559.38
40Brown coalOrepuki42.6436.2614.446.665.549.38
41Brown coalKaitangata38.2932.4317.5011.784.878.32
42Brown coalShag Point35.7630.8613.2220.164.647.85
43Brown coalAllandale34.7241.4318.994.864.517.63
44Pitch coalGrey River34.7256.486.202.604.517.63
For Comparison.
 Newcastle, N.S.W.Best58.3334.171.835.677.5012.82
 Newcastle, N.S.W.Worst53.3426.663.3316.676.9011.72

As regards the quality of the coal, it cannot be surpassed. The late Sir John Coode, in his presidential address to the Institute of Civil Engineers, London, stated: “The bituminous coal found on the west coast of the Middle Island is declared by engineers to be fully equal, if not superior, to the best description from any part of the world.”

The quantity of each class of coal produced in 1897 and 1898 was:—

Class of Coal.Output of Coal.Increase.Approximate total Output of Coal up to the 31st December, 1898.
1897.1898.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Bituminous504,764538,47733,7136,684,926
Pitch34,96936,4321,4631,722,488
Brown268,020298,36530,3453,664,619
Lignite32,96033,759799411,613
        Totals840,713907,03366,32012,483,646

It has been computed that to deliver coal at the pit-mouth costs in labour 6s. a ton. The number of men employed in all the coalmines last year was 2,003, and the output of coal, 907,033 tons: the average earning per man would thus be £135 17s. per annum, or about £2 12s. 3d. per week.

Other Metals or Minerals

Very little has been done in the colony to prospect and develop mines other than for gold and silver. The only exports last year of metalliferous products, excluding gold and silver, were 217 tons of manganese-ore, 1,765 tons of sulphur, and small parcels of other minerals, representing an aggregate value of £5,565.

Kauri-gum

The quantity of kauri-gum exported last year was 9,905 tons, as against 6,641 tons for 1897. Last year's produce (£586,767) gave an average value of about £59 4s. 9d. per ton, while for 1897 the average was £59 18s. 8d. per ton.

Chapter 44. SECTION XVIII.—AGRICULTURE

UNTIL 1895 the agricultural statistics were collected and compiled by the Registrar-General, under authority of “The Census Act, 1877,” annually in the month of February, except in census years, when the collection was made with the enumeration of the people. Under this Act statistics of the acreage in grass and in all kinds of cultivation were taken; and, at the same time, the estimated yields of all the principal crops were obtained from the farmers themselves.

By the Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics Act, passed in 1895, the duty of collecting the returns devolved upon the Department of Agriculture. The plan adopted under the Act of 1895 is similar to that used in the United Kingdom, the account of land laid down in crop being made up much earlier than formerly, while estimates of produce are made after the results of threshing are known.

Statistics of the land in cultivation were accordingly collected in November, 1898, and an interim return of the compiled results was published in detail in the New Zealand Gazette of the 26th January, 1899, while the corrected acreages under each description of crop were made public on the 13th April following. A summary of the particulars then given is shown in the accompanying tables, with the finally corrected statements of yield of the principal crops; but, in comparing these figures with the results obtained in former years, it must be remembered that, under the new Act, statistics of the acreage and crops of land held and cultivated by Maoris are included; whereas previously information about the farming carried on by Maoris was obtained only when a census of the Native race was taken.

The weather during harvest in the North Island and in the northern part of the Middle Island was wet; consequently a considerable quantity of grain was damaged both in stook and stack. In the southern portion of the Middle Island, the chief grain-growing district, however, the weather was fine, and the crops were saved in good condition.

Full remarks on the progress of agriculture in New Zealand, in respect of all its features in detail, are supplied by Mr. Murphy, of Christchurch, Secretary of the Agricultural and Pastoral Society, in the special article devoted to the subject which appears as the first of Section II. in Part III.

ACREAGE AND ACTUAL YIELD IN PRINCIPAL CORN-CROPS, 1899.
District.WHEAT.OATS.BARLEY.RYE.MAIZE.
Acres.Yield per Acre, in Bushels.Total Bushels.Acres.Yield per Acre, in Bushels.Total Bushels.Acres.Yield per Acre, in Bushels.Total Bushels.Acres.Yield per Acre, in Bushels.Total Bushels.Acres.Yield per Acre, in Bushels.Total Bushels.

*Not included in calculating the average yield for the colony.

† Estimate only.

Auckland12,26120.31249,0468,88230.81273,6812,12327.5558,4978512.501,06217,14344.64765,263
Taranaki3,10028.5988,6476,37937.99242,3681,10738.3342,4355512.0066011020.002,200
Hawke's Bay1,61727.8345,0027,05733.85238,9223,00237.77113,38826230.007,8601,05039.9241,916
Wellington18,66829.48550,41122,60333.94767,32792636.1933,52023918.584,44020020.004,000
Marlborough7,78327.80216,3673,56932.83117,1705,62229.44165,5116320.501,2913*
Nelson6,00130.84185,1175,65536.60207,0184,22835.10148,4354321.7593529*
Westland6*
Canterbury249,85233.658,409,166142,74841.265,890,13214,60046.29675,93147321.9110,3634*
Otago99,75233.373,329,660220,42739.808,774,77014,06331.30440,1911,72022.9039,338
                Totals399,03432.7613,073,416417,32039.5616,511,38845,67136.731,677,9082,94622.4465,99918,53943.95†813,379†
NUMBER OF ACRES UNDER CULTIVATION IN EACH PROVINCIAL DISTRICT, 1899.
Provincial DistrictsIn Grass or Clover, sown after land ploughed.In Grass, surface-sown: land not ploughed.In Hay, included in either or both of the previous Columns.In Bare Fallow.In Grain crops (for threshing only).In Green and other Crops.In Garden.In Orchard or Vineyard.Total in Grass, Crop, and Fallow.In Plantations of Forest trees.Tussock or Native Grass, and unimproved.

*13,492 acres private garden; 3,438 acres market garden.

† 22,626 acres orchard; 357 acres vineyard.

Auckland481,6881,196,42714,7298,81240,69189,2823,2159,5701,829,6859,8573,200,928
Taranaki126,901545,4556,20964111,03414,631978740700,3801,119327,740
Hawke's Bay383,6361,223,34410,6901,87713,21928,3051,1081,2571,652,7464,0001,661,579
Wellington234,8772,072,94313,93183343,69561,9952,3483,8162,420,5073,1981,278,083
Marlborough89,696201,6473,67955718,12013,567220408324,2159421,888,103
Nelson97,459271,0023,56736116,51729,4905271,841417,1971,5991,480,949
Westland13,68433,647868471,8997723449,55276523,723
Canterbury1,312,494342,31715,1138,602413,109286,5724,5832,7522,370,42921,7363,919,326
Otago1,325,425292,0976,83429,477336,076270,4943,8742,3652,259,8084,6898,034,122
                Totals4,065,8606,178,87975,62051,164892,468796,23516,930*22,983†12,024,51947,21622,314,553
ACREAGE UNDER SOWN GRASSES, AND CULTIVATION GENERALLY, FOR EACH COUNTY, AS ON THE 15TH NOVEMBER, 1898.
Counties.In Sown Grasses, after having been ploughed.In Sown Grasses, not previously ploughed.Land broken up but not under Crop.Total under CropIn Garden.In Orchard.Plantations of Forest Trees.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Mongonui5,71314,4332461,326601483
Whangaroa1,2904,17441691975..
Hokianga44416,190586514020444
Bay of Islands4,76329,704641,2609523114
Hobson81222,82238084813319591
Whangarei18,84470,5521232,74580959110
Otamatea4,38553,0821597655322022
Rodney9,01764,3333201,300146934164
Waitemata17,78128,4121,1442,1492971,822135
Eden17,1612,6751261,9831,128547317
Manukau92,21982,7402,09024,1713121,345929
Coromandel2,8156,12678225521055
Thames2,5755,033134773332125
Ohinemuri5,0516,499381,537407280
Piako113,76849,0771,88820,908592521,064
Waikato41,95231,0561,21411,634594635,290
Waipa52,56413,44520114,389112583916
Raglan11,43169,8761373,2104817063
Kawhia6,80133,988..2,26583010
West Taupo8,0716,6681652,46332952
East Taupo6471,092..1899723
Rotorua1,9351,9294240742673
Tauranga20,64520,98310113,648105357163
Whakatane11,31820,1806110,9964012317
Waiapu1,082153,83621,16618411
Cook28,604387,522908,582162420266
Wairoa14,635250,5541374,20126118169
Hawke's Bay168,362383,3951,72920,9235307211,673
Waipawa108,856347,7171011,9554463131,513
Patangata91,783241,67814,445106105645
Taranaki42,252132,7301356,563321330272
Hawera38,851149,8035009,895460136365
Patea36,69999,20566,260138165469
Clifton8,43941,098..2,05112806
Stratford660122,619..89647297
Waitotara22,17871,164..5,573151239179
Wanganui14,447155,148374,634102282289
Rangitikei60,010201,1361420,435208309684
Oroua10,420159,951814,203326757257
Kiwitea556127,333..2,4443015214
Pohangina11065,894..43632983
Manawatu52,00448,14020116,555130169390
Horowhenua1,52099,88473,44620729276
Pahiatua848127,09881,2669420216
Wairarapa North23,384523,15919414,087354441460
Wairarapa South42,795339,36435220,430188492709
Hutt6,605154,672122,181526383121
Sounds6,68284,582564,4616721340
Marlborough48,75064,30739323,588132179819
Kaikoura34,26452,7581083,638211683
Collingwood2,75030,314451,22592348
Waimea25,669130,47029022,7222991,401215
Buller7156,614..17147107..
Inangahua4,12016,970261,03013631
Amuri47,30177,027..8,70254181,048
Cheviot16,9049,607..12,15710518327
Westland8,82117,683..1,206251086
Grey4,86315,96447005212670
Ashley223,736108,8291,060101,9696934141,896
Selwyn260,77424,8501,369160,8721,7961,1117,140
Akaroa27,592143,467156,319152300377
Ashburton353,47215,1941,355198,9167713078,105
Geraldine120,2716,7061,60573,1513132421,678
Levels75,3174,97878450,6334082191,046
Waimate198,88229,5792,12688,301367129722
Mackenzie52,4508,71428819,5208330772
Waitaki191,88815,0593,50789,7714882351,266
Waihemo29,7996,24942513,85210657102
Waikouaiti15,31351,1901148,05511811669
Peninsula2,09813,66021,8641467590
Taieri71,10418,16735835,006698328512
Bruce88,41617,75759246,14219480291
Clutha167,52226,2681,92860,217291143369
Tuapeka95,78017,4292,08739,908282299232
Maniototo32,6211,8371,24923,26922014215
Vincent14,9505,0572,47413,09712120260
Lake9,1794,8384,34013,32610373193
Southland466,35960,20710,730199,004869631979
Wallace and Fiord140,36254,0911,67163,047223108311
Stewart Island34288..12154..
          Total4,065,8606,178,87951,1641,688,70316,93022,98347,216
NUMBER OF ACRES IN GRASS, UNDER EACH CLASS OF CROP, AND IN BARE FALLOW, 1888 TO 1899.
Year.In Grass or Clover, sown after land ploughed.In Grass or Clover, surface-sown: land not ploughed.In Hay, included in either or both of the previous Columns.In Bare Fallow.In Grain-crops (for threshing only).In Green and other Crops.In Garden.In Orchard or Vineyard.Total in Grass, Crop, Fallow, Garden, and Orchard.In Plantations of Forest-trees.
18882,884,0073,053,05267,812154,266738,603454,8248,60816,3297,309,68928,565
18892,941,8883,337,42350,656142,747793,866454,2438,56115,2467,693,97433,938
18903,027,9123,497,13745,889149,979826,505513,8938,56815,7718,039,76528,928
18913,250,5433,715,67544,045210,509703,329582,4399,81017,0478,489,35235,310
18923,327,7554,076,12646,652140,454769,778579,1129,60819,6278,922,46038,723
18933,611,3934,650,65261,811154,254753,091544,3559,76320,0859,743,59340,401
18943,865,3484,833,54960,740142,342669,850551,9629,95121,10910,094,11139,826
18953,908,5814,921,13656,614140,494560,179597,68610,26321,40110,159,74055,386
18964,254,9835,030,24796,81858,039674,850680,75017,74919,36210,735,98043,246
18974,308,7205,733,138109,46657,158688,297762,76216,92422,29111,589,29047,630
18984,123,3045,743,24567,86560,792727,038790,18416,17722,38711,483,12752,546
18994,065,8606,178,87975,62051,164892,468796,23516,93022,98312,024,51947,216

The extent of land in cultivation (including sown grasses and land broken up but not under crop) amounted to 12,024,519 acres. Of this area, land under artificial grasses comprised 85.20 per cent.; land under grain-crops, 7.42 per cent.; land under root and green crops, 6.62 per cent.; land in garden and orchard, 0.33 per cent.; and land in fallow, 0.43 per cent.

Wheat

The wheat harvest of 1899 showed an average yield of 32.76 bushels per acre, the crop realised being 13,073,416 bushels, against 5,670,017 in 1898, 5,926,523 bushels in 1897, 6,843,768 bushels in 1896, 3,613,037 bushels in 1895, 4,891,695 bushels in 1894, 8,378,217 bushels in 1893, and 10,257,738 bushels in 1892.

The quantity of wheat of last season's harvest held by farmers in November, 1898, as shown by the gazetted figures, was 1,622,037 bushels, an amount little more than sufficient to meet demands for consumption in the colony until the arrival of the new wheat upon the market. No doubt stocks of flour and grain are held by merchants and millers. The total amount of wheat exported during the year 1898 was only 10,090 bushels, while the imports were as high as 60,860 bushels, showing that New Zealand had not grown as much as was required for consumption by her own people.

The imports of flour during 1898 were 10,633 centals (531 tons), and the exports 662 tons.

The area under wheat for threshing increased however from 315,801 acres in 1898 to 399,034 acres in 1899; and to this increase of 83,239 acres, all the provincial districts contributed. In addition to the area cut for threshing, 1,126 acres were cut for chaff, and 36 acres for ensilage, while 193 acres were fed down with stock, so that the total area sown in wheat was 400,389 acres.

Of the 399,034 acres in wheat (for threshing) this year, no less than 249,852 acres were in Canterbury, and 99,752 acres in Otago.

The area under wheat for grain, the estimated gross produce in bushels, and the average yield per acre for each of the last ten years were:—

Year.Land under Wheat.Estimated Gross Produce.Average Yield per Acre.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
1890335,8618,448,50625.15
1891301,4605,723,61018.99
1892402,27310,257,73825.50
1893381,2458,378,21721.98
1894242,7374,891,69520.15
1895148,5753,613,03724.32
1896245,4416,843,76827.88
1897258,6085,926,52322.92
1898315,8015,670,01717.95
1899399,03413,073,41632.76

The following gives the area in wheat and the estimated produce, for the Australian Colonies, for the season of 1898:—

Colony.Wheat-crop.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels per Acre.
Queensland59,8751,009,29316.86
New South Wales993,35010,560,11110.60
Victoria1,657,45010,580,2176.38
South Australia1,522,6684,014,8522.64
Western Australia38,705408,59510.56
Tasmania85,9051,668,34119.42

Consumption of Wheat

The yearly consumption of wheat per head of population in New Zealand, as previously stated, has been estimated at 6 bushels.

The difficulty of correctly computing the consumption of bread-stuffs is shown by the great differences in the estimates arrived at.

The average quantity required per head of the population (exclusive of that used for seed) has been calculated at 6.4 bushels for New South Wales, and 4 1/2 to 5 bushels for Victoria, by statisticians in those colonies.

The average consumption of wheaten bread-stuffs in New Zealand thus appears to be somewhat higher than in Victoria.

The following is the average annual consumption of wheat per inhabitant in some of the principal countries of the world:—

United Kingdom5.6 bushels.
Canada6.6 bushels.
France8.1 bushels.
Germany3.0 bushels.
Russia2.1 bushels.
Italy5.4 bushels.
United States4.5 bushels.

The English consumption during the last twenty-five years appears to have ranged from 5 1/2 to 6 bushels per head of population.

Wheat-crop of the World

In the next table the wheat crop of the world for the five years 1893 to 1897 is shown, and from this it will be seen that the importance of Australasia in the wheat market of the world is not great: out of a total production of about 2,245 million bushels in 1897, only thirty-four million bushels, or 1.5 per cent., were grown in the Australasian Colonies:—

WHEAT-CBOP OF THE WORLD FOR THE YEARS 1893 TO 1897 INCLUSIVE.
Country.1893.1894.1895.1896.1897.
 1,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
Europe—Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
            Russia and Poland359,873383,862333,479343,877292,000
            France277,980343,113348,280335,881248,000
            Hungary149,069152,305152,345143,949102,000
            Italy130,355117,958111,960131,95396,000
            Germany109,562110,359102,363103,964100,000
            Spain83,968103,964103,96479,97296,000
            Roumania58,37942,38665,97868,97540,000
            United Kingdom50,38359,17637,98657,97854,000
            Bulgaria33,98635,98845,98249,98232,000
            Caucasia65,17759,98063,97643,98428,000
            Turkey31,98827,98835,98839,98428,000
            Austria42,39647,18340,38535,98834,000
            Belgium16,79318,39418,39419,99220,000
            Servia8,7977,9969,99813,9946,800
            Greece7,9967,1995,9985,9985,200
            Holland5,5984,7975,1975,9985,200
            Switzerland4,4005,1974,7974,7974,000
            Denmark4,4774,0004,4004,0004,000
            Norway-Sweden3,6003,6004,4004,0004,000
            Portugal5,5986,7995,5984,0006,000
                Totals1,450,3751,542,2441,501,4681,499,2661,205,200
America—
            United States455,838511,818495,822447,842560,000
            Canada47,98443,98453,98233,98656,000
            Mexico11,19511,99611,9969,99812,000
            Argentine82,37159,98045,98231,98848,000
            Chili17,99413,19313,59411,99616,000
            Uruguay6,3987,9969,9985,9988,000
                Totals621,780648,967631,374541,808700,000
Asia—
            India267,104252,710255,108204,729192,000
            Asia Minor31,98827,98831,98835,98848,000
            Persia15,99217,99419,99219,99220,000
            Syria11,9969,9989,99811,99612,000
                Totals327,080308,690317,086272,705272,000
Africa—
            Algeria14,79519,99217,99419,99216,000
            Egypt9,9989,9989,9987,9968,000
            Tunis3,4005,9985,5985,1974,800
            Cape Colony4,3974,7974,7974,3974,800
                Totals32,59040,78538,38737,58233,600
            Australasia—Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
New South Wales6,5037,0415,1958,85410,560
Victoria15,25511,4465,6697,07610,580
Queensland4135451246011,009
South Australia13,6187,7815,9292,8044,015
Western Australia520170188244409
Tasmania8348721,1651,2861,668
New Zealand4,8923,6136,8445,9275,670
                Totals42,03531,46825,11426,79233,911
                Grand Totals2,473,8602,572,1542,513,4292,378,1532,244,711

Oats

The extent of land in oats grown for grain in 1899 was 417,320 acres, against 354,819 acres in the preceding year, an increase of 62,501 acres. The Provincial Districts of Otago (220,427 acres) and Canterbury (142,748 acres) account for 363,175 acres of the total area, Wellington taking third place with 22,603 acres. The breadth of land in oats for chaffing, ensilage, or feeding down with stock was 214,608 acres, a decrease of 10,162 acres on the figures for 1898.

The average yield per acre was, in 1898, 27.44 bushels, and in 1899, 39.56, the quantity of produce increasing from 9,738,391 bushels to 16,511,388 bushels.

The oat-crop for 1898 in the Australian Colonies was as follows:—

 Acres.Bushels.Average per Acre.
Queensland1,83431,49617.17
New South Wales28,605543,94619.00
Victoria294,1834,809,47916.35
South Australia31,398204,4446.51
Western Australia1,67829,26617.44
Tasmania38,1661,102,28528.88

Maize

This is a very important crop. In 1899 there were 18,539 acres sown for grain, the estimated yield being 813,379 bushels of corn, an average of nearly 44 bushels per acre. Maize is grown only in the North Island, with the exception of a few acres in Nelson and Canterbury. The Provincial District of Auckland had 17,143 acres; Hawke's Bay, 1,050 acres; Taranaki, 110 acres; and Wellington, 200 acres, in 1899. As considerable interest is taken in this crop, the group of counties where it is grown most extensively is stated viz.: Tauranga, Whakatane, Waiapu, Cook, Wairoa, and Hawke's Bay. It is found also in Mongonui and Manukau.

Barley

Under barley, 45,671 acres were returned in 1899, the estimated crop being 1,677,908 bushels, an average yield per acre of 36.73 bushels. In 1898 the area under barley was 29,920 acres, and the yield 709,874 bushels, the crop for last year being more than twice as great.

Rye

There were 2,946 acres in rye, yielding 65,999 bushels, or at the rate of 22.44 bushels per acre, against 1,915 acres and 39,202 bushels, the rate being 20.47 bushels per acre, in 1897–98.

Peas and Beans

The area under peas in the season 1899 was 6,334 acres, yielding 178,420 bushels, or an average of 28.17 bushels per acre, against 6,752 acres and 122,447 bushels, or 18.13 bushels per acre, in the previous year.

Under beans there were 2,624 acres, giving a return of 96,574 bushels, the average being 37.31 bushels per acre, against 2,994 acres and 58,162 bushels (19.42 bushels per acre) in 1898.

Potatoes

The area under potatoes was 38,604 acres in 1899, yielding the excellent return of 298,561 tons, or a rate of 7.73 tons per acres, against 36,402 acres in 1898, and 180,333 tons (or 4.95 tons per acre), an increase of 2,202 acres and 118,228 tons.

A comparison of the gross yield of potatoes with the amount exported in each of the twelve years, 1883–94, showed that for such period an average of 597 lb. per head of population was retained in the colony. Allowing for waste, pig-feed, and seed, the average amount retained for human consumption was found to be 449 lb. a head. The surplus crop of 1898–99 available for export might possibly amount to ninety thousand tons.

Turnips

Turnips and rape form a most important crop in a sheep-breeding country such as New Zealand, and in 1892 the area of land under this crop amounted to 422,359 acres. The returns for 1895 gave only 385,788 acres, but for the present year 519,945 acres were set down as under this crop, and there were in addition 10,526 acres in mangolds, beet, and carrots.

The cost of growing turnips sown broadcast and in drills may be: Broadcast—Ploughing, 5s. 6d. per acre; harrowing, 3s. per acre; rolling, 1s. per acre; seed and sowing, 1s. 6d. per acre: total, 11s. per acre. Drill—Ploughing, 5s. 6d.; grubbing, 3s.; harrowing, 3s.; rolling, 1s.; drilling, 3s. 6d.; hand-hoeing, 10s.; horse-hoeing, 5s.; seed and sowing, 2s. 6d.; manure, 10s. to 15s.: total, £2 3s. 6d. to £2 8s. 6d. per acre.

Hops

There were 947 acres under hops in 1899, as against 845 acres last year. No account of the produce for the last four years was taken, but in 1895 the yield was 7,556 cwt. In 1895 the total quantity used by the breweries in the colony amounted to 3,793 cwt. Of the land under hops in 1899, 798 acres were in the Waimea County, and 124 in Collingwood, both in the Provincial District of Nelson. The import of hops in 1898 amounted to 1,663 cwt., and exceeded the exports by 718 cwt.

Tobacco

The growing of tobacco does not progress in New Zealand. In 1889, 34 acres were being cultivated; in 1890, 25 acres; in 1891, 16 acres; in 1892, 6 acres; in 1893, 4 acres; in 1894, 4 acres; and in 1895, 5 acres, producing 1,599 lb. of dried leaf. Statistics of this crop have not been taken since 1895.

Gardens and Orchards

The extent of land in garden was 16,930 acres, of which 13,492 acres were private gardens, and 3,438 acres market gardens. In plantations of forest-trees there were 47,216 acres.

There were 22,626 acres in orchard in 1899, an increase of 503 acres on the area so returned in the previous year, and 357 acres were returned as “vineyard.” The fruit-crop of the colony is supplemented by a considerable import from the Australian Colonies and Fiji.

Sown Grasses and Seeds

New Zealand is essentially suited for grazing purposes. Wherever there is light and moisture, English grasses thrive when the natural bush and fern are cleared off. In fact, the white clover gradually overcomes the fern; and, from the mildness of the winter season, there are few places where there is not some growth, even in the coldest months of the year. In all parts of the colony stock live, although in varying condition, without other food than such as they can pick up. Sown grass land, as might be expected, heads the list of cultivations.

At the beginning of the year 1899 there were 10,244,739 acres under artificial grasses. Of these, 4,065,860 acres had been previously ploughed, presumably under grain or other crops, while 6,178,879 acres had not been ploughed. Much of the latter area was bush- or forest-land, sown down in grass after the timber had been wholly or partially burnt off.

The area under ryegrass for seed in the season of 1899 was 66,295 acres, yielding 1,657,482 bushels of 20 lbs., or a rate of 25.01 bushels per acre, against 35,167 acres and 749,603 bushels, an average of 21.31 bushels per acre, in 1897–98.

In cocksfoot there were 46,275 acres, which yielded 6,943,039 lb., or an average of 150 lb. per acre, against 58,640 acres and 8,873,723 lb. (a rate of 151 lb. per acre) in the previous year.

Seeds for sowing pasture lands are used much as in Great Britain, the following being a common mixture: Perennial ryegrass, 25 lb. to 30 lb. per acre; cocksfoot, 2 lb.; alsike, 2 lb.; timothy, 3 lb.; cowgrass, 2 lb.; red clover, 2lb.; white clover, 2 lb.; rape, 1 lb.: total, 39 lb. to 44 lb. per acre. Pastures are renewed at intervals of from four to eight years, according to the nature of the land.

The following shows the acreage in sown grasses in the Austral Asian Colonies in 1898:—

 Acres.
Queensland15,643
New South Wales325,750
Victoria115,738
South Australia20,083
Western Australia3,317
Tasmania226,095
New Zealand9,866,549

It will be observed that the acreage of land under sown grasses was nearly fourteen times as great in New Zealand as in the whole of Australia and Tasmania. When compared in size with the colonies of Australia, New Zealand is not large—about one-thirtieth of their total area—but in respect of grazing capabilities the relative importance of this country is much greater. Australia is generally unsuitable, owing to conditions of climate, for the growth of English grasses, and the amount of feed produced by the natural grasses throughout the year is very much less per acre than is obtained from the sown grass lands in New Zealand; indeed, it may be said that the average productiveness of grass-land is about nine times as great here as in Australia, or that land in this colony covered with English grasses may be considered equal, for grazing purposes, to an area of Australian land about nine times as great.

In addition to the artificially-sown pastures, the returns for 1899 show that 22,314,553 acres of unimproved land, including that in tussock or native grass, belonged to the occupied holdings, and were available for stock-feeding by the sheep-farmers and cattle-farmers of the colony.

The Dairy Industry

In respect of the present condition of the dairy industry Mr. Ruddick remarks:—

The tendency seems to be in the direction of building up large central butter factories, with contributing skimming stations, situated at convenient points in the surrounding country. Already some of the New Zealand factories are large institutions, having a daily output of from one to three tons of butter. It can be said also that the best of these factories are as well built and equipped for the manufacture of fine butter as those to be found in any other country. Such a system, where large quantities of butter are made under the direction of one man, tends towards uniformity in the quality of the product. Large factories are more apt to be well equipped than very small ones, and the volume of business done enables the company or proprietors to pay sufficient salary to secure picked men for managers. The fact that these large factories do exist, where a fair salary may be earned, is an inducement for superior men to follow the work. It is one of the hopeful signs for the future of New Zealand dairying that the factory managers are, as a whole, a very excellent class of men.

Government Aid to the Dairy Industry

The Department of Agriculture assists the dairy industry mainly through the “dairying-service” branch. At the head of this branch is the Dairy Commissioner, who is assisted by two dairy instructors and five dairy produce graders. Meetings are addressed on dairying topics, and practical instructions are given at the factories to butter- and cheese-makers, as well as advice to the directors of dairy companies. A large amount of correspondence is attended to, which includes a wide range of technical subjects relating to the manufacture of butter and cheese, the testing of milk, and the organization and equipment of factories. Information on special subjects is disseminated by means of leaflets and pamphlets circulated free from time to time, as occasion may arise.

Grading of Dairy Produce

Since the 31st March of the current year, all butter and cheese intended for export must be sent to one of the Government cool stores to be graded. Butter which is to be sent to Great Britain is frozen after being graded, and given free storage for one month, or until the leaving of the first steamer having available space. Butter for Australian markets is held in ordinary storage only, as the ships which carry it have no refrigerated space. It is stored free for one week. Cheese is held in cool storage under the same conditions as apply to butter, according to the market for which it is intended. The department also pays the cost of handling in and out of the stores.

Reports are given by the grader to the manufacturer of the butter or cheese, showing in detail the result of his examination of each parcel. These reports are becoming a recognised commercial document, and are often attached to bills of lading. Contracts are based on them, and thus they facilitate business as well as protect the local shipper.

Dairy Factories.
DistrictsButter Factories.Cheese Factories.Butter and Cheese Factories combined.Skimming Stations.
Auckland1011..30
Taranaki7721244
Hawke's Bay5113
Wellington1511..33
Marlborough12.. 
Nelson5..1..
Westland3......
Canterbury59..18
Otago1138221
            Total1327416149

Chapter 45. SECTION XIX.—CROWN LANDS

A SUMMARY of the transactions during the year ended 31st March, 1899, will be found in the following table, which shows under all descriptions of tenure the number of selectors and the area selected:—

Nature and Tenure of Lands selected during the Year ended the 31st March, 1899.Number of Purchasers or Selectors.Area.
Selectors. Area  
A. R. P.  A. R. P.
Town lands sold for cash 249 135 1 25)52836,188 3 23
Suburban lands sold for cash 97 962 3 38
Rural lands sold for cash 182 35,090 2 0
Deferred payments113 0 0
Perpetual lease1640 0 0
Occupation with right of purchase458109,949 3 30
Lease in perpetuity36299,262 0 3
Agricultural lease2114 1 11
Village settlement, cash2129 3 6
settlement, occupation with right of purchase32 0 0
settlement, lease in perpetuity1042,100 1 2
Village-homestead special settlement12133 2 36
Special-settlement associations5607 1 10
Improved-farm special settlement (lease in perpetuity and644,822 3 24
occupation with right of purchase)Occupation leases, Mining Act31 1,448 3 1
Small-grazing-runs2148,809 3 17
Pastoral runs227760,156 1 1
Thermal springs, Rotorua2987 2 28
Miscellaneous leases and licenses304201,474 0 8
Cheviot Estate—
      Cash lands61,210 3 14
      Miscellaneous6196 0 0
Land for Settlements Acts—
Lease in perpetuity31360,152 3 29
Lease in perpetuity, village215 0 2
Small grazing-runs1928,821 3 19
Miscellaneous231,229 1 1
                Totals2,5421,357,466 2 25

Particulars of the number of Crown tenants at present holding lands under the several tenures, together with the yearly rental payable, are given in the next statement.

STATEMENT showing the TOTAL NUMBER OF CROWN TENANTS, with Area selected or held, and the Yearly Rent payable, as on the 31st March, 1899.

Tenures.Number of Tenants.Area held by such Tenants.Yearly Rental or Instalment payable.
  A. R. P.£ s. d.
Deferred payment1,119160,939 3 1311,561 12 8
Perpetual lease1,735440,088 2 2717,098 3 9
Occupation with right of purchase2,281504,829 2 1720,409 14 5
Lease in perpetuity2,490731,211 1 3824,459 11 8
Agricultural lease271,262 2 3333 7 3
Homestead232,427 3 10
Mining Districts Land Occupation Act1657,957 3 37308 8 11
Village settlements—
      Deferred payment671,085 3 23249 10 1
      Perpetual lease2143,762 3 8561 15 0
      Occupation with right of purchase3828 2 2012 10 8
      Lease in perpetuity72912,044 2 231,385 11 9
Village-homestead special settlements—
      Perpetual lease5693,956 1 321,878 9 0
      Lease in perpetuity1004,152 1 18396 9 2
Special settlements—
      Deferred-payment associations727,045 3 37405 1 2
      Perpetual lease252,207 0 11151 1 10
      Lease in perpetuity704131,299 0 186,801 15 5
Improved-farm special settlements—51350,226 1 312,284 3 4
Small grazing-runs5361,020,188 0 2822,913 17 8
Pastoral runs92311,111,910 1 574,050 0 1
Miscellaneous leases1,727371,757 3 357,888 1 0
                    Totals14,05714,577,383 3 24192,849 4 10
CHEVIOT ESTATE
      Lease in perpetuity10623,903 0 336,426 2 8
      Village-homestead special settlement762,480 1 0874 0 4
      Grazing-farms4145,691 0 96,587 14 8
      Pastoral runs2 2,102 0 0262 3 8 
      Miscellaneous631,668 2 0247 13 1
LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS ACTS
      Lease in perpetuity1,224173,457 0 1251,474 16 9
      Lease in perpetuity, village37415 2 32319 5 10
      Special-settlement associations112,114 1 9162 7 8
      Small grazing-runs2541,929 3 105,422 16 6
      Miscellaneous621,797 2 1274 6 0
THERMAL-SPRINGS (ROTORUA)2155,614 0 261,452 18 0
                    Grand totals15,91914,878,557 1 36266,353 10 0

The decennial tables I. and II. exhibit the acreage of land taken up for settlement, and the number of holdings under each description of tenure. The lands held under pastoral license and miscellaneous leases, such as for timber and flax-cutting, coal-mining, &c., are not included in these tables. Tables III. and IV. show the total acreage taken up year by year since 1890 in each land district, and the number of holdings grouped according to size, the areas varying from less than one acre in extent to 1,000 acres and over.

The forfeitures and surrenders in respect of the lands taken up for settlement (excluding, as already remarked, pastoral and miscellaneous leases) for the last three years were:—

1896–97815 holdings228,978 acres
1897–98658 holdings130,380 acres
1898–99507 holdings180,957 acres

Forfeited and surrendered lands are again thrown open for selection as soon as possible, and in the majority of cases are taken up again by fresh selectors within a short time.

A full description of the various tenures under which land is dealt with in the colony is given in the article entitled “The Land System of New Zealand,” in Part III. of this book.

I.—COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING ACREAGE OF LANDS SELECTED UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS (EXCLUDING PASTORAL RUNS AND MISCELLANEOUS LEASES AND LICENSES) DURING EACH OF THE YEARS ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1890–99.
1889–90.1890–91.1891–92.1892–93.1893–94.1894–95.1895–96.1896–97.1897–98.1898–99.

* Perpetual lease.

† Lease in perpetuity.

NOTE.—The forfeitures and surrenders for the last three of the years dealt with in the table were—for the year 1896–97, 228,978 acres; 1897–98, 130,380 acres; and for 1898–99,180,957 acres. But it must not be supposed that these relate to the acreages taken up during the same years; on the contrary, forfeitures may have their origin in selections of long standing and various dates.

 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Cash lands46,922100,01440,50136,32734,99938,69526,57528,48522,52537,400
Deferred payments41,37634,09140,46721,08412,6695,454456....13
Perpetual lease and small areas236,905288,917282,547122,5583,8541,2631,4279,106651640
Occupation with right of purchase......54,271108,13375,47884,96859,64881,414109,950
Lease in perpetuity......55,320179,99391,799122,350104,927117,938159,415
Agricultural lease5355190194365453613258114
Occupation lease under“ The Mining Districts Land Occupation Act, 1894”............2,9312,8171,2851,449
Village settlement—
      Cash65621042952822494130
      Deferred payment782370182391............
      Perpetual lease1,7299548932,636............
      Occupation with right of purchase........1232422
      Lease in perpetuity......43,9534,0503,3651,3171,4262,115
Village-homestead special settlement2703502,2134942,5502,74379336042134
Special-settlement associations4,970711,923*157,381†68,852††51,346†44,23728,084††442†607
Homestead1,7519451,01038............
Special-settlement improved farms..........9,73128,3484,8829,0074,823
Small grazing-runs and grazing-farms60,34086,161159,46592,927252,693117,84646,40768,934149,45877,632
                    Totals395,754512,634529,720544,153668,064398,497361,904308,581384,449394,324
II.—COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING NUMBER OF SELECTORS OF LAND UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS (EXCLUDING PASTORAL RUNS AND MISCELLANEOUS LEASES AND LICENSES) DURING EACH OF THE YEARS ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1890–99.
1889–90.1890–1.1891–2.1892–3.1893–4.1894–5.1895–6.1896–7.1897–8.1898–9.
NOTE.—The forfeitures and surrenders for the last three of the years dealt with in the table were—for the year 1896–97, 815 holdings; 1897–98, 658 holdings; 1898–99, 567 holdings. See note to previous table as to the origin of these failures.
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.
For cash543573493552497392476388272534
Deferred payments30425822316996476....1
Perpetual lease and small areas75678882438517371921
Occupation with right of purchase......161461398431277380458
Lease in perpetuity......126612372696659599675
Agricultural lease1424523252
Occupation lease under “The Mining Districts Land Occupation Act, 1894”............69482331
Village settlement—
      Cash159878875323164221
      Deferred payment75512329............
      Perpetual lease765659164............
      Occupation with right of purchase........5303423
      Lease in perpetuity......220323219310292106
Village-homestead special settlement201014033118601918912
Special-settlement associations4621383629026223814255
Homestead19981............
Improved-farm special settlement..........107315457764
Small grazing-runs and grazing-farms354380391426032277140
                    Totals2,0341,8811,9532,5782,4541,9882,5041,7351,5391,953
III.—LANDS TAKEN UP UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS DURING EACH OF THE YEARS ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1891–99 (EXCLUSIVE OF PASTORAL RUNS AND MISCELLANEOUS LEASES AND LICENSES).*
Land District.1890–91.1891–92.1892–93.1893–94.1894–95.1895–96.1896–97.1897–98.1898–99.
* See notes as to forfeitures and surrenders on previous tables.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Auckland95,510105,120115,454134,99299,31367,83149,52256,29590,160
Hawke's Bay45,60336,00849,83124,35620,14116,35322,85819,87636,222
Taranaki33,78555,23749,06413,95435,11355,85022,00216,78618,867
Wellington108,05382,311156,29784,87149,58679,47863,80148,90963,746
Nelson23,80812,99217,79736,73934,90619,42114,46213,60018,673
Marlborough11,0233,0168,0558,22718,35315,85820,85854,58151,973
Canterbury133,76162,83112,77794,86133,74414,82722,65475,04152,839
Westland3131,0101621,3461,8261,7653,865437352
Otago47,450141,56590,043159,05080,43970,23879,21277,34540,599
Southland13,32829,63044,673109,66825,07620,2839,34721,57920,893
                    Totals512,634529,720544,153668,064398,497361,904308,581384,449394,324
IV.—HOLDINGS TAKEN UP UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS DURING EACH OF THE YEARS ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1891–99 (EXCLUSIVE OF PASTORAL RUNS AND MISCELLANEOUS LEASES AND LICENSES), CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO SIZE.
Size.1890–91.1891–92.1892–93.1893–94.1894–95.1895–96.1896–97.1897–98.1898–99.
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.
Under 1 acre170214154176256259154103293
1 to 50 acres531581727739696719588496571
51 to 250 acres6036171,2539337571,198709616633
251 to 500 acres307255264341169232178197277
501 to 1,000 acres17318710415070708463128
1,001 acres and upwards9799761154026226451
                    Totals1,8811,9532,5782,4541,9882,5041,7351,5391,953

Chapter 46. SECTION XX.—LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS

A FULL description is given, in a special article belonging to Section 1, Part III., of the objects and method of the Land for Settlements Acts, under which the acquirement by Government is authorised, through purchase from private owners, of properties for subdivision into small farms to meet the want felt of Crown lands for disposal in places where they are specially in demand.

The report of the Chairman of the Board of Land Purchase Commissioners on the transactions for the twelve months ended the 31st March, 1899, states:—

Fifty-one estates, of a total area of 534,682 acres, were offered during the year. Of that area 47,192 acres were declined, not recommended, or withdrawn, leaving 487,490 acres, of which an area of 271,905 acres is under consideration, and an area of 215,585 acres was recommended for purchase. Including with this latter area part of the land offered in the previous year, twenty-four estates were recommended for purchase, with the result that the offers were accepted for thirteen, of an aggregate area of 102,204 acres, for the sum of £582,115. Of the other eleven estates, the owners of three declined the prices offered; the owners of five have the offers made them under consideration; and in the case of three estates no offers have yet been made.

The names of the estates purchased are:—Karapiro, Willows, Mahora, Starborough, Richmond Brook, part of Flaxbourne, Waikakahi, Tamai, R.S. 20184, R.S. 2682, R.S. 36228, R.S. 36469, and part of Elderslie. With the exception of Richmond Brook, Tamai, and Elderslie, now under survey, possession of all was given within the year under review.

The total purchases under the Land for Settlements Act since its commencement are sixty-two estates, containing an area of 256,829 acres, at a cost of £1,250,647 for land, and £53,862 for road formations, surveys, and administration. In all, a total of £1,304,509.

The limit of appropriation fixed by statute, which expires on 31st March, 1900, is £2,000,000. There is therefore a balance of £695,491 available for additional purchases up to that date, after which no new business can be entered on. Recently there have been several large estates offered, which if purchased will, together with the price to be paid for Hatuma Estate, and the offers to purchase now under consideration by several landowners, if accepted, absorb the greater portion of the above sum.

The Surveyor-General's report to the Hon. the Minister of Lands on the condition and settlement of the lands acquired and handed over to his department under the above-mentioned Acts gives the particulars of the estates offered for selection as follows:—

There have been fewer estates dealt with during the year ended the 31st March last than in the previous period, the number for 1899 being seven, containing an area of 90,708 acres 1 rood 4 perches, whilst that for 1898 was fourteen, of a total area of 58,691 acres 1 rood 31 perches.

Since the 31st March the greater part of the area of 11,663 acres unselected at that date has been taken up.

In addition to the foregoing figures there have been thirty-five selections in the estates acquired prior to 31st March, 1898. Of the four estates at that date which showed the largest amount of unselected land, viz.: Okauia, Pomahaka, Otahu, and Beaumont (total, 12,896 acres), 7,592 acres have been selected during the year, which, together with other selections, only leaves in the hands of the Government an area of 4,759 acres.

The forfeitures for non-compliance with the conditions of the leases, together with surrenders, numbered thirty, the area so forfeited being 2,643 acres 3 roods 20 perches, let for a rental of £463 9s. 4d. Most of the forfeited sections have been re-let.

The arrears of rent on the 31st March amounted to £2,938 6s. 9d., which was owing by 134 lessees, or an average of £22 per selector.

The reports of the Commissioners on the different estates will be found in the Annual Report of the Lands and Survey Department of this year, and from these it will be seen that considerable progress has been made on each estate. The effects of the dry weather of last year, together with some high winds when the crops were coming on this year, were still felt at the date of the reports, and the arrears of rent are in large measure due to those causes, which are, however, only temporary in their operation.

The number of estates acquired under the Act, and which have been offered for selection, is fifty-six, containing an area of 243,947 acres (in which are included 3,112 acres of Crown land, being leases held by the former owners but now surrendered and dealt with as part of the estates). On these estates, at the 31st March last, there were 3,077 persons residing, the number of houses being 813, whilst the value of the improvements on the estates amounted to £129,133 18s. 9d.

The total cost of the estates purchased to the 31st March, 1899 was£1,170,305
Cost of roads, surveys, administration, and preliminary expenses53,862
 1,224,167
Less cost of Richmond Brook Estate, not yet selected21,921
 £1,202,246
The lands disposed of are let at an annual rental of£57,747
The lands unlet (exclusive of roads, unlet reserves, &c.) are valued at a rental of4,503
 £62,250

It will thus be seen that if the whole of the lands were let, the rentals would bring in a return of 5.17 per cent. on the capital invested in the estates that have been offered for selection. On the other hand, the rentals of land actually let are bringing in a return of 4.8 per cent. on the amount invested. As much of the land unlet at the 31st March has since been disposed of, the rentals at the time of writing are actually bringing in over 5 per cent. on the capital sunk in them.

The sum actually payable for interest, calculated as for the 31st March, on the money raised for the purchase of these estates was £42,497 3s. 5d., as against a rental of £57,747.

The construction of the branch railway or tram-line to give access to the limekilns on the Makareao Estate is in hand by the Public Works Department, and is approaching completion; whilst the work of building the kilns has also been commenced. A sum of £4,685 9s. 10d. has been expended in this work up to the 31st March, 1899.

The estates, &c., acquired in each district under the Land for Settlements Acts to the 31st March, 1899, are next shown:—

Name of Estate.Area acquired, including ascertained Surplus or Deficiency.
*Old closed roads and small areas of Crown lands added.
 A.R.P.
Auckland—
      Opouriao7,60400
      Okauia5,92000
      Rangiatea4,00400
      Karapiro2,27039
Hawke's Bay—
      Raureka42720
      Elsthorpe9,74000
      Waimarie430130
      Pouparae33734
      Mahora1,13330
      Tomoana111338
      Willows775136
Wellington—
      Paparangi322332
Marlborough—
      Blind River5,02000
        Leasehold surrendered48700
      Omaka3,89800
      Puhipuhi32000
        Starborough, part Flaxbourne, and Exchange34,22400
          Crown Leasehold surrendered1,62500
Canterbury—
      Pareora620213
      Studholme Junction10907
      Kapua574122
      Rosebrook60018
      Otaio373314
      Patoa4,535314
      The Peaks2,81109
      Roimata48337
      Kereta105229
      Braco2724
      Epworth2103
      Ashley Gorge1,16536
      Omihi Valley2000
      Orakipaoa384031
      Highbank9,12138
      Otarakaro3939
      Wharenui73110
      Rakitairi3,526116
      Waiapi1,124236
      Horsley Down3,982335
      Albury19,539124
      R.S. 36469, Cannington (R.S. 1862)26224
      Marawiti2,028233
      Hekeao2,254211
      Waikakahi48,248021
      Pawaho52018
Otago—
      Pomahaka*7,47822
      Teanaraki*351039
      Tahawai*70135
      Maerewhenua*11,163331
      Puketapu50906
      Ardgowan*4,268328
      Makareao*2,38304
      Makareao Extensi'n*2,57336
      Momona*224015
      Tokarahi*11,259236
Southland—
      Merrivale9,99800
      Otahu6,044029
      Beaumont*4,322320
Westland—
      Poerua3,23016
                          Totals243,94728

Of the total area (243,948 acres) acquired to the 31st March, 1899, 218,486 acres were leased to 1,304 selectors, the annual rent therefor now payable being £57,747; the area occupied by roads and reserves was 6,665 acres, thus leaving 18,797 acres not yet offered for selection or otherwise unlet.

Chapter 47. SECTION XXI.—FINANCE

Subsection A.—Revenue and Expenditure of the General Government

FOR the year ended 31st March, 1899, the receipts from all sources amounted to £5,258,228, while the actual expenditure, excluding £425,000 transferred to the Public Works Fund in terms of section 17 of “The Appropriation Act, 1898,” was £4,858,511. Including as expenditure the sum of £425,000 which was handed over from the Consolidated Fund for purposes of public works, the total was £5,283,511, or £25,283 in excess of the receipts, but the amount in hand at the beginning of the year was £521,144, leaving a credit balance on the 31st March, 1899, of £495,861.

The chief heads of revenue and expenditure are shown in the following table:—

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Revenue.££
Balance on 31st March, 1898..521,144
Customs duties1,965,018 
Beer duty76,213 
Stamps779,399 
Land-tax298,053 
Income-tax115,480 
Railways1,465,507 
Registration and other fees73,822 
Marine dues25,490 
Miscellaneous113,647 
Territorial revenue273,799 
 5,186,428
Other receipts—
      Proceeds of debentures for Sinking Fund accretions54,300 
      Net recoveries from Government Advances to Settlers' Office Management Account17,500 
  71,800
  £5,779,372
Expenditure.££
His Excellency the Governor5,000 
Legislative46,369 
Ministers' salaries and allowances8,510 
Interest and Sinking Fund charges1,767,468 
Exchange and commission25,324 
Pensions and allowances34,937 
Railways968,917 
Public Instruction475,218 
Postal and telegraph services388,546 
Judicial and legal246,434 
Hospitals and charitable institutions86,901 
Defence119,051 
Subsidies to local bodies72,640 
Department of Agriculture60,792 
Lunatic Asylums53,095 
Valuation Department26,721 
Customs36,428 
Marine (Harbours and Lights)29,353 
Printing and Stationery26,387 
Land and Income Tax Department23,130 
Registration of Land and Deeds, Births, Deaths, and Marriages20,398 
Public Buildings and Domains16,071 
Old-age Pensions3,124 
Miscellaneous expenditure102,106 
Territorial expenditure215,591 
 ——4,858,511
Other expenditure—
  Paid to Public Works Fund 425,000
Balance on March 31, 1899 495,861
  £5,779,372

Ordinary Revenue

With the exception of “Stamps” the chief heads of ordinary revenue show increases for the year 1898–99 over the figures for 1897–98. Taking these items in order of their magnitude, the advance is shown below:—

Heads of Revenue.Ordinary Revenue.Increase.
1898–99.Per Cent. of Total.1897–98.Per Cent. of Total.Numerical.Centesimal.
*Decrease.
 £ £ £Per Cent.
Customs duties1,965,01840.001,935,25240.9729,7661.54
Railways1,465,50729.831,370,57229.0194,9356.93
Stamps779,39915.87780,23216.51- 833*- 0.11*
Land-tax298,0536.07267,2875.6630,76611.51
Income-tax115,4802.35115,2102.442700.23
Beer duty76,2131.5572,1791.534,0345.59
Registration and other fees73,8221.5051,2891.0822,53343.97
Marine25,4900.5223,9600.511,5306.39
Miscellaneous113,6472.31108,3532.295,2944.89
            Ordinary revenue4,912,629100.004,724,334100.00188,2953.99

Though the receipts from Customs duties only increased by 1.54 per cent. during the year, the amount derived from Land-tax was 11.51 per cent. greater than that shown for 1897–98, and Railway revenue shows an advance of 6.93 per cent. While the population of the colony increased at the rate of 1.98 per cent. during the year the ordinary revenue advanced at the higher rate of 3.99, as shown above.

The Customs and excise duties constituted in 1898–99 £41 11s. out of every £100 of ordinary revenue collected; railways, £29 16s. 7d.; and stamps, £15 17s. 5d. Of other items the land-tax yielded 6.07 per cent., and income-tax 2.35 per cent.

Territorial Revenue

Territorial revenue increased from £263,296 in 1897–98 to £273,799 in 1898–99, or at the rate of 3.99 per cent. In the previous year, 1897–98, there was a decline of 3.54 per cent. Details for the last two years are as under:—

Territorial Revenue.Increase or Decrease, 1898–99.
1898–99.Per Cent. of Total.1897–98.Per Cent. of Total.Numerical.Centesimal.
 £ £ £Per Cent.
Cash land sales81,38429.7266,62225.3014,76222.16
Deferred - payment land sales21,9118.0025,9569.86−4,045−15.58
Pastoral runs, rents, miscellaneous170,50462.28170,71864.84−214−0.13
          Territorial revenue273,799100.00263,296100.00+10,503+3.99

By the above table the cash land sales for 1898–99 are shown to have increased by more than 22 per cent., and to supply nearly 30 per cent. of the whole territorial revenue; while rents and miscellaneous, which constitute about 62 per cent. thereof, have slightly declined.

Moneys received for lands sold under deferred-payment regulations show a decrease of £4,045, or 15.58 per cent., when compared with the figures for 1897–98.

Ordinary and Territorial Revenue

The total ordinary and territorial revenue is found to have increased from £4,987,630 in 1897–98 to £5,186,428 in 1898–99, at the rate of 3.99 per cent., or almost exactly twice the rate at which the population has increased:—

 Ordinary.Territorial.Total Revenue.
 £££
Year 1898–994,912,629273,7995,186,428
Year 1897–984,724,334263,2964,987,630
            Increase188,29510,503198,798

After allowing for alteration in system of charging interest and sinking fund, the charges of the public debt in proportion to the ordinary and territorial revenue are found to have fallen from 41.6 per cent. in 1890–91 to 34.1 per cent. in 1898–99.

If the sum of £103,295, the amount of territorial revenue received by way of land sales in 1898–99, is deducted from the total revenue, the charges of the public debt will be found to have absorbed 34.77 per cent. of the revenue, reduced by the sum derived from relinquishment of real estate of the Crown.

Ordinary Revenue Expenditure

The expenditure for 1898–99 (exclusive of expenditure properly belonging to territorial purposes) amounted to £4,642,920, of which the largest item, after the charges of the public debt, £1,767,468, was on account of railways, £968,917. Public instruction cost £475,218, of which £398,129 was for carrying on the Board schools; £16,392 for technical and higher education; £16,923 for Native schools; £12,679 for industrial schools; and £25,000 for school buildings. The postal and telegraph services cost £388,546. Under the heading “Judicial and Legal” the total sum expended was £246,434, of which the largest item was the police, £115,293; the next, District and Magistrates' Courts, £45,630; and, thirdly, prisons, £30,168. Hospitals and charitable institutions cost £86,901, and the lunatic asylums £53,095. Defence required £119,051; the Department of Agriculture £60,792; and the Valuation Department £26,721. Payments of Old-age Pensions absorbed £3,124 up to 31st March, 1899.

Territorial Expenditure

The chief items of expenditure under this head are the Lands and Survey Department, £114,469, and Mines, £11,790; while there was paid to local bodies £83,839 (£37,776 being “thirds” and “fourths” under the Land Act; and £10,462 for the Greymouth, £6,326 for the New Plymouth, and £29,275 for the Westport Harbour Boards); besides £4,864 expended in management of water-races, and £629 in rates on Crown lands.

Loan Account Expenditure, 1898–99

In addition to the expenditure above referred to, there were also disbursements during the financial year ended 31st March, 1899, out of the Public Works Fund to the amount of £916,327, chiefly for roads, railway construction, and for public buildings; also out of the Land for Settlements Account the large sum of £518,459 for purchase of estates to be cut up for close settlement. The Loans to Local Bodies Account, which deals with moneys used chiefly for roading the more inaccessible country, shows an expenditure of £92,400; and for interest on debentures, surveys, roads, &c., in connection with the Cheviot Estate £16,497 was paid. Details of all these are given. The total expenditure out of loan account was £1,548,683, but, as previously explained, this account was aided by a transfer from revenue of £425,000 to the Public Works Fund.

EXPENDITURE OUT OF LOAN ACCOUNT, 1898–99.
Public Works Fund—££
        Immigration105 
        Public Works, Departmental10,090 
        Railways374,141 
        Roads295,534 
        Development of goldfields17,354 
        Purchase of Native lands53,183 
        Telegraph extension28,551 
        Public buildings107,267 
        Lighthouses, harbour-works, and defences15,662 
        Rates on Native lands348 
        Contingent defence13,867 
        Charges and expenses of raising loans225 
  916,327
Cheviot Estate Account—
        Interest (including arrears)15,850 
        Surveys, Roading, &c.534 
        Expenses113 
  16,497
Land for Settlements Account—  
        Purchase of Estates501,773 
        Expenses 16,686
  518,459
Loans to Local Bodies Account—
        Grants to Local Bodies75,428 
        Roads to open up Crown Lands16,972 
  92,400
                    Total £1,543,683

The total amount of actual loan moneys expended under various heads from the beginning is roughly shown further on in a table dealing with the public debt of the colony.

The expenditure each year since 1884 on services provided for by the Public Works Fund has been:—

Year.Immigration.Railways.Roads.Development of Goldfields.Telegraph Extension.Public Buildings.Lighthouses, &c.Other Services.Totals.

*Exclusive of moneys spent on roads under Lands Improvement, Native Lands Purchase, and Government Loans to Local Bodies Accounts: £103,076 in 1894–95, £162,757 in 895–96, £173,358 in 1896–97.

†The expenditure on roads under the two first Acts mentioned above (*) is included as part of Public Works Fund; the sum of £18,770 was also spent out of Loans to Local Bodies Account on roads to open up Crown lands in 1897–98, and £16,972 in 1898–99. These moneys have been excluded, as have also small sums expended in roading, &c., the Cheviot Estate.

 £££££££££
1884–8557,148663,063317,0438,02925,799117,36134,033114,2511,336,727
1885–8611,675725,496335,9049,03236,01086,859133,975136,4351,475,386
1886–8712,454615,265278,6177,66518,95289,598148,705162,2281,333,484
1887–8815,598403,726219,5191,01622,98490,52976,825135,962966,159
1888–898,791272,077106,4405512,04734,59247,593132,344613,939
1889–90867289,57284,12628416,34635,4739,43446,362482,464
1890–911,823180,02071,28982116,29222,8192,66639,026334,756
1891–92817154,416101,6052,25727,77334,7917,34762,495391,501
1892–93242220,894105,5063,81129,24531,10111,20560,502462,506
1893–94343176,304147,4185,27216,12744,0326,58810,713406,797
1894–95101247,54561,757*5,86519,22954,1903,1459,578401,410*
1895–96Cr. 10197,10566,774*9,34535,53876,2407,40919,928412,329*
1896–97301207,23164,292*10,50836,79170,57911,60026,683427,985*
1897–9870351,600290,777†33,11729,38473,5855,29581,715865,543†
1898–99105374,141295,534†17,35428,551107,26715,66277,713916,327†

Although the Public Works Fund forms the main portion of the expenditure out of Loan Account, all the money included in this table was not raised from loans. Amounts from the Revenue of the Consolidated Fund were paid to the Public Works Fund during the last eight financial years as under:—

 £
1891–9230,000
1892–93200,000
1893–94250,000
1894–95250,000
1895–96150,000
1896–97150,000
1897–98300,000
1898–99425,000
          Total£1,755,000

Conversion Account

Three per cent. stock to the value of £2,581,108 was inscribed during the year 1898–99, which began with a credit balance of £2,542 in this account. Of this sum £2,251,108 were applied to the conversion of (£2,249,524) loans, and £312,200 to the redemption of debentures. Expenses, the chief items of which were stamp duty (£15,286), discount (£3,780), interest (£1,740), brokerage and commission (£883), absorbed £22,554, leaving a debit balance in this account of £2,212 on the 31st March, 1899.

Of the total (£2,251,108) conversions, £2,228,824 were effected at par, but on certain small parcels, premiums amounting in all to £1,584, were paid.

The interest-charge on the debentures prior to conversion into 3-per-cent. inscribed stock averaged slightly over 4 per cent. per annum, so that by the year's operations the annual expenditure under this head has been lessened by nearly £24,000.

Loans for Government Advances to Settlers

A notable feature in the legislation of the year 1894 was the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act, a description of which, with its amending Acts and the loan operations under the same, will be found on page 402.

The applications for loans and the loans authorised to the 31st March, 1899, classified according to provincial districts, are shown in tabular form:—

Provincial Districts.Applications for Loans.Loans authorised.
Number of Applications.Amount of Loans applied for.Number of Applications.Amount applied-for.Amount of Advances authorised.
  £ ££
Auckland1,969542,0231,330388,176339,985
Taranaki931318,356843279,607243,650
Hawke's Bay696197,700546157,190139,300
Wellington2,016733,5171,709659,092570,113
Marlborough288105,09721178,42770,800
Nelson18671,20513946,15040,755
Canterbury17443,775621174,577142,645
Westland820218,2479524,00521,395
Otago1,952729,6081,556592,911504,782
            Totals9,0322,959,5287,0502,400,1352,073,425

Of the 7,050 advances authorised, 828 applicants declined the grants (£374,280) offered them, so that the net advances to the 31st March, 1899, numbered 6,222, and amounted to £1,699,145.

About sixty per cent. of the total amount applied for was for the purpose of paying off existing mortgages at rates of interest higher than 5 per cent.

The number of applications for fixed loans has not been large, the amount (114 for £38,285) being little more than 1 1/2 per cent. of the total advances.

Of the total applications 7,615 were for advances under £500 in value and 1,417 over, while of the advances authorised 5,889 did not exceed £500, only 1,161 being over that amount.

The liabilities and assets at 31st March, 1899, of the Government Advances to Settlers Office were:—

DR.Liabilities.£s.d.
3-per-cent. Loan, redeemable 1st April, 19451,500,00000
Bank of England temporary advances150,00000
Consolidated Fund advances7,00000
Suspense Account1,64845
Accrued interest payable1,65606
Profit and Loss Account12,321161
 £1,672,62610
CR.Assets.£s.d.
Investment Account—
Advances on mortgages£1,638,58000
Less repayments203,75119
 1,434,828183
Temporary investments
Bank of New Zealand guaranteed stock4,836170
Sinking Fund Investment Account with Public Trustee31,589161
Mortgage instalments receivable, overdue8761110
Interest receivable, overdue3,907710
Interest receivable, accrued16,87785
Loan-flotation charges105,89775
Cash in hand and in bank73,811140
 £1,672,62612

New Zealand Consols

Another important financial Act, termed the New Zealand Consols Act, was passed in 1894, with the intention of providing further means of investment for the savings of persons resident in the colony. Steady progress is being made in this class of deposits, showing that the public are recognising the system as a means of safe and profitable investment of their savings. It is singular that deposits of moneys belonging to trust funds or minors are not more freely made. It is thought that the advantage of such an investment at a fair rate of interest and of a permanent character is not widely enough known.

Up to the 31st March, 1898, deposits amounting to £356,185 had been received in sums ranging from £5 to £150,000, and during 1898–99 the deposits inscribed totalled £29,740, making the sum invested to the 31st March, 1899, £385,925.

The system of making deposits in New Zealand Consols is fully described in Part III. of this book, on page 436.

Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement

“The Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1896,” empowered the Colonial Treasurer to raise £1,000,000: in aid of the Public Works Fund to the extent of £500,000, and the Lands Improvement Account and the Native Lands Purchase Account, £250,000 each. The sum of £750,000, bearing interest at 3 1/2 per cent. per annum, was raised locally at per (£500,000 being issued with an alternative currency of ten or twenty-five years); the balance of £250,000 being placed upon the London market in the form of 3-per-cent. inscribed stock, along with the further loan referred to in the succeeding paragraph.

The Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act Amendment Act, passed in 1897, authorised the raising of an additional sum of £250,000 to be applied for the purpose of procuring £200,000 for further rolling-stock for railways, and for the repair of damages to lines by floods or otherwise; £25,000 for erection and repair of public-school buildings, and another sum of £25,000 for purposes of building and equipment of technical schools.

“The Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Acts Amendment Act, 1898,” provided for raising £500,000 in addition to £250,000 raised under the Amendment Act of 1897, and the £1,000,000 under the principal Act of 1896, the provisions of which extend to the new Act.

Of £500,000 which is paid to the Public Works Fund the amount of £175,000 is allocated to railways construction, £200,000 is for new rolling-stock for open railways, and £125,000 for the construction of roads, bridges, and such other works as may be authorised.

Loans under Land for Settlements Acts

The moneys raised under these Acts and the operations by way of purchasing estates to be cut up for close settlement form the subject of a special section of this part of the Year-book (No. XX.), for which see page 361B.

Subsection B.—Public Debt

THE gross public debt of the colony on the 31st March, 1899, was £46,938,006, an increase of £1,974,582 on the amount owing at the end of the preceding financial year. A detailed statement of particulars relative to the various loans is supplied.

The total increase by the issue of debentures and conversion operations during the year was £2,036,324. On the other hand, debentures and stock amounting to £61,742 were redeemed, leaving, as stated before, a net increase to the gross public debt of £1,974,582.

The particulars of the items of increase are clearly shown below:—

 £
Debentures issued for—
  Aid to public works and land settlement360,000
  Loans to local bodies73,900
  Purchase of land for settlement499,000
  Sinking-fund accretions54,300
Inscription—
  New Zealand Consols29,740
  Conversion operations19,384
New £1,000,000 Loan—
  Public Works Fund500,000
  Advances to Settlers500,000
 2,036,324
Gross debt, 31st March, 189844,963,424
 £46,999,748
Debentures redeemed—
  Consolidated Stock Act, 188461,742
Gross debt on 31st March, 189946,938,006
 £46,999,748

The following table of the public debt of New Zealand states the debentures and stock in circulation on 31st March, 1899, under the several Loan Acts or Ordinances of the Colonial and Provincial Governments, the dates when redeemable, the sinking funds accrued in respect of the same, and the annual charge thereon for interest and sinking fund:—

PUBLIC DEBT ON 31ST MARCH, 1899.
---Amount Outstanding.Due Date.Sinking Funds Accrued.Net Indebtedness.Annual Charge.Remarks.
Rate.Amount.When payable.
Int.S.F.

*Only £;200,000 has actually been issued to the public; the unsold debentures are available for the purpose of obtaining temporary advances from time to time.

 £;£; £;£; c. c.£;  
New Zealand Loan Act, 1863...266,80015 July, 1914116,685150,1155116,00815 Jan. and 15 July. 
Consolidated Loan Act, 1867...429,000Ann. drawing...429,0005...21,450Quarterly, 15 Jan., &c. 
Immigration and Public Works Loan Act, 1870...1,000,000*1 June, 1907564,460435,54042464,0001 June and 1 Dec.Sinking Fund payable 13 Mar. and 13 Sept.
Canterbury Loan Ordinance, 18623,80016,0002 Jan., 191511,0414,959611,12030 June and 31 Dec. 
12,2002 July, 1916
Otago Loan Ordinance, 1862...4001 July, 1898...400............Debentures not presented for payment.
Consolidated Loan Act, 1867...13,00015 April, 1913..13,0004...52015 April and 15 Oct. 
Immigration and Public Works Loan Act, 1870363,100391,00015 April, 1913...363,1004...14,52415 April and 15 Oct. 
27,90015 April, 1913...27,9004 1/2...1,25615 April and 15 Oct.
Defence and other Purposes Loan Act, 187025,000100,0001 July, 1910...25,0004 1/2...1,12530 June and 31 Dec. 
75,00015 April, 1913...75,0004...3,00015 April and 15 Oct.
General Purposes Loan Act, 187318,50085,50015 Oct., 1913...18,5004...74015 April and 15 Oct. 
12,30015 May, 1914...12,3004...49215 May and 15 Nov.
54,70028 Nov., 1914...54,7005...2,73515 May and 15 Nov.
District Railways Purchasing Acts, 1885--8640,000184,1001 July, 1909...40,0006...2,4001 April and 1 Oct. 
97,1001 April, 1905...97,1004...3,884
47,0001 April, 1899...47,0005...2,350
Carried forward...2,485,800...692,1861,793,614......135,604  
Brought forward...2,485,800...692,1861,793,614......135,604 * Represents the accrued Sinking Fund in respect of the total amount issued under "the Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886," of which £912,300 has been converted into Consolidated Stock debentures.
Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, 1886...327,10031 Dec., 1900165,093*162,0073 1/21 1/230,039 †1 Mar. and 1 Sept.
Consolidated Stock Act, 1877...29,150,3021 Nov., 1929...29,150,3024...1,166,0121 May and 1 Nov.
...6,161,1671 Jan., 1940...6,161,1673 1/2...215,6411 Jan. and 1 July.
...5,662,1201 April, 1945...5,662,1203...169,864 †1 April and 1 Oct.
Consolidated Stock Act, 1884---          
Colonial Issue...54,3001 Sept., 1905...54,3003 1/2...1,9001 Mar. and 1 Sept. 
Naval and Military Settlers' and Volunteers' Land Act, 1892...27,22631 Oct., 1899...27,2264 1/2...1,22530 April and 31 Oct. 
Native Land Purchases Act, 1892140,000149,70031 Oct., 1899...140,0004 1/2...6,30030 April and 31 Oct.† The Sinking Fund is payable on £1,239,400; the Land Assurance Fund is also charged with 1/2 per cent. as a contribution towards Sinking Fund.
9,70031 Oct., 1899...9,7005...48530 April and 31 Oct.
Land for Settlements Act, 1894134,1001,089,09031 Oct., 1899...134,1004...5,36430 April and 31 Oct.‡ £60,000 of this amount will be recouped by the Government Advances to Settlers Office.
605,99031 Oct., 1899...605,9903 1/2...21,21030 April and 31 Oct.
349,0001 April, 1909...349,0003 3/4...13,0881 April and 1 Oct.
Lands Improvement and Native Lands Acquisition Act, 1894283,000400,00030 Sept., 1908...283,0004...11,32031 Mar. and 30 Sept.§ Loan may be paid off at any time after 15th February, 1907, on six months' notice being given.
117,000117,0003 1/2...  4,09531 Mar. and 30 Sept
New Zealand Consols Act, 1894...385,9251 Feb., 1910...385,9253 1/2...13,5071 Feb. and 1 Aug. 
Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1896, and Amendment Act, 1897250,0001,000,0001 Feb., 1902...250,0003 1/2...8,7501 Feb. and 1 Aug.|| ¼ per cent. over bank rate; varying interest, calculated at 3 1/2 per cent.
500,00015 Aug., 1921 §...500,003 1/2...17,50015 Feb. and 15 Aug.
100,00031 Oct., 1903...100,000||...3,500...
150,0004 Jan., 1904...150,000||...5,250...
Total46,938,006...857,27946,080,727......1,832,691  
Treasury Bills amounting to £710,000 are not included.

Interest and Sinking Fund

Of the total amount of outstanding public debt at the end of March, 1899 — viz., £46,938,006 — more than thirty-one millions sterling bore interest at the rate of 4 per cent., over eight millions sterling at 3 1/2 per cent., and nearly six millions sterling at 3 per cent. The following are the rates of interest payable on the complete public debt:—

Rates of Interest.Amount at each Rate.
£
* Debentures not presented for payment.
6 per cent.56,000
5 per cent.807,200
4 1/2 per cent.265,402
4 per cent.31,146,402
3 3/4 per cent.349,000
3 per cent.8,651,482
3 per cent.5,662,120
Nil400*
Total£46,938,006

The total amount of interest payable to bondholders on the full amount of the public debt as quoted above is £1,787,272, which gives an average rate of £3 16s. 2d. per £100. On the total public debt outstanding on the 31st March, 1891, the average interest charge was £4 10s. 3d. per £100. During the period 1891–99, therefore, the average rate is found to have declined 16 per cent. The declared values of certain principal articles of colonial produce exported show, during the same period, similarly a decline.

The actual payments during ten years for interest and sinking fund are shown hereunder:—

Year ended 31st March.Amounts actually paid for Interest and Sinking Fund.
Public Debt.Treasury Bills.Total.
Interest.Sinking Fund.Total.Interest.
* The alteration made in 1894–95 of the system which previously obtained in dealing with the drawing loan of 1867 has affected the comparison of the figures for the last five years with those of the previous periods.
 £££££
18901,752,020115,7811,867,80129,8011,897,602
18911,718,618112,5401,831,15827,0941,858,252
18921,747,376107,4691,854,84538,0841,892,929
18931,662,029117,5351,779,56441,5641,821,128
18941,711,583123,7031,835,28650,4101,885,696
1895*1,619,92557,9791,677,90438,9851,716,889
1896*1,602,93341,1831,644,11639,6591,683,775
1897*1,630,57741,8581,672,43537,0341,709,469
1898*1,668,69743,3801,712,07729,3361,741,413
1899*1,689,74944,6511,734,40033,0681,767,468

Although the amount paid for interest and sinking fund during 1898–99 was £26,055 greater than that for the previous year, the rate of charge per head of population decreased slightly, and this notwithstanding the increase of the public debt by no less than £1,974,582. The saving in interest-charge effected by conversion operations alluded to elsewhere has helped to bring about this result.

The securities in which the sinking funds were held, as on the 31st March, 1899, are specified in the statement following:—

STATEMENT of the SECURITIES in which the SINKING FUNDS of the several LOANS were invested on the 31st March, 1899.

Investments in—£ s. d.
New Zealand 5-per-cent. Debentures3,440 0 0
Zealand 4 1/2-per-cent. Debentures1,700 0 0
Zealand 4-per-cent. Inscribed Stock115,393 5 10
Zealand 3 1/2-per-cent. Inscribed Stock1,291 9 3
County of Tauranga 5-per-cent. Debentures60 0 0
County of Waitemata 6-per-cent. Debentures480 0 0
Borough of Brunner 6-per-cent. Debentures840 0 0
Borough of Hokitika 6-per-cent. Debentures1,860 0 0
Borough of Patea 4 1/2-per-cent. Debentures..200 0 0
Borough of Tauranga 5-per-cent. Debentures200 0 0
Borough of Thames 5 1/2-per-cent. Debentures900 0 0
Westport Harbour Board 4-per-cent. Debentures510 0 0
Waimakariri-Ashley Water-supply Board 5-per-cent. Debentures300 0 0
Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company 5-per cent. Debentures540 0 0
Mortgages123,300 0 0
New South Wales 4-per-cent. Debentures20,800 0 0
New South Wales 4-per-cent. Stock5,486 6 7
New South Wales 3 1/2-per-cent. Stock84,269 13 4
New South Wales 3-per-cent. Stock37,781 7 0
Victoria 4-per-cent. Debentures23,000 0 0
Victoria 4-per-cent. Stock43,233 17 4
Victoria 3 1/2-per-cent. Stock77,009 4 1
South Australia 4-per-cent. Debentures24,700 0 0
South Australia 4-per-cent. Stock..4,851 0 5
South Australia 3 1/2-per-cent. Stock38,068 11 6
South Australia 3-per-cent. Stock..59,731 14 5
South Australia 3-per-cent. Consols634 17 11
Canada 4-per-cent. Debentures18,200 0 0
Canada 4-per-cent. Stock60,000 0 0
Canada 3 1/2-per-cent. Stock34,022 11 8
Canada 3-per-cent. Stock32,670 17 3
 815,474 16 7
            Cash balance on 31st March, 189941,804 3 8
                    Total£857,279 0 3

Net Indebtedness: Comparison with past Years

The net public debt, after deducting the accrued sinking fund (£857,279), was on 31st March, 1899, £46,080,727, an increase of £1,999,206 during the year. The net indebtedness per head of population for 1898–99 is greater than in 1897–98 by £1 9s. 5d. In March, 1890, it stood at £60 5s. 3d.; in 1891, £59 11s. 10d.; in 1892, £59 2s.; in 1893, £58 2s. 7d.; in 1894, £57 8s. 10d.; in 1895, £57 9s. 9d.; in 1896. £60 2s. 4d.; in 1897, £60 13s. 9d.; in 1898, £60 4s. 11d; and in 1899, £61 14s. 4d. But, when considering the increase of the amount of debt per head as a burden on the people, regard should be paid to the effect of conversions on the amounts paid by way of charges of the public debt out of the revenue year by year. Remarks on this subject have been already made, and figures given previously, under the head of interest and sinking funds; also under revenue, which is shown to have been relieved substantially since the year 1890.

Years ended 31st March.Amount of Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Gross Indebtedness per Head of European Population.Amount of Sinking Fund accrued.Net Indebtedness.Net Indebtedness per Head of European Population.
 ££ s. d.£££ s d.
189038,667,95062 10 11,386,18537,281,76560 5 3
189138,830,35061 19 41,487,04237,343,30859 11 10
189238,713,06860 14 81,037,86237,675,20659 2 0
189339,257,84059 16 71,113,77038,144,07058 2 7
189439,826,41558 17 0951,92438,874,49157 8 10
189540,386,96458 11 6751,93239,635,03257 9 9
189643,050,78061 4 5778,89142,271,88960 2 4
189744,366,61861 16 5814,29443,552,32460 13 9
189844,963,42461 9 0881,90344,081,52160 4 11
189946,938,00662 17 3857,27946,080,72761 14 4

The debt of the colony as above stated does not include the unpaid loans raised by the several local bodies, amounting at the end of March, 1898, to £6,834,361, of which sum £5,491,200 was raised outside the colony. These are referred to in dealing with the finance of local bodies.

The increase of the gross public debt since the 31st March, 1891, amounts to £8,107,656. A schedule of items composing this sum is subjoined. It shows the purposes to which the money raised has been or is being devoted. The largest item is £2,000,000 raised for advances to settlers, which represents investments by the Government bearing interest and lent on continually improving security, the principal being repaid by instalments.

Other items which may be considered to represent interest-bearing investments are those under the heads “Land Settlement,” “Native Land Purchases,” “Loans to Local Bodies,” “Lands Improvement,” “N.Z. Consols,” and “Bank of N.Z. Preferred Shares.”

  £
Gross Public Debt, 31st March, 189946,938,006
Gross Public Debt, 31st March, 189138,830,350
Increase£8,107,656
 £ 
Native Land Purchases649,700 
Land Settlement (including Cheviot)1,408,566 
Loans to Local Bodies914,400 
Lands Improvement500,000 
Advances to Settlers2,000,000 
Bank of N.Z. Preferred Shares500,000 
N.Z. Consols385,925 
District Railways47,000 
Public Works1,335,000 
Increase by Conversions626,728 
Sinking Fund Accretions1,304,500 
Naval and Military Settlers27,226 
£9,699,045 
    Less Redemptions—
      Consolidated Stock Act, 1884, Debentures1,260,420 
      Other Debentures330,969 
  1,591,389
                    Total net increase £8,107,656

Prices of New Zealand Stock

The highest and lowest London prices for the New Zealand 4, 3 1/2, and 3-per-cent. stock, taken over a range of eleven years, are quoted:—

QUOTATIONS, NEW ZEALAND STOCR.
      Year4 per Highest.Cents. Lowest.3 1/2 per Highest.Cents. Lowest.3 per Highest.Cents. Lowest.
1888104 1/296 1/4........
1889109 1/499 5/8........
1890109 1/8102 1/498 5/893 1/4....
1891107 1/210098 1/491 1/8....
1892106 5/81009891 1/2....
1893107 1/49797 1/290....
1894109 7/8105 3/8103 1/296 1/4....
1895113 1/2105 5/8107 1/210095 3/491
1896118 1/4106 1/2110 3/8101 1/2103 1/290
1897117112 3/8111104 3/410299 1/2
1898116 7/8108109 7/8103101 1/296 1/2

Prices of Australasian Stock

The prices of stock of the Australasian Colonies in London for the years 1893 and 1897 show the position as affected by the financial and banking crisis in the former year, and the improvement that had taken place since 1893 and as late as 1897.

Colony.Year when Stock Redeemable.Prices, 1893.*Prices, 1897.*
Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.

*Figures taken from Victorian Year-book, 1894.

†Debentures.

‡Rate for week ending 19th May, time of Australian banking crisis.

§At any time on or after 1st January, 1920, on giving twelve months' notice.

4 PER CENTS.
Queensland1915–24103 1/289116111
New South Wales193311197 1/2123 3/4117 1/2
Victoria1920103 1/495115111 1/8
South Australia1917–36105 3/893114 1/2111 1/4
Western Australia1934107 1/2102123 3/4120
Tasmania1911†102 3/497 1/4110105
New Zealand1929107 1/497117112 3/8
3 1/2 PER CENTS.
Queensland192492 1/475108 5/8104 5/8
New South Wales192497 1/883 1/8111 1/2107 3/4
Victoria192393 1/879‡108 3/8104 1/4
South Australia19399685 1/2113 1/2109 3/4
Tasmania1920–40§9684111 1/8105 1/2
New Zealand194097 1/290111104 3/4

Public Debt of Australasian Colonies, &c

The following table shows the debt of each of the Australasian Colonies in 1897 or 1898:—

Colony.Amount Outstanding.Accrued Sinking Fund.Net Indebtedness.Rate of Net Indebtedness per Head of Population at End of Year.
 ££££s.d.
Queensland (Dec., 1897)33,498,414..33,498,4146923
New South Wales (June, 1898)63,112,72048,96963,063,75147130
Victoria (June, 1897)46,929,321..46,929,3214004
South Australia (Dec., 1897)24,408,00017,50024,390,50068010 3/4
Western Australia (June, 1898)9,203,738255,7848,947,9545268 3/4
Tasmania (Dec., 1897)8,390,026138,0368,251,9904812
New Zealand (Mar., 1899)46,938,006857,27946,080,72761144

The amount of net indebtedness per head of population in December, 1897, in Queensland and South Australia was thus greater than that for New Zealand in March, 1899.

The public debt of England, nearly £640,000,000, is £16 per head, and that of the United States £263,000,000, or only £3 10s. per head of the population. (Statist of 23rd April, 1898.)

Public Works in New Zealand

The burden of a public debt depends greatly on the measure in which it is expended on reproductive works, and on the degree of prosperity enjoyed by the people. The generally rugged character of this country, and the natural difficulties appertaining to the sites of many of the towns, soon necessitated a large outlay on roads and public works. The need was fully recognised, and to some extent met, by the Provincial Governments, which have justly received great credit for their far-seeing and liberal exertions. A great deal of road-making, often of a very costly character, was accomplished, harbour and other improvements begun, and immigration encouraged. Some railways were made in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. The City of Christchurch and the Canterbury Plains were connected with the Port of Lyttelton by a railway, which required the construction of a long and very costly tunnel through the intervening range of hills. In Otago, private enterprise, backed by the guarantee of the Provincial Government, built a railway from Dunedin to Port Chalmers, and some miles of line were made in Southland from the town of Invercargill into the interior; but no general and comprehensive scheme of public works could be carried out by the separate exertions of the Provincial Governments. In 1870, therefore, the General Government brought forward its public-works and immigration policy, by which it was proposed to raise a loan of ten millions for the construction of main trunk railways, roads, and other public works of importance to the colony as a whole, as well as for the promotion of immigration on a large scale, the expenditure to be spread over a period of ten years. This policy was accepted by the Legislature, and embodied in “The Immigration and Public Works Act, 1870.”

The demands for local railways and other works soon caused the original proposals to be exceeded, and entailed an expenditure at a much more rapid rate and to a far greater amount than was originally contemplated. Although many of the works undertaken have been directly unremunerative, yet the effect of the policy, as a whole, has been largely to develop the settlement of the country, and to increase enormously the value of landed property; land, in parts which before the construction of railways was valued at from £1 to £2 per acre, having been subsequently sold at prices varying from £10 to £20 per acre. Moreover, the railway and telegraph-lines yield a revenue which covers a large portion of the interest on their cost after paying working-expenses.

Utilisation of Money composing Public Debt

A statement is supplied, made up from a table given in the Financial Statement of 1897, to which the amount raised during the two past years is added, showing (though admittedly not with exactness) the purposes for which the money was raised or voted which now forms the public debt of the colony; and it gives the position (1) as in 1870, before the large expenditure under the public-works policy began; (2) as in March, 1891, prior to the passing of the Advances to Settlers Act; and (3) as in March, 1899:—

PUBLIC DEBT OF NEW ZEALAND, 1870–1891–1899, SHOWING APPROXIMATELY THE AMOUNTS RAISED OR VOTED UNDER VARIOUS HEADS, ARRANGED IN FOUR CLASSES.

 On 30th June, 1870.On 31st March, 1891.On 31st March, 1899.
*NOTE.—Only a portion of expenditure of old Provincial Governments on railways became public debt of the colony. The total expenditure on railways (Provincial and General Government), to 31st March, 1899, was £17,142,930, which includes £1,104,281 spent by the Provincial Governments, of which £82,259 was for the Dunedin and Port Chalmers line.
  £££
(a.) Railways 350,00014,580,00015,390,000*
Lands improvement (roads and bridges).. 3,619,0004,417,000
Public works and buildings 1,487,0003,661,0003,736,000
Land-purchases 306,0001,546,0003,542,000
Immigration 314,0002,459,0002,459,000
Maori war 2,357,0002,357,0002,357,000
Defence.. 1,638,0001,650,000
Telegraphs 139,000769,000829,000
Goldfields and coal-mines.. 571,000721,000
Lighthouses and harbours 47,000484,000490,000
(b.) Advances to settlers ....2,000,000
Loans to local bodies.. 325,0001,240,000
Bank of New Zealand preferred shares.... 500,000
New Zealand Consols deposits.... 386,000
(c.)Deficiencies in revenue ..1,982,0001,982,000
Charges and expenses of raising loans 583,0001,637,0001,637,000
Provincial liabilities.. 786,000786,000
(d.)Miscellaneous 1,907,5162,416,3502,816,006
                     Total public debt7,490,51638,830,35046,938,006

It will be found that on the 31st March, 1899, out of a total debt of £46,938,006 the amounts allocated for services formed approximately the following proportions of the whole:—

For Railway32.79
For Lands improvement (roads and bridges)9.41
For Public works and buildings7.96
For Land-purchases7.55
For Immigration5.24
For Maori war5.02
For Defence3.51
For Telegraphs1.77
For Goldfields and coal-mines1.54
For Lighthouses and harbours1.04

The total sum is divided into four classes in the table, of which (a.) is composed of the various services above referred to, and the total of which forms 75.83 per cent. of the whole debt in 1899. Class (b.) consists of moneys devoted to what may be termed investments, being 8.79 per cent. of the total; (c.) moneys paid away in charges and expenses of raising loans, also to meet deficiencies of revenue, besides old provincial liabilities, 9.38 per cent.; and (d.), an amount of over two millions and a half sterling, set down as miscellaneous, and forming 6.00 per cent. of the debt.

The figures given as to railways do not include all the sums spent by the Provincial Governments, as explained in the note to the table, nor do the figures in some other items agree with those given elsewhere, made up from tables showing the expenditure out of the Public Works Fund, which, as previously explained, is augmented by contributions from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

The expenditure on railway-works has been kept within very narrow limits during the last few years. The railway expenditure during each of five quinquennial periods and one four-yearly period since the initiation of the public-works policy has been as follows:—

 £
1st July, 1870, to 30th June, 18753,575,362
1st July, 1875, to 31st March, 18804,919,712
1st April, 1880, to 31st March, 18853,120,680
1st April, 1885, to 31st March, 18902,308,319
1st April, 1890, to 31st March, 1895978,498
1st April, 1895, to 31st March, 18991,130,077
                Total16,032,648

This great diminution in expenditure has necessarily involved proceeding with the railways at a very much slower rate, and New Zealand's expenditure on railways is now, with one exception, that of Tasmania, the lowest per head of the population of any of the Australasian Colonies. The following table shows the cost of railway-works, the mileage, the average cost per mile, the population, and the cost per head of the population in the several colonies referred to:—

Colonies.Cost of Construction of Open Lines.No. of Miles of Line open.Average Cost per Mile.PopulationCost per Head of PopulationYear ended
 £ £ £s.d. 
Queensland17,871,4452,6096,850484,7003617531st Dec., 1897.
South Australia12,669,3171,7247,349358,224357431st Dec., 1897.
Victoria38,325,5173,12912,2481,176,2483211830th June, 1897.
Western Australia5,047,2619925,088161,924313530th June, 1898.
New South Wales37,719,4022,69114,0211,323,4602810031st Dec., 1897.
New Zealand15,993,9032,0557,783731,7132117231st Mar., 1898.
Tasmania3,526,3224258,297171,7192010831st Dec., 1897.

In the foregoing table the cost per head of population for railway-construction is shown to have been between thirty and thirty-seven pounds sterling in the Colonies of Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia; in New South Wales it was over twenty-eight pounds; but in New Zealand and Tasmania the cost has been only a little over twenty pounds.

THE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND ASSETS REALISATION BOARD

On page 293 reference is made to the establishment of an Assets Realisation Board for the purchase, in connection with the affairs of the Bank of New Zealand, of all the assets of the Estates Company and of the Auckland Agricultural Company.

The sales for the year ending 31st March last amounted to £105,318. The proportion of sales from the beginning (31st March, 1896, when the Board took office) to book-cost (£2,..731,706) is 15.20 per cent. The land-tax valuation, plus 10 per cent. for sundry properties, and the General Manager's valuation for station properties, which together total £1,895,179, give a proportion of 21.91 per cent.

The Board's conduct of sales has been guided by the desire to realise as speedily as possible, consistent with fair and proper considerations for the inseparable interests of the bank and the colony. The total sales and amounts realised, classed according to provincial districts, are shown:—

 Estates.Farms.Town Sections.Suburban Properties.£
Auckland3625074599,557
Hawke's Bay....9..2,304
Wellington..1620165,350
Marlborough..26247,869
Canterbury2341562155,621
Otago254669056,067
     £386,768
Sundry proceeds: Sale of iron and furniture, fire insurance recovered, &c.5,304
Stock sales on properties finally closed23,153
£415,225

Subsection C.—TAXATION

THE direct taxation prior to 1892 consisted of a property-tax of 1d. in the pound on all assessed real and personal property (with an exemption of £500), and the stamp duties; but in 1891 a Land and Income Assessment Act was passed repealing the property-tax. A full description of the system of the land- and income-tax will be given in a special article in Part III. of this work. The leading features only are briefly stated here.

The Assessment Act of 1891 provides for an ordinary land-tax on the actual value of land, and an owner is allowed to deduct any amount owing by him secured on a registered mortgage. Under the original Act the deduction for improvements might not exceed £3,000; but, by the Amendment Act of 1893, the value of all improvements whatsoever is exempted from liability to land-tax. Besides this, an exemption of £500 is allowed when the balance, after making deductions as above stated, does not exceed £1,500; and above that a smaller exemption is granted, but ceases when the balance amounts to £2,500. Mortgages are subject to the land-tax. The revenue from the ordinary land-tax is, in round numbers, about £215,000 per annum. The rate of ordinary land-tax for 1898–99 was 1d. in the pound. Occupied Native land is taxed 1/2d. in the pound on the unimproved value.

In addition to the ordinary land-tax, there is a graduated land-tax which commences when the unimproved value is £5,000. For the graduated land-tax, the present value of all improvements is deducted; but mortgages are not deducted. The Act of 1893, while reducing the ordinary taxation on land by exempting all improvements, increased the graduated tax, and the revised rates are now one-eighth of a penny in the pound sterling when the value is £5,000 and is less than £10,000, from which the rate increases with the value of the property by further steps of an eighth of a penny until the maximum of 2d. in the pound is reached, payable when the value is £210,000, or exceeds that sum.

This graduated tax yields, in round numbers, £83,000 per annum, which is not included in the sum of £215,000 given above. Twenty per cent. additional tax is levied in case of persons who have been absent from the colony for three years or more prior to the passing of the yearly taxing Act. This amounts to about £1,000, and is included in the £83,000 shown above.

Income-tax is levied on all incomes above £300, and from taxable incomes a deduction of £300 is made. The rate of income-tax for 1898–99 was 6d. in the pound on the first taxable £1,000, and 1s. in the pound on taxable incomes over £1,000.

Companies pay 1s. in the pound, and are not allowed the £300 exemption. The Act of 1893 further disallowed the £300 exemption in the case of persons not domiciled in New Zealand.

The revenue derived from income-tax may be roughly set down at £115,500 per annum.

The indirect taxation is made up of Customs duties, and excise duty on beer made in the colony.

The following statement shows the total amount raised by the General Government taxation in 1885, 1890, and the last four financial years ending 31st March:—

 Amount of Revenue raised by Taxation.Amount per Head of Population (excluding Maoris).
 ££ s. d.
18852,016,7303 10 10
18902,173,9853 10 0
1895–962,335,7613 7 1
1896–972,521,9113 11 0
1897–982,678,5763 13 11
1898–992,707,0993 13 3

The average annual amount of revenue raised by taxation during the nine years, 1882 to 1890 inclusive, was £3 8s. 11d. per head of population, excluding Maoris.

It may be well to call attention to the fact that a rise in the rate of taxation per head of population may indicate (outside the question of increasing the rate of any particular tax levied) a satisfactory condition of business, as showing activity. In regard to the Customs, notwithstanding modifications of the tariff in 1895, the value of the imports for 1898–99 was greater than for 1896–97 or 1897–98, which would seem to show greater purchasing power than before, and that profits of trade would still allow of a large amount of duty being paid. The quantity of stocks in hand at the beginning and end of the two years, and any disturbance in prices during the period, may modify the above argument.

As the Maoris contribute somewhat to the Customs revenue, an allowance should be made on that account to ascertain more correctly the amount of taxation per head of the rest of the people. By including Maoris the Customs and excise duties per head of the rest of the population would be reduced by 2s. 10d. for the year 1898–99. If this amount be deducted from the taxation per head given for that year, the rate would be reduced from £3 13s. 3d. to £3 10s. 5d. This latter rate may fairly be used for comparison with the rates in the neighbouring colonies.

Of the total amount of taxation stated for the year 1898–99, the indirect taxation, i.e., Customs and excise duties, amounted to £2,041,231, while land- and income-tax, with stamps for taxation, yielded £665,868, which constitutes direct taxation. So that the colony still raises 75 per cent. of its revenue from taxation by means of the indirect method.

Taxation by Local Governing Bodies

The various local bodies levied taxation during the year ended 31st March, 1898, to the amount of £739,918, or £1 Os. 5d. per head of European population. Of the total sum, £439,418 was raised by general rates, £205,134 by special and separate rates, £76,960 by licenses, and £18,406 by other taxes.

Taxation in Australasian Colonies

The following were the rates of General Government taxation per head in the Australasian Colonies in 1897–8, specifying the proportions derived from Customs and other taxes:—

Colonies.Rate of Taxation per Head of Mean Population.Proportion of Taxation from Customs Duties.Ratio of Taxation by Customs to Value of Imports.
Customs.Other Taxes.Total.
 £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Queensland2 12 60 9 53 1 1184.7423.12
New South Wales1 3 70 15 71 19 260.207.11
Victoria1 15 00 10 02 5 077.6613.29
South Australia1 12 90 18 42 11 164.138.12
Western Australia6 3 100 10 46 14 292.3115.85
Tasmania2 4 00 14 102 18 1074.7727.15
New Zealand (excluding Maoris)2 15 50 18 63 13 1174.9424.02

Chapter 48. SUPPLEMENTARY STATISTICS

I.—Progress of the Colony, Years 1898 and 1891

SUMMARY.
 1898.1891.Increase

NOTE.—The minus sign (—) signifies decrease.

*The comparison is not quite a fair one, as in 1898 holdings of exactly one acre in extent, and certain holdings occupied by Maoris, have been included by the Department of Agriculture, which was not done in 1891.

† Census, 1896 and 1891, figures are given.

Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris), 31st December        743,463        634,058        109,405
Value of land and improvements—
        Unimproved value84,401,24475,787,8958,613,349
        Value of improvements54,190,10346,365,2977,824,806
Land in cultivation—
        Holdings (in cultivation) No.*62,63938,083*24,556
        Total area (including sown grasses and land in fallow, but excluding gardens and orchards (39,913 acres) and plantations of forest trees (47,216 acres) Acres11,984,6068,462,4953,522,091
        In crops Acres1,688,7031,285,768402,935
        In sown grasses Acres10,244,7396,966,2183,278,501
        In fallow Acres51,164210,509–159,345
Live-stock—
        Horses No.258,115211,04047,075
        Cattle No.1,203,024831,831371,193
        Dairy cows (included above) No.333,536206,906126,630
        Sheep No.19,673,72516,753,7522,919,973
AUCKLAND PROVINCIAL DISTRICT, 1898–1891.
Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris)—1898.1891.Increase.
        Auckland Provincial District162,595134,72427,871
        City of Auckland and Suburbs†57,61651,2876,329
Value of land and improvements—
        Unimproved value14,236,61112,196,4242,040,187
        Value of improvements10,538,8718,830,8921,707,979
Land in cultivation—
        Holdings No.*15,5418,608*6,933
        Total area (including sown-grasses and land in fallow) Acres1,816,9001,165,441651,459
        In crops Acres129,97370,03859,935
        In sown grasses Acres1,678,1151,060,741617,374
        In fallow Acres8,81234,662–25,850
Live-stock—
        Horses No.68,35842,82625,532
        Cattle No.323,264234,30688,958
        Dairy cows (included above) No.64,59346,18218,411
        Sheep No.2,015,1421,500,102515,040
TARANAKI pROVINCIAL dISTRICT, 1898–1891.
Estimated Population (Exclusive Of Maoris)—1898.1891.Increase.

NOTE.—the Minus Sign (—) Denotes Decrease.

* See Note on Page 385.

† Census, 1896 and 1891, Figures Are Given.

NOTE.—the Minus Sign (—) Denotes Decrease.

* See Note On page 385.

† Census, 1891 and 1891, Figures are Given.

NOTE.—the Minus Sign (—) denotes decrease.

* See note on Page 385.

The Population Of The Chatham And Kermadec Islands, Which are not Included In any Provincial District, Was 258 Persons In 1858, and 295 in 1891.

        Taranaki provincial district33,61322,42111,192
        New Plymouth Borough†3,8253,350475
Value Of Land And Improvements—
        Unimproved Value4,064,5102,982,6441,081,866
        Value of Improvements2,913,8881,529,0451,384,843
Land in Cultivation—
        Holdings No.*4,4132,504*1,909
        Total Area (Including Sown Grasses And Land In Fallow) Acres698,662308,072390,590
        In Crops Acres25,66515,38010,285
        In Sown Grasses Acres672,356291,471380,885
        In Fallow Acres6411,221—580
Live-stock—
        Horses No.17,55810,9156,643
        Cattle No.202,481103,35699,125
        Dairy Cows (Included Above) No.74,33126,95147,380
        Sheep No.486,980240,471246,509
HAWKE'S bAY pROVINCIAL dISTRICT, 1898–1891.
        Estimated Population (Exclusive Of Maoris)—1898.1891.Increase.
        Hawke's Bay Provincial District36,41128,9227,489
        Napier Borough†9,2318,341890
Value Of Land And Improvements—
        Unimproved Value6,747,0436,704,82042,223
        Value Of Improvements4,273,8643,864,044409,820
Land in Cultivation—
        Holdings No.*3,2711,913*1,358
        Total Area (Including Sown Grasses And Land In Fallow) Acres1,650,3811,085,454564,927
        In Crops Acres41,52436,2185,306
        In Sown Grasses Acres1,606,9801,021,277585,703
        In Fallow Acres1,87727,959–26,082
Live-Stock—
        Horses No.17,84113,4804,361
        Cattle No.95,28355,00940,274
        Dairy Cows (Included Above) No.13,4259,0394,386
        Sheep No.3,308,7482,668,893639,855
WELLINGTON pROVINCIAL dISTRICT, 1898–1891.
        Estimated Population (Exclusive Of Maoris)—1898.1891.Increase.
        Wellington Provincial District129,73899,09830,640
        City Of Wellington And Suburbs†41,75834,1907,568
Value of land and improvements—
        Unimproved Value16,772,59512,456,6124,315,983
        Value Of Improvements12,133,5708,874,9703,258,600
Land in cultivation—
        Holdings No.*9,8715,808*4,063
        Total Area (Including Sown Grasses And Land In Fallow) Acres2,414,3431,508,587905,756
        In Crops Acres105,69063,31342,377
        In Sown Grasses Acres2,307,8201,440,893866,927
        In Fallow Acres8334,381–3,548
        Live-Stock—1898.1891.Increase.
        Horses No.39,87030,5429,328
        Cattle No.238,483155,46683,017
        Dairy Cows (Included Above) No.58,49230,61527,877
        Sheep No.4,054,0752,750,4611,303,614
        MARLBOROUGH, NELSON, AND wESTLAND pROVINCIAL dISTRICTS, 1898–1891.
Estimated Population (Exclusive Of Maoris)—1898.1891.Increase.
        Marlborough Provincial District13,24312,964279
        Nelson Provincial District37,61235,1542,458
        Westland Provincial District14,90715,929–1,022
        Value Of Land And Improvements—   
        Unimproved Value6,851,5067,395,637–544,131
        Value Of Improvements3,937,7023,555,449382,253
land in cultivation—
        Holdings No.*4,7003,200*1,500
        Total Area (Including Sown Grasses And Land In Fallow) Acres787,657475,860311,777
        In Crops Acres79,60055,43124,169
        In Sown Grasses Acres707,135411,199295,916
        In Fallow Acres9229,230–8,308
Live-Stock—
        Horses No.15,25915,18178
        Cattle No.66,79348,81617,977
        Dairy Cows (Included Above) No.19,15813,7595,399
        Sheep No.1,774,6341,631,456143,178
        CANTERBURY pROVINCIAL dISTRICT, 1898–1891.
Estimated Population (Exclusive Of Maoris)—1898.1891.Increase
        Canterbury Provincial District142,924129,90113,02
        City Of Christchurch And Suburbs†51,33047,8463,484
value of land and improvements—
        Unimproved Value20,458,82519,148,8671,309,958
        Value Of Improvements10,132,43210,073,19659,236
Land In Cultivation—
        Holdings No.*10,8547,563*3,291
        Total Area (Including Sown Grasses And Land In Fallow) Acres2,363,0942,034,813328,281
        in crops acres699,681566,153133,528
        in sown grasses acres1,654,8111,409,785245,026
        in fallow acres8,60258,875–50,273
Live Stock—
        Horses No.45,48747,567–2,080
        Cattle No.87,47182,0585,413
        Dairy Cows (Included Above) No.37,05331,2505,803
        Sheep No.4,072,6873,559,533513,154
        OTAGO pROVINCIAL dISTRICT, 1898–1891.
Estimated Population (Exclusive Of Maoris)—1898.1891.Increase
        Otago Provincial District172,162154,65017,512
        City Of Dunedin And Suburbs†47,28045,8691,411
        City Of Invercargill And Suburbs†9,6578,2641,393
        Value Of Land And Improvements—1898.1891.Increase.—
        Unimproved Value15,270,15414,902,891367,263
        Value Of Improvements10,259,7769,637,701622,075
Land in Cultivation—
        holdingsno.* 13,9898,487*5,502
        total area (including sown grasses and land in fallow) acres2,253,5691,884,268369,301
        in crops606,570479,235127,335
        in sown grasses1,617,5221,330,852286,670
        in fallow29,47774,181–44,704
Live Stock—
        Horses No.53,74250,5293,213
        Cattle No.189,249152,82036,429
        Dairy Cows (included above) no.66,48449,11017,374
        Sheep No.3,961,4594,402,836–441,377

II.—The Totalisator

Year.No. of Totalisator Licenses issued.Days.Percentage paid to Treasury.Total Amount Invested by the Public.
N.B.—The years used for purposes of the table are financial years, not the racing years. This accounts for the number of licenses issued in some of the periods being over the legal limit for one year.
   ££
1889–90187241....
1890–91219278....
1891–922343007,591506,078
1892–9324030710,800720,029
1893–9424731810,375691,673
1894–9520726810,446696,456
1895–9617025611,156743,763
1896–9715825011,911794,096
1897–9815526813,297886,567
1898–9914425013,695912,969

III.—Licenses under the Gaming and Lotteries Act, granted to Religious Denominations

RETURN of LICENSES granted by the Colonial Secretary under “The Gaming and Lotteries Act, 1881,” to Persons connected with Religious Denominations.

Year.Total Number of Licenses granted.Church of England.Presbyterian Church.Roman Catholic Church.Jewish Church.Not stated.
1894–954691023..4
1895–96488118..21
1896–976230329....
1897–9870352321..

Parliament Buildings, Wellington.

PART III.—ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS

Table of Contents

Chapter 49. SECTION I.
THE LAND SYSTEM OF NEW ZEALAND

S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S., Secretary for Crown Lands and Surveyor-General.

The Crown lands of New Zealand are administered under ‘The Land Act, 1892,’ together with its amendments and the regulations made thereunder.

The distinguishing features of the present land system are the outcome of ideas which have been gradually coming to maturity for some years past in this colony. These features involve the principle of State ownership of the soil, with a perpetual tenancy in the occupier. This, whatever may be the difference in detail, is the prevailing characteristic of the several systems under which land may now be selected. In New Zealand this tendency to State ownership has taken a more pronounced form than in any other of the Australasian Colonies, and the duration of the leases has become so extended as to warrant the name, frequently given to them, of ‘everlasting leases.’ In point of fact, most of the Crown lands are now disposed of for terms of 999 years. The rentals are based on the assessed value of the land at the time of disposal, without increase or recurring valuations. Under this system there is a fixity of tenure practically equal to freehold, and which, like freehold, necessarily carries with it the power of sale, sub-lease, mortgage. or disposition by will. Since all lands held under the Crown by ‘lease in perpetuity’ are subject to the land-tax, the necessity for the periodical revaluations under the perpetual-lease system is done away with, the State reaping the advantage of the unearned increment through the before-mentioned tax. At the same time the improvements made in the soil by cultivation, &c., are secured to the tenant.

The advantages of this system to the selector are manifest. When it is taken into consideration that, with few exceptions, the Crown lands are, in their prairie condition, incapable of producing anything until brought into cultivation, the advantage to the settler of setting free his capital to develop the capabilities of the soil, rather than having to expend it in the purchase of a freehold, is very apparent. One of the most striking benefits of this system is the advantage it gives to the poor man, who, with little more capital than his strong right arm, is enabled to make a home for himself; which, under the freehold system, he is frequently unable to accomplish.

The values placed on the Crown lands are, as a rule, low, for the State does not so much seek to raise a revenue directly therefrom as to encourage the occupation of the lands by the people; this secures indirectly an increased revenue, besides other advantages resulting from a numerous rural population.

Again, underlying the whole of the New Zealand land system is a further application of the principle of ‘the land for the people’—viz., the restriction in area which any man may hold. This subject has been forced upon the attention of the Legislature by defects in former systems, under which one individual with means at his command could appropriate large areas, to the exclusion of his poorer fellow-settler. Under existing conditions, where the price at which land is offered is fixed for ever, and where choice of selection is by ballot, the poor settler has the same chance as the rich one, and may, should he wish it, hold under the Crown as much land. The quantity that a selector may hold is so fixed as to encourage the class of small farmers, and up to the statutory limit the amount he may select is left entirely to himself. The Act defines the amount of land any one may select at 640 acres of first-class, or 2,000 acres of second-class land, inclusive of any land he may already hold. These limits apply to lands which are thrown open for ‘free selection,’ as it is termed, but in some cases, where found desirable, the limit is by regulation made much smaller.

In addition to the many advantages offered by the ‘lease-in-perpetuity’ system, the Land Act provides others, to meet the wants of different classes. The rule is almost invariable, that land thrown open for so-called ‘free selection’ is offered to the public under three different tenures, the choice of which is left entirely to the would-be settler.

The three tenures are:—

  1. For cash, in which one-fourth of the purchase-money is paid down at once, and the remainder within thirty days. The title does not issue until certain improvements have been made on the land.

  2. Lease with a purchasing clause, at a 5-per-cent. rental on the value of the land; the lease being for twenty-five years with the right to purchase at the original upset price at any time after the first ten years.

  3. Lease in perpetuity, at a rental of 4 per cent. on the capital value, as already described above.

The present land-laws have been in force since the 1st November, 1892, and, therefore, the returns of the Department of Lands and Survey for the year ending the 31st March, 1899, in respect of lands the tenure of which is optional, will give a fair idea of that tenure most favoured by the public. The figures are:—

  1. Cash: 114 selections, 17,824 acres.

  2. Occupation with right of purchase: 458 selections, 109,950 acres.

  3. Lease in perpetuity: 362 selections, 99,262 acres.

‘The Land Act, 1892,’ provides for a special class of settlement called ‘small-farm associations,’ which found favour with the public to a very considerable extent during the first three years after the Act of 1892 came into force, but is now superseded to a large extent by the ‘improved-farm settlements’ system. The ‘small-farm association’ system provides that, where not less than twelve individuals have associated themselves together for mutual help, such an association can, with the approval of the Minister of Lands, select a block of land of not more than 11,000 acres, but there must be a selector to each 200 acres in the block. The extreme limit that one person may hold is fixed at 320 acres. Settlements of this class are held on ‘lease in perpetuity’ for 999 years, in a similar way to lands under the same tenure when thrown open for free selection. The conditions of residence and improvement are the same. The system offers many advantages to the settler, so long as the blocks of land are judiciously chosen, having regard to quality of land, access, markets, and the probability of employment being obtained in the neighbourhood. In the eagerness to obtain lands on such easy terms, these points have, in the past, not received sufficient attention by some of the associations, and in consequence their success remains to be proved.

Under ‘The Land Act, 1885,’ there was a somewhat similar system, but it allowed of the acquisition of the freehold. This is now being taken advantage of to a considerable extent.

The following figures show the amount of settlement under both Acts on the 31st March, 1899. At that date there were 812 selectors, holding 142,666 acres under various tenures and in different parts of the country. Many of the settlements, where the conditions are favourable, are doing well. Others, in inaccessible parts, are barely holding their own.

The ‘village-settlement system’ of New Zealand has become widely known in the Australian Colonies, and has excited much inquiry with a view to its adoption in other parts. It is believed, however, that this and the ‘small-farm association’ settlements, referred to above, are often confounded in the minds of the public, for of recent years there has been no very great extension of village settlements in this colony. On the 31st March last there were 1,625 settlers holding land under the village-settlement system, which comprise 36,797 acres, and the total number of persons residing in these settlements was 4,923. The total amount of rent and interest paid by these settlers since the commencement of the system is £36,994, the amount advanced by Government for houses, clearing, &c., being £25,932, of which £2,644 had been returned. The total value of improvements on the lands at the same date was £128,966. The above figures include the settlement on reserves and endowments.

The ‘improved-farm settlements’ system during the last few years has largely taken the place of both the ‘village settlement’ and the ‘small-farm association.’ In order to find work for the unemployed, considerable areas of forest-clad Crown lands have been set aside, and small contracts for the clearing, burning, and sowing these with grass have been let. The land is then subdivided into small farms, and let on ‘lease in perpetuity’ at a rental sufficient to cover the cost of clearing, &c., together with a fair rental of the land. Up to the 31st March, 1899, forty-five settlements had been allocated, covering an area of 73,965 acres, situate in various pares of the colony. At that date 513 settlers had been allotted sections, who, together with their families, numbered 1,874 persons who were residing on the lands. They had felled and grassed 20,814 acres. The amount paid to the settlers up to the 31st March, 1899, was £57,329, and the total value of improvements on the land (including the Government advances) was £84,259.

The size of holdings averages about 100 acres.

With respect to other methods of dealing with the Crown estate, the ‘Digest of the Land-laws’ appended hereto will give sufficient particulars.

The Land for Settlements Acts

Allusion has already been made to the dearth of Crown lands suitable for small settlements in localities where they are most needed—i.e., in settled districts, where the lands are frequently held in large estates, whose owners employ a good deal of labour. Not only is this the case in many parts of the colony, but there is also a want of land where the sons of settlers can obtain farms not far from the homes of their parents. To meet this want the Hon. J. McKenzie, the present Minister of Lands, introduced into the Legislature in the session of 1892 a Bill intituled ‘The Land for Settlements Act,’ which authorised the purchase from private individuals of suitable properties for subdivision into small farms not exceeding 320 acres in extent. Under the provisions of this and the amending Acts several properties have been acquired, and subsequently divided into small farms and leased in perpetuity at a 5-per-cent. rental, on a capital value fixed at a sufficient rate to cover first cost, together with survey, administration, and roads (if required). The process of acquisition is as follows: Whenever a property is offered to the Government, if it is so situated as to meet the object of the Act, a report on it is obtained by a qualified Government officer, and, should his report be favourable, the question of purchase is then referred to a Board of Land Purchase Commissioners, composed of the Inspector, who is the permanent Chairman, three other Government officers, and a member of the local Land Board, whose training and duties qualify them to advise the Government as to whether the purchase is a suitable one, and as to the price which should be given for the property. It is only on the advice of this Board that the Government acts. In nearly all cases the properties acquired have been improved farms, situated in settled districts, where the tenants have some chance of obtaining employment in the vicinity. The amount which might be expended per annum under the Act of 1892 was £50,000; but the Act of 1894 extended this amount to £250,000, and it also provided that the limit of land which might be selected should be the same as under ‘The Land Act, 1892.’ A further amendment of the Act in 1897 fixed the amount which might be spent yearly at £500,000. The Act also provides for the exchange of high-lying pastoral Crown lands for low-lying agricultural lands suitable for small holdings.

A new feature was introduced into the Act of 1894—namely, the power of taking lands compulsorily in cases where the Board could not agree with the owner as to price, &c., and where the Governor in Council decides that the possession of the land for purposes of subdivision is otherwise desirable. The amount payable to the owner is decided by a Compensation Court, composed of a Judge of the Supreme Court and two Assessors; one appointed by Government, the other by the owner of the property. Only one property has hitherto been acquired compulsorily, and that has since been disposed of on satisfactory terms.

The acquisition of lands under the Land for Settlements Acts should prove beneficial in providing homes for a large class of persons, who, from inexperience in the breaking in of new country or other reasons, are in a measure prohibited from occupying the waste lands of the Crown; and, moreover, as the properties acquired are all more or less improved, they seem to afford to the small-farmer class of the Old Country an opening for building up homes for themselves where their previous experience will be of use, instead of having to learn—often by sad experience—the methods adapted to a new and wild country.

‘The Land for Settlements Act Amendment Act, 1896,’ contains special provisions as to the disposal of lands acquired under ‘The Land for Settlements Act, 1894,’ giving the preference to landless people, and requiring applicants for rural land to satisfy the Land Board as to their means to stock and cultivate the same and erect suitable buildings thereon. It gives the Board, in fact, a discretion as to who shall be entitled to apply for the lands. It also provides, in cases where buildings are on the land to be disposed of, that their value, apart from the capital value of the land, shall, with interest thereon at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum, be paid by the tenant in half-yearly instalments extending over a term of years.

Special regulations have been made as to advances by Government to successful applicants for allotments, in aid of the cost of fencing and planting the same and building dwelling-houses thereon; and also special provisions as to allotments for workmen's homes, the area of which should not in any case exceed 3 acres.

Regulations giving full directions to applicants under this Act have been issued from time to time, which should be in the hands of every one before applying for lands under this Act.

An account of the operations under the Land for Settlements Acts will be found in Part II. of this work.

Purchase of Native Lands by Government

From about the year 1823 (which is the date of the first recorded deed) until the 6th February, 1840, the date of the Treaty of Waitangi, lands in New Zealand were acquired by direct purchase from the Maoris by individual members of the white races. During the years 1837 to 1839, or about the time it became probable that the sovereignty of the islands would be assumed by the Queen, the greater number of these purchases were made, and they extended to most parts of the country. These purchases are technically known as ‘the Old Land Claims,’ and their total number (including pre-emptive claims), as estimated by Commissioner F. Dillon Bell in 1862, was 1,376, covering an area of about 10,322,453 acres, out of which large area grants were recommended for 292,475 acres. These figures have been slightly added to since, but not to any very large extent. The large area shown above was reduced on survey to about 474,000 acres, situated principally to the north of Auckland. The difference in area between the amount granted and the total area surveyed became what are termed ‘surplus lands of the Crown.’ It was held that the Native title had been fully extinguished over the whole area surveyed; but, as by statute the claimants could only be granted 2,560 acres each, the balance became vested in the Crown on the assumption of the sovereignty, the Native title having been fully extinguished.

In many cases the titles did not issue to those to whom the land was awarded, as they were compensated by scrip issued by the Government, with the understanding that such scrip was to be exercised in the purchase of Crown lands in the neighbourhood of Auckland, to which place it was desirable—so soon as the capital was founded—to draw a population. The lands thus paid for in scrip became Crown lands, and these, together with the surplus lands, have from time to time been disposed of by the Crown and settled on. The amount of scrip, &c., issued up to 1862 was over £109,000.

On the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on the 6th February, 1840, the pre-emptive right of purchase from the Maoris was ceded to the Queen, and consequently private purchase ceased. This remained the law until the passing of ‘The Native Land Act, 1862,’ when the Crown relinquished its right of pre-emption, whilst at the same time the purchase of Native lands for the Crown did not abate, but continued side by side with the private purchases up to the passing of ‘The Native Land Court Act, 1894.’

From time to time since 1840 various sums were appropriated by Government or by Parliament for the acquisition of a Crown estate. Up to the date of passing of ‘The Native Land Act, 1862,’ these operations were conducted by officers of the Government specially appointed, who, from a knowledge of the Maoris, their customs and disposition, were successful in securing large areas of land for settlement. It must be conceded that their operations as a whole were successful, and that the number of disputed cases arising out of their labours was exceedingly small. The Waitara purchase is, however, here excluded, for there were reasons of general policy affecting that sale which did not prevail in other cases. This purchase was the ostensible cause of the war of 1860 and following years, but the motives which led to it were far deeper than the mere purchase of a few acres—there was a great principle at stake.

The difference effected in the mode of purchase by ‘The Native Land Act, 1862,’ was this: Previously, the title of the Maoris who were to receive payment for the land was decided by the Land Purchase officers; but the Act quoted set up a Court, presided over by able Judges, who determined the titles, which were afterwards registered in a special Court. Purchases have since been effected with the registered owners.

It is difficult to obtain figures showing the actual area acquired by the Crown from the Maoris up to 1870, but in round numbers it was 6,000.000 acres in the North Island; whilst the whole of the Middle Island, with the exception of reserves for the original Native owners, was acquired prior to the passing of ‘The Native Land Act, 1862.’ Stewart Island was purchased from the Native owners by deed dated 29th June, 1864.

The Native rebellion of 1860–69 brought Native-land purchases, for the time being, practically to a standstill.

The Immigration and Public Works Acts of 1870 and 1873 appropriated £200,000 and £500,000, respectively, for the purchase of lands in the North Island; and these amounts have, up to the 31st of March, 1899, been augmented by further annual appropriations from the public funds and other loan-moneys, covering altogether a total expenditure since 1870 of £1,904,257, with the following results: Area finally acquired in the North Island from Natives, from 1870 to 31st March, 1899, 7,504,553 acres. Area under negotiation in the North Island on 31st March, 1899, 783,963 acres; interests therein finally acquired, 274,009 acres.

Digest of the Land-Laws

Administration.

The Crown lands are administered, under the authority of ‘The Land Act, 1892,’ by the Hon. the Minister of Lands at Wellington. For convenience the colony is divided into ten land districts, each being under the local direction of a Commissioner and a Land Board. The Commissioner's office is known as the principal land office, and in some of the larger districts there are one or more sub-offices. It is with these land offices the selector has to transact all business, from the first consultation of the maps to the final receipt of the Crown title.

Land Districts and Principal Land Offices.

The names of the land districts and of the towns where each principal office is situated are, beginning with the most northerly and taking them geographically, as under:—

Land District.Town where Principal Land Office is situated.
AucklandAuckland.
TaranakiNew Plymouth.
Hawke's BayNapier.
WellingtonWellington.
NelsonNelson.
MarlboroughBlenheim.
WestlandHokitika.
CanterburyChristchurch.
OtagoDunedin.
SouthlandInvercargill.

Classification of Lands, &c.

Crown lands are divided into three classes:—

  1. Town and village lands, the upset prices of which are, respectively, not less than £20 and £3 per acre; such lands are sold by auction:

  2. Suburban lands, the upset price of which may not be less than £2 an acre; these lands are also sold at auction:

  3. Rural lands, which may be disposed of at not less than £1 per acre for first-class, and 5s. an acre for second-class lands; such lands may be sold or leased by auction, or sold or leased on application.

No rural section may be larger than 640 acres in extent if first-class land, or 2,000 acres if second-class land, whether offered by auction or application. No person can select more than 640 acres of first-class or 2,000 acres of second-class land, including therein any land which he then holds. Pastoral runs are limited to areas which will carry 20,000 sheep or 4,000 cattle. No person can select more than one run.

Mode of acquiring Crown Lands.

Crown lands may be acquired as follows:—

  1. By auction, after survey, in which case one-fifth of the price is paid down at the time of sale, the balance within thirty days:

  2. By application, after the lands have been notified as open for selection, in which case the applicant fills up a form (to be obtained at any of the Land Offices) and makes the declaration and deposit required by the particular system he wishes to select under.

All applications, whether for surveyed or unsurveyed lands, are deemed to be simultaneous if made on the same day, and, if there be more than one applicant for the same land, the right of selection is determined by ballot.

Lands thrown open for application may be either surveyed or unsurveyed, and those not selected the first day remain open.

The Optional System of Selection.

Lands for selection are notified as open for application on and after a stated day, and, at the option of the applicant, may be obtained on any of the three following tenures: (a) Cash; (b) Occupation with the right of purchase; (c) Lease in perpetuity.

(a.) Cash.

If the land is surveyed, one-fifth of the price is to be paid down at the time of application, and the balance within thirty days; or, if the land is not completely surveyed, the survey-fee is paid on application, and goes towards the purchase of the land; the balance must be paid within thirty days of notice that the survey is completed.

A certificate of occupation will issue to the purchaser on final payment, which will be exchanged for a Crown title so soon as the Board is satisfied that the improvements mentioned on the next page have been completed.

(b.) Occupation with Right of Purchase.

Lands selected on this tenure are held under a license for twenty-five years. At any time subsequent to the first ten years, and after having resided and made the improvements hereinafter described, the licensee can, on payment of the upset price of the land, acquire the freehold. If the land be not purchased, the license may be exchanged for a lease in perpetuity.

The rent is 5 per cent. on the cash price of the land; a half-year's rent has to be paid in with the application, if surveyed land, which represents the half-year's rent due in advance on the 1st day of January or July following the selection. If the land is unsurveyed, the cost of survey is to be deposited, and is credited to the selector as so much rent paid in advance, counted from the 1st day of January or July following thirty days' notice of the completion of survey.

Residence and improvement of the land are compulsory, as hereinafter described.

(c.) Leases in Perpetuity.

Lands selected on this tenure are leased for 999 years, subject to the conditions of residence and improvements described below. The rental is 4 per cent. on the cash price of the land, and applications are dealt with in the same way as under the previous tenure (b), but there is at no time a right of purchase.

Two or more persons may make a joint application to hold as tenants in common under either of the two last-named tenures.

Residence and Improvements.

Under the two last-mentioned tenures, the conditions as to residence and improvements are:—

Residence—

  1. Must commence on bush or swamp lands within four years, and in open or partly open land within one year, from the date of selection:

  2. Must be continuous for six years on bush or swamp land, and for seven years on open or partly open land, on lands occupied with a right of purchase:

  3. Must be continuous for a term of ten years on lease-in-perpetuity lands.

The Board has power to dispense with residence in certain cases, such as where the selector is residing on adjacent lands, or is a youth or unmarried woman living with parents, and in a few other cases.

Residence implies the erection of a habitable house to be approved of by the Board.

Improvements which must be made are as follows:—

  1. Cash-tenure lands must be improved within seven years to an amount of £1 an acre for first-class land, and 10s. an acre for second-class land.

  2. Lands held on lease with right of purchase, or on lease in perpetuity, must be improved to an amount equal to 10 per cent. of the value of the land within one year from the date of the license or lease; within two years must be improved to the amount of another 10 per cent.; within six years must be improved to the value of another 10 per cent., making 30 per cent. in all within the six years. In addition to the above, the land must be further improved to an amount of £1 an acre for first-class land, and on second-class land to an amount equal to the net price of the land, but not more than 10s. an acre.

Improvements may consist of reclamation from swamps, clearing of bush, planting with trees or hedges, cultivation of gardens, fencing, draining, making roads, wells, water-tanks, water-races, sheep-dips, embankments or protective-works, or in any way improving the character or fertility of the soil; or the erection of any building, &c.; and cultivation includes the clearing of land for cropping, or clearing and ploughing for laying down with artificial grasses, &c.

Special-settlement Associations.

Under the existing regulations any number of persons, not less than twelve, may apply for a block of land of not less than 1,000 acres or more than 11,000 acres in extent, but the number of members must be such that there shall be one for every two hundred acres in the block, and no one can hold more than 320 acres, except in swamp lands, where the area may be 500 acres.

The capital value of lands within a special settlement is fixed after survey by special valuation, but may not be less than 10s. an acre; the rental is not less than 4 per cent. on the capital value, and the tenure is a lease in perpetuity.

Residence, occupation, and improvements are generally the same as already described, and applications have to be made in manner prescribed by regulations.

Applicants should apply to a Commissioner for a copy of the regulations, as they are liable to change at any time.

Improved-farm Settlements.

Special regulations are in force for this class of settlement, which should be applied for, but briefly the terms are as follow: Those who form settlements under these provisions are selected from the applicants by the Commissioner of Crown Lands, preference being given to married men. The areas of the farms may vary from 10 acres to 200 acres, according to locality; no settler can select more than one farm. The land is leased for 999 years at a rental of 4 per cent. on the capital value, to which is added 5 per cent. on the amount advanced by Government for clearing, grassing, &c. The rates allowed for felling are those current in the district, but must not exceed £1 15s. per acre. Advances to cover cost of sowing with grass will be made, if required, likewise not more than £10 towards building a house or erecting fencing. Not more than 100 acres of felling will, however, be paid for. As a rule, the settlers can get employment on the road-works in the neighbourhood, but Government does not guarantee this.

Residence for the first ten years is compulsory, and improvements must be made in terms of Part III. of ‘The Land Act, 1892.’ (See ante.)

Village Settlements.

Village settlements are disposed of under regulations made from time to time by the Governor, but the main features are as follow:—

Such settlements may be divided into:—

  1. Village allotments not exceeding one acre each, which are disposed of either by auction among the applicants or by application, as already described, with option of tenure, the cash price being not less than £3 per allotment:

  2. Homestead allotments not exceeding 100 acres each, which are leased in perpetuity at a 4-per cent. rental on a capital value of not less than 10s. per acre.

Residence, improvements, and applications are the same as already described. The leases are exempt from liability to be seized or sold for debt or bankruptcy.

The Colonial Treasurer is empowered in certain cases to advance small sums for the purpose of enabling selectors to profitably occupy their allotments.

Small Grazing-runs.

Small grazing-runs are divided into two classes: First-class, not exceeding 5,000 acres; second-class, not exceeding 20,000 acres in area. The rental in both cases is not less than 2 ½ per cent. on the capital value per acre, but such capital value cannot be less than 5s. per acre. Small grazing-runs are leased for terms of twenty-one years, with right of renewal for other twenty-one years, at a rent of 2 ½ per cent. on the then value of the land. The runs are declared open for selection, and applications and declarations on the forms provided have to be filled in and left at the Land Office, together with the deposit of one half-year's rent, which represents that due on the 1st day of March or September following the selection.

No holder of a pastoral run, and no holder of freehold or leasehold land of any kind whatever, over 1,000 acres in area, exclusive of the small grazing-run applied for, may be a selector under this system; and only one small grazing-run can be held by any one person.

The lease entitles the holder to the grazing rights, and to the cultivation of any part of the run, and to the reservation of 150 acres round his homestead through which no road may be taken; but the runs are subject to the mining laws.

Residence is compulsory, if bush or swamp land, within three years; if open, within one year; and must be continuous to the end of the term, but may in a few cases be relaxed. Improvements necessary are as follow: Within the first year, to the amount of one year's rent; within the second year, to another year's rent; and, within six years, to the value of two other years' rent: making in all a sum equal to four years' rental, which must be expended within six years. In addition to these improvements, bush-covered first-class runs must be improved to an amount of 10s. an acre, and second-class bush-clad runs to an amount of 5s. an acre.

These runs may be divided, after three years' compliance with the conditions, amongst the members of the selector's family.

Pastoral Runs.

Pastoral country is let by auction for varying terms not exceeding twenty-one years; and, excepting in extraordinary circumstances, runs must not be of a greater extent than will carry 20,000 sheep or 4,000 head of cattle. Runs are classified from time to time by special Commissioners into: (1) Pastoral lands, which are suitable only for depasturing more than 5,000 sheep; (2) pastoral agricultural lands, suitable for subdivision into areas of under 5,000 acres, which may be either let as pastoral runs, generally for short terms, or cut up for settlement in some other form. Leases of pastoral lands may not be resumed; leases of pastoral-agricultural lands may be resumed at any time after twelve months' notice, without compensation.

No one can hold more than one run; but, in case of any one holding a run of a carrying-capacity less than 10,000 sheep, he may take up additional country up to that limit.

Runs are offered at auction from time to time, and half a year's rent has to be paid down at the time of sale, being the amount due in advance on the 1st day of March or September following the sale, and the purchaser has to make the declaration required by the Act. All leases begin on the 1st day of March, and they entitle the holder to the grazing rights, but not to the soil, timber, or minerals; and the lease terminates over any part of the run which may be leased for some other purpose, purchased, or reserved. The tenant has to prevent the burning of timber or bush; in open country to prevent the growth of gorse, broom, or sweet-briar; and to destroy the rabbits on his run. With the consent of the Land Board, the interest in a run may be transferred or mortgaged, but power of sale under a mortgage must be exercised within two years.

In case it is determined again to lease any run on expiry of the lease, the new lease must be offered by auction twelve months before the end of the term, and if, on leasing, it shall be purchased by some one other than the previous lessee, valuation for improvements, to be made by an appraiser, shall be paid by the incoming tenant, but to a value not greater than three times the annual rent—excepting in the case of a rabbit-proof fence, which is to be valued separately. If the run is not again leased, the value of rabbit-proof fencing is paid by the Crown, but the tenant has no claim against the Crown beyond the value of the rabbit-proof fence; he may, however, within three months of sale, remove fences, buildings, &c. Runs may also be divided with the approval of the Board.

Survey Charges on Unsurveyed Lands.

The following is the scale of charges for surveys of unsurveyed lands:—

Not exceeding 30 acres, £6.

Exceeding 30 and up to 50 acres, 3s. 6d. per acre, but not less than £6.

Exceeding 50 and up to 100 acres, 3s. per acre, but not less than £8 15s.

Exceeding 100 and up to 200 acres, 2s. 6d. per acre, but not less than £15.

Exceeding 200 and up to 300 acres, 2s. per acre, but not less than £25.

Exceeding 300 and up to 500 acres, 1s. 8d. per acre, but not less than £30.

Exceeding 500 and up to 1,000 acres, 1s. 4d. per acre, but not less than £41 10s.

Exceeding 1,000 and up to 2,000 acres, 1s. per acre, but not less than £66 10s.

For the survey of any area of rural land, being open land, the scale of charges shall be two-thirds the foregoing rates.

The Chief Surveyor may vary the above charges by substituting a rate per mile or per day for such work as may not come under the foregoing scale.

Chapter 50. ADVANCES TO SETTLERS

The Government Advances to Settlers Act was a Government policy measure in the legislation of 1894. It was designed to afford relief to a numerous class of colonists who were struggling under the burden of high rates of interest and heavy legal expenses of mortgages. These were established when prices of agricultural produce were high and profits large; and, so long as business continued to be prosperous, they attracted but little, if any, attention. For several years preceding 1894 commerce and agriculture had suffered from world-wide depression; settlers were becoming embarrassed in their circumstances; and the high rates of interest still charged were felt to be a burden on the industry of the people not easily borne, and a hindrance to the settlement and development of the farming lands of the colony. In these circumstances the Government brought in the Government Advances to Settlers Act. It was passed towards the close of the session of 1894, and immediately came into operation, with results which have proved beneficial to the farming community. A general decline in the rates of interest at once set in, and it is not too much to claim that the Act has been instrumental in lowering these to a considerable extent on several millions of money invested on mortgage of the farming lands of the colony. This result, while it may have diminished the incomes of a few persons resident within the colony, has benefited thousands of deserving settlers and led to large areas of land being brought under cultivation that, but for the Advances to Settlers Act, would still be in their natural state.

The Act authorised the raising of three million pounds sterling within two years, in sums of a million and a-half per annum, at a rate of interest not higher than 4 per cent. In May, 1895, tenders were invited in London for £1,500,000 of 3-per-cent. inscribed stock of the Government of New Zealand, and applications were received for £5,960,400 at prices ranging from £100 to £90. The million and a-half was placed at an average price of £94 8s. 9d.

An amending Act, passed in 1895, extended the time for raising the residue of the three millions to three years from the coming into operation of the amending Act. In 1898 this term was extended for a further period of three years. £500,000 of the second half of the loan has been raised on satisfactory terms.

To carry out the objects of the Act, an office was established called the ‘Government Advances to Settlers Office’; at the same time a General Board was constituted to co-operate with and assist the Superintendent, the title by which the chief administrative officer is known.

The business of the Advances to Settlers Office is the lending of money on the security of first mortgages of land, provided the lands. are occupied for farming, dairying, or market-gardening purposes.

Urban and suburban lands used for residential or manufacturing purposes are excluded from the scope of the Act. The titles which are eligible for advances are classified as follow:—

  1. Freehold land held in fee-simple under ‘The Land Transfer Act, 1885,’ or freehold land held in fee-simple the title to which is registered under ‘The Deeds Registration Act, 1868.’

  2. Crown land held on perpetual lease under ‘The Land Act, 1885.’

  3. Crown land held under Parts III. and IV. of ‘The Land Act, 1892,’ including land held under occupation-with-right-of-purchase tenure.

  4. Crown land held on lease as a small grazing-run under ‘The Land Act, 1885,’ or under ‘The Land Act, 1892.’

  5. Crown land held on agricultural lease under ‘The Mining Act, 1891.’

  6. Crown land held on lease (not being for mining purposes) under ‘The Westland and Nelson Coalfields Administration Act, 1877.’

  7. Native land held on lease under ‘The West Coast Settlement Reserves Act, 1892’; or

  8. Land held on lease under ‘The Westland and Nelson Native Reserves Act, 1887.’

  9. Land held under ‘The Thermal-Springs Districts Act, 1881.’

  10. Educational and other reserves which are subject to the provisions of ‘The Land Act 1877 Amendment Act, 1882,’ by virtue of Proclamation made under section 50 thereof, or ‘The Land Act, 1885,’ by virtue of Proclamation made under section 237 thereof, or ‘The Land Act, 1892,’ by virtue of Proclamation made under section 243 thereof; and are held on perpetual lease or lease in perpetuity, or on deferred-payment or small grazing-run systems.

  11. Crown land held by license on the deferred-payment system under Part III. of ‘The Land Act, 1885.’

  12. Land held under lease from a leasing authority, as defined by ‘The Public Bodies' Powers Act, 1887,’ and providing for the payment by the incoming tenant of valuation for improvements made upon the land, whether by the lessee named in such lease or any former lessee or tenant.

Of these classes, Nos. 10, 11, and 12 were added by amending Acts passed in 1895 and 1896.

Applicants for loans are required to apply on a form prescribed by regulation under the Act, and to pay a valuation-fee in accordance with the following scale:—

 £s.d.
On an application for a loan not exceeding £1000106
Exceeding £100 but not exceeding £250110
Exceeding £250 but not exceeding £5001116
Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £3,000220

Valuation reports on the securities offered are made on behalf of the Department by expert land-valuers; and these reports, together with the corresponding valuations appearing in the district valuation-rolls, prepared in accordance with the provisions of ‘The Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896,’ and reports from the Commissioners of Crown Lands in the cases of Crown leaseholds, are considered by the General Board. Board meetings are held weekly, or as occasion requires, and the Superintendent is bound by the resolutions of the Board. A resolution is taken with regard to every application placed before the General Board, so that on the Board rests the responsibility of granting loans or of refusing to grant them.

Some applicants offer securities which are obviously not eligible; and in that event the valuation-fees paid are returned, the securities are not reported on, and the applications do not go before the Board.

The Act of 1894 contemplated loans of one class only—namely, loans on mortgages repayable by 73 half-yearly instalments, subject, however, to provisions for paying off the loan at any time—but the amending Act of 1896 added what are known as ‘fixed loans.’ Fixed loans are authorised to be made on freehold lands only, and may be for any term not exceeding ten years. They are repayable, without sinking fund, at the end of the term for which they are granted. They must not exceed in amount one-half of the estimated value of the security, and they bear interest, like instalment loans, at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum.

Under the instalment system the Board has power to advance up to 60 per cent. of the estimated realisable value of freehold securities, and up to 50 per cent. of the lessee's interest in the case of leasehold securities.

Loans must not be for a less amount than £25, nor a greater amount than £3,000. The maximum limit was £2,500 under the 1894 Act, but the amending Act of 1896 raised it to £3,000.

Instalment loans are repayable (principal and interest) in thirty-six and a half years, by half-yearly instalments. These instalments are calculated at the rate of 6 per cent. on the amount lent, and, excepting the last, they do not vary in amount. So much of each instalment as is required to pay 5 per cent. on the balance of principal owing at the time of payment is charged for interest, and the remainder of the instalment is applied to the reduction of the principal. As every payment made reduces the amount of principal owing, the charge for interest becomes less every six months, and an ever-increasing proportion of the instalment is available for paying off the debt.

As will be seen by the following table, a mortgagor under this system owes at the end of ten years £87 4s. 7d. for every £100 borrowed, after twenty years £66 5s. 10d., after thirty years £31 19s. 11d., and in thirty-six and a half years the loan is entirely repaid:—

Table of Prescribed Half-yearly Instalments for every One Hundred Pounds of the Loan.
Half-year.Prescribed Half-yearly Instalment.Apportioned thus:Balance of Principal owing.
On Account of Interest at 5 per Cent.On Account of Principal.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
1st3002100010099100
2nd300299010398199
3rd30029601069893
4th300293010997186
5th30029001109776
6th300288011496162
7th30028501179647
8th3002810111195128
9th300271001229506
10th30027601269480
11th3002720121093152
12th300261101319321
13th30026701359288
14th3002630139911411
15th300251001429109
16th30025601469063
17th3002520141089115
18th300249015388162
19th30024501578807
20th30024001608747
21st30023701658682
22nd3002320161085114
23rd300229017384141
24th300224017883165
25th3002111018182184
26th3002160186811910
27th300210019081010
28th30020601968014
29th3002001007914
30th300119610678010
31st3001190110761910
32nd300118611675184
33rd300118012074164
34th300117512773139
35th3001161013272107
36th300116313971610
37th30011581447026
38th3001151141168177
39th300114515767120
40th3001131016266510
41st3001132161064190
42nd300112617663116
43rd30011191836233
44th3001111181160144
45th30011041985948
46th300197110557143
47th300181011125631
48th3001811111154112
49th300173112952185
50th300166113651411
51st300158114449107
52nd300149115347154
53rd3001311116145193
54th30013011704423
55th300121117114244
56th300111118114055
57th300102119103857
58th300019220103649
59th3000181211134210
60th30001712211311911
61st3000160240291511
62nd30001411251271010
63rd30001392632547
64th300012727522172
65th30001152872087
66th3000103299171810
67th300090211015710
68th300078212412156
69th300065213710111
70th30005121411770
71st30003821644108
72nd30002421781130
73rd1131000101130..

Instalment Mortgages

Under the system of instalment mortgages borrowers may pay off the whole balance of principal and interest owing at any time, and obtain a discharge; or they may pay to the Superintendent in reduction of the mortgage debt any sum not less than £5 or a multiple of £5. Payments made in reduction of these loans are treated as deposits, bearing interest at 4 per cent., compounded annually. When deposits with accumulated interest amount to a sum equal to the unpaid balance of the loan, the mortgagor may obtain a discharge of the mortgage on payment of the prescribed release-fee. So long as deposits, with interest added, amount to less than the balance of principal owing, instalments on the original amount of the loan continue to be payable.

Fixed Loans.

In the case of fixed loans, payments of £5, or a multiple of £5, may be made in reduction of the loans at the due date of any half-yearly payment of interest, and thenceforth interest is payable only on so much of the loan as remains unpaid. The entire loan, or the balance owing, may be paid off at any time, with interest added to the date of payment.

Costs, Fees, and other Provisions.

The following is the scale of costs and fees for mortgages:—

Mortgages under ‘The Land Transfer Act, 1895.’

Law-costs of preparing, or perusing, and of registering mortgage (to be deducted from the advance),—

 £s.d.
If advance be not exceeding £5000106
Exceeding £500, but not exceeding £1,000110
Exceeding £1,000, but not exceeding £3,0001116

With cash disbursements, which are the same in every case, namely,—

     Mortgage form2s.  
     Search-fee2s.With an additional 2s. for every
     Registration10s.   certificate of title after the first.
Costs and fees for discharge of mortgage,—
    Release fee 5s. 

Mortgages under ‘The Deeds Registration Act, 1868.’

Costs of preparing, or perusing, and of registering mortgage, including disbursements (to be deducted from the advance),—£s.d.
If advance be not exceeding £5002100
For every additional £5000150
Costs of discharge, including registration fees110

Solicitors are entitled to charge moderately for any services mortgagors may require over and above those for which the above scale fixes the costs—such services, for example, as clearing encumbered titles, obtaining and registering titles, &c.

By arrangements made with the Post Office, mortgagors are enabled to pay their instalments and interest to the credit of the Superintendent at any money-order office throughout the colony, and free of all costs for remitting the money to Wellington. This is an arrangement at once convenient and economical for the large number of persons scattered all over the colony who have financial dealings with the Advances to Settlers Office. Loans may also be repaid in full through the Post Office.

The officials of the Government Advances to Settlers Office are bound by declaration to observe secrecy respecting applications for advances, and are forbidden to give any information respecting the business of the Department except to officers appointed to assist in carrying out the provisions of the Act.

The Act provides penalties for persons employed in the business of the Advances to Settlers Office taking any fee or reward from an applicant for a loan under the Act; for persons acting as valuers of land in which they have a pecuniary interest; and for persons who may attempt to bribe any one employed under the Act. It should be understood that no commission, charge, or procuration fee is payable in connection with an application for a loan.

The first meeting of the General Board for the purpose of considering applications for loans was held on 23rd February, 1895; and up to the 31st March, 1899, the Board had authorised 7,050 advances, amounting to £2,073,425. The total amount applied for in the 7,050 applications granted in full and partially was £2,400,135. 828 applicants declined the partial grants offered to them, amounting to £374,280; so that the net advances authorised at 31st March, 1899, numbered 6,222, and amounted to £1,699,145. The security for the net authorised advances was valued at £3,759,399. The number of applications received up to 31st March, 1899, was 9,032, for an aggregate amount of £2,959,528. 63 per cent. of the total amount applied for was wanted for the purpose of paying off existing mortgages at rates of interest higher than 5 per cent.

Chapter 51. THE LAND-TAX AND INCOME-TAX

The Land-tax

At the time of the repeal of the Property Assessment Act in 1891 it was contended by many that the substitution of a land-tax which exempted from taxation all the improvements on the land, and of an income-tax which exempted all private incomes up to £300 a year, would lead to such a shrinkage of revenue as to render the experiment exceedingly risky. After several collections of land-tax upon the unimproved value only, and an income-tax with the above exemption, it can now, however, be fairly claimed that such a contention has not been realised, and that the revenue, notwithstanding the many adverse circumstances attending the introduction of a new system of taxation, has been fully maintained.

The yield of land-tax for 1898–99 was, in round figures, £298,000, of which about £215,000 represents ordinary tax; the balance, £83,000, being graduated tax, and the special tax on absentee landowners. For the preceding year the total amount collected was nearly £30,000 less, the increase being due to a new valuation.

For the purposes of the ‘ordinary’ land-tax, owners are allowed under the Act to deduct from the total unimproved value of their land the amount of any registered mortgage thereon, and the mortgagees are required to make a return of all their mortgages. In the case of uncompleted sales, where the title has not been transferred the amount of unpaid purchase-money is treated as a mortgage—that is, it may be deducted by the purchaser and must be included in the return made by the vendor.

An owner of land the unimproved value of which, together with mortgages owing to him, does not exceed £1,500 (after deducting mortgages owing by him) is allowed an exemption of £500, but where such value exceeds £1,500 the exemption diminishes by £1 for every £2 that such value increases, so that no exemption is allowable when £2,500 is reached.

The Act contains a provision that in cases where the income from any land or mortgages is less than £200 per annum, and the owner is incapacitated by age or infirmity from supplementing such income, a further exemption may be allowed by the Commissioner upon his being satisfied that the payment of the tax would entail hardship on such owner. This discretionary power has been exercised in a considerable number of instances, especially in the case of widows and orphans with small means, and much hardship prevented.

All mortgages are assessed at their full nominal value, except where it is satisfactorily shown that owing to depreciation of the security or other cause such value has been diminished. In the case of mixed mortgages—that is, mortgages which are secured on both real and personal property—the amount of the mortgage chargeable with land-tax is taken to be the assessed value of the land included in the security, the interest derived from the balance of mortgage being liable to income-tax.

It will be readily seen that the deductions and exemptions which have been referred to materially reduce the number of taxpayers as compared with the number of land-owners, the latter being upwards of 90,000, whilst the former only number about 13,000.

If the unimproved value of land in any assessment amounts to £5,000 or over, graduated tax is payable thereon according to the scale given on another page. Mortgages, however, are not chargeable with the graduated tax; but, on the other hand, no deduction is allowed in an assessment for graduated tax in respect of any mortgage owing on the land.

Twenty per cent. additional on the amount of the graduated tax is levied where the owners have been resident out of the colony for a period of three years or more prior to the date of the passing of the annual Tax Act.

Native lands which are occupied by Europeans are subject to the ordinary tax, it being considered that as such lands have benefited equally with the lands of Europeans by the expenditure of public money, they should bear some proportion of the taxation. But, recognising that in some instances, where the interests of the Native owners are small, the collection of the tax might possibly entail some hardship, the Legislature decided that only half the usual rate should be collected on such lands. Graduated tax is not chargeable on Native land.

The Income-tax

Both the number of income-tax payers and the amount of tax received may appear at first sight smaller than might be expected from the population of New Zealand, but it should be remembered that incomes from land and mortgages are exempt, the unimproved value of the former and the capital value of the latter being chargeable with land-tax in the manner herein-before explained. The statutory exemption of £300, plus life-insurance premiums up to £50, renders a very large number of employés and small traders exempt from the tax. Companies pay the tax on profits, and dividends are not returnable by their shareholders. These circumstances will account for the smallness of the number subject to income-tax and, to a certain extent, the comparatively inconsiderable contribution to the revenue.

Objections to income assessments are heard in private before the Stipendiary Magistrate.

It would be impossible to indicate the number and variety of questions which arise daily in connection with income assessments, much less to give any intelligent account of how they are dealt with. The department has endeavoured to lay down certain definite rules for its guidance in the greater number of cases, and a memorandum embodying these has been circulated among all who have been called upon to make returns. It is, however, much too lengthy to introduce here.

Amongst the questions to which special attention has been given is that of the depreciation of plant and machinery, and the amount to be allowed as a deduction under this heading. The Amendment Act of 1894 admitted, amongst deductions, an allowance for depreciation of plant and machinery over and above what might be claimed as repairs and renewals. The allowance was, by law, fixed at ‘what might be considered just by the Commissioner,’ but the Chief Inspector of Machinery is, in this matter, the expert adviser of the department, and he fixes the rates to be allowed on the different classes of machinery. There were naturally some differences of opinion between owners of machinery and the department, but only in the case of steam-vessels has the Inspector found it necessary to alter the scale first laid down. The rule formulated for the Inspector's guidance was as follows:—

An allowance to be made of such an amount (over and above what is expended in renewals and repairs) as will equal the annual loss of profit-earning power.

This is not intended to provide for the loss of capital invested, but simply represents the annual loss through wear and tear (as affecting income-earning capacity), other than that which can be made good by repairs.

Obsolete machinery is also allowed for when the machinery has been actually discarded; and here the amount to be allowed must bear the same proportion to the whole loss as the time the tax has been in operation bears to the life of the machine. An engine discarded in the third year of the tax—the life of the engine being, say, twenty years—would be allowed for to three-twentieths of the loss incurred, less the annual amounts that had been allowed by the department for depreciation for those three years. Machinery superseded by something better, but kept in reserve in case of a breakdown, would not be allowed for.

It should be mentioned here that the statutory exemption of £300 is not allowed to absentees, whether firms or individuals, nor to companies.

Regulations have been issued for levying income-tax on the profits earned by shipowners whose head-quarters are beyond the colony. The plan adopted is to require a return of the outward freight and passenger lists, and to levy tax at the rate of one shilling in the pound upon 5 per cent. of the total returned.

Yield of Tax

For 1895–96 the land-tax yielded £271,000, and the income-tax £94,000. For 1896–97 the yield of the land-tax was £272,000, and the income-tax £105,000. For 1897–98 the land-tax yielded £269,000, and the income-tax £115,000. For 1898–99 the land-tax yielded £298,000, and the income-tax £115,500.

Rates of Tax

The rates of tax at present are as follow: The ordinary land-tax is 1d. in the pound; the graduated tax commences at £5,000, at ⅛ d. in the pound on the unimproved value, and rises to 2d. where the unimproved value of an owner's land is £210,000, or exceeds that sum. The ordinary tax on Native land occupied by Europeans is ½ d. in the pound. For taxpayers other than companies the rate of income-tax is 6d. in the pound on the first taxable £1,000—that is, after deducting the £300 exemption—and 1s. in the pound on any excess over £1,000. A person having an annual income of £1,900 would be thus taxed: £300 would be exempted; £1,000 would pay 6d. in the pound; and the remaining £600, 1s. in the pound: making a total of £55 a year. The tax on an income of £400 would be at 6d. on £100, equal to £2 10s. Income-tax is payable by companies, at the uniform rate of 1s. in the pound.

The schedule of rates of graduated land-tax is as follows:—

Where the value is £5,000 and is less than £10,000, one-eighth of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £10,000 and is less than £15,000, two-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £15,000 and is less than £20,000, three-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £20,000 and is less than £25,000, four-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £25,000 and is less than £30,000, five-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £30,000 and is less than £40,000, six-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £40,000 and is less than £50,000, seven-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £50,000 and is less than £70,000, one penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £70,000 and is less than £90,000, one penny and one eighth of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £90,000 and is less than £110,000, one penny and two-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £110,000 and is less than £130,000, one penny and three-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £130,000 and is less than £150,000, one penny and four-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £150,000 and is less than £170,000, one penny and five-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £170,000 and is less than £190,000, one penny and six-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £190,000 and is less than £210,000, one penny and seven-eighths of a penny in the pound sterling.

Where the value is £210,000 or exceeds that sum, twopence in the pound sterling.

Chapter 52. THE GOVERNMENT VALUATION OF LAND ACT

During the session of 1896 the Government Valuation of Land Act was passed, providing for the periodical valuation of all landed properties in the colony. For the purposes of the Act it is provided that the colony shall be divided into special districts.

The first valuation under the Act has been completed. The purposes for which the valuations are to be used are: Land-tax, local rates (in cases where rates are levied on the capital or on the unimproved value), stamp duties, and duties under ‘The Deceased Persons' Estates Duties Act, 1881’; for advances and investments on mortgage of land made by the Post Office, Government Insurance Department, Public Trust Office, Government Advances to Settlers Office, and the Commissioners of the Public Debts Sinking Funds. The valuation will also be used for the guidance of the Government in transactions under ‘The Land for Settlements Act, 1894,’ and ‘The Public Works Act, 1894.’

Valuations will be supplied by the department on payment of the prescribed fee.

The general valuation-roll continues in force until a fresh roll is made, but whilst in force it may be altered and amended from time to time. The rolls for rating purposes are supplied to local bodies by the Valuer-General on the request of the local authority. The aim is to insure a standard valuation for taxation, local rating, and loan purposes.

Owners and occupiers dissatisfied with their valuations have the right of objection, the procedure being that laid down by ‘The Rating Act, 1894,’ and the regulations under ‘The Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896.’

The cost of making the valuation is divided proportionally between the departments mostly using it and the local authorities, while separate fees are provided for by regulation for supplying individual valuations to persons requiring them.

During the year 1898–99 the operations of the department were confined to rectifying erroneous valuations, and keeping the rolls correct and up to date in accordance with the statute.

Chapter 53. RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUE OF LAND

In August, 1896, an Act was passed by the General Assembly termed ‘The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896,’ for the purpose of affording an opportunity to local bodies of adopting the principle of rating which is expressed in the title of the measure. It is entirely at the option of the bodies to adopt the system, and provision is made for a return to the old system of rating, if desired, after three years' experience of the new one. Under the interpretation clause the term ‘gross value’ means the capital value of land with all its improvements, as assessed by the local authority of the district, the unimproved value of which is to be rateable; and the ‘unimproved value’ is the gross value less that of improvements thereon. ‘Improvements' includes water-races, whether constructed by loan or otherwise, houses and buildings, fencing, planting, draining, clearing from timber, scrub, or fern, laying down in grass or pasture, and any other improvements whatsoever on land, in so far as the benefit thereof is unexhausted at the time of valuation, but does not include reclaiming of land from the sea.’ The Act provides that a proportion of the ratepayers on the roll, varying from 25 per cent. where the total number does not exceed 100, to 15 per cent. where the number exceeds 300, may by demand in writing, delivered to the chairman of the district, require that a proposal to rate property on the basis of the unimproved value may be submitted to the ratepayers, whose votes shall be taken between twenty-one and twenty-eight days after delivery of the demand. The poll is to be taken in the same manner as in case of a proposal to raise a loan in the district under ‘The Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1886.’

A minimum number of one-third of the ratepayers must vote, and a majority of votes carries the proposal.

A rescinding proposal can be carried at a poll by the same means as one for adoption, but not until after three years have elapsed, and, vice versâ, rejection of a proposal bars its being again brought forward for a similar period.

In the valuation-roll to be prepared, the gross value, the value of improvements, and the unimproved value of rateable property must all be set forth. Provision is made for adjustment of rating powers given under previous Acts to the new Act by fixing equivalents. Thus a rate of 1s. in the pound on the annual value under former Acts is to be considered equal to ¾d. in the pound on the gross value.

The adjustments are to be made so that the rates on the unimproved value shall be such as to produce as much as, but not more than, the rates under ‘The Rating Act, 1894.’ For instance, supposing a local authority has a rating power up to ¾d. in the pound on the gross (or capital) value, then it can levy any rate in the pound on the unimproved value of land in its district so long as the producing capacity of such rate is not greater than would be the producing capacity of a ¾d. rate on the gross value of the district. When a fixed rate, under the older system of rating, is security for a loan, the Controller and Auditor-General is given power to interfere and fix the new rate himself if of opinion that the new rate on the unimproved value does not afford equally good security to the one to be given up.

The operation of the Act does not apply to water, gas, electric light, sewage, or hospital and charitable aid rates.

Up to the present time (15th May, 1899) the number of local bodies that have elected to take advantage of the Act is 12. Particulars respecting these cases are subjoined:—

‘Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896.’
Results of Polls.
Cheviot CountyCarried.
Greymouth BoroughCarried.
Hokianga CountyCarried.
Hunua Road DistrictCarried.
Inangahua CountyCarried.
Invercargill BoroughRejected.
Karori BoroughCarried.
Melrose BoroughCarried.
Normanby Town DistrictCarried.
Palmerston North BoroughCarried.
Pahiatua BoroughCarried.
Pahiatua CountyRejected.
Petone BoroughRejected.
Picton BoroughRejected.
Raglan CountyRejected.
Stratford CountyRejected.
Sumner BoroughRejected.
Tauranga CountyRejected.
Taratahi Carterton Road DistrictCarried.
Waipawa CountyCarried.
Waimate BoroughRejected.
Woodville BoroughCarried.
Woolston BoroughRejected.
 Votes recorded.For.Against.Informal.
* As less than one-third of the ratepayers have voted, the proposal is rejected.
Cheviot County..16541..
Greymouth Borough..147281
Hokianga County..109256
Hunua Road District..602..
Inangahua County..239112
Invercargill Borough..267*199*5*
Karori Borough..9331
Melrose Borough..236406
Normanby Town District..82563
Palmerston North Borough..402123
Pahiatua Borough..136381
Pahiatua County..312*21*1*
Petone Borough..72*5*1*
Picton Borough..27731
Raglan County..122*20*..
Stratford County..449*13*..
Sumner Borough..27*1*1*
Tauranga County..112*2*2*
Taratahi–Carterton Road District..26153..
Waimate Borough..100*16*2*
Waipawa County..462283
Woodville Borough..17571
Woolston Borough..1031915

Chapter 54. ‘THE MUNICIPAL FRANCHISE REFORM ACT, 1898.’

A short account of the leading features of this measure is to be found on page 195, in the section relating to the local bodies in the colony.

Chapter 55. OLD-AGE PENSIONS

In 1898 a Bill, introduced into Parliament by the Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier, became law,* which provided for the payment of an old-age pension out of the Consolidated Fund (revenue of the General Government) to persons duly qualified, without contribution by the beneficiaries. The solution of a problem still unsolved in older countries has been thus attempted in New Zealand. The Act, however, only provides for payments out of revenue, for the purposes of the pensions, until the close of the second session of the next Parliament. The conditions under which pension is granted are set forth in sections 7, 8, and 64 of the statute, as under:—

7. Subject to the provisions of this Act, every person of the full age of sixty-five years or upwards shall, whilst in the colony, be entitled to a pension as hereinafter specified.

8. No such person shall be entitled to a pension under this Act unless he fulfils the following conditions, that is to say:—

  1. That he is residing in the colony on the date when he establishes his claim to the pension; and also

  2. That he has so resided continuously for not less than twenty-five years immediately preceding such date:

    Provided that continuous residence in the colony shall not be deemed to have been interrupted by occasional absence therefrom unless the total period of all such absence exceeds two years; nor, in the case of a seaman, by absence therefrom whilst serving on board a vessel registered in and trading to and from the colony if he establishes the fact that during such absence his family or home was in the colony; and also

  3. That during the period of twelve years immediately preceding such date he has not been imprisoned for four months, or on four occasions, for any offence punishable by imprisonment for twelve months or upwards, and dishonouring him in the public estimation; and also

  4. That during the period of twenty-five years immediately preceding such date he has not been imprisoned for a term of five years with or without hard labour for any offence dishonouring him in the public estimation; and also

  5. That the claimant has not at any time for a period of six months or upwards, if a husband, deserted his wife, or without just cause failed to provide her with adequate means of maintenance, or neglected to maintain such of his children as were under the age of fourteen years; or, if a wife, deserted her husband or such of her children as were under that age:

    Provided that, if the pension-certificate is issued, the pensioner's rights thereunder shall not be affected by any disqualification contained in this subsection unless the fact of such disqualification is established at any time to the satisfaction of a Stipendiary Magistrate; and also

  6. That he is of good moral character, and is, and has for five years immediately preceding such date been, leading a sober and reputable life; and also

  7. That his yearly income does not amount to fifty-two pounds or upwards, computed as hereinafter provided; and also

  8. That the net capital value of his accumulated property does not amount to two hundred and seventy pounds or upwards, computed and assessed as hereinafter provided; and also

  9. That he has not directly or indirectly deprived himself of property or income in order to qualify for a pension; and also

  10. That he is the holder of a pension-certificate as hereinafter provided.

64. This Act, in so far as it provides for the granting of pensions, shall not apply to—

  1. Aboriginal natives of New Zealand to whom moneys other than pensions are paid out of the sums appropriated for Native purposes by ‘The Civil List Act, 1863’; nor to

  2. Aliens; nor to

  3. Naturalised subjects, except such as have been naturalised for the period of five years next preceding the date on which they establish their pension-claims; nor to

  4. Chinese or other Asiatics, whether naturalised or not.

* A Bill had been previously introduced in 1897, which, as amended by the lower branch of the Legislature, was transmitted to the Legislative Council, but thrown out by that body.

As a preliminary to the introduction of the Bill in 1897, an Act entitled ‘The Registration of People's Claims Act’ was passed in 1896, under which persons aged sixty-five years or upwards, having resided twenty years in the colony, and whose income did not exceed £50 per annum, were allowed for a limited time to send in pension claims. This Act has been repealed, and all certificates granted under it cancelled, by the Pensions Act of 1898.

The full pension is £18 a year, payable in twelve monthly instalments; but for each £1 of income above £34, also for each £15 of accumulated property above £50, £1 is deducted from the amount of the pension.

The first instalment of the pension is payable on the first day of the month next but one following the date of the certificate.

For the administration of the Act the colony is divided into seventy-two districts, for each of which there is a Deputy-Registrar, controlled by a Chief Registrar at Wellington.

Each claimant for a pension must make application on a printed form. The said form is obtainable at any post-office, and when completed the claim is to be sent to the Deputy-Registrar for the district in which, the claimant resides.

Each application is recorded in a book called ‘The …… .. District Old-age Pension-claim Register,’ and then transmitted to a Stipendiary Magistrate, who, having fixed a day for investigation, notifies the claimant to attend, if his presence is considered necessary. If the claim is admitted, the Stipendiary Magistrate issues a certificate to the Deputy-Registrar, who on receipt enters the particulars in a book called ‘The ……… District Old-age Pension Register,’ after which a pension certificate is issued to the pensioner.

The particulars of pensions granted are entered on a weekly return form, which, with the Magistrate's certificate, is sent to the Chief Registrar for entry in the General Register of Old-age Pensions.

The particulars of instalments falling due are advised to the General Post Office on a schedule. Advice, authorising payment, is then issued to the Postmaster at the money-order office at which the pensioner desired the instalment to be paid. At frequent intervals the Accountant of the General Post Office furnishes a statement of the payments made, from which the monthly instalments are entered on a card bearing the name of the pensioner.

At the due date of the instalment the pensioner may present his certificate for payment at the money-order office named in the certificate. A pensioner failing to collect his instalment within twenty-one days forfeits the amount, but may apply for a warrant of waiver within fourteen days of such forfeiture. If a pensioner is unable, through sickness or other reasonable cause, to collect his pension, he may apply to have an agent appointed to receive the instalments on his behalf. Should a pensioner desire to change the office of payment an application is to be made to the Deputy-Registrar for the district in which the pension is registered. The change is advised to the Chief Registrar by telegram, who notifies the postal authorities. A transfer of a pension-certificate from one district to another is effected by the Deputy-Registrar for the district in which the pension is registered sending a warrant to the Deputy-Registrar for the district to which the transfer is made.

The decease of all persons of the age of sixty-five years and ups wards is advised to the Chief Registrar by the Registrars of Death in the various districts.

All matters affecting the payment of pensions are reported by the Deputy-Registrars from time to time.

The Act came into force on the 1st November, 1898. In the same month a Registrar was appointed, and in December old-age pension districts were constituted, Deputy-Registrars were appointed, and notices were issued throughout the colony that forms of claim were obtainable at all post-offices.

The total number of pensions granted up to the 31st March, 1899, was 7,487, representing a yearly payment of £128,082, the average pension being about £17 2s.

Chapter 56. STATE LIFE INSURANCE IN NEW ZEALAND

S. Percy Richardson, F.F.A., A.I.A., Government Insurance Commissioner, being a reprint of a Paper read before the International Congress of Actuaries held in London in 1898. Revised to date.

Introductory

The New Zealand Government Life Insurance Department was established in the year 1869, at the instance of the late Sir Julius Vogel, who tabled a motion in the House of Representatives recommending the Government to introduce a measure which would create a special department of the State for the purpose of insuring, and granting annuities on, the lives of such people as desired to avail themselves of the guarantee of the colony, in addition to the ordinary security provided by the funds of a life office. This motion was supported by the Hon. Sir John Hall, at that time Postmaster-General, and was duly carried, I believe, unanimously. In the same year there was a change of Government, and Sir Julius—who had in the meantime become a Minister of the Crown—introduced a Bill which gave practical effect to the motion, the adoption of which he had already secured.

Synopsis of the Laws of the Colony regulating the Department

Since that time there have been several amendments of the law, as might naturally be expected from the evolution of the business. It will be unnecessary for me to specify the various amendments, and I shall therefore only give a brief synopsis of the constitution of the department, according to the Acts regulating the department's affairs at the present time.

The management of the department is vested in an officer called ‘The Government Insurance Commissioner,’ who is appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the Ministry of the day, and is a member of the ordinary Civil Service of the colony, holding office in the same manner as other Civil servants. In order to prevent any deadlock, the Governor may appoint a deputy to act in the case of the absence, illness, or other temporary incapacity of the Commissioner. The Government Insurance Commissioner has power to enter into any contracts for annuities, and for insurance of lives, as well as any contracts whatever dependent on the contingencies of human life, under such regulations and in accordance with such tables as shall, from time to time, be approved by the Governor. The maximum of insurance on one life has been raised from time to time as the funds of the department have progressed. At present the department does not insure more than £4,000 on any one life. The Commissioner may increase premiums in proportion to the badness or ineligibility of a life, or he may decline the risk altogether. In all matters of litigation on account of the department the Commissioner may sue and be sued. The Acts regulating the affairs of the department provide, however, for arbitration in certain cases. If there are any disputes between the Commissioner and other parties, as regards annuities or death claims, the matter may be referred to the arbitration of two disinterested persons—one to be chosen and appointed by the Commissioner, and the other by the party with whom the dispute has arisen. In the event of there being any disagreement between the arbitrators, the matter in dispute has to be referred to an umpire to be appointed by the arbitrators before they enter upon the consideration of the matter referred to them. The award of the arbitrators or the umpire, as the case may be, is final and without appeal, except on a point of law. The arbitrators and umpire respectively have all the powers possessed by a Court of law to summon witnesses and examine evidence, &c. Before matters are referred to arbitration, the Commissioner may, however, require a deposit of money as security for the costs of the arbitration.

All moneys payable to the department are required by the Act to be paid into a separate account at the bank where for the time being the Public Account of the colony is kept, to the credit of an account called the Government Insurance Account, and if at any time the moneys standing to the credit of that account should prove insufficient to meet the charges thereon, the deficiency has to be made good out of the Consolidated Fund of the colony.

Salaries and expenses of management are paid out of the Government Insurance Account from moneys from time to time appropriated by the New Zealand Parliament; but all payments under policy and annuity contracts for insurance, annuities and endowments, or for loans on policies, or for investments, are made out of the Government Insurance Account without such appropriation by Parliament.

The department is subject to the ordinary State audit of the colony, and the Government Insurance Account at the bank is operated on by the Government Insurance Commissioner by cheque, countersigned by the Controller and Auditor-General of the colony.

The Commissioner has to prepare, for presentation to Parliament, a revenue account and balance-sheet for the preceding annual period, and such statements of accounts are accompanied by a report by the Commissioner on the year's transactions. An actuarial investigation is made into the affairs of the department every three years, and all profits (subject to suitable reserves being made) are then divided amongst the participating policyholders.

The investments of the department do not materially differ from those of an ordinary life insurance institution. They are in the main confined to New Zealand Government securities, loans to local bodies (municipal corporations and the like,) secured by special rate, loans to policyholders on the security of their policies, limited to 90 per cent. of the surrender value, and loans on mortgage of real estate, the last-named not to exceed three-fifths of the valuation. Not more than £10,000 can be lent on one real-estate security, nor more than that sum to any one person or company. No loan can be granted to a local body unless with the joint concurrence of the Board hereinafter mentioned and the Governor.

For the purpose of controlling and managing the mortgage investments on land of the department, a Board is constituted consisting of the Colonial Treasurer of the colony, the Solicitor-General, the Surveyor-General, the Commissioner of Taxes, the Public Trustee, and the Government Insurance Commissioner. The Board must be unanimous before any loan on mortgage can be granted, and three members of the Board form a quorum.

The Staff of the Department

As already explained, the statutory duties under the Acts regulating the affairs of the department, and the general management of the department, are vested in the Government Insurance Commissioner. The Commissioner is assisted at the head office by the Assistant Commissioner (who also holds the position of Deputy Commissioner, the duties of which are explained in my remarks regarding the constitution of the department), the Actuary, the Secretary, and the Supervisor of new business. For all practical purposes the staff may be regarded as the same as that of an ordinary life insurance institution.

For purposes of control, the colony is divided into four districts, each of which is supervised by an officer called a District Manager. Subject to the control of the Commissioner, the District Managers are responsible for the management of their respective districts. It is their duty to recommend suitable gentlemen as canvassing agents, and to make suitable arrangements which will insure their districts being thoroughly canvassed. The District Managers are paid partly by results. They receive a fixed salary, and a commission on the net increase in the sum assured by the policies in their respective districts. Such net increase is arrived at by deducting the sum assured under the policies which have become void by death, lapse, surrender, &c., during the year, from the sum assured under the new policies issued during the same period. Where the department has not a District Manager or resident officer, it is customary to employ the local Postmaster. All such Postmasters are paid a commission for any work they may perform for the Department. Travelling agents are paid strictly by results. Their remuneration depends entirely on the amount of business they introduce. For all practical purposes they may be regarded as being on the same footing as the canvassing agents of an ordinary life insurance institution.

The Department's Methods of Business

The department is conducted precisely on the same principles as those adopted in ordinary life insurance offices in which the profits are divided solely amongst the assured. It is in all respects a mutual self-supporting office. All expenses and taxes (to which the department is subject in common with other life insurance offices transacting business in the colony) are borne by the policy-holders, and the business is conducted on ordinary commercial principles. All classes of policies ordinarily issued by life offices are granted, the colony being vigorously canvassed by duly accredited travelling agents. All profits are divided amongst the assured, who, in addition, have the guarantee of the State that their contracts will be duly met at death or maturity.

Conditions of Policies

The following are the more important conditions affecting policies:—

Thirty days of grace are allowed for the payment of all premiums. Policies which have not acquired a surrender value, when the premiums become overdue, may be revived at any period not exceeding twelve calendar months after the expiry of the thirty days of grace, subject to proof of health to the Commissioner's satisfaction and on payment of the arrears and a suitable fine. Ordinary policies acquire a surrender value after they have been in existence two years, and in the event of the premiums falling in arrear are kept alive out of the surrender value so long as such surrender value is sufficient—after the deduction of any loan that may have been advanced, or any charges that may have accrued—to cover one-quarter's premium. Any such policy may be revived within twelve months after the exhaustion of the surrender value, subject to payment of arrears and a fine, and to proof of health to the Commissioner's satisfaction.

The department's condition as regards suicide differs considerably from that usually adopted. Until recently the department's policies became void if the person whose life is insured died by suicide, whether sane or insane, within twelve months from the date of the policy. This condition was thought to be somewhat illiberal, but the department was not prepared to waive the suicide clause altogether, and it was considered that the following condition would fairly meet the case:—

Policies shall become void if the person whose life is insured shall die by suicide, whether sane or insane, within six months from the date of the policy; provided nevertheless that it shall be lawful for the Commissioner in his absolute discretion to pay the sum assured if he is satisfied, after careful inquiry, that the person whose life is insured had not at the date of the policy any suicidal intention.

I find that the new condition works well in practice. It is sufficient to act as a deterrent to prevent people effecting policies with a view to committing suicide, while, on the other hand, it does not prevent the department paying claims where there was no suicidal intention at the time the policy was obtained. Care is, of course, taken to peruse the inquest papers, and evidence is obtained from the canvassing agent in order to ascertain the circumstances under which the proposal was obtained. Cases in which the policy was effected voluntarily, without solicitation, would, of course, be looked upon with grave suspicion.

Surrender Values

Whole-life insurance policies and endowment insurance policies may be surrendered after they have been in force for two years. Whole-life insurance policies or endowment insurance policies fully paid-up may be surrendered at any time after date of issue. Short term policies and other policies than those mentioned above are specially dealt with. The method or methods upon which surrender values are calculated are determined by the Commissioner.

In lieu of the surrender value paid-up policies are granted, provided such surrender value, after deduction of charges thereon, is equivalent to a paid-up policy of at least £20. The method of calculating surrender values is that usually adopted in life insurance offices.

Progress of the Department since its Establishment

The following table shows the progress of the department since its establishment in 1869:—

Year.New Business.Business in Force at End of each Period.Income (frome)Paid to Policyholders.Added to Funds.Accumulated Funds.
Number of Policies.Sum Assured.Number of Policies.Sum Assured.Interest.Premiums.
  £ ££££££
1870–1871463206,361454200,611..7,509..5,1135,113
1871–18721,357461,3101,689625,42154317,5451,52610,04115,154
1872–18731,151428,6152,634995,9861,34330,1323,21321,76136,915
1873–18741,499510,0103,9531,453,4962,33243,3797,03330,32167,236
1874–18751,374483,2234,9891,836,8594,20764,27514,22142,732109,968
1875–18761,249481,1706,1532,282,1296,66972,25323,75543,749153,717
1876–18771,411564,2287,1492,716,9079,13382,85214,43865,677219,394
1877–18781,994681,1098,7113,251,22012,60198,58221,64573,129292,523
1878–18792,073687,57410,2233,726,33016,737115,85835,69979,367371,890
1879–18802,266722,55411,6564,171,50421,098125,07639,08887,446459,336
1880–18811,790550,35112,4114,352,49620,506130,04839,39497,895557,231
1881–18822,523702,90913,8104,695,33831,310139,99653,59396,659653,890
1882 (½-year)2,547631,27915,8925,176,21717,71177,07627,44850,999704,889
18835,1131,039,91619,9175,898,95141,173174,37242,923141,271846,160
18843,309800,01621,0036,135,63648,472179,95972,783126,616972,776
18854,379859,77023,2186,466,27652,150188,58672,626129,2591,102,035
18863,560717,46424,7156,670,74158,205197,32481,660129,8991,231,934
18873,124766,95225,4396,831,93466,380201,904125,01996,5591,328,493
18882,957785,09326,1687,076,25273,421208,740110,411123,9861,452,479
18893,187781,25527,2187,326,12981,386217,308112,102129,9091,582,448
18902,761684,24228,1027,544,03089,796223,610103,744132,7451,715,193
18912,934699,90129,2267,782,73496,379234,496144,574132,6041,847,797
18922,634642,10430,3168,036,220100,639241,965157,408132,5011,980,298
18933,263740,42831,7098,302,257108,098253,574141,321148,2922,128,590
18943,301729,01332,9078,506,289115,270254,204178,107135,6492,264,239
18952,874608,04833,9688,651,967119,973266,032171,544164,0062,428,245
18962,864605,98634,7728,754,804124,255270,720166,369163,0972,591,342
18973,161665,89836,1749,002,601128,424269,688205,193133,7642,725,106
18983,386713,48937,8489,304,742131,188278,949210,245136,4282,861,534
 ........1,585,3994,666,0122,377,082....

Policies in Force as at 31st December, 1898

The next statement is a summary of the different classes of business in force as at the above date:—

Class of Business.Number of Policies.Sums Assured.Bonuses.Annuities
Assurances. £££
With Participation in Profits.    
Whole life assurances, uniform premiums17,4254,954,689495,970..
Whole life assurances, limited and single premiums909385,98488,004..
Endowment assurances, payable at death or maturity17,4763,593,357233,678..
Double endowment assurances1,162299,8261,140..
Joint life assurances, uniform premiums115,200295..
Survivorship assurances150097..
Annuity assurances, temporary assurance with deferred annuity11114,7001675,142
Annuity assurances, whole life assurance with deferred annuity8811,1001314,256
     Total assurances, with profits37,1839,265,356819,4829,398
Without Participation in Profits.    
Whole life (transferred from Temperance to Non-profit)46503..
Endowment, with return of premiums28734,751....
Temporary assurances2600....
Investments933,131....
Industrial13254....
     Total assurances without profits39939,3863..
     Total assurances37,5829,304,742819,4859,398
     Annuities.    
Immediate249....10,437
Joint and survivorship7....550
Reversionary1....300
Deferred, without return of premiums8....201
Deferred, with return1....20
     Total annuities266....11,508
     Total of the results37,8489,304,742819,48520;906

Asset

A summary is given of the department's assets as at the end of 1898, the last date to which the accounts have been published. The assets are held in trust for the policy-holders insured in the department, and are specially ‘ear-marked’ to them by statute:—

 £ 
Loans on policies541,474 
Government securities827,858 
Municipal corporation debentures106,781 
County securities1,000 
Harbour Board debentures42,549 
Town Board debentures500 
Landed and house property120,938 
Office furniture (Head Office and agencies)3,057 
Mortgages on property1,130,608 
Properties acquired by foreclosure19,770 
Outstanding premiums37,635 
Interest outstanding and accrued41,031 
Agents'balances2,383 
Sundry accounts owing1,045 
Cash in hand and on current account47,735 
 £2,924,364 

Valuations

Particulars are shown of the actuarial valuations that have been made from time to time:—

Date.Basis of Valuation.Surplus.Cash DividedReversionary Bonus declared.
Assurance.Annuities.
* The reserve of £81,000 set aside on this occasion made the standard equivalent to Hm 3 ⅝ per cent.
     £££
30 June, 1875Hm 4 ½ per cent. Carlisle 4 ½ per cent. 12,191NilNil
30 June, 1880Hm 4 ½ per cent. Carlisle 4 per cent. 73,67156,000124,552
31 Dec., 1885Hm 4 ½ per cent.British Government experience, 1884, 4 ½ per cent.242,557150,000319,391
31 Dec., 1890Hm 4 per cent. Ditto, 4 per cent… 232,652200,000396,439
31 Dec., 1893Hm 4 per cent. Ditto, 4 per 190,000140,000277,268
31 Dec., 1896*Hm 4 per cent.* Ditto, 4 per .. 225,000144,000257,911
      690,0001,375,561

Landed and House Property

The department's landed and house property at the larger centres throughout the colony is valued at £120,938. Such parts of the buildings as are not required are let to tenants. The institution owns large offices at Wellington (the Head Office), Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

Temperance Section

In July, 1882, the department opened a special section confined to policy-holders who totally abstain from all intoxicating liquors and desire to be insured in the section.

The original intention was to constitute a distinct branch of the department, keeping the receipts, expenditure, funds, valuations, and profits entirely separate. For the first few years the premiums, claims, surrenders, commission, and medical fees were kept separate, but the interest and general expenses were not so kept.

In 1885, valuations of the two sections, General and Temperance, were made separately by the Consulting Actuaries of the department in London, who apportioned the total funds between the sections by assigning to each section the expenses which admitted of being specifically appropriated, such as commission and medical fees; by dividing the remaining expenses between the two sections in proportion to the premium income of each; and by dividing the interest between the two sections in proportion to the average fund of each for that particular year.

The result of these valuations was that, while there was a substantial surplus in the General Section, there was a deficiency of £2,759. in the Temperance Section. This deficiency was mainly owing to the short duration of the section, only two years and a half. As a matter of course, no bonuses were allotted to Temperance policy-holders on this occasion.

Early in the history of the Temperance Section there arose a demand on the part of the total abstainers in the General Section to be transferred to the former section This demand was complied with, and until the end of the year 1888 transfers from General to Temperance were allowed, being limited to those policy-holders whose policies were their own absolute property, and were dated before the 1st July, 1882, and also provided that each policy-holder had been a total abstainer since taking out his policy. The total number of policies so transferred was fifty-eight, assuring £1,7,910.

Before the end of 1888, however, when these transfers ceased, dissatisfaction had arisen in the Temperance Section in consequence of the results of the 1885 valuation. The net surplus in the General Section was distributed in April, 1887, and it was soon felt that the Temperance policy-holders were keenly dissatisfied at receiving no bonuses at the same time. This dissatisfaction being very pronounced, and exhibiting a tendency to seriously interfere with the business of the department, steps were taken to secure fresh legislation enabling the two sections to be amalgamated, excepting so far as profit from mortality was concerned. The amalgamation of the two sections was approved by the New Zealand Parliament, and was given effect to by ‘The Government Life Insurance Acts Amendment Act, 1890,’ which sets. forth that the amount of profit from favourable mortality in the General and Temperance Sections is to be ascertained separately, and divided exclusively amongst the policy-holders of the section in which it has arisen, and that the remaining portion of the profits is to be divided, irrespective of the section to which policy-holders belong; and at the three subsequent valuations of 1890, 1893, and 1896, a method of dissecting profit from mortality, approved by our Consulting Actuaries, was adhered to.

The question of the treatment of backsliders received careful and anxious consideration in the early years of the Temperance Section, but it was not necessary to ask for declarations of total abstinence until the first division of profits among Temperance policy-holders in 1890. The settlement of this difficult matter was finally effected by the Act of 1890, above referred to, which sets forth that all Temperance policy-holders who fail to adhere to the principle of total abstinence, except for sacramental purposes, shall be removed from the Temperance Section unless any case shall be proved, to the satisfaction of the Commissioner, to have been one of extreme urgency. Those so removed are divided into two classes:—

  1. Those whose prospects of longevity have not, in the opinion of the Commissioner, been impaired through use of alcoholic or fermented liquors, and whose habits would permit of their being insured in the General Section if they were proposing for new insurance; and

  2. Those whose prospects of longevity have, in the opinion of the Commissioner, been impaired through the use of alcoholic or fermented liquors, or whose habits would not permit of their being insured in the General Section if they were proposing for new insurance.

Class (1) to be transferred to the General Section, and Class (2) to a ‘Non-profit’ Section.

In consequence of the Act of 1890 (referred to in last paragraph), a special condition was indorsed on all new Temperance policies as follows: ‘In the event of the assured failing to abstain from all intoxicating liquors (except for sacramental purposes) at any time during the currency of this policy, he shall thereupon be removed from the Temperance Section, subject to the provisions of ‘The Government Life Insurance Acts Amendment Act, 1890;’ and before each distribution of profits a declaration of continued abstinence is required from every Temperance policy-holder. Transfers to the General Section in accordance with the Act of 1890 are effected by indorsement, and a new number in the General Section is given to the transferred policy. In transfers to the Non-profit Section the number remains unaltered. The policies so transferred to the end of March, 1897, are as follows:—

General.Non-profit.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
* Transferred to General Section.
  £ £
189121651,025102,150
189311126,2396775
18951300–(1)–(300)*
189615132,025....
18975813,172....
 537122,761152,625

Of the non-profit policies, only four, for £650, remain in force, the others having become void, thus:—

  £
Maturity1200
Surrender2600
Lapse81,175
In force4650
 152,625

At the amalgamation of the two sections in 1890 the accounts which had been previously kept separate were brought together.

There have been four divisions of profits since the inauguration of the Temperance Section—in 1885, 1890, 1893, and 1896. On the first occasion, Temperance policy-holders received no bonus; in 1890, General and Temperance bonuses were equal; in 1893 the Temperance bonuses were slightly higher; and at the last valuation in 1896 the positions were reversed, and the General bonuses proved to be on a slightly higher scale than the Temperance bonuses. It must, however, be borne in mind that the numbers in the Temperance Section are still too small to allow any definite conclusion to be drawn from these results as to the future bonus prospects of the two sections.

The following is a summary of the yearly progress of the Temperance Section since its inception:—

Year.Policies Issued.Policies Void.Policies Transferred to General and Non-profit Sections.
Number.Sum Assured.Number.Sum Assured.Number.Sum Assured.
  £ £ £
1882472111,2251500....
1883998204,424101,950....
1884842197,47521543,945....
18851,112225,15430464,802....
18861,129199,01933773,773....
1887518112,995511115,778....
188838391,73443890,787....
188943095,14630163,941....
189040089,37223749,984....
189143290,73323148,96322653,175
1892504109,35917637,018....
1893657137,80022651,34011727,014
1894602125,03526248,681....
189548490,17522952,836....
189648288,15027956,62715132,025
189753498,30017133,0075813,172
189844180,40018436,241....
     Total10,4202,146,4964,112870,173552125,386
 Number.Sum Assured.
  £
Total policies issued10,4202,146,496
Total void and transferred4,664995,559
     In force5,756£1,150,937

The balance in force at the end of 1898 was, therefore, 5,756 policies, assuring £1,150,937.

The Tontine Savings-fund System

The first Tontine Savings Fund was introduced through regulations, approved by the Governor, dated September, 1887.

This first fund is now known as ‘Tontine Savings Fund No. 1,’ and was open for new policy-holders to join until the 31st December, 1890, and for old policy-holders (who were allowed to transfer their policies to the Tontine Class by indorsement) until the same date. At the end of 1890 the Fund No. 1 was closed to new entrants, and this fund will be wound up at the end of 1900. In January, 1891, a fresh fund, Tontine Fund No. 2, was opened by regulations in the same manner, and this fund will be closed to new entrants on the 31st December, 1900, and wound up on the 31st December, 1910.

Each fund is composed of whole-life and endowment assurance policies, but it is stipulated that no endowment assurance can be placed in a Tontine fund unless it matures later than the date upon which the fund will be wound up and distributed among those policyholders entitled to share.

The only difference between Tontine policies and ordinary with profit policies is that the bonuses allotted to Tontine policies do not vest and are not negotiable until the winding-up of the Tontine Fund. Tontine policy-holders have all the privileges and benefits of ordinary policy-holders, except the right of dealing with their bonuses during the Tontine period.

The Tontine funds are formed of the proceeds of the bonuses on Tontine policies which become void during the Tontine period, together with their accumulations. Reversionary bonuses are allotted to Tontine policies in precisely the same manner as to ordinary policies.

Whenever a Tontine policy becomes void by death during the Tontine period, the full reversionary bonus (including prospective or interim bonus), is credited to the Tontine Fund; when a Tontine policy is surrendered, or the surrender value becomes exhausted previous to the lapsing of the policy, the full surrender value of all allotted bonuses (including prospective bonus) is credited to the Tontine Fund.

At the end of every year, the bonuses so credited to the Tontine funds are accumulated from the date of policy becoming void to the end of the year at the average rate of interest earned on the general accumulated funds of the department for the year, and, at the end of every year, the Tontine funds as at the end of the previous year are accumulated at interest in a similar manner.

Tontine policy-holders are only allowed to borrow on the face value of their policies, nor are they permitted to surrender their bonuses for cash, until the Tontine Fund to which they belong is wound up.

On the winding-up of Tontine No. 1 in 1900, and Tontine No. 2 in 1910, the respective funds will be divided between the surviving Tontine policy-holders whose policies are in full force on the 31st December, 1900, and the 31st December, 1910, respectively.

The shares of profit so determined (together with the bonuses allotted to the Tontine policies during the Tontine period), then become the negotiable property of the respective Tontine policyholders, who will be allowed to deal with them practically in the same manner as ordinary policy-holders may deal with their bonuses; that is to say,—

  1. The total reversionary value of the bonuses may be added to the policy, which then becomes an ordinary policy at the original rate of premium;

  2. The whole of the policy (including bonuses) may be surrendered for the then equivalent cash value, paid-up assurance, or immediate annuity:

  3. The bonuses may be surrendered for the equivalent cash value or immediate annuity, and the original policy continued in force.

In Tontine No. 1, policy-holders surrendering their bonuses for cash, and continuing their original policies in force, are allowed the option of placing the policies so kept in force in a fresh Tontine; in Tontine No. 2 no such option was allowed, as it was not known certainly that a new Tontine would be opened upon the closing of Tontine No. 2 to new entrants on the 31st December, 1900.

The position of the two funds on the 31st December, 1898, was as follows:—

 Number of Policies
in Force.
Sum Assured
in Force.
Tontine Fund.
  ££s.d.
Tontine No. 13,7121,033,72712,644110
Tontine No. 24,018963,2002,514118
     Total7,7301,996,92715,15928

Civil Service Insurance

‘The Civil Service Insurance Act, 1893,’ came into force on the 1st January, 1894, and requires each officer (with certain exceptions) appointed to the Civil Service after that date to effect a policy in the Government Insurance Department providing for the payment of a sum at death, should he die before sixty years of age, and an annuity until death should he survive that age; that is, a temporary assurance ceasing at age sixty, and a deferred annuity commencing at that age. The officer, by paying an additional premium, may, if he so desire, have the insurance changed to a whole-life one. Under ‘The Civil Service Reform Act, 1886,’ 5 per cent. was deducted from the salaries of officers appointed after the passing of that Act, and accumulated at interest for their benefit on retiring from the service, or for the benefit of their representatives in the event of death. By the Civil Service Insurance Act of 1893, Civil servants appointed under ‘The Civil Service Reform Act, 1886,’ have the option of coming under the provisions of the former Act, and applying their existing accumulations to increasing the annuity payable under the scheme.

Officers who have attained that age which would render it inexpedient, or impossible, for them to effect policies providing for the combined benefits, may elect either to have a 5-per-cent. deduction made, as provided under the Act of 1886, or purchase an ordinary assurance policy.

The policies under the Civil Service insurance scheme cannot be assigned or mortgaged as long as the assured remains in the service.

Officers on retiring, or being dismissed, are entitled to continue their policies.

The annual deduction is £5 from every salary under £150; £7 10s. for a salary of £150; and increasing £2 10s. for each additional £50 of salary up to £800.

Regulations have been issued under the Act setting forth the benefits, and providing that the combined benefits shall only apply to persons appointed whose ages do not exceed 40 years. Persons appointed over 40 years' old and under 50 can select an annuity commencing at 60, or, provided they are able to pass the necessary medical examination, an endowment assurance payable at death, or 60. If the officer is over 50 years of age, he can insure under any of the department's tables, on passing the necessary examination.

Whenever the deductions increase, such increase, and the corresponding increase in the benefits, are indorsed on the policy. The deductions made provide an insurance equal to a year's salary, as well as a pension beginning at age 60.

The number of policies under this scheme in force at the 31st December, 1898, was 236, insuring £34,150, and entitling the survivors at age 60 to annuities amounting to £9,288 per annum.

Postage-stamps

The department pays its own postage, just as any ordinary life insurance institution. By special arrangement, however, with the Postal and Stamp Departments of the colony, the Government Insurance possesses a special stamp of its own, the dies for which are retained by the Stamp Office, the stamps being supplied to the Insurance Department in exchange for cash as required.

‘Life Assurance Policies Act, 1884,’ and ‘Life Assurance Policies Act 1884 Amendment Act, 1885.’

As all policies issued by the department are affected by these Acts, it may not prove uninteresting to give a brief summary of their principal provisions, so far as they relate to the policies issued by the department.

Assignments and Mortgages of Policies

The department is not bound to receive, nor is it liable in any way to be affected by express, implied, or constructive notice, however given, of any trust (affecting any policy) created after the passing of the Act. The Act provides forms for assignment and mortgage of policies both to outsiders and to the companies (including the department) issuing the policies. In the former case the assignment is affected by indorsement in schedule form, as under:—

Form of Ordinary Transfer*
* By this form of transfer, an absolute assignment of the policy is effected.
Date of Transfer.Signature of Transferor.Witness: Address, Occupation.Transferee.Signature of Transferee.Witness: Address, Occupation.Date of Registration of Transfer.Signature of Commissioner.
Name in Full.Address.Occupation.

The policy thus indorsed is left at the department's head office, whereupon the Commissioner, if in his opinion the transaction is in due form, signs and registers the transfer, and the policy becomes vested in the assignee, who thereupon becomes the holder of the policy and may thereafter sue, as well at law as in equity, in his own name on the policy assigned. The receipt of such assignee is a valid discharge, both at law and in equity, for all moneys payable thereunder. If any such assignment is upon any trust, such trust has to be effected by way of declaration of trust by some separate instrument, and no notice of any such trust is inserted in the assignment or indorsed on the policy. Re-assignments of policies are effected in the same manner.

The Act provides a special form of assignment where the policy is surrendered to the company issuing it. There is nothing special about the form. It is merely an acknowledgment of the receipt of the surrender value, and a full release. The Act provides a special form of mortgage which relates to loans advanced by the department as well as to advances made by outsiders. All such mortgages have to be executed by both mortgagor and mortgagee, unless the mortgage be to the department or company liable under the policy, in which case it has to be executed by the mortgagor only. In every mortgage, not being a mortgage to the department or company liable under the policy mortgaged, certain covenants are implied and have the same effect as if embodied in the mortgage. In the case of mortgages to the department on its own policies, other covenants are similarly implied, and have the same effect as if they had been embodied in the mortgage.

It does not necessarily follow that the implied covenants, both in the case of mortgages to the company issuing the policy and to outsiders, are to be rigidly adhered to. There is power under the Act to negative or modify any of the implied covenants, or to add others, provided, of course, all such are duly embodied in the mortgage deed. Mortgages to outsiders are registered by leaving the same, duly executed, with the policy and a certified copy of the mortgage, at the head office of the department; whereupon the Commissioner, if satisfied that everything is in due form, indorses on such policy a memorandum as follows:—

Memorandum of Registration of Mortgage on Policy.
Mortgage of the within policy to     ,of,registered this day of     ,18, ato'clock in the     noon. 
      Commissioner.

At the same time the following indorsement is made on the mortgage:—

Memorandum of Registration of Mortgage on Mortgage.
This mortgage registered thisday of,18     , ato'clock in the     noon. 
     Commissioner.

The certified copy of the mortgage is retained in the head office of the department, and the policy and the original mortgage are returned to the person leaving the same. In the case of mortgages to the department the same course is followed, except that the policy and the mortgage are retained by the department. Any number of mortgages may be registered against the same policy, taking effect and having priority according to priority of the date of registration. Any mortgagee, when he has sold a policy under the power of sale implied in his mortgage, may execute an assignment of the mortgaged policy, adding words in the assignment purporting that he has sold it in exercise of his power of sale; and thereupon all the provisions of the Act relating to the registration and effect of assignments apply to such assignment. The Act expressly provides that in such cases neither the department nor any purchaser from a mortgagee shall be bound to inquire into the propriety or regularity of the sale, or be affected in any way by notice, express, implied, or constructive, that the same is in any way improper or irregular, or be bound or concerned to see to the application of the proceeds of a sale by a mortgagee. Mortgages are discharged by a simple acknowledgment (witnessed in the usual manner) as follows:—

This mortgage is hereby discharged [if discharge be only partial state so].

Dated thisday of,18.
  A.B.,
  Mortgagee.

Signed by the above-named A B., as mortgagee, in the presence of—

 C.D.,
 [Occupation and address].

Where such discharges have been duly registered by the Commissioner, the policy is released from the mortgage to the extent specified in the discharge.

Any person acquiring a policy through the bankruptcy of the holder, or under a will, or intestacy, or under a writ of execution issued out of any Court, may, on the production of the policy, together with the evidence necessary to establish his right to such policy, have his title registered by the Commissioner and the policy duly indorsed. and such indorsement vests the policy in such person fully and effectually.

Mortgages of policies may be assigned in exactly the same way as policies. If the Commissioner refuses to register any assignment or document, the person desiring such registration may apply to a Judge of the Supreme Court, who, after hearing evidence, has the power either to order registration or refuse the application. Registration effected in pursuance of a Judge's order has the effect of discharging the Commissioner from any responsibility for the consequences of such registration. The department and all other persons whosoever are not, except in the case of fraud, affected by notice of any interest whatsoever in any policy which interest is not registered on the policy, and registered dealings with the duly registered assignee or mortgagee of a policy shall not, except in the case of fraud, be capable of being set aside or affected in any manner whatsoever by any such notice. Notwithstanding the provisions of the Act as to registration, nothing contained in the Act operates as a bar to prevent a competent Court from enforcing any equities which may exist as between the parties to any transaction or matter relating to any policy, or any interest therein, or any moneys payable thereunder.

In the event of the department keeping a policy alive out of its surrender value, the Act specifies that all moneys so applied, with interest accrued thereon, shall be a first charge on the policy and the surrender value thereof, and may be deducted therefrom as against any mortgagee or assignee whatsoever.

Provision for Lost or Destroyed Policies or Instruments

When any policy is lost or destroyed, or when any instrument required to be registered, or the production of which is in any way essential to registration, is lost or destroyed, the Commissioner may, on such evidence and subject to such terms and conditions as he thinks fit, issue a certified copy of such policy, which thereafter takes the place of the lost or destroyed policy, and at the same time becomes the sole evidence of the contract made by the policy; or the Commissioner may effect any registration on such terms and conditions as he shall think fit, notwithstanding the loss or destruction of any such instrument as aforesaid. Prior to the time when the special provision as regards copy policies became law, the department experienced considerable difficulty in dealing with lost policies. Deadlocks frequently occurred, and it was necessary to obtain bonds in many cases. Under the present law, it is my practice to ask for a statutory declaration before a Justice of the Peace or solicitor, fully explaining the loss or destruction of the original policy, what steps have been taken to search for the missing document, &c. Upon receipt of such declaration, it is my invariable practice, unless the circumstances are distinctly exceptional, to require the applicant for the copy policy to deposit the cost of two or three advertisements, to be signed by me, setting forth that, unless notice be lodged with me forbidding the issue of a copy policy, I shall proceed to do so after a certain date specified in the advertisement.

In the case of a claim where the policy is not forthcoming at the time the ordinary claim papers are lodged, I sometimes ask for a bond to be executed by the executor or administrator, and two sureties, indemnifying the department against loss. In all such cases I ask for suitable statutory declarations, and invariably advertise the loss of the policy, and that I purpose issuing a copy after a specified date. The arrangement works smoothly enough, and I find it a vast improvement on the unsatisfactory state of affairs that previously obtained.

Protection of Policies

Policies of the department do not become void by non-payment of premium so long as the surrender value is not exhausted by any charges thereon. With some few exceptions, the department's policies are protected from bankruptcy to the extent of £2,000, exclusive of bonuses, or in the case of annuities to the extent of £104 per annum. Such protection does not avail to protect any policy from passing to a trustee in bankruptcy if it be proved to the satisfaction of a Judge of the Supreme Court that such policy was taken out by the bankrupt with intent to defraud his creditors. A holder of a policy whose policy has been protected from bankruptcy is incapable for three years after his bankruptcy of disposing of the same, except for a paid-up policy, or of mortgaging the same, except for the purpose of keeping the policy in force. The Commissioner in registering an assignment or mortgage, and any person taking an assignment or mortgage of a policy, is not bound to inquire whether the holder of such policy has been bankrupt within three years; and except in the case of fraud, no assignment or mortgage, or registration, shall be capable of being set aside on the ground that it was such a policy as referred to, and that the holder thereof had so assigned or mortgaged it into contravention of the terms of such proviso.

Moneys Payable under a Policy for the Benefit of Minors, &c

When any moneys become payable under a policy to or for the benefit of a minor, or to or for any person otherwise incapable of exercising his rights, and there is no trustee or person capable of giving a valid discharge, such moneys may be paid to the Public Trustee of this colony, a member of the Civil Service acting under special Acts of the Legislature of New Zealand, unless, of course, another trustee is appointed in due course of law.

If, however, application is made to a Judge of the Supreme Court, the Judge may appoint the Public Trustee, or any other person, trustee of such moneys on such terms as he may order. Payment by the department to the Public Trustee, or to a trustee appointed by the Court, is a valid discharge.

Payments without Probate

In cases where the sum assured, exclusive of bonuses, does not exceed £200, the Commissioner, without requiring probate or letters of administration, may pay such moneys, together with accrued bonuses, to any person being the husband, wife, father, mother, child, brother, sister, nephew, or niece of such deceased person, or to any person who can prove himself to the satisfaction of the Commissioner to be entitled to the effects of the deceased person under his will (if any), or under the statutes for the distribution of the effects of intestates, or to be entitled to obtain probate of the will of such deceased person, or to take out letters of administration of his property. In every such case the Commissioner is discharged from further liability in respect of the claim so paid. The Commissioner may, if he thinks fit, require probate or letters of administration to be taken out, and thereupon pay such moneys to the executor or administrator of the deceased. All persons to whom such moneys as aforesaid are paid are held bound by the Act to apply the same in due course of administration; and, if the Commissioner thinks fit, he may require such persons to give sufficient security by bond or otherwise that the moneys so paid will be so applied, but the Commissioner is not bound to see to the proper application of such moneys.

Conclusion

In conclusion, I may be permitted to say that the progress of the Insurance Department has been of a highly satisfactory character. It began business in 1870, some thirty years after the New Zealand Company established its first settlement at Wellington, where the head office of the department is situated, Since then, when the population of the colony numbered only 248,000 souls, what was deemed by some persons a hazardous experiment has proved a success considerably beyond the expectations of its originators, and, judging by the experience of past years, the prospects of the future are replete with promise of still further advancement. By the tables of mortality, as officially reported, the death rate of New Zealand, as might be expected from the salubrity of the climate, is the lowest in any community within the British dominions, or, indeed, in the world, and hence arise increased profits, which, with the low premiums and the valuable adjunct of the State security, have obtained for the department an appreciation and popularity to which the growth of the sum assured, the expansion of the accumulated funds, and the general condition of the institution, bear satisfactory testimony.

Chapter 57. NEW ZEALAND CONSOLS

The purpose of ‘The New Zealand Consols Act, 1894,’ is, by providing for an inscription of such Consols, to give further facilities for the safe investment of savings. Practically, it establishes another branch of the Government Savings-Bank, with extended power of investment. Under section 3 the Colonial Treasurer is authorised to receive by way of deposits from persons in the colony sums of money up to £500,000; but the amount deposited in any one year must not be more than £250,000. The currency of such deposits is not to exceed forty years. The rate of interest must not exceed 4 per cent. (The actual rate being paid is 3½ per cent, per annum.)

Post-office money-order offices throughout the colony are made use of to receive applications for inscription, and also for payment of the half-yearly interest on the amounts deposited. The Receivers are the Postmasters, and the Registrar under the Act is the Secretary to the Treasury, Wellington.

Regulations have been issued, under which every deposit of money for inscription is to be accompanied by an application according to the form given below, which is to be signed by the applicant and countersigned by the Receiver (Postmaster) taking the deposit. The person paying the money receives an interim receipt pending official acknowledgment from the Registrar at Wellington. The receipt subsequently given by the Registrar to the Consols-holder is not a negotiable document, or of monetary value, beyond its being proof of the deposit for purposes of inscription. A holder of Consols can obtain from the Registrar on application and payment of 5s. a certified copy of any entry in the register relating to his deposit.

There is provision for the transfer of Consols from one holder to another on application being made to the Registrar according to the second form given, and payment of 1s. fee.

In case an inscriber desires to make use of his deposit, or any portion of it, to the extent of £5, or a multiple of £5, he can obtain a Consols certificate which is payable to bearer, and is transferable by delivery. This certificate entitles the holder to receive interest half-yearly at the same rate as the original inscription, and also to payment of the principal sum on the due date.

The application for the certificate must be according to the form appended, and the fee payable is 1s. for every one hundred pounds or aliquot part thereof expressed in the certificate. There is also a fee at the above rate for inscribing the amount of a Consols certificate. The form of Consols certificate is also given.

Interest on Consols for which no certificate has been issued is payable by warrant, and such warrants are transferable by indorsement in the manner provided in the form.

Interest on Consols for which a certificate has been issued is payable to the bearer of the certificate on presentation at any post-office money-order office, or at the Treasury, Wellington (see the last form).

The Act provides for the deposit of money by minors, which may be acceptable to parents as encouraging habits of thrift in children.

The Consols have a currency to the 1st February, 1910, and carry interest at the rate of three pounds ten shillings for every one hundred pounds deposited, and an assured investment of moneys bearing a fair rate of interest for so long a term should secure, when well known, a large portion of the deposits of our thrifty population.

Application for Inscription.

To the Registrar of Inscribed Consols,     Treasury, Wellington.

I [We],      of     , having this day deposited at       the sum      pounds      shillings and       pence, for investment in       -per-cent.

New Zealand Consols, hereby request that the same may be duly inscribed in the books of your office in the name of

               Signature of depositor:

               Full address of depositor, together with name of nearest

                    money-order office:

Dated at      , this day of      , 189.

          Deposit duly received as above.

                    Signature of Receiver:

Application for Transfer.

In consideration of the sum of      , the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, I [we],      of       do assign the sum of       pounds shillings and pence, being my [our] interest or share in the New Zealand -per-cent. Inscribed Consols, under the ‘The New Zealand Consols Act, 1894,’ and all my [our] property, right, and interest in and to the same, and the dividends thereon, unto      , of      , his [their] executors. administrators, or assigns, and the Registrar is hereby requested to transfer the same accordingly. The prescribed fee of      is enclosed herewith.

Witness my [our] hand      , this day of      , 189.
                    Signature:

     Witnessed by—

          Signature:

          Occupation:

          Address:

I [We],      Of      , Do Hereby Accept The Above Consols, And Apply For The Transfer Thereof To Me [Us].
                    Signature:

Witnessed by—

          Signature:

Application for Consols Certificate.

                    Place:

                    Date:      , 189.

To the Registrar of Inscribed Consols,

               Treasury, Wellington.

I [We],      , of      , being the holder of New Zealand Inscribed Consols to the amount of      pounds      shillings and      pence, do hereby make application for a Consols certificate in favour of bearer for the sum of      pounds, to be issued to me [us] in accordance with and subject to the provisions contained in ‘The New Zealand Consols Act, 1894.’ The prescribed fee of      is enclosed herewith.
                    Signature:

Witness—

     Signature:

     Occupation:

     Address:

Consols Certificate.

No.          £

The bearer of this certificate will be entitled to payment of the sum of pounds sterling upon presentation hereof at the Treasury at Wellington, New Zealand, on the day of      , 19      , together with such interest, computed at the rate of sterling per centum per annum, as may be found to be unpaid on the before-mentioned date in accordance with the indorsements of interest-payments made hereon.

The principal and interest are a charge upon and shall be paid out of the accruing income of the Consolidated Fund of the colony.

Interest hereon at the rate of sterling per centum per annum is payable half-yearly, on the and in each year, at any post office money-order office within the colony.

The amount of interest paid is to be indorsed on the back hereof by the person making such payment.

Dated at the office of the Registrar of Inscribed Consols, Wellington      , 189.
               , Registrar.

Countersigned—
               , Controller and Auditor-General.

Entered, folio.

[On the back, indorsements of the half-yearly dividends paid by the Post-master are to be duly made.]

Dividend Warrant.

To the Treasury at Wellington, or to the Postmaster at any post-office money-order office throughout the colony.

Please pay       or order the sum of       pounds       shillings and pence, being interest for half-year due      , 189, on £     -per-cent. New Zealand Consols.

£           , Registrar.

I hereby acknowledge to have received the above-mentioned sum in full payment of interest for half-year due as above.

Signature:

Chapter 58. SECTION II.
AGRICULTURE IN NEW ZEALAND

M. Murphy, F.L.S.

It is generally admitted that there is no part of the British dominions where agriculture, in its widest sense, can be carried on with so much certainty and with such good results as in New Zealand. The range of latitude, extending as it does from 34° to 47° South, secures for the colony a diversity of climate which renders it suitable for all the products of subtropical and temperate zones, while an insular position protects it from the continuous and parching droughts which periodically inflict such terrible losses on the agriculturist and pastoralist of Australia and South America.

Again, the climate, although somewhat variable, never reaches the extremes of heat or cold. So genial, indeed, is it that most animals and plants, when first introduced to the colony, assume a vigour unknown to them before.

North Island

All the best forage-plants and grasses thrive most admirably, continuing to grow throughout the year with little intermission. Stock of every sort thrive and fatten rapidly on the pastures, coming to maturity at an early age without the aid of roots or condimental foods. All cereals flourish equally well, more especially Indian corn, which produces from fifty to eighty bushels per acre.

So full is the soil of plant-food that several continuous crops of potatoes or cereals may be taken with little apparent exhaustion. Wheat, oats, and barley thrive where the soil is not too rich; otherwise they produce enormous crops of straw, without a corresponding yield of corn. The tobacco-plant thrives well, as do also hops and sorghum, broom-corn, peanut, hemp, ramee or rhea (China grass), together with a large variety of economic plants, the growth of which will one day afford employment for a large population. In addition to these, all the British, Chinese, and Japanese fruits, with oranges, lemons, limes, olives, and vines (in the northern part), flourish abundantly, requiring but ordinary care. Potatoes are largely grown, and yield heavy crops.

Much of the country along the south-west and west coast is being rapidly taken up, and the primeval forest is fast disappearing before the settler's axe. For the most part, the soil is fertile, and the growth of grass and clover is extremely rapid and vigorous when sown on the surface after the felled timber has been destroyed by fire.

To the British husbandman it will seem almost incredible that the best pasture-grasses grow and thrive as they do with no other preparation than the ashes resulting from the burnt timber, with no ploughing and no previous loosening of the soil—this, of course, being impossible amongst the forest of stumps—and yet, in less than a year from the date of scattering the seed, this same land will fatten from live to six sheep per acre.

So rapidly are these fertile forest-lands being cleared and converted into pastures that the demand for stock (principally dairy) has greatly increased, and this demand must continue for a series of years before it is fully met.

Before the introduction of the factory system stock was so unsaleable, especially in the North Island, that little or no attention was paid to this branch of rural economy, and the supply fell to the lowest ebb. The demand which has now set in is chiefly due to the settlement of the bush-lands with small selectors and the development of the dairy industry.

Those who in the past have watched the progress of New Zealand especially of the North Island, have always maintained that when the Maori difficulties and other impediments to settlement were over, the prosperity of the country would advance at a very rapid rate. The time has now come, and all that is required to expedite the coming prosperity is the settlement of our lands by a thrifty class of settlers.

There are millions of acres yet unoccupied, a great portion of which is of good quality, and only waiting the hand of man to make it carry, with very little cost, large herds of dairy stock, with flocks of long-wool and crossbred sheep. The west coast of the island is essentially a cattle-country. Considerable areas in the midland districts are adapted to long-wool sheep, as is also the country along the east coast. Much of the country may be described as being good sheep-land, a large portion of which is quite capable of carrying two sheep to the acre, and some of it as many as three or four.

Middle Island

If the North Island has a splendid inheritance in her forests, the Middle Island can boast of her magnificent plain-lands, rolling downs, and vast mountain ranges, all of which, to a greater or less degree, have already been made to contribute to the wealth of the colony.

The central portion of the Middle Island presented to the first-comers a vast plain, covered only with waving tussock-grass, offering little or no obstruction to the plough.

Travelling south, the country assumes a different character: easy, undulating downs, well watered, here and there interspersed with fertile plains, the greater portion admirably adapted for agriculture, and all of it suitable for pastoral purposes.

The climate of the Middle Island is not so warm in summer nor so mild in winter as that experienced in the North Island. However, as has already been stated, there are no extremes of heat or cold. Much more might be said in praise of this portion of the colony. It is deemed necessary to say so much in order that readers may better comprehend the comparative ease with which every kind of farming is carried on in New Zealand as compared with other countries less favourably situated.

Agricultural Statistics

Full particulars, with comparative tables showing the progress of agriculture in the colony, will be found in the statistical portion of this work, Part II., Section XVIII.

The Past Season

For the past three years we have had to record a shortage of crops (generally speaking), the result of insufficient moisture in the soil, coupled at times with hot winds of greater or less intensity and endurance; and a corresponding shortage of grain yields, parched pastures, and scarcity of food for all descriptions of farm animals.

This period of scarcity has given place to one of abnormal plenty. In the autumn of 1898 a change came over the face of nature, the result of oft-recurring showers of rain, never too heavy or continuous to check the routine of farm-work. Ploughing and sowing went on uninterruptedly till the whole of the crops were committed to the soil, which was in the very best condition possible. The absence of severe cold or chilling rains resulted in a continuous growth, both of corn and grass, throughout the season, with the ultimate result of abnormal crops of all kinds of cereals, and of grasses and clover. A reference to the agricultural statistics on page 350 will show that the area under wheat last season exceeded that of the previous year by 83,233 acres, and the yield has considerably exceeded that of the previous season, which was estimated at 17 bushels, as against 30 (approximately) for 1898–99. The unusually high price ruling for wheat, and indeed for all kinds of farm produce, in 1898, had the effect of inducing farmers to put an increased area under wheat and oats: a proceeding which might have been expected to produce the results which have followed—viz., ruinously low prices. Farmers seemed to have overlooked the fact that the high prices which were obtainable for cereals was not caused by any shortage in the Home or foreign crops, but rather to a shortage in some of the other colonies, which ran wheat up to 4s. and over per bushel, and potatoes to £7 and £8 per ton. These prices went far to recoup many farmers for the partial failure of their crops; so much so that many of them declare that, notwithstanding the abundance of the harvest this season, they were then better off, wheat being almost unsaleable at 2s. per bushel, and oats at 1s. The following remarks by “Ovis,” in the Canterbury Agricultural and Pastoral Association's Journal for May are entirely to the point. He says:—

With a huge crop of wheat on hand, and no immediate prospect of any substantial rise in price, it may be taken for granted that the area sown in wheat this season will be considerably restricted. What has taken place here seems to be what has happened to a greater or lesser extent in most of the wheat-growing countries of the world. A higher level of prices for a season or two led to an increase of acreage, and coincident with the extended area came exceptionally good crops, so that the world's wheat market is full to overflowing. It is true that no less a personage than Sir W. Crooke, the President of the British Association, assures us that, notwithstanding the enormous production of the last wheat harvest in the Northern Hemisphere, the reserves had fallen so low during the two preceding seasons, and the wheat-consuming population of the world has increased so largely, that even now the world stands close upon the verge of a wheat famine. That sort of thing, however, has been predicted before by men learned in statistics, and so, for the matter of that, has the exact date at which the world was to come to an end been more than once definitely fixed; but the wheat supply has never run out yet, and the world still swings in its proper orbit. But it may be a point worth noting that at no time since their last harvest has the American visible supply of wheat risen much above fifty million bushels, while some five or six years ago, when the price in the English market was even lower than it is now, the American visible supply of wheat sometimes rose as high as ninety million bushels. No doubt a rise in the English market would bring out the American supply more readily, but the fact of the visible supply remaining so steadily at about the same figure seems to indicate that the American surplus is not exceptionally great. There is still room for developments in the wheat markets during the next six months. We are ourselves surrounded by an unprecedentedly heavy wheat supply, and the same is the case in Australia; and from this evidence of our senses we are not unnaturally disposed to form the impression that the world in general is equally full of the cereal from which is derived the so-called “staff of life” for so many hundreds of millions of the human race. But our contribution to the world's wheat supply, large and important as it may be to us, does not amount to much more than a drop in a bucket. An infinitesimal diminution or increase per acre of the European and American wheat-crop would amount to as much as all that we can grow. By the time our next spring is here the wheat-crop of the Northern Hemisphere now growing will have been harvested, and the course of wheat prices during the next six months must therefore largely depend upon whether that harvest turns out a good or a bad one.

With the resources which we have within our reach, it is unwise to make the wheat-crop an unduly prominent egg in the basket. It was not a well-ordered proceeding for farmers last winter to scramble every available acre into wheat because the price happened to be high just then; but it would, perhaps, be not less unwise if the area sown in wheat this year should be restricted within exceptionally narrow limits on account of the price at the present time leaving little or no margin of profit. On most farms containing land suitable for wheat-growing there is usually a certain acreage which may be conveniently and advisedly sown to that crop, and if the wheat area is increased or diminished in any substantial degree it upsets what has been found by experience to be the suitable and orderly course of things. It is unwise to upset a regular and established system for no better reason than that the wheat market at a certain time happens to be either buoyant or depressed; for the course of the wheat market during any six months of any year no man can foretell. The wheat production and the wheat consumption of the world is too big a thing, and is influenced by too great and widespread a variety of circumstances, to admit of any accuracy of prediction being arrived at by statisticians or anybody else; and when a man thinks he knows, the only thing he can be quite sure about is that he does not know. So far as the farmers of Canterbury are concerned, the position in which they have found themselves has been something quite out of the common. The season has been one of such extraordinary productiveness that, with an unusually large extent of land and amount of working capital devoted to wheat-growing, the feed supply exceeds the requirements of the stock available for eating it off. Had farmers held their hand in the matter of wheat-growing, and gone in more largely for turnips, rape, &c., the difficulty of obtaining the necessary stock would have been considerably increased: a very singular state of affairs indeed, and one, perhaps, not likely to recur for many a year. The next year will be a busy time for farmers, whether it is a profitable one or not, for a large breadth of land in stubble implies the necessity of a lot of cultivation, for all that land has to go back into grass, or be otherwise dealt with. Whatever the course that may be adopted, the plough must be kept going, and there will be a corresponding demand for seeds of different kinds. It is well that there is a good supply of grass-seed in the country, and if we get a fairly good season or two following this one there will be much new pasture, which in its turn will have an effect on the demand for sheep.

Since the price of sheep went up after shearing, the market, with occasional fluctuations, has maintained a high level ever since. Considering the plentiful supply of feed, together with some improved prospect of the wool market and the steady demand for frozen mutton, there does not appear any likelihood of a fall in prices during the winter. As the turnips come into use there may even be an increased demand for sheep for fattening purposes. Prices have, however, been pushed to somewhere about the full limit at which any margin of profit is left to the purchaser. Had the price of wheat been good, with feed as abundant as it is, there might have been a good deal of wild speculation in sheep indulged in this season; but, with wheat a drug, and so much working capital absorbed in that branch of the agricultural industry, the purchasing power of those who have feed has been limited. It was a maxim of the original Rothschild never to give more for a thing than it is worth; only perhaps it requires the sagacity of a Rothschild to know exactly when the limit of worth has been reached. In wheat we have nothing to go upon except the cost of production, and that is a very difficult matter to arrive at, taking the world throughout. If we knew the average cost per bushel of producing the world's wheat crops, we might perhaps be tolerably safe in assuming that the average price would not be far above that figure. In Manitoba, for instance, they reckon the cost of growing a thirty-bushel an acre crop of wheat at about £1 per acre; but it costs us on an average considerably more than £1 to grow thirty bushels of wheat, so that Manitoba can grow wheat at a profit when we cannot. With regard to what a sheep is worth, we have some basis to go upon, something, at any rate, approaching reasonable probability. The value of the sheep stock of all classes is ruled mainly by the value of the exported surplus. The value of stores for fattening purposes depends, of course, in a direct manner on this consideration. With stores going at the prices they are this autumn, graziers cannot look for more than a very moderate return for the food consumed in the process of fattening. It is generally the case in place of plentiful feed that the margin between the prices of store and fat sheep is brought down to within very narrow limits, and when a grazier gets hold of a bad-doing lot of sheep the margin may disappear altogether. If every sheep comes out in prime freezing condition by the time the turnips are finished the transaction may come out all right, but when there is a long “tail” to the mob, the profits are liable to taper off in a corresponding degree. In buying breeding ewes, too, especially ewes full-mouthed and over, their real value must depend largely on what their progeny bring in as freezers. Aged ewes, if they are not too old, are generally considered the best to breed from for fat lambs, but if a man gives eight or nine shillings for a four or five-year-old ewe he must be pretty fortunate with his lambs to make much out of the deal. If he does not get a good percentage of lambs, and get them all, or nearly all, away fat, and if he has to sell the ewes for boiling-down, which may happen in a season of drought, he will certainly find in the long-run that he has given more for the ewes than they are worth.

Wheat

The Canterbury Plains, the great wheat-growing district of the Middle Island, extend 150 miles north and south, running inland from the sea for forty miles, the whole forming an area of about 3,000,000 acres. A great portion of this vast plain is admirably adapted for the production of wheat, barley, and oats of the best quality, the growing of which has been carried on extensively, more especially since the introduction of the reaper-and-binder. The total area under wheat for threshing in the colony for the season 1898–99 was 399,034 acres, of which 249,852 acres were grown in Canterbury, the average yields being approximately 30 bushels per acre. The land is for the most part free from stones or impediments of any kind. Single-furrow ploughs are now rarely seen, double-and three-furrow ploughs being in general use. Three horses, occasionally four, with a man or a boy, can turn over three acres per day on the plains, at a cost of 5s. or 6s. per acre. A stroke of the disc or other harrow, followed by the seed-drill and light harrows, completes the operation of sowing.

Seed-sowing commences in May, and can be continued as weather permits through the winter, and in the heavy swamp-land (drained) on into September and even October. From 11/4 to 11/2 and 2 bushels of seed per acre are usually sown, the quantity increasing as the season advances.

Good results are in general obtained by feeding-off the early-sown grain with sheep, followed by the harrows and roller. The average yield on the better class of soil in favourable seasons is from 40 to 60 bushels per acre of dressed grain. The usual general average for the whole colony may be set down at 23 to 28 bushels, according to the season. It must also be stated that the small-bird nuisance (principally the English sparrow) reduces the average by at least 2 to 3 bushels per acre of wheat, oats, and barley. As a set-off against this, however, the destruction of caterpillars and seeds of weeds must be credited to these feathered marauders. Another cause for low averages is the fact that wheat is sown on land entirely too light in quality for that cereal. It will, however, be noted that the general average yield of all our cereals is higher than that of most other countries except that of Britain herself.

Several varieties of wheat are grown, but Hunter's White, Pearl, and Velvet Chaff are the favourite kinds for winter sowing. Red and White Tuscan are usually sown in spring. Extensive experiments are being carried on in New South Wales as to the merits of various classes of wheats, the produce of cross-bred varieties. It will be interesting to note the results.

In view of the periodical attacks of rust, advantage will doubtless be taken of the experience gained by carefully-conducted experiments which have been carried on during the past few years in Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland, where it is claimed that certain wheats have been found impervious to the attacks of rust, thus minimising the losses caused by that fungus. But farmers will do well to receive with caution reports as to the rust-resisting qualities of one wheat as compared with another. Periodically varieties are introduced with every assurance of their rust-resisting qualities, but as often have they failed to realise what was claimed for them. A really rust-resisting wheat would be of untold value to humanity. It would be quite impossible to estimate the losses caused by this disease; its ravages have existed with varying intensity from time immemorial. Early sowing was said to be the best preventive measure, for the reason that the older the leaves are the tougher they become, rendering them less liable to attack from rust spores. This theory, however, has not been borne out by actual observation in this colony, as early-sown crops are sometimes attacked, if not severely.

Dressing the seed with genuine bluestone is found to be a certain specific for smut in its various forms, but not for rust.

The Oamaru (North Otago) district is famous for the quality of its wheat, grown on limestone soil.

Oats and Barley

Otago and Southland districts excel in the production of oats, which is their principal cereal crop, the breadth of land laid down last season being 220,427 acres of oats, against 99,752 acres of wheat.

The usual yield of oats in Otago and Southland is from 40 to 80 bushels per acre, the cost of production being about the same as wheat—viz., £2 per acre when grown from grass-land, and £1 10s. from stubble. The varieties of oats most in favour are Sparrowbill, Winter Dun, Canadian, Tartary, and Danish.

Malting barley, of very superior quality, is grown in Nelson and Marlborough, where the soil and climate appear to be particularly adapted to its culture.

Barley: The growing of this cereal for malting purposes requires more attention than it has yet received in this colony. The Malting Company of New South Wales have entered into contracts with farmers for regular supplies. This will give a stimulus to its growth. It is claimed for this crop that it will show a better result than wheat for the following reasons: (1) It is less exhaustive to the soil; (2) it gives an average yield of from 10 per cent. to 20 per cent. more than wheat; (3) the growing crop in favourable seasons can be fed off twice, or even three times, to the advantage of the subsequent yield of grain. Land of a light and calcareous nature, but unsuitable for wheat, will give a barley thin in the skin, and particularly suited for malting purposes. Specially-selected seed-barley has been imported and supplied to farmers at net cost, the company also undertaking to guarantee a price for the product if of a good malting quality. In connection with this aspect of the question, the company mention that when the current market price for wheat is 2s. 6d. a bushel, at least 3s. 6d. would be readily given for good barley. Barley is not a difficult crop to raise, but there are certain points that need careful attention, which, if neglected, would probably result in the production of an inferior sample, which would hardly pay for growing. The Department of Agriculture might well consider whether it would not be advisable to have attached to their staff of experts one or two more, whose special business it should be to enlighten farmers on subjects connected with their business, such as the growing of barley for malting purposes, the breeding of dairy stock, and the planting of trees for economic purposes. The increased area, amounting to 161,485 acres, under wheat, oats, and barley in the past season is not likely to be maintained, and the culture of roots and grasses will be reverted to.

Remarks on Cereals

Observers of passing events, as affecting rural affairs, must have noted that corn-growing, like that of any other industry, has its cycles of depression, followed by others of prosperity. A few years ago it was predicted that profitable wheat-growing had come to an end in this colony, and indeed it appeared like it when wheat fell to 2s. and 2s. 6d. per bushel. The acceptance of this theory gave an impetus to the cultivation of turnips, rape, barley, oats, peas, &c., for feeding sheep, lambs, and pigs, from which a more certain return could be secured, while large areas of formerly cultivated land reverted to pasture for grazing purposes. The manufacture of cheese and butter also received a lasting stimulus. The curtailment of the wheat area referred to was, indeed, by no means an unmixed evil, for had farmers gone on cropping indiscriminately, our fields would not only have become exhausted, but they would have been polluted with weeds to an irrecoverable extent. Farmers have come to see that a mixed system is the only safe course to pursue now in the management of their laud.

Root-crops

Potatoes: Potatoes are largely grown throughout New Zealand. On suitable soils very heavy crops are raised, it being no uncommon thing to dig from 8 to 10 tons per acre, although the general average is much lower, for the reason that unsuitable land is frequently devoted to this crop. The bulk of the crop is planted without manure, but, where used, bonedust, superphosphate, blood-manure, or animal guano (which may be procured of first quality from the local manure manufactories), from 1 cwt. to 2 cwt. per acre, is applied with good results. The potato is, however, an expensive crop to grow, costing from £5 to £6 per acre. The year 1898 will be long remembered as a record one for potato-growers as regards prices. The drought which affected several of the Australian Colonies caused a great shortage in that esculent, and prices advanced to £6 and £7 per ton. As much as £70 has been realised per acre over a considerable area.

Land for potatoes is usually broken out of grass, skim-ploughed in autumn, ploughed deeply in spring, and thoroughly tilled; or potatoes may be grown in drills opened and closed with a double-furrow plough. The seed—15 cwt. per acre—is then ploughed in under every third furrow, the after-culture consisting of harrowing just as the crop is appearing over ground (by this means myriads of seedling weeds are destroyed); drill-grubbing, hoeing, horse-hoeing, and earthing-up being the subsequent operations. Heavy crops of wheat, oats, barley, beans, or peas can always be relied upon after potatoes, season permitting.

Turnips: The turnip-crop of Canterbury, notwithstanding the ravages of the larvæ of the Diamond-back moth, was a most abundant one, probably exceeding that of any previous year. This circumstance, together with the abundance of feed, created a demand for store sheep, which had to be supplied from outside sources, stores being so high that very little margin was left for profit. The area under turnips for 1898–99, according to the agricultural statistics, is 416,024 acres.

On virgin soil turnips can always be relied upon as a certain crop without any manure, even with a single furrow and a couple of strokes of the harrow. But, as most of the land (at least in the Middle Island) has already been cropped, turnips cannot now be successfully grown without the aid of manure. In the nature of things, from a climatic point of view, farm-yard manure cannot be procured in sufficient quantity; artificial manures are therefore largely used, from 1 cwt. to 11/2cwt. of superphosphate of lime per acre being now applied with the best results, securing ample crops of sound roots, from 15 to 30 tons per acre. The seed is sometimes sown in drills on the flat, the manure being dropped in front of the seed by the same machine, from 1/2 lb. to 1 lb. of seed per acre being used; when sown broadcast a smaller quantity will suffice. Sometimes the manure is deposited in a liquid state by machines manufactured for the purpose, called water-drills. This system invariably secures a rapid and vigorous braird, forcing the young plant into the rough leaf, after which it is secure from the attack of the turnip-beetle, usually the first enemy of the young plant's growth. So soon as the turnip-plants reach the third or fourth leaf, they are thinned by a scuffler, made for the purpose, which is drawn across the drills, bunching the turnips and thoroughly loosening the soil. The drill-grubber and scuffler are used as required till the leaves meet. This kind of culture produces capital crops at a minimum of cost. In Otago and Southland, where Swede turnips are largely grown, the seed is sown in drills and the young plants are thinned out with the hand-hoe in the same manner as the mangold crop is treated in Canterbury and elsewhere. Large areas are sown broadcast, and, if found too thick, the harrows are run through them; in any case, a stroke of the harrows is a great help in promoting the growth of the plant. The varieties used are Devonshire Grey for early and very late sowing; Purple- and Green-top Aberdeen are the most generally grown. Swede turnips, from their proneness to the attack of the turnip aphis, are not so much grown, though they produce enormous crops in Otago and Southland, where the climate is more suitable. The turnip-crop is generally fed off by sheep intended for freezing. It is estimated that an acre of good turnips, with a little hay or oat-chaff, will fatten from eight to fourteen sheep. Turnip-sowing commences in November, and may be continued till the end of December. Stubble turnips may be sown in March, but this can only be considered as a catch-crop. It, however, often proves of great value, supplying an abundance of green food for ewes with early lambs. Turnip-land is usually sown with oats or barley, and sometimes spring wheat.

Rape is largely grown as sheep-feed, and may be sown either in early spring or immediately after harvest, the stubble being skim-ploughed or broken up with the spring-tined cultivator. This crop is invaluable in the early spring, and may be fed-off in time for oats or barley. Dairy-cattle, however, should not be fed on rape, as doing so destroys the flavour of the milk.

Mangolds and Carrots are largely grown in some districts. They cost more money per acre than turnips to produce, as they must be hand-hoed; nor are they so suitable a crop for cleaning the land. Turnip-sowing does not commence till November or December, affording ample time for the destruction of seedling weeds; this important opportunity is largely lost in the culture of the mangold, which is usually sown in October. Mangolds are, however, an invaluable crop on a stock-farm, as they do not reach their primest condition until the turnip-supply is exhausted, usually in August. From 30 to 60 tons per acre is not an uncommon yield of these roots, often without the aid of manure, on rich swamp land.

Carrots are also a valuable crop, especially for horses; on sandy loams the yield reaches 15 to 20 tons per acre. Carrots impart a pleasant flavour to butter, and should be largely grown for dairy stock.

Fertilisers

This industry has now assumed important dimensions—manufactured from the waste products of animals slaughtered for freezing. The demand for fertilisers must increase from year to year, as our lands become more frequently cropped. In the early days of the freezing industry, when the demand for turnips became general, the native-grass land (tussock) was then in its natural state. All that was necessary was to turn this virgin soil over with a shallow furrow, harrow down, and sow the seed (a few ounces) to the acre, without any fertiliser whatever. A good crop was the inevitable result.

The plough has now been over almost the whole of our available new lands. It is now found absolutely necessary to sow fertilisers with the seed to give the young plant a start. Assuming that 11/2 cwt. per acre is used all over the 569,075 acres in root-crops, this would mean an annual demand for 42,680 tons, without taking into consideration that used for grain, orchards, &c. One of the most practical farmers in New Zealand has, however, given it as his opinion that, with a proper course of rotation, it will be many years before it will be necessary to apply fertilisers to corn crops—except, indeed, in a few extreme cases. Experiments have been made with a view to testing how far fertilisers may be used for raising wheat on the thinner soils of the colony, with varying success. In some cases it has been demonstrated that the application of a nitrogenous manure resulted in an increased yield sufficient to justify the additional outlay per acre, in others the result was not favourable; however, the season has much to do with results from such experiments. The lack of moisture will nullify the good which might otherwise follow the application of fertilisers whether to root or cereal crops.

Notwithstanding the quantity of fertilisers manufactured in the colony, importations are made, principally from Australia. Mr. G. Gray, Lecturer on Chemistry at Canterbury Agricultural College, in a paper on “Soil Fertility” shows that the land is drained annually of 5,871 tons of nitrogen, 1,000 tons of phosphates, 2,438 tons of potash, and 1,006 tons of line: so that there is room for still further enterprise in the manufacture of manures.

A fortune awaits the finder of extensive beds of coprolites in New Zealand: Traces have been discovered sufficient to awaken the hope that sooner or later payable deposits will be found.

Seeds

Clover: Saving clover for seed has now become an established and a lucrative industry, adding materially to the farmers' income. Clover is sown with a spring crop, usually of corn, lightly grazed in the following autumn, and then reserved for a crop of hay, which, according to the season, yields from 2 to 3 tons per acre when cut in November or early in December. Some farmers prefer feeding off with sheep in preference to mowing for hay. The after-growth is then allowed to flower and seed, which it does very freely. Thousands of humble-bees may be seen in the clover-fields during the months of January, February, and March. The seed ripens in March, and is then cut and dried, and threshed out by machines known as clover-shellers. An acre of clover may yield in hay and seed from £8 to £10. It must, however, be stated that, while a good crop of clover-seed is a most lucrative one, it is nevertheless a most precarious one. Owing to the lateness of the season of ripening, it sometimes happens that the fertilisation is imperfect, resulting in a majority of barren heads. This has given rise to a controversy as to whether the proper bee has been introduced. The point was referred to Miss Ormerod, the English entomologist, who settled the question in the affirmative.

White and alsike clover are now grown in considerable quantities. White clover yields enormously: as much as 300 lb. of alsike seed has been obtained per acre. These clovers are not so dependent on the action of the humble-bee for their fertilisation. They mature earlier, and are more easily threshed and cleaned than cow-grass and red clover.

Grass-seed Saving: All the most valuable British grasses flourish throughout New Zealand. Cocksfoot has been for many years a staple product of Banks Peninsula (Akaroa County), where the soil for the most part consists of decomposed volcanic rocks and vegetable mould. Large quantities of this seed are now raised in the North Island as well. The seed is of the finest description, frequently weighing 20lb. to the bushel, 12lb. being a standard bushel. Cocksfoot thrives on a very wide range of soil, from the richest to the poorest, preferring, of course, the former. It may be found on the dry stony plains of the interior, green and healthy, when the surrounding herbage, introduced or indigenous, has yielded to the heat of the summer sun.

Growing ryegrass for seed is also an important industry. The seed is usually gathered by stripping; sometimes the grass is cut and tied and afterwards threshed by machinery. The average yield is from 15 to 20 bushels per acre, weighing from 25 lb. to 32lb. per bushel, 20lb. being the standard weight. A common practice is to graze the land till midsummer; to take the stock off for a few weeks, and then to run the stripper over the ground. By this primitive method 10 bushels per acre are sometimes secured, being of the finest quality. Ryegrass-seed is usually in good demand, and sells readily at from 3s. to 4s. per bushel.

Meadow fescue, one of the most valuable of all the grasses for permanent pasture on good land, is grown both in the North and Middle Islands, but as yet not very largely. A noticeable instance of the value of this grass for pasture purposes was illustrated in a paddock which came under the writer's notice. The paddock was laid off into three equal parts, and sown with perennial ryegrass, meadow fescue, and Italian ryegrass. When well grown, sheep were turned in. They at once commenced to feed on the fescue, eating it quite bare, while the perennial ryegrass was left almost untouched. The Italian ryegrass received considerable attention. The preference for the fescue was very marked. Growing grass-seed of all the finer kinds should be an important industry in New Zealand, but as yet very little attention is paid to it. All that is required is to select clean land and clean seed to commence with. At the recent Agricultural Conference held in Christchurch, Mr. Kirk, Government Biologist, read an analysis of grass-seeds tested by him in the Government Laboratory, which showed that many of the samples fell far short of the required percentage of germination. Several of the samples tested were imported seeds; still others, colonial-grown, showed very low germinating power. With carefully grown colonial seeds this should not occur. Carefully conducted, the seed-growing business should prove a lucrative one.

Small Seeds: New Zealand, from the nature of her soil and climate, offers a fine field for growing all kinds of farm and garden seeds. This circumstance has already attracted the attention of some of the larger seed-merchants of Great Britain, whose agents occasionally visit the colony with a view to inducing farmers and others to grow certain kinds of seeds. The industry is peculiarly adapted to small holdings, and well suited to young persons, the work being light and of an interesting character. Ready sale can be found for carefully-grown and carefully-cleaned garden seeds.

Other Crops

Pulse: Peas and beans are largely grown for pig-feeding and for export; they form an excellent preparation for wheat. An extensive trade in peas of a certain description is done in the manufacturing towns of Great Britain; and efforts are now being made to secure a share of this trade for the colony by producing peas suitable for splitting for human food. The business should prove a most remunerative one. Thirty bushels of peas are considered a fair crop, while 40 to 70 bushels of beans are often secured. As showing the extraordinary fertility of some of the lands in the Canterbury District, it may be mentioned that beans and wheat have been grown alternately on Kaiapoi Island for thirty years without any apparent diminution of yield, the crops of recent years being as abundant as those grown years ago; 40 to 50 bushels of wheat and 60 to 70 bushels of beans being the usual return per acre.

Cape Barley and Winter Oats: The demand for early spring feed has resulted in the growing of these plants for forage. Their extreme hardiness renders them well adapted for autumn sowing. If sown in March they are ready for feeding-off in May; they may be fed off again in July, and on till the beginning of October, when, if allowed to run to seed, they will produce 40 to 60 bushels per acre, or they may be ploughed in for turnips.

Tares are also grown, but not so largely as they deserve to be, especially for dairy stock. Mixed with oats, barley, or rye, they are excellent milk-producers; and when grown luxuriantly they destroy all kinds of weeds, and leave the land in fine condition for a spring corn-crop.

Lucerne: This permanent fodder-plant thrives admirably in most parts of New Zealand, yielding three to five cuttings in the year; and, if properly cultivated and well attended to, it will continue to yield liberal cuttings for seven or eight years. This is a most excellent crop for the small or large farmer, furnishing, as it does, an abundant supply of succulent fodder, in deeply-cultivated soils, during the drier months of midsummer, as well as in the early spring. All farm animals are partial to lucerne; pigs thrive admirably upon it. No farm should be without a well cultivated plot of this plant. In deeply-cultivated land lucerne will yield several cuttings during the season, no matter how hot and dry the weather may be. It is this drought-resisting quality which renders lucerne such a valuable fodder plant in Queensland and New South Wales.

European Flax

The cultivation of European flax has not been extended in the colony. Inducements have from time to time been held out to grow it for seed for crushing purposes. Flax is an exhausting crop when grown for seed only. Farmers are not partial to this crop, for the reason that it leaves no edible straw behind it for the use of stock during the winter months. It is also an encourager of weeds, as the land has to be reduced to a fine tilth for the reception of the seed.

Efforts were made some time ago to establish the European flax industry in Canterbury, when wheat-growing was unprofitable owing to the low price. The attempt failed, in consequence of the want of expert knowledge, coupled with the high price of labour. It was, however, amply demonstrated that the soil of Canterbury was admirably adapted for its growth. It was found to yield 15 to 30 bushels of seed per acre, while the straw produced the finest of fibre, which, if properly manipulated, would command a ready sale at highly remunerative prices. It must, however, be stated that the preparation of European flax fibre to produce a really good sample requires great care and skill from the time the plant is pulled till it is turned out ready for market. It was the want of expert knowledge which was the chief cause of the failure above referred to. The industry will, doubtless, one day be an important one, when the population is much greater than it is at present, and when instructors will be employed to enlighten the growers as to all the details. Growing European flax for the production of seed for crushing purposes only is not to be recommended; it tends to foul the land and impoverish the soil, as the seed and straw are both removed. It may, however, with impunity enter into a rotation, and, if not grown more frequently than once in five years, will do little harm to the land. Farmers should, however, grow a patch of linseed for feeding calves and pigs, &c.

Sugar-beet

A great diversity of opinion prevails on the question of introducing this industry into the colony. Notwithstanding that liberal bonuses and other encouragements have been offered by the Government from time to time during the past twenty years to encourage the establishment of this industry, it has not yet advanced beyond the initiatory stage. The advocates of this industry in New Zealand may, however, derive encouragement and hope from what is being done in Victoria. The Government have advanced, on the most favourable conditions, £50,000 towards establishing the industry. £25,000 have been subscribed by local enterprise. A spacious factory has been erected at Maffra at a cost of £25,000; the plant, which is of the most modern pattern, cost £40,000. The work of crushing was commenced in April, 1897; 200 hands (men and boys) are employed, the weekly wage-bill amounting to £400. A considerable quantity of sugar has been sold at good paying prices. It is said to be of first-rate quality. The farmers who grow the beet are also shareholders. The crushed pulp, after the saccharine matter has been extracted, is taken by the suppliers for feeding dairy cattle. The factory is capable of crushing 350 tons per day of twenty-four hours. The machinery is kept going night and day. The development of this industry will be watched with great interest by those farmers in the Waikato district who are anxious to see the production of beet sugar an established industry in that district.

Irrigation

The losses inflicted on farmers and pastoralists owing to the partial drought which prevailed in Canterbury and North Otago during the years 1896 and 1897, and up to May of 1898, has given rise to the question—viz., how best the waters of our rivers and great inland reservoirs (in the shape of lakes) could be made to contribute the necessary amount of water to the thirsty soil during times of drought. The Ashburton County Council have been experimenting with water for some years past. They have secured the right to raise a loan sufficient to carry out extensive irrigation works. The Canterbury Agricultural and Pastoral Association, alive to the importance of the question, summoned a meeting of delegates from the various County Councils, Road Boards, and Agricultural and Pastoral Associations to discuss the matter and devise means for promoting the end in view. Several representative meetings were held, resolutions were passed, and finally a Bill was drafted for presentation to Parliament, praying that the necessary amendments might be made in the present Water-supply Act, increasing the powers of local bodies and enabling them to deal directly with the question of irrigation. These amendments have been secured, giving extended powers to public bodies, so that whenever the movement in favour of irrigation becomes more general, and its benefits more appreciated, no delay need be experienced in taking steps to carry out the work. No one questions the advantage to be derived from the judicious application of water to growing crops during dry periods. The question is its economic application. It is not proposed that irrigation should be carried on over large areas of country, but rather that farmers should proceed cautiously, at first irrigating a few acres about the homestead, the orchard, the garden, and the clover-crops, extending to the root-crops, and ultimately to the cereals and grass-lands.

Irrigation by wind-power presents many attractive features, especially for those districts which cannot be worked as part of a general scheme. In America this system is largely resorted to, with beneficial results. An excellent paper on irrigation by wind-power was laid on the table at the recent Agricultural Conference, in which it was stated that a plant costing £50 would suffice to water 25 acres of ground; interest and depreciation would amount to 4s. per acre. Moreover, it was pointed out that a windmill could be made to earn a considerable sum by gearing it to a chaff-cutter, crusher, or other machinery, and so utilise the power when not required for pumping. The concensus of opinion appears to favour the notion that irrigation is more applicable to small holdings, where the work can be done by the farmer and his own family, rather than for extensive holdings where much manual labour would have to be employed. It is argued by some that, except in exceptional seasons, the rainfall of Canterbury, and indeed of the whole of New Zealand, is sufficient for our requirements. To a certain extent this view is correct; but, on the other hand, observers will admit that there are periods in every season, varying in duration, when water could be used with the greatest advantage. There is little doubt but that the farmers of Canterbury alone have lost more bushels of corn and acres of green crops and grass during the dry seasons of 1896–97 than would probably pay for the whole outlay required to bring a sufficient supply of water into the plains for irrigation purposes.

Cost of Working a Farm in New Zealand

When comparing the cost of working a farm in England with one of the same size in the colony, several points have to be taken into account, such as the climate, the soil, labour, and machinery. In the colonies wages are higher than in Britain; as a set-off against this, the colony can claim, firstly, that there are more fine working days in the year, that the fields are much larger, that the latest improvements in machinery have been introduced, that the soil is more easily worked, and that the genial nature of the climate renders it unnecessary to house stock during the winter months, at least in the North Island, thus saving the cost of attendance; secondly, that farming operations may be carried on continuously throughout the ploughing and sowing season; and, thirdly, that the paddocks are so large, and usually so level, that the double-and treble-furrow plough may be worked by one man or youth with three horses, thus equalising the cost of labour, as we have shown that one man, or even a boy, will be quite equal to two men or boys in the Old Country, so that after all the difference in the rate of wages is not so great as might appear at first sight.

The hay-crop is simply cut one day, raked into windrows the next, and in a couple more it is ready for stacking.

Wheat is cut and tied by machinery, the stooks requiring no capping. It is frequently threshed out of the stook in favourable seasons, thereby saving the cost of stacking and thatching; but this method is not recommended except in hot, dry seasons. When stacked, the stacks are rarely thatched, except, perhaps, on the weather side. This is a wise precaution, the neglect of which sometimes entails serious loss.

The manure bill, which is such a heavy item of annual expenditure with the British farmer, presses as yet very lightly on the farmers of the colony. It is, however, a notable fact that the use of fertilisers is becoming more general; 1 cwt. to 1 1/2 cwt. of superphosphates per acre is used with the turnip and other root-crops, for the purpose of forcing the young plant into the rough leaf, when it will be out of one danger—the turnip fly. It will nevertheless be seen that the colonial farmer has many advantages over the farmer of the Old Country.

Live Stock

Cattle: The total number of cattle in the colony was 1,203,024 for 1898–99.

Horses: Horses have increased by 5,281, the increase being for the most part in light ordinary stock. This is mainly owing to the increased area under cultivation.

Sheep: If any evidence was required to show how splendidly New Zealand is adapted for the production of sheep, it would be found in the fact that, notwithstanding the abnormal drought in the chief centres of sheep-farming, there has, according to the latest returns, been a considerable increase. This is all the more remarkable when it is considered that 1,653,170 sheep were frozen for export in 1897 as well as 1,038,316 lambs.

Pigs: The stock of pigs, according to the last returns, is set down at 193,512 as against 186,027 in 1897–98, showing an increase of 7,485. There is still room for an enormous extension of this industry. With wheat at 2s., oats at 1s. 3d., per bushel, and an abundance of mangolds and carrots, Canterbury alone could do with double the stock of breeding sows now on hand.

Sheep

Sheep: New Zealand has proved itself admirably adapted for the breeding of all classes of sheep, from the fine-combing merino to the strongest type of Lincoln. The merino occupies and thrives on the wild lands of the colony, from the snow-line to the border of the plains, as well as on the drier portions of the plains. The merino ewe furnishes the foundation for all the crossbred varieties. On the rich moist soils the Lincoln and Romney Marsh sheep flourish, while the finer English and Border Leicesters occupy the drier lands.

Crossbred Sheep: Those bred from merino ewes and long-wool rams, or from crossbred ewes with Down rams, are the most suitable for the frozen-meat trade, and are known as “freezers.”

The dapper little Southdowns flourish wherever crossbreds thrive. Their more ponderous cousins, the Shropshire and Hampshire Downs, have their admirers, especially the Shropshire, which are largely used for crossing, with a view to producing early-maturing lambs. English Leicesters are also much sought after for this purpose, particularly in the Middle Island, where “prime Canterbury” mutton is produced.

Since the development of the frozen-meat trade, sheep-farming in the colony has undergone a radical change. At one time wool was the chief consideration, the surplus stock finding its way into the boiling-down vat, the tallow and pelts being the only products of value. Things have marvellously altered since 1882, the inaugural year of the frozen-meat trade. Farming has assumed a new phase, sheep-raising for mutton and wool being the most profitable branch. Small and large flocks of pure and crossbred sheep are now kept on all farms which are suitable for them, the object being the production of early lambs for freezing. The percentage of increase all over the colony is very high, especially in the paddocks, where 100 to 125 per cent. is not uncommon in favourable seasons, while on the hill and unimproved country it varies from 45 to 80 per cent.

Shearing commences in September, and is continued till January. The usual price per hundred is from 15s. to 17s. 6d. Shearing-machines are gradually coming into use, but some sheep-farmers prefer hand shearing.

The average clips for the various breeds of sheep are approximately as follow: Merino, from 4lb. to 7lb.; quarter-breds, about 6 1/2lb.; half-breds, 7 1/2lb.; three-quarter-breds, 8 1/2lb.; Leicester, 10 1/2lb.; Lincoln, 11lb. Of course, very much larger clips are obtained from special flocks, as much as 25lb. to 30lb. per sheep; but the above figures represent general averages.

The staple of New Zealand wool, especially the long-wool and cross-bred, is remarkable for its freedom from breaks and other imperfections incidental to countries subject to long droughts and scarcity of feed.

The most profitable sheep for New Zealand is that which combines the best fleece and the most suitable carcase for freezing purposes, together with early maturity. This is the class of sheep which some sheep-breeders have set themselves to produce. Whether such an animal, having fixity of type, can be evolved, remains to be proved; so much depends on the feed, situation, and soil. One or two breeders claim that the new breed, Corriedale, embraces these desired qualities and possesses a fixity of type. The generally accepted meaning of the Corriedale is a sheep resulting from the fourth cross of half-bred Lincoln-merino, and the rams Lincoln. The progeny of these is half-bred. These in turn are bred, half-breds to half-breds, for four generations, and a Corriedale is the result. It was Mr. James Little, of Allandale, Waikari, Canterbury, who gave sheep bred on these lines the distinctive name of “Corriedale.”

The capability of New Zealand for producing mutton has not yet reached its limit. When the frozen-meat trade was first seriously considered, an assertion to the effect that the colony could soon find 1,000,000 sheep per annum for freezing without impairing the breeding-flocks was treated as highly chimerical by sheep-breeders of long experience. It is found, however, on reference to the statistical returns, that during the year 1898 nearly a million and three-quarters sheep and over a million lambs were exported from New Zealand. There are twenty-one freezing-works in the colony, with a full freezing-capacity of 3,665,000 sheep per annum. While congratulating the colony on the rapid development of the frozen-meat trade, it must be borne in mind that in Argentina strenuous efforts are being made to secure a share of the frozen-mutton trade carried on by New Zealand with Great Britain; Australia is also making strong efforts to share the trade with New Zealand. It must be admitted that with cheaper land, and a closer proximity to the markets of the world, Argentina will necessarily be a very formidable rival with Australasia. The sheep-farmers are becoming alive to the value of Down sheep for crossing purposes: they pay as much as six guineas per head for Shropshire ewes, and twenty-five to fifty guineas for Lincoln rams. The only way to keep command of the market is to ship nothing but first quality mutton and lamb. The development of the frozen mutton industry, especially that of our rivals, may fairly be gauged by the following facts: In 1882 the importation of frozen mutton into Great Britain only amounted to 66,093 carcases. Of this Australia contributed 57,256 carcases, and New Zealand the balance, no other countries being then engaged in the trade. Last year (1898) the importations amounted to 6,422,153 carcases. The countries contributing this amount were as follows: New Zealand, 2,731,762; Argentina, 2,340,442; and Australia, 1,263,422.

Raising lambs for the frozen-meat trade has become one of the mainstays of colonial farmers, large and small, especially the latter. Like butter and cheese, the returns are ready cash. The magnitude of this industry may best be estimated by the fact that up to the 31st March last the colony sent away 1,113,340 lambs, valued at £503,866. This, coupled with 1,618,422 sheep, valued at £843,867, making a grand total of £1,347,733, is sufficient evidence of the great and important changes which have come over the agricultural industries of this colony—a condition of things which has brought about a system of farming calculated to develop to the utmost the resources of the country. Some 528,014 acres were devoted to root and other fodder crops this season for feeding sheep, of which 416,024 acres were under turnips, 103,921 acres in rape, and 8,069 acres in mangolds, &c.

“The New Zealand Flock-book,” published in 1895, is now thoroughly established, and, with careful management, must prove of great service to owners of pure pedigree flocks. The Royal Agricultural Society of Victoria have already published a Flock-book for British breeds of sheep. This is a step in the right direction, as flock-masters in South America demand a certificate to the effect that the cattle and sheep purchased by them are duly registered in an authorised Herd- or Flock-book.

The following article from the pen of Mr. Acton Adams, an experienced flock-owner, appeared in the Weekly Press, being one of a series of papers on sheep-farming published in that journal, entitled “Which is the most profitable sheep to grow?” This is the question that naturally engages the mind of the New Zealand sheep-farmer. Ten years ago the pure English breeds were not available in any number; and the merino was the basis upon which the sheep of the future had to be grafted. Most breeders seemed agreed that some kind of crossbred must be created. It was generally admitted that whilst the English longwools, namely, the Lincolns, Leicesters, and Romneys, were too big and heavy for the larger farms of the colony, yet the English Downs—the Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire, and Oxford Down—would not grow sufficient wool to be profitable:—

I mention the above breeds, and omit the Cotswold, Highland Black Face, Welsh, and other breeds that I have seen at the annual Royal Shows in England, because, for various reasons, such as bone with the Cotswolds, coarseness and lightness of fleece with the Black Face, and smallness of carcase with the Welsh, these other breeds, of which there seems to be one for every British county, are generally admitted to be not worth trying in New Zealand.

On the other hand the merino, of which the New Zealand flocks at first almost entirely consisted, though profitable as a wool-grower on the hilly and thinly grassed lands, yet was totally unfitted to depasture on the bush lands of the North Island, or the heavy swamp lands of the South; and last, but not least, would neither mature early enough nor provide the meaty plump carcase that was most saleable in the London market.

There was then a general consensus of opinion that some kind of crossbred was the right sheep to grow, but as to which kind there were as many opinions as there were provinces in New Zealand. Most, however, I think would agree with me in limiting the choice of the one side of the cross to the few pure-breeds I have enumerated above, and at any rate, in order to prevent this paper becoming too discursive, I shall confine my attention to them only.

In discussing the question as to the most profitable sheep I would first point out that question for each individual farmer largely depends on the position of his farm and the character of its soil, and that what is the most profitable sheep in one locality may be an unprofitable animal in another place. In some parts wool pays best, in others meat. There are the back country runs where the merino still reigns supreme on the uncultivated pastures, where the return for stores represents about one-third of the gross returns, the wool finding the other two-thirds. There are other estates partly cultivated, and growing half-breds, where stores and fat sheep provide half the gross profits. And, again, there are the highly cultivated properties within easy distances of the freezing factories, where fat lambs are grown on rape, turnips, and clover, and the returns from meat double those from wool, and return two-thirds of the gross income. These points must not be overlooked in coming to a conclusion on the question stated at the head of this paper.

Coming then first to the Lincoln, one of the purest and most ancient of British breeds, I will admit that for the long moist pastures of the North Island no cross is more profitable: though the Lincoln crossbred lamb is too slow in maturing, and too long in the shank when matured for a first-class lamb for the London market, yet the long lustrous fleece grown on the Lincoln crossbred sheep is pre-eminent, and not to be excelled by any other cross, and it blends better with the merino than any other.

Wherever it pays to grow fat lambs (and nothing is so profitable on suitable land), it will pay best to grow the cross that comes next in my list—namely, the English Leicester. This breed, as all breeders know, is an improved one, created about a hundred years ago by selection, and is now more generally used in the English Midlands than any other; though in the extreme north the severity of the climate compels the use of the hardy Black Face, and on the Southern downs the shortness of the herbage and the high price of superior mutton in the London market render the Down varieties more profitable. And as Canterbury holds somewhat the same position in New Zealand as the Midlands do in Britain, I recommend the use here of a cross from the same breed.

I admit that the Lincoln cross is better in most parts of the North Island, and that the Border Leicester is suitable to the drier pastures of Otago, whilst the Romney, from its powers of resisting foot-rot and withstanding wet, suits the rank, coarse grassed localities of the North Island, and the wet, cold districts of Southland. The wool of the English Leicester is softer and finer than that of the Lincoln, though not so lustrous and long. It blends fairly well with that of the merino, and the half and three-quarter crosses yield a fine, heavy fleece, classed by experts as fine half-bred, that sells well now, and is likely to sell better in the future, in London.

Woolgrowers must bear in mind that the production of coarse Lincoln fleeces has increased enormously in South America, and with its large area of rich alluvial plains, capable when sown with lucerne of carrying four and five sheep to the acre, the production of coarse Lincoln wool will probably exceed the demand, and cause its value to sink far below the value of the fine half-bred Leicester. At present, about half of last year's clip is lying unsold in the warehouses of the River Plate, and the price of coarse Lincoln fleece has been falling in the London market, whilst at the same sales fine half-bred is rising in value. The comparative shortness of the supply of merino wool has no doubt accentuated this difference.

Then meat growers will recognise that a small, meaty carcase, short and plump in the leg, is most desired in the meat market, and (excepting the Southdown) the English Leicester fulfils these requirements better than any other cross. As a lamb, the English Leicester, three-quarter bred cross, at four to five months old, will weigh about 36lb., and cut a fleece of about 3lb. When skinned and dressed the legs look as short and full as those of the Downs, and are practically not distinguishable. The fleece is one-fourth more valuable, and the culls will sell for a shilling apiece more—two great considerations. As a two-tooth, no sheep, not even the Down, will mature earlier or fatten on less feed, and the mutton carcase will weigh, according to age and condition, from 50lb. to 60lb., the very primest weight for the Home market.

I advise growing a small type of English Leicester, smaller and woollier than that grown in England, as wool is of more importance here than there, and the smaller and dumpier the sheep is the better I like it. A large sheep must consume more food than a small one, and wants more shepherding, whilst the mutton of a large sheep is not worth so much per pound as that of a small one, and as, other things being equal, 1lb. of food will produce as much mutton on a small sheep as on a big one, it must be more profitable to use your food on a small, meaty sheep, than on a large bony one.

As everybody in the freezing trade knows, the Canterbury factories grade their sheep as follows: L grade, under 48lb.; A grade, 48lb. to 56lb.; B grade, 56lb. to 64lb.; C grade, 64lb. to 72lb.; H grade, over 72lb. And the mutton of the A grade is worth 1/2d. per pound more than that of the H; or, averaging the price of the A grade at 3 1/2d. per pound and that of the H at 3d. per pound, it is worth one-sixth more—an item every skilful meat-grower will not fail to note.

I find the best mode of managing a flock of say, ten thousand English Leicester cross sheep on a property mostly improved is to use pure English Leicester rams on half- or three-quarter-bred Leicester ewes, and, after tupping the ewes in an English-grass paddock, to keep them cheaply on tussock or old pasture until lambing; then bring them forward on to younger grass, and stock lightly until weaning, say, in January; then draft and class the lambs. About one-fourth of them should be fit for the factory, one-half should go on rape and be fattened, and the balance should be sold as culls, not being worthy of the expensive feed provided to fatten the others; or the culls, being generally small late lambs, can be left a little longer with their mothers, and when weaned kept on medium pasture until the next year, when they can follow the ewes on young grass, after the latter are put back at weaning, and then they will either fatten on the grass before the winter, or be finished on turnips, when the grass fails in May.

The above is only intended as a general sketch. Management must fit the farm; and the farmer who expects the farm to fit the management will have trouble to make both ends meet.

Reverting briefly to the other breeds, and indicating why they are not so suitable to most farmers in Canterbury as the English Leicester cross, I would say that where meat is a consideration the long shank of the Border Leicester compares badly with the short, plump leg of the English Leicester and Down breeds; and after four-tooths the fleece gets very bare on the points and thin on the back. On the other hand, I fully recognise that the Border Leicester matures early and grows a heavier carcase than the English Leicester, whilst the fleece, though not quite as heavy, is fully as fine. The Border Leicester is a better mutton than a lamb-growing animal, but it is lamb that pays best on the best lands of Canterbury.

The Romneys suit the rank, moist, bush and swamp lands of the North Island, teeming with lung-worm and foot-rot, and withstand the severity of the Southland climate better than the English Leicester, and are generally more hardy, and fully as good mothers, but their coarse necks and bony frames do not turn out so good a quality of mutton, nor will their lambs mature as quickly on rape, or turn cut such fat, plump carcases.

Coming to the Down crosses, it is difficult to find fault with the Southdown except to say that its wool is not so valuable and does not seem to blend so well with the merino as the Lincoln and Leicester do, and that the cull lambs are not worth so much in the market as those of the white-faced breeds But the Southdown ram on a long-wool ewe will produce a splendid lamb for freezing purposes, short in the leg, and of the best quality. I prefer the Southdown to the Shropshire, Hampshire, and Oxford Down crosses.

I had some experience of Shropshire's. They were strongly recommended by Mr. John Grigg, and I bought rams from him for 8,000 merino and half-bred ewes at Tipapa, and marked 8,008 lambs from them, a splendid percentage on tussock country. I fattened about one-third, sold about one third as culls for miserable prices (about 3s each), and kept the medium lambs on as two-tooths; fattened some off on turnips, and sold some as store sheep. I followed this plan for three years, gradually substituting half- and three-quarter-bred ewes for the merinos, until by degrees all the merinos were got rid of. Both with the crossbreds as with the merinos I consider the Shropshire's were a failure, and I lost about £500 per annum on this plan. At Woodbank I had another flock of about twelve thousand that I used Border Leicester rams with; at Island Farm a flock of eight thousand, on which I used the English Leicester; and at Tarndale (a back country flock of about forty thousand) on the older ewes I also used English Leicesters, so that I have had some experience with these breeds, and the experience you pay for is always the best.

At the same time many sheep-farmers in other localities may find their experiences different from mine, and I only give your readers the benefit of mine for what it is worth, at your request, and without in any way attempting to pose as an authority amongst men of greater experience and skill than I possess.

Horse-breeding

The climate of New Zealand is admirably adapted for the breeding and rearing of horses of all kinds, especially draught-horses. Indeed it would be difficult to find better Clydesdale horses than those bred on the limestone soils of Oamaru and elsewhere. Some of the best blue-blood of this breed has from time to time been imported from Scotland, with the result that the breed is now well established in the colony.

The light-horse stock of the colony has risen into note through the production of animals which have rendered themselves famous on the colonial turf. The demand for horses suitable for remounts for the cavalry service in India is a continuous one, affording a ready market for the proper stamp of animal. Shipments have from time to time been made to that country. The importation, however, of a few really good sires for the production of carriage-horses, hunters, and hacks would be a national benefit.

Cattle

The colony possesses all the best strains of blood, and this is evidenced by the superior class of cattle to be met with throughout the settled districts, especially in the show yards. There are two Herd-books published by the Canterbury Agricultural and Pastoral Association—one for shorthorns, the other for breeds other than shorthorns. The value of properly kept herd-books is now fully recognised in South America, as all imported stud animals are required to be registered in some herd- or stud-book. New Zealand is free from any of the diseases so disastrous to horned stock in other countries. It is said that Iceland is the only other spot on the earth which enjoys the same immunity. With a view to maintaining this enviable position, the Government have prohibited vessels carrying live-stock from infected colonies touching at any of the ports of New Zealand except under certain conditions. This action is deemed necessary, owing to the prevalence of pleuro-pneumonia in Australia.

Dairy Stock

The breeding of first-class dairy stock offers a field for profitable investment. Milking-cattle now command a fair price, and will continue to do so. The rearing of well-bred heifer calves will repay all the time and trouble bestowed thereon. They must, however, be of exceptionally good quality and from fine milking strains. Separated milk, although relieved of its butter-fat, loses little of its feeding value; the addition of a little linseed meal will restore the fatty constituents, which, however, are not the most valuable for feeding purposes. Ground oats, wheat, or barley added to the linseed mucilage will render calves fit for the butcher in a comparatively short time. An acre or so of European flax should be grown upon every farm where stock-rearing is carried on. The fattening of calves for export has not yet been attempted in the colony, although there is a very large and lucrative market for veal calves in London, ranging from £4 to £6 and £7 per head. Much has still to be done in the way of improving the dairy stock of the colony. The yield of milk from fairly good milking-cattle is approximately 500 gal. per annum, although 700 gal. per head are frequently obtained from selected herds. The average quantity of milk obtained will no doubt be increased as more attention is paid to breeding, and proper feeding. The general management and feeding of dairy stock is a question demanding immediate attention. Kind treatment is essential to success; clean pastures, clear running water, and grasses of the best quality are all factors, fully recognised wherever dairying is successfully carried out.

The average yield of butter from milk passed through the separator is 1lb. for every 2 1/2 gal. of milk of 10 1/2lb.; so that the average cow produces annually 200lb. of butter, or 500lb. of cheese, which, estimated at 4 1/2d. per pound, will be worth about as much as the butter.

The Dairy Industry

The following figures furnish an index to the importance of the dairy industry: The export of butter from the colony for the year ending the 31st March, 1899, amounted to 102,481 cwt., valued at £433,491. The export of cheese for the same period was 50,490 cwt., value £100,983, or a grand total of £534,474. It will thus be seen that this business has now developed into one of the settled industries of the colony, the Government having spent considerable sums of money in the introduction of dairy experts, whose business is to instruct the dairy farmers and factory-owners in all the most approved methods of butter and cheese manufacture. Graders are employed examining all butter and cheese for export, who brand each packet with its proper quality. Factory-owners now recognise the fact that it is folly to pay freight on any but the best quality; and this remark applies to grain and meat as well. We have to compete against Canada, the United States, Denmark, Australia, and the Argentine. New Zealand dairymen must, therefore, endeavour to raise dairy cattle which will yield the maximum of milk of the best quality; in fact, nothing but intense farming will pay in the future, applied to every branch. Factory-owners must acquire a knowledge of the chemistry of their business.

The Danish Government maintains a splendid laboratory and staff of professors, chiefly for the study of ferment in butter and milk; and almost all the milk sold is pasteurised. Everything connected with the industry is conducted on scientific principles. The object of sterilising or pasteurising milk is to destroy the germs of diseases such as tuberculosis, &c. At the present time there appears to be a craze almost amounting to a panic as regards the danger of using the milk of cows affected with tuberculosis. How far the danger extends is difficult to determine. Be this as it may, the sterilising of milk is a wise precaution. The operation consists of heating milk up to a certain temperature, and cooling it rapidly, a process which has been found to destroy the bacillus of tuberculosis known to be present in the milk of affected cattle. The Government veterinary surgeons are employed examining all suspected cattle, and treating them with the tuberculine test. Mr. Gilruth, the Government veterinary surgeon, has tested a large number of cattle throughout the colony for this disease, and in some cases cattle have been destroyed. At the recommendation of the Agricultural Conference Government has been asked to pay the owner of stock so destroyed one-half the value of the animal at the time of its death, which cannot be very much. The following extract from Mr. G. Pentland's (Stock Inspector) report to the Minister of Agriculture in Victoria is interesting and instructive. He says that “tuberculosis is not confined to cattle or man, but it attacks other animals as well—notably the pig, and poultry—and sanitary precautions should be extended as far as practicable in each case, as there is a risk of infection being conveyed from one to the other, from animals to man and from man to animals. Sunlight is very destructive to the bacilli of tuberculosis, and it therefore follows that all milking-sheds and -yards should be in the best possible position, as the success of minimising tuberculosis will greatly depend upon well-devised sanitary arrangements. All tested animals slaughtered and found to be badly affected should be burned, and not given to pigs and other animals. From a number of experiments made it has been found that injections of tuberculine have no bad effect on the quantity or quality of milk; whilst, on the other hand, it is stated by some experts that it will be safer not to use the milk until twenty-four hours have elapsed after injecting the tuberculine. Cows with tuberculous udders should be forthwith slaughtered and their carcases burned. The suppression of tuberculosis is imperative, and the co-operation of stock owners, in their own interests, will be the principal means to this end.”

Pigs

These useful adjuncts to the dairy should hold a very important position on almost all arable farms. The favourite breed in New Zealand is the improved Berkshire. The large and small breeds of White Yorkshire are also to be met with, but are not so generally approved of as the black pigs. The Tamworth pig has grown in favour with pig-breeders, as they answer admirably for crossing with black pigs. They are sought after for producing bacon pigs, making more lean meat and longer sides than the pure Berkshires. Pigs require no better attention than a good grass paddock, with a liberal supply of roots, and a little unthreshed pea-haulm for a few weeks before killing, with plenty of water, and shelter from the sun during the warmest summer months.

The breeding, rearing, and fattening of pigs is a source of wealth which is capable of considerable expansion. Several plants for the mild curing of bacon have been set up at the various freezing-factories, and by private persons and firms, many of whom are prepared to purchase an almost unlimited number of suitable animals, at prices which should prove remunerative to the grower. The establishment of properly appointed pig-farms is a somewhat costly undertaking, as all the fences must be pig-proof. Doubtless this consideration has had a deterrent effect upon some, while others find the breeding of lambs a sufficiently profitable undertaking, besides causing much less trouble. The industry is growing with the increased demand and the satisfactory prices offered for properly fed pigs. There is, however, room for an enormous expansion of this branch of rural industry.

The Fruit Industry

From the North Cape to the Bluff Hill, in the extreme south of the Middle Island, the climate and soil are, for the most part, eminently adapted for the growth of a large variety of fruits. Generally speaking, pears, plums, quinces, apricots, figs, walnuts, cherries, gooseberries, currants, strawberries, and raspberries grow luxuriantly, producing abundant crops of fruit. In the Auckland District, oranges, lemons, and limes flourish: many groves are now bearing, and afford light and pleasant employment to a large number of persons. This employment will go on increasing as the trees become older. The olive flourishes in the North Island, bearing heavy crops, and the manufacture of oil will assume important dimensions at no distant date.

Vine-growing is also carried on with tolerable success in many districts; tons of fruit grown under glass are sold in the Auckland markets annually. Signor Bragato, an Italian wine expert, who visited this colony in 1895, gave it as his opinion that there are numerous localities in both Islands admirably suited for growing vines for the manufacture of wine and raisins.

Away in the far north the banana grows and ripens its fruit, but it is not thought that it will ever enter into successful competition with those imported at so cheap a rate from the Pacific Islands.

Extensive orchards of apples have existed in Auckland for many years, and are still capable of producing an abundance of fruit, if kept free from codlin-moth and other pests. Orchard-planting is progressing, and must one day be a very important industry. Central Otago will also become a large fruit-producing district, being free from violent and scorching north-west winds. All the fruits of the temperate zones flourish there; all that is required is a light railway to tap the district.

The manufacture of cider is already assuming considerable dimensions, opening up a ready market for surplus fruit. The colonial-made article is rapidly coming into favour with the general public.

The drying of fruit has been fostered by the Government, who sent an expert through some of the apple-growing districts, giving practical lessons in the art of artificial fruit-drying. A great deal might also be done in bottling fruits, and the manufacture of fruit-wine, if only for home consumption. These are industries hardly yet touched, but as the orchards mature they may be expected to expand.

The manufacture of jam is carried on with much success, but there is plenty of room for further development in this industry.

Exporting Apples

This trade has not yet assumed any great dimensions. New Zealand orchardists might well take a lesson from their brethren in Tasmania, who have developed a large trade with the London market. Growers must, however, be reminded that it is folly to ship anything but the choicest varieties of dessert- and keeping-apples. A few growers resident in Canterbury have this season shipped to the London market 2,000 cases of selected apples in a cool chamber. Should this prove a success the development of the trade is assured.

Before the planting of fruit-trees was commenced on a large scale, with a view to the export trade, little attention was paid to the varieties selected. The result is that many bearing trees have proved unsuitable to the new requirements, and are now being cut down and regrafted or replaced with more suitable kinds. According to latest advices, the following varieties of apples are said to be in good demand in the London market, always commanding a quick sale at good prices: Ribstone Pippin, Cox's Orange Pippin, Waltham Abbey, Sturmer Pippin, Scarlet Pearmain, Adam's Pearmain, and New York Pippin. The soil best adapted for growing apples is a strong loam with a clay subsoil; but they will thrive in almost any kind of soil, provided it is in good heart and that water does not stagnate in the subsoil.

Owing to the comparative mildness of the New Zealand climate all kinds of fruit-trees are forced into bearing at an earlier period than in Great Britain.

Tree-planting

With a view to encourage the planting of trees, the Government some four years ago introduced the popular American institution of Arbor Day. It is, however, a matter for regret that New Zealand settlers have not as yet entered into the spirit of the institution, as it was hoped they would. Millions of trees have been planted in this way in the United States. Our native forests are fast disappearing before the woodman's axe; it is only a question of time and supplies will have to be drawn from artificial forests, or from foreign sources. Deciduous trees, such as ash, elm, and beech, should be largely planted. A small quantity of ash grown in Canterbury has already come into use for coachbuilding, and has been pronounced by competent experts to be of excellent quality. Plantations of larch might advantageously be made on the southern slopes of the foot-hills skirting the Canterbury Plains and elsewhere. There can be no doubt that a demand will arise for large quantities of larch-poles for mining purposes, &c. The much-despised Pinus insignis has a value far beyond what it gets credit for. Its timber is admirably adapted for the manufacture of fruit-cases. On fairly good land it will come into use in less than twenty years. It will also be found suitable for making butter-boxes. The wood, if selected and properly dried, is perfectly free from resin of any kind. A day of retribution will most assuredly overtake this colony for the persistent neglect to plant trees, to compensate in some degree for the wholesale denudation of our native forests. In Canterbury especially the work has been grossly neglected. Had proper attention been paid to this question by the early settlers the plains of Canterbury would not be so easily swept by north-west winds. The rainfall would be increased, and the moisture in soils would not be so easily evaporated during the summer months.

The following interesting paper on tree-planting is by Mr. T. W. Adams, Greendale, Canterbury, who is an enthusiast on the subject. After introducing his subject, he goes on to say that,—

There are but few persons who do not admit the value of plantations, and I think it would be superfluous to take much time in showing the advantages to be gained by planting shelter-belts; we only require for once to see the sheep during a snowstorm snugly protected by a good belt of pines to appreciate what they are worth to the poor animals. And now that the gorse hedges are dying in all directions those who have plantations find them extremely convenient, not only for repairing the dying fences, but also for stakes for dividing turnips, as well as fuel for the house; and if every farm on the less-valuable portions of Canterbury had been judiciously planted, or sown with forest-trees to the extent of one-tenth of the area, before the land had been cropped at all, I venture to say it would keep as many sheep on the nine-tenths, with the plantation to shelter the sheep from the cold, as it would on the whole without the plantation. Every stock-owner knows what a large amount of food is required to keep animals in condition when they are exposed to the winter's cold; and then I think, however practical we may be, none of us are quite insensible to the beauty or otherwise of our surroundings. It should be the aim of every land-holder not only to make money out of the farm for his necessary wants, but he should try and make the home attractive by judicious planting of fruit- and forest-trees for the comfort and enjoyment of his family. Children brought up on a farm with plenty of trees to shelter them, and an orchard of good fruits for them to enjoy, will have much to make them content with a country life; in the cultivation of these things they are likely to find much to interest them, and when in time they leave their homes it will be with happy memories of the past. And so we strongly recommend the planting of trees, fruitful, useful, and ornamental. The Scotch laird is said to have advised his son to “be aye-sticking in a tree,” as it would be growing while he was sleeping.

That plantations are useful to supply fuel, valuable for shelter, and pleasant to look upon few will dispute, but we cannot so confidently assert that they improve the climate of a dry country by causing an increased rainfall. “Whether is the rain the mother of the forest” or “the forest the parent of the rain” is still a debatable subject, and a person may hold either theory and still have good authority for his view of the matter. Our own idea is that the rain causes the forest, and that trees to only a very small extent influence the amount of rainfall in any locality, but we think that trees are very valuable by their shade in preventing the too-rapid evaporation of the rain from the earth. We all know how much longer the grass remains damp in a plantation, caused partly by the shade and partly by the stillness of the air; a room will be much sooner dried if we open the windows and let the air pass through; and so if we cut down the trees the wind passing over the ground will more quickly dry it. Also, the decaying leaves and sticks, with the moss and other spongy substances found at the base of the trees, all hold the water from rushing unchecked off the soil, and thus causing streams to be more permanent in a wooded than in an unwooded district; therefore, although trees may not increase the amount of rain but to a small amount in a given locality, they undoubtedly are very beneficial in conserving it, and making more of it available for the use of man and beast.

But it is possible that trees do make a considerable difference in the amount of rainfall in a country. Certain it is that persons living in what were formerly bush districts generally hold that there is less rain than there used to be when the ush was standing.

Objection is sometimes made to the planting of trees, on the ground that the trees harbour sparrows and other destructive birds, and it cannot be denied that near the homesteads the birds do use the trees for nesting; but in plantations removed from the home but very few will be found, and we venture to say that more sparrows' and linnets' nests may be found in a mile of gorse hedge than in 20 acres of trees.

There are some who would like to have planted more trees but have been discouraged from further planting through having bought unsuitable trees at the start. There are trees that look all that is beautiful when growing on the rich and well-cultivated soil of the nursery that would be utterly useless for either shelter or ornament if planted on the poorer land usually given to trees.

Some think that planting is too expensive, and say that planting is not profitable; others have heard the old saw which says, “The planter of trees benefits not himself but his posterity,” which is not true, at all events in New Zealand, as we who commenced to plant early have now trees fit for almost any purpose; and if it were true it is certainly well that we leave the world better than we found it, and no one can more surely do this in a material sense than by leaving portions of these plains of ours covered with valuable timbers.

We will now try and show how we think this may be done. Supposing the land in tussock, no one need be afraid of the expense, as a crop of useful trees may be raised from seed as easily as a crop of turnips, and the seed need not cost more, as seeds of Cupressus macrocarpa, C. torulosa, several species of hardy eucalypts, and acacias, and many other species of trees, may be had for the gathering, and will thrive excellently if sown by an ordinary drill, and all the better if a little fertiliser is sown with them, as with the turnips. The seed of all the different species may be mixed together, or one part of the drill may be charged with wattles, another with gums, another with cypresses. It would not be easy to raise a pine-plantation in this way, as the birds have a great taste for them and would pick all the young pines off as they came up; but a variety of shrub-seed, such as matipo, laburnum, berberry, holly, and junipers, might be added with advantage, as I have found by experience, and in one of my plantations the matipo (Pittosporum tenuifolium) is now very freely sowing itself; but, unfortunately, the wood of the matipo, though hard, is of very little use for stakes, as it decays very quickly. The belts sown should be at least 2 chains wide, as not only would the trees grow better, and the timber be of better quality, but the cost of fencing would be much less per acre. And here let me say it is of the utmost importance that the land set apart for trees should be well fenced; not a few of the failures in planting have been caused by a flock of sheep getting into the plantation during the early years of its growth, and unless one is prepared to put up a good fence he had better not attempt the raising of trees.

On ground that has been in cultivation, and where sorrel and other weeds are in possession, it is more difficult to get a plantation of trees started, and if cocksfoot grass is plentiful it will be necessary to destroy it before any success can be expected. On this class of land I cannot recommend sowing the seeds until the weeds are killed by a summer's fallow; or, a better way would be to raise the plants in a nursery ground, or get small plants from a nurseryman, and plant them in a specially prepared bed, there to remain until they are large enough to be planted in their permanent situations. The advantages of this plan are great, and, even when plants are received from the nursery of sufficient size, it will be found more economical to put them in a bed and keep them weeded for a season; they can then be planted out under the most favourable circumstances as to weather and season of the year, and will not fail to grow when so treated.

It is important in planting or sowing trees, if a number of species are being sown, to put such fast growers as Pinus insignis on the northern side of the plantation, thus allowing the slower-growing trees to get the full benefit of the rain, which usually comes from the south-west. The fast growers placed in this manner also protect the trees of slower growth from the north-west winds. In no case should Pinus insignis be mixed with other trees, or it very soon over-tops and destroys them, but may be used with advantage to shelter others in the way I have indicated. In planting, if shelter be the first consideration, Pinus insignis, P. tuberculata, P. patula, P. muricata, and P. Bolanderi will be found the fastest growers, and in the order named, and the wood of all is useful for firewood. But I think we should look a little further ahead, and plant trees that will, when matured, be valuable for railway-sleepers, and other such purposes. Over two thousand sleepers are required for every mile of railway, and they require renewing every few years. It would be wise in the interests of our country, and of our families, if we plant the most valuable trees with which we are acquainted, and I know of no tree so likely to fulfil these requirements as the larch-pine (Pinus laricio), known also as the Corsican pine, and found growing in Greece and other parts of the south of Europe. One English writer says of it: “All things considered, it is one of the most valuable and generally useful species of the genus Pinus which has yet been planted in the British Isles, being thoroughly hardy, sound in constitution, of tolerably large dimensions, and of very rapid and regular growth, and will not only grow, but will produce both quantity and quality of timber equal to any, and superior to many, of its congeners when grown under the same conditions.” And this is exactly our experience of it here, and we can with confidence recommend it to planters. It is not often that trees recommended in English works are successful here, but this is an exception.

Other trees that give promise of success are Pinus ponderosa, P. austriaca, P. coulteri, P. sabiniana, P. pungeous, P. rigida, P. pineaster, and P. benthamiana, Cupressus knighti, C. torulosa, and C. benthamiana, Cedrus atlantica, Libocedrus decurrens, Picea pinsapo, P. nordmaniana, P. nobilis, and Araucaria imbricata. All these, I think, will grow fairly well on the ordinary thin soils of the plains. Along the water-races, or even on the south side of the plantations, other trees will grow, as the various spruces, oaks, elms, walnut, chestnut, ash, and larch, but only well within reach of water, except on the best land, and persons owning the better land will not be disposed to put much of it in trees. Nor is it desirable that it should be planted, except in limited areas around the buildings, and then only with choice trees, instead of the willow, poplar, and Pinus insignis everywhere to be seen. The trees should have plenty of room to develop themselves, and the spaces betwixt them should be filled with shrubs, such as the laurel, holly, lauristina, guelder-rose, Azara macrophylla, juniper, Choysa ternata, matipo, arbutus, magnolia, rhododendron, and Euonymus fimbriata. These are twelve hardy shrubs—distinct, and beautiful. The twelve trees that I shall recommend are Araucaria imbricata or monkey puzzle, Abies douglassi, Cedrus deodara, horse chestnut, Cupressus lawsoniana, C. sempervirens, C. torulosa, Picea nobilis, P. nordmaniana, and P. pinsapo, Retinospora leptoclada, and Thuja gigantea. These twenty-four plants can, with the exception, perhaps, of Picea nobilis, all be obtained of any of our leading nurserymen, and are the cream of trees and shrubs suitable for a farmer's homestead.

Before closing this paper I would like to correct a common mistake about our native trees, to the effect that they are difficult to transplant. Such is not the case, and several of them may be successfully grown, as the kowai and matipos, from seed; the black-birch and white-pine, from plants collected in the bush, and the totara may be raised quite readily from cuttings. Others, as the akeake, broadleaf, and lancewood, may all be grown, but they cannot endure long droughts in the central parts of the plains. They would do well near the sea as at New Brighton; and the sandhills all along our New Zealand coasts appear to me to be crying out for trees. With the experience gained in France, no time should be lost before a determined effort is made to stop the drifting inland of the sand on our coasts. It is only a little over a hundred years, or in 1789, when the first national attempt was made on the shores of the Bay of Biscay to stop the further inroads of the sand by means of plantations of broom, Pinus pineaster, and the cork oak. Now these very protective works have become the source of great wealth, thousands of persons finding employment in charcoal-burning, cork-cutting, and in collecting turpentine, resin, and pitch. The broom, Pinus pineaster, and the cork oak all grow well here, and nothing is needed but the same public spirit and foresight to begin the work which induced Minister Neckar in a time of great financial straits to commence the work in France.

Prospects of Small Farmers

Those who have watched the course of events in other countries, so far as they affect the agricultural interests of New Zealand, have come to the conclusion that New Zealand will have to pay greater attention to the quality of her agricultural exports than has been given to them in the past. Our farmers cannot hope to compete with such countries as Australia and South America, where land is so much cheaper, and where mutton and beef of good quality can be produced; for cheap meat these must command the markets of the world. Happily for New Zealand, our climate and pastures are such that we can not only produce mutton equal to the finest English or Scotch, but we can produce more per acre than can be done in Australia. Our dairy-produce is now second to none, owing to the Government instructors and graders, and the factories where the article can be made uniformly good.

Owing to her humid climate and fertile soil New Zealand is peculiarly well adapted for small holdings. Men of slender means can easily make homes for themselves and their families, always provided they know something of the work they undertake, and are, with their families, willing to work hard and live frugally for a few years. It is quite possible for a man with a few cows and pigs, together with poultry and bees, to make a good living, as markets for these products are now being opened up in England, and there is a good local market if the goods are properly prepared. There is also a continuous demand for the supply of coastal and ocean-going steamers. The facilities now given for obtaining land and money at reasonable rates offer great inducements to persons to settle upon the land. This is amply illustrated at Cheviot, where a fine estate has been cut up into moderate-sized farms, and let to farmers on perpetual lease at a rental representing 4 per cent. on the purchase-money. Prosperous homes are springing up all over the settlement. Its success will be assured when the proposed line is completed, connecting the settlement by rail with the local markets and the port of shipment. There are thousands of acres in the North Island adapted for farming, and much land there is being taken up.

Conclusion

An attempt has been made in the foregoing pages to set before the readers of the Year-book an unvarnished statement of the condition of things in the colony from an agricultural and pastoral standpoint, which prove conclusively that as a country for settlement New Zealand is not surpassed by any British possession, being one where the industrious man with moderate means can live with much comfort. The land, it is true, is dearer in some districts than that which may be found in South America, South Africa, or Canada, but this difference in price is far outweighed by other considerations, such as superiority of climate, and security to life and property. Pit these advantages against the insecurity of life and property in South America and South Africa, or the rigour of Canadian winters, and the balance will be immensely in favour of New Zealand. Another great advantage enjoyed by the agriculturist of New Zealand is that he is nowhere far from the seaboard, giving him the benefit of cheap carriage for his produce to the shipping ports.

The foregoing notes would hardly be complete without some reference to the prevalence of small birds. Amongst other birds, the English sparrow was introduced to New Zealand some five and twenty years ago. Many of the early settlers remember his first appearance, and the pleasurable feeling elicited by the sound of his once familiar chirp, awakening reminiscences of the Old Land. New Zealand is singularly destitute of the feathered enemies of small birds, and, owing to this and the genial climate, the sparrow and other birds have long since become so numerous that drastic methods have to be adopted to preserve the balance of power. Large sums of money are paid annually by the Road Boards for the destruction of small birds. The want, however, of concerted action on the part of farmers at the time of poisoning is responsible for the undue increase of the pest. While treating small birds as pests, it must not, however, be forgotten that before their advent farmers suffered very heavy losses from the periodical attacks of caterpillars, which frequently devastated their barley-and oat-crops, and that the birds are the farmers' friends in this matter. It must also be remembered that the birds live for about nine months in the year on insects and seeds of weeds; so that if accounts could be squared they would not be such debtors after all. All that can now be done is to keep them in check.

Chapter 59. NEW ZEALAND FORESTS AND THE TIMBER INDUSTRY

[Reprinted by special request.]

If the relative importance of the various branches of colonial industry be determined by the value of the output of each, the timber industry occupies the fourth place; but, if it be based on the amount of remunerative employment afforded by each, this industry occupies nearly the first place. The number of saw-mills in working order at the date of the census (1896) was: In the North Island, 155, employing 2,652 persons; and in the South Island, 144, affording employment to 1,407 persons—a total of 299 mills, requiring the services of 4,059 persons. But this number does not nearly represent the amount of labour employed, as many men engaged in the preliminary work of felling, logging, hauling, building dams, laying tramways, &c., are returned as “bushmen,” “contractors,” “drivers,” &c., without anything to show that they are directly connected with saw-mill work. If these be added, the number of persons employed will certainly be greatly increased. Further, in some districts large quantities of sawn or hewn logs are conveyed to the mills by rail or by coasting-craft; while, in all alike, round or sawn timber constitutes one of the largest items of railway-freight, and in this way gives employment to many more.

General Character of the Forest

The character of the forest varies greatly in different localities, according to the kind of trees composing it and the degree of luxuriance which they attain. New Zealand forests are usually of a mixed character, some one or two kinds predominating to a greater or less extent. It is but rarely that large areas of forest consist of a single species only; but there are noteworthy exceptions—thus, the mountain forests consist of mountain-beech exclusively; the Oxford and Alford Forests of entire-leaved beech; some large areas are altogether covered with tawa; kahikatea forms uniform forests in swampy districts, and smaller areas are occasionally found containing nothing but kauri. Still, the great bulk of the forest is of a mixed character. This renders it difficult to lay down well-defined areas for the principal timbers, more especially as most of the trees are generally distributed through the colony. Nevertheless, certain districts may be roughly defined according to the prevailing tree or trees, although the boundaries must of necessity be somewhat vague.

(1.) The Kauri District.

This may be defined as that part of the colony lying north of a line drawn from Tauranga to Port Waikato, the kauri being the predominating tree over large portions of the area. In some parts only single trees are found, in others they occur in clumps or groups, sometimes forming extensive groves, or even large blocks, almost to the exclusion of all other trees. Most frequently the kauri will be found mixed with rimu, kahikatea, tanekaha, miro, totara, totarakiri-kotukutuku, northern rata, puriri, tawa, tarairi, matai, and many other trees, the tawa, as a rule, being most abundant. The nikau, or southern palm, is plentiful all through the district, and is every-where accompanied by noble tree-ferns and palm-lilies. The underwood is composed of numerous shrubs, and the ground is carpeted with a rich growth of delicate filmy ferns. A large kauri forest is one of the grandest sights to be found in the entire range of the vegetable kingdom; massive columnar trunks, 4 ft. to 8 ft. in diameter, clothed with smooth grey bark, rise close together often to the height of a hundred feet or more, their spreading arms and deep-green leaves presenting a picture of the greatest luxuriance and vigour. At the base of each tree is a large mound of humus, formed by the decay of bark through successive centuries. The surface soil as well as the humus is charged with resin that has exuded from the fallen leaves or twigs. Some of the most ancient specimens are among the oldest trees in the world, and must have originated in a period long before the Christian era, yet they still exhibit all the life and exuberance of early youth.

In the extensive swamps by the Northern Wairoa and other rivers the kahikatea forms forests of a remarkable character. The uniformly straight naked trunks often exceed a hundred feet in height, carry very short branches at their tops, and are so close together that at the distance of a few yards the view is completely blocked, and nothing is to be seen but the column-like trunks from 2 ft. to 5 ft. in diameter; the undergrowth being insignificant.

(2.) The Totara District.

Although the totara is distributed throughout the colony, it occurs in larger masses in the central portions of the North Island, more especially on the eastern side. Large areas, in which it is the prevailing tree, are found in many parts south of the Lower Waikato, more especially in the southern parts of Hawke's Bay, the northern portion of the Wellington District, and the Seventy-mile Bush. In a large portion of the area the totara is sparsely scattered, and even when most dense is usually intermixed with rimu, tawa, totara-kiri-kotukutuku, kamahi, hinau, kahikatea and other trees. Unlike the kauri, the bark of the totara is of a deep brown colour and much furrowed, while the short narrow leaves are of a brownish-green. Amongst the most conspicuous trees of this area there are two worthy of special mention, the northern rata and the black maire, which occur in vast abundance in many localities. The former is often found with a distorted trunk of gigantic dimensions clothed with rough brown bark. The latter has a pale bark, and yields a timber remarkable alike for its density, strength, and durability. Large portions of the forest, especially on the western side, consist chiefly of tawa, rimu, and kihikatea, which are extensively converted throughout the district, the first-named for dairy-ware and butter-kegs, the two latter for building and general purposes. Tooth-leaved beech, entire-leaved beech, and silver-beech are plentiful on the lower slopes of the mountains, but rarely descend to the sea-level, while mountain-beech forms the bulk of the forest at high levels. Rimu and kahikatea are the chief timbers of the moist forests in the valleys of the Manawatu, Rangitikei, and Wairarapa.

(3.) The Red-pine District

This might be termed the low-land pine district of the South Island, as practically it comprises all the forest country in that island below a level of 1,000 ft. Although in nearly all localities the forest is of a mixed character, yet from Marlborough to Stewart Island the rimu must be considered the predominating tree, and is the most extensively converted. The kahikatea stands next in abundance, and is closely approached by the kamahi, while the miro, matai, totara, Hall's totara, are generally distributed; but the northern rata and pukatea scarcely occur south of Greymouth. The Westland silver-pine, yellow silver-pine, and quintinia, although not peculiar to Westland, are more abundant there than in any other part of the colony; while the southern rata, which extends to Stewart Island, is especially plentiful in the Tautuku Forest, where it attains very large dimensions. Cedar, or pahautea, pokaka, and hinau are not unfrequent, while most of the beeches are plentiful, especially in the southern parts of the district. The undergrowth contains a large variety of shrubs or small trees, many of which afford timbers suitable for ornamental cabinet - work and inlaying.

Much of the rimu and kahikatea in the south-western portion of the Nelson District, and in Westland, is of great height, and very well-grown, in some cases yielding 80,000 superficial feet of converted timber per acre.

The area of heavy forest on the eastern side of the South Island is small; the inland Oxford and Alford Forests consisting chiefly of entire-leaved beech.

(4.) The Beech District

This may be roughly defined as that portion of the South Island between 1,000 ft. and 4,000 ft. in altitude, for, although the rimu and kahikatea are often found above 1,000 ft., yet they rarely occur in any great quantity, or exhibit great luxuriance; so, on the other hand, the different beeches occasionally descend even to the sea-level, although rarely forming any large portion of the forest at extremely low levels. The most valuable forest - tree is the tooth - leaved beech, which attains exceptional luxuriance and large dimensions in the neighbourhood of Te Anau Lake, and many other localities. Silver-beech and entire-leaved-beech are found as far south as Preservation Inlet and the Tautuku Forest, while the mountain-beech prefers higher levels, although occasionally a few specimens descend to the rimu district. None of the beeches extend to Stewart Island, which in many parts is covered with a dense growth of rimu, kamahi, and rata, the kahikatea being extremely rare.

Area of Forest Land

The following statement of the approximate areas still under forest was published in the report of the Survey Department for the year ending 31st March, 1893:—

 Acres.
Auckland Land District— 
    North of Auckland1,800,000
    South of Auckland3,420,000
Taranaki1,850,000
Hawke's Bay1,900,000
Wellington3,400,000
Marlborough400,000
Nelson3,240,000
Westland2,394,000
Canterbury492,000
Otago1,182,000
Southland500,000
 20,578,000

The State forest reserves, including those made for climatic purposes, comprised 1,150,918 acres on 31st March, 1896.

Exploitation and Conversion

The trees are felled and cross-cut into suitable lengths for conversion, the logs being conveyed to the mill by flotation, by tramlines, or, more rarely, hauled by oxen or horses.

Flotation is the method most commonly used in the kauri districts, which are much broken by deep gullies and small streams, opening into tidal creeks. After the trunks are cut into lengths, a “rolling-road” is formed to the nearest creek. All the scrub is closely cut down for a width of from twenty-five to thirty feet, and all stumps are removed, while inequalities are reduced so as to obtain an approximately even surface, inclined towards the creek. The logs are forced along this road by timber-jacks, which the bushmen use with remarkable skill, and are impelled with a rapidity which is simply astonishing to persons unused to the process. If the creek contains plenty of water the logs float to the nearest booms without further trouble, and are drawn out of the water as required, but in many cases the creek does not contain sufficient water to float the logs, and then they are left until heavy rains afford the requisite depth. Often it is necessary to construct costly dams to impound the water in the upper parts of the creek, in order that it may be suddenly liberated when the water in the lower parts is at its greatest depth, so that the entire assemblage of logs may be “driven” to the booms. In dry seasons the logs may remain in the bed of the creek for months, and, occasionally, after a successful “drive,” the harvest of logs is carried out to sea and lost, the booms breaking from the immense pressure behind them. Kauri-logs, thus set free, often drift to the coast of the Kermadec Islands, nearly seven hundred miles north-east of the Hauraki Gulf. Tram-lines are less common in the kauri district than in the southern parts of the colony.

In portions of the Taranaki District, where milling timber is somewhat sparse, timber-wheels are commonly used; but in nearly all places where milling timber is plentiful a tramway is constructed. Kamahi, or other common timbers are used for sleepers. Rails are sawn out of better stuff, and laid in notches cut in the sleepers, being tightly fixed by wooden wedges. Haulage is usually effected by horse-power, but in some cases the tramway is built in a more substantial manner, light steel rails being used instead of wood, and the logs are hauled by a steam motor. The maximum proportion of tramway required is half a chain per acre. Loading places are constructed alongside the line, at a distance of twenty or thirty chains apart, to which the logs are hauled by oxen. If of large size, the timber-jack is employed to facilitate loading. It is not considered profitable to haul logs from a greater distance than ten chains on either side of the tramway. It is in the Southland forests, where there is a large extent of comparatively level land, that the tramway is most used.

The sawmill is usually worked by steam power, rarely by water, and may vary from the magnificent mills of the Auckland District to the small portable engine and movable saw-bench commonly seen in a block newly opened for settlement. For their completeness, and the quality of their machinery, the Auckland mills are equal to any in the world. They are fitted with vertical breaking-down saws, capable of dividing the largest logs into halves or flitches, as may be required; vertical frame-saws for converting the flitches into boards, and circular-saw benches having rack - adjustments for the conversion of scantling. Planing machines of the best pattern, tonguing and grooving machinery, moulding machines, as well as machines for the manufacture of doors and sashes, coopers' staves, gates, wheelwrights' stuff, &c., &c., are to be seen on all sides. Some of the mills are furnished with the electric light, so as to allow of work being carried on through the night when required, and in a few cases arrangements are made for seasoning converted timber by the hot air process. In the totara and rimu districts the mills are less complex, of smaller extent, and driven by less powerful engines. Breaking-down is commonly effected by the circular saw, and in the case of very large logs by two circular saws, an upper and a lower working in the same vertical plane. Vertical frame-saws can scarcely be said to have been brought into general use, although they are becoming more common. A circular-saw bench, with rack adjustment, serves for the conversion of boards and scantling. Planing is effected by a simple machine with revolving cutters. Machines for tonguing and grooving and for moulding are to be found in nearly every mill, the former usually combined with the planing-machine. Planing-machines of a better type are coming into use, and, at one or two of the Hokitika mills, wide boards and panels, suitable for ornamental cabinet-work, are turned out by frame-saws in a style that could not be surpassed either in England or the United States.

Output and Labour

The value of the total output of sawn timber, planed flooring and skirting, mouldings, doors, and sashes, for the entire colony during the year 1895, has been stated by the Registrar-General as £898,807. This amount is £65,848 above that of the previous census, 1891. At the census of 1891, twenty-five mills had been closed, and the number of persons employed had fallen from 5,042 to 3,266, many of the mills working even less than half-time. Since that date the trade has improved, and its volume is increased. Of the total output for 1895 the forty-nine Auckland mills contributed nearly one-half, the value of their output being £430,913, whereas the manufactures of the 250 mills in the other provincial districts were valued at £467,894. The sum paid in wages during the same year is stated at £323,223; but this includes only a portion of the amount paid to the bushmen, fellers, and others engaged in preparing the logs for conversion, as many mills purchase logs from settlers, or employ contractors, who deliver the logs at the mill at fixed rates.

The approximate value of land, buildings, machinery, and plant was returned as under: Land, £186,958; buildings, £100,667; machinery and plant, £298,797; total, £586,422.

In the kauri district, bush-hands are commonly paid 20s., or rarely 18s., per week, with board and lodgings, the accommodation in some cases being plain, but amply sufficient in so mild a climate, the board plentiful and of good quality. In some instances, married bush-hands put up a rough cottage, the larger part of the material being supplied by the manager free of cost, and sometimes enclose a small garden; in this case saving the cost of rent and firing, while securing a large amount of comfort at a minimum of expenditure. On the other hand, the cost of flour and other provisions is somewhat higher than in the towns, on account of the heavy charges for freight.

Timber Export

The following table shows the gradual development of the export trade, and its present position:—

Year.Sawn and Hewn Timber.
Quantity.Value.
Ft.£
18755,225,62726,914
189538,297,905141,892
189634,984,414133,511
189739,326,396154,169
189840,721,632164,723

By far the greater portion of exported timber consists of kauri, the proportion of other timber being almost insignificant.

Varieties of Timber-Trees

The chief timbers and timber-trees of New Zealand may fairly be divided into three classes:—

  1. Timbers of Great Durability and Large Dimensions, suitable for Constructive Works, House-building, or for Special Purposes.

    • 1. Kauri Agathis australis), Salisbury.

    • 2. Totara (Podocarpus totara), A. Cunningham.

    • 3. Totara-kiri-kotukutuku (Podocarpus hallii), T. Kirk.

    • 4. Matai (Podocarpus spicata), R. Brown.

    • 5. Kawaka (Libocedrus doniana), Endlicher.

    • 6. Pahautea, or cedar (Libocedrus bidwillii), Hooker f.

    • 7. Northern manoao (Dacrydium kirkii), F. Mueller.

    • 8. Southern manoao (Dacrydium colensoi), Hooker.

    • 9. Westland pine (Dacrydium westlandicum), T. Kirk.

    • 10. Yellow silver-pine (Dacrydium intermedium), T. Kirk.

    • 11. Puriri (Vitex littoralis), A. Cunningham.

    • 12. Tawhai-raunui, tooth-leaved beech (Fagus fusca), Hooker f.

    • 13. Tawhai-rauriki, entire-leaved beech (Fagus solandri), Hooker f.

    • 14. Tawhai, Blair's beech (Fagus blairii), T. Kirk.

    • 15. Maire-raunui (Olea cunninghamii), Hooker f.

    • 16. Maire (Olea lanceolata), Hooker f.

    • 17. Narrow-leaved maire (Olea montana), Hooker f.

    • 18. The northern rata (Metrosideros robusta), A. Cunningham.

    • 19. The southern rata (Metrosideros lucida), Menzies.

    • 20. Pohutukawa (Metrosideros tomentosa), A. Cunningham.

    • *21. Small-leaved pohutukawa (Metrosideros polymorpha), Forster.

    • 22. Manuka-rauriki (Leptospermum ericoides), A. Richard.

    • 23. Maire-tawhake (Eugenia maire), A. Cunningham.

    • 24. Kowhai (Sophora tetraptera), Aiton.

  2. Timbers suitable for General Building Purposes, or for Special Uses, but of less Durability than the preceding kinds.

    • 25. Rimu, red-pine (Dacrydium cupressinum), Solander.

    • 26. Kahikatea, white-pine (Podocarpus dacrydioides), A. Richard.

    • 27. Miro-toromiro (Podocarpus ferruginea), Don.

    • 28. Tanekaha (Phyllocladus trichomanoides), Don.

    • 29. Toatoa (Phyllocladus glauca), Carr.

    • 30. Mountain toatoa (Phyllocladus alpinus), Hooker f.

    • 31. Tawhai-rauriki, mountain beech (Fagus cliffortioides), Hooker f.

    • 32. Tawhai, silver-beech (Fagus menziesii), Hooker f.

    • 33. Pukatea (Laurelia novœ-zelandiœ), A. Cunningham.

    • 34. Hinau (Elœocarpus dentatus), Vahl.

    • 35. Pokaka (Elœocarpus hookerianus), Raoul.

    • 36. Tarairi (Beilschmiedia tarairi), Bentham and Hooker f.

    • 37. Tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa), Bentham and Hooker f.

    • 38. Titoki, tokitoki (Electryon excelsum), De Candolle.

    • 39. Tawari (Ixerba brexioides), A. Cunningham.

    • 40. Mangeao, tangeao (Litsea calicaris), Bentham and Hooker f.

    • 41. Rewarewa (Knightia excelsa), R. Brown.

    • 42. Tawhero (Weinmannia silvicola), Banks and Solander.

    • 43. Towhai, or kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), Forster.

    • 44. Porokaiwhiri (Hedycarya dentata), Forster.

    • 45. Kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile), Hooker f.

      * Found only in the Kermadecs.

  3. Timbers of Small Dimensions, adapted to Special Purposes.

    • 46. Moropito (Drimys axillaris), Forster.

    • 47. Tarata (Pittosporum eugenioides), A. Cunningham.

    • 48. Karo (Pittosporum crassifolium), Banks and Solander.

    • 49. Tawhiwhi (Pittosporum tenuifolium), Banks and Solander.

    • 50. Mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus), Forster.

    • 51. Huoi, or manatu (Plagianthus betulinus), A. Cunningham.

    • 52. Wharangi (Melicope ternata), Forster.

    • 53. Kaikomako (Pennantia corymbosa), Forster.

    • 54. Ake (Dodonœa viscosa), Linné.

    • 55. Karaka (Corynocarpus lœvigata), Forster.

    • 56. Putaputa-weta (Carpodetus serratus), Forster.

    • 57. Kumarahou (Quintinia serrata), A. Cunningham.

    • 58. Makamaka (Ackama rosœfolia), A. Cunningham.

    • 59. Manuka, or kahikaton (Leptospermum scoparium), Forster.

    • 60. Ramarama (Myrtus bullata), Banks and Solander.

    • 61. Small-leaved ramarama (Myrtus ralphii), Hooker f.

    • 62. Rohutu (Myrtus obcordata), Hooker f.

    • 63. Rohutu (Myrtus pedunculata), Hooker f.

    • 64. Kotukutuku, or kohutuhutu (Fuschsia excorticata), Linné.

    • 65. Horoeka, lancewood (Pseudopanax crassifolium), Seeman.

    • 66. Toothed lancewood (Pseudopanax ferox), T. Kirk.

    • 67. Papauma (Griselinia littoralis), Raoul.

    • 68. Puka (Griselinia lucida), Forster.

    • 69. Tree karamu (Coprosma arborea), T. Kirk.

    • 70. Yellow-wood (Coprosma linariifolia), Hooker f.

    • 71. Tupari (Olearia colensoi), Hooker f.

    • 72. Akeake (Olearia traversii), Hooker f.

    • 73. Heketara (Olearia cunninghamii), Hooker f.

    • 74. Akeake (Olearea avicinniœfolia), Hooker f.

    • 75. Neinei (Dracophyllum latifolium), Hooker f.

    • 76. Mountain neinei (Dracophyllum traversii), Hooker f.

    • 77. Inaka (Dracophyllum longifolium), R. Brown.

    • 78. Toro (Myrsine salicina), Heward.

    • 79. Mapau (Myrsine australis), A. de Candolle.

    • 80. Tawaapou (Sideroxylon costatum), Bentham and Hooker f.

    • 81. Maire (Fusanus cunninghamii), Bentham and Hooker f.

    • 82. Ngaio (Myoporum lœtum), Banks and Solander.

    • 83. Toru (Persoonia toro), A. Cunningham.

    • 84. Milk-tree (Paratrophis microphyllus), Bentham and Hooker f.

    • 85. Makomako (Aristotelia racemosa), Hooker f.

    • 86. Tumatukuru (Discaria toumatou), Raoul.

A brief description of each of the above species will be found below. The weight per cubic foot, unless otherwise specified, is invariably for seasoned timber:—

Class I

1. Kauri (Agathis australis), Salisbury; “Forest Flora of New Zealand,” Plates 79 to 81. North Cape to Maketu and Kawhia.

This is the finest tree in New Zealand, and affords the most valuable timber. It varies from 80 ft. to 100 ft. and upwards in height, with a trunk from 3 ft. to 8 ft. in diameter; but specimens have been measured with a diameter of fully 22 ft.

The bark is smooth, of a dark-grey colour, and falls away in large flat flakes. The leaves are rather close-set, very thick and rigid, 1 in. to 3 in. long; and the handsome globular cone is nearly 3 in. in diameter.

The timber is of the highest value, and combines a larger number of good qualities in a high degree of perfection than any other pine timber in general use; for, while of great strength, it is of high durability, and unites a firm, compact texture with great silkiness, so that it is worked quite as easily as the best Quebec yellow pine.

Many logs are beautifully clouded, feathered, or mottled, and are highly valued for ornamental cabinet-work, panelling, &c., realising from £7 to £10 per 100 ft. superficial. Ordinary wood without figure is used for wharves, bridges, and constructive works generally; squared piles, railway sleepers, ship-building (especially for deck planking), house-building, fencing, and other purposes too numerous to mention.

It is exported to a greater extent than any other New Zealand timber, and affords employment to nearly one-third of the entire number of persons engaged in timber conversion. Its turpentine constitutes the valuable resin known as kauri-gum, in gathering which nearly 7,000 persons are employed.

Its specific gravity varies from 0.498 to 0.700. Its relative strength when compared with English oak is as 892 to 1,000; weight per cubic foot when seasoned, 37 11 lb. to 42 lb. The mean average breaking-weight obtained from twelve specimens is 165.5 lb.

2. Totara (Podocarpus totara), A. Cunningham; “Forest Flora,” Plate 115. Mongonui to Southland.

The totara stands next to the kauri for general utility, and, being more widely distributed, is by some considered of equal, or even greater, value; but, though equalling kauri in durability and the facility with which it can be worked, it is inferior in strength, and will not take so high a finish. The tree is usually from 60 ft. to 80 ft. in height, the trunk having a diameter of from 2 ft. to 6 ft., but specimens 100 ft. high, with a diameter of 8 ft., are not infrequent. The trunk is clothed with fibrous brown bark, which is deeply furrowed, and in very old specimens is fully 3 in. thick. The leaves are about 3/4 in. long, linear, and of a greenish-brown tint. The wood is of a reddish brown colour, and does not warp or twist. It is clear and straight in the grain, and, therefore, easily worked. It is of extreme durability, and is largely employed for building purposes, bridges, wharves, telegraph-posts, railway-sleepers, house-blocks, fencing-posts, and various other purposes. Owing to its unrivalled power of resisting the attacks of the teredo, it is highly valued for marine piles, and is unquestionably the best timber in the colony for that purpose. Many of the large canoes of the Maoris were hewn out of a single trunk.

A well-grown totara forest has an imposing effect: majestic trunks, 60 ft. or 80 ft. to the first branch, tapering with the greatest regularity, grow so close together that very little top is developed; and the yield of first-class timber is enormous, sometimes amounting to 80,000 or even 100,000 superficial feet per acre. Usually, however, the trees are of smaller dimensions, and the trunks are often distorted, and cannot be converted without a large proportion of waste.

The specific gravity of totara is 0.559; weight per cubic foot when seasoned, 35.17 lb.; breaking-weight, 133.6 lb., the mean average of seventeen specimens.

Kauri Tree at Tararu Creek. Thames (46 ft. in circumference)
[To face page 478

3. Totara kiri-kotukutuku (Podocarpus hallii), T. Kirk; “Forest Flora,” Plates 9, 9a. Mongonui to Stewart Island.

This fine tree bears a close resemblance to the preceding species. P. totara, but is distinguished by the larger leaves, which are from 3/4 in. to 1 1/2 in. long, and especially by the thin bark, from which its native name, Totara kiri-kotukutuku, or fuschia barked totara, is derived. It also differs in the male catkins being carried on short stalks, and in the fruits being pointed at the apex, while in the true totara the male flowers are destitute of flower-stalks, and the fruits are rounded at the apex. The wood resembles that of the true totara but is not of equal value for marine piles; it is, however, used for all purposes for which the true totara is employed. The Maoris of Stewart Island employ the thin bark for packing mutton-birds, which form a valuable article for exchange with the northern tribes.

4. Matai (Podocarpus spicata), R. Brown; “Forest Flora,” Plates 4, 5. Mongonui to Otago.

The matai or black-pine, as it is often called by settlers, is a round-headed tree with erect branches, rarely exceeding 60 ft. in height, with a trunk 2 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter, although larger specimens are occasionally met with. The leaves are close-set, about 1/2 in. in length, of a bright green above, but whitish beneath. The fruits are spherical, less than 1/2 in. in diameter, of a bright-red colour, and arranged in terminal spikes. In the young plant the branch-lets are extremely slender and pendulous, with larger leaves, which are of a deep-bronze colour. The aspect differs so widely from that of the mature plant that its identity is usually denied by superficial observers. Its rate of growth is extremely slow. The timber is of a red or yellowish-brown tint; it is straight in the grain, firm, dense, heavy, of great strength and durability, while it is easily worked. It is largely employed for bridges and constructive works, house-blocks, framing, joists, weatherboards, railway-sleepers, piles, millwrights' work, bed-plates, &c., and is especially valued for the flooring of churches and other public buildings, although, on account of its hardness, it cannot be laid so quickly as other kinds. Its specific gravity varies from 0.572 to 0.792; its weight per cubic foot, when seasoned, from 46.862 lb. to 47.508 lb.; and its breaking-weight is 384.03 lb. for a piece 2 ft. long and 1 in. by 1 in., supported at each end and loaded in the centre.

5. Kawaka (Libocearus doniana), Endlicher; “Forest Flora,” Plate 82. Hilly parts of the North Island, Mongonui to Taranaki.

This is also termed kaikawaka by the Maoris, but unhappily this name has been commonly applied by surveyors and bushmen to the next mentioned species. It is known to many settlers as the New Zealand arbor vitœ. It is a noble tree of conical outline, sometimes 100 ft. high, with a trunk from 2 ft. to 5 ft. in diameter; and, like the next species, may be distinguished from other New Zealand pines by the old bark falling away in long thin ribbons, which are pendent from the trunk along its entire length. The branch-lets are much flattened, and clothed with imbricating scale-like leaves. The fruit is a small cone, consisting of four woody scales, each with a short spine on the outside; each seed is furnished with a membranous wing. The wood is of a dark-red colour with darker streaks; it is straight and even in the grain, and often very ornamental. It is extremely durable, somewhat stronger than the next species, and has been used for general building purposes, fencing-posts, shingles, palings, &c.; but is especially valued by cabinetmakers on account of its ornamental character, and the facility with which it takes a high finish. It is one of the rarest timbers, and has become much too valuable to be used for general purposes.

6. Pahautea, or Cedar (Libocedrus bidwillii), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 83. From the head of the Hauraki Gulf to Southland, chiefly in hilly districts.

The pahautea is closely related to the kawaka, but is usually of smaller size, and the ultimate branch-lets instead of being flattened are four-sided. It forms an elegant cone-shaped tree 40 ft. to 70 ft. high, with a trunk from 1 ft. to 2 1/2 ft. in diameter, although larger specimens are occasionally found. The bark is loose and pendent, as in the preceding species, but the flakes are not so broad, and are rather more fibrous. The leaves are similar to those of the kawaka, and the cones are rather smaller, each bearing two winged seeds. The wood is remarkably straight in the grain, but light and rather brittle: it is of a uniform dull red colour, extremely durable in all kinds of situations. It is largely used for general house building, fencing, house-blocks, telegraph-posts, railway-sleepers, bridges, and other purposes for which great durability is required. In this quality it appears to surpass totara. On account of its brittle character it should not be used for beams, flooring-joists, or other purposes for which great strength is required. It is excellent for venetian blinds, and stands much better than the imported redwood of California. When seasoned, its weight per cubic foot is 26.306 lb. to 28.611 lb. Its breaking-weight is only 99.98 lb.; it is therefore the weakest of all the New Zealand pines.

7. Northern Manoao (Dacrydium kirkii), F. Mueller; “Forest Flora,” Plate 97. Hokianga, Bay of Islands, north of the Auckland Isthmus.

The manoao of the North Island is a handsome pyramidal or conical tree, 40 ft. to 100 ft. in height, with a trunk 2 ft. to 3 ft. or rarely 4 ft. in diameter. It is remarkable for exhibiting leaves of two widely different kinds: In the young state the leaves resemble those of the true silver-fir, and are from 1 in. to 1 1/2 in. long, spreading and acute; these pass most abruptly into imbricating scale-like leaves, so closely oppressed that the branch-lets resemble stout whipcord. The male and female flowers are carried on different plants, and the fruits, which are set in a small fleshy orange-coloured cup, are aggregated near the tips of the branch-lets. The wood is of a yellowish-brown colour, very compact, elastic, of great strength and extreme durability. Unfortunately it is scarcely known in commerce, although some years back it was placed on the Auckland market under the name of “Barrier pine.”

8. Southern Manoao (Dacrydium colensoi), Hooker; “Forest Flora,” Plate 96. Ruapehu to Stewart Island.

The southern manoao has a close resemblance to D. kirkii, but is usually of smaller dimensions. The linear leaves are about 3/4 in. long, and the oppressed scale-like leaves are keeled on the back. The wood is similar in quality to D. kirkii, but of a deeper colour. It ascends the mountains to nearly 4,000 ft., but is often reduced to a dwarf shrub.

9. Westland Pine (Dacrydium westlandicum), T. Kirk; “Forest Flora,” Plate 85. Whangaroa North. Great Barrier Island, and Ngauruhoe district; the west coast of South Island, and Martin's Bay.

This is often called “silver-pine,” or “white silver-pine” to distinguish it from the next species, which is known as “yellow silver-pine.” It forms a small tree, usually from 40 ft. to 50 ft. high, with a trunk 1 ft. to 2 1/2 ft. in diameter, and rather short branches, which are thickly covered with an immense number of very short slender branch-lets. In the young state the leaves are about 1/3 in. long, awl-shaped and spreading; in the mature state they resemble minute scales closely imbricated all round the stem, so that the branch-lets resemble fine whipcord.

Although of small dimensions, its timber is of great value, as it is of extreme durability, combined with great strength, toughness, and elasticity. It is clear in the grain, dense, firm, and compact, charged with resin, and of low specific gravity. When seasoned it has a yellowish satiny lustre, and takes a high finish. It shrinks but little in drying. It has been employed for piles, bridges, wharves, and other constructive works; for marine piles it is fully equal to totara. It has been much used for furniture, and from the unusual combination of great strength and toughness, with extreme durability, is admirably suited for the woodwork of agricultural implements, &c. Recently it has been largely converted for railway-sleepers.

10. Yellow Silver-pine (Dacrydium intermedium), T. Kirk; “Forest Flora,” Plate 86. Great Barrier Island, Thames Goldfield, and central parts of the North Island; west coast of Nelson, Westland, and Otago; Stewart Island.

This species is also called the “mountain pine,” as it ascends the mountains to 4,000 ft. Usually it is a handsome conical or round-headed tree, 40 ft. high and upwards, with a trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter. Old specimens growing in open situations are very beautiful, as the branch-lets are pendulous and easily swayed by the wind. In the young state the leaves are narrow, awl-shaped, and spreading, 1/2 in. to 2/3 in. long; but in the mature state they are reduced to imbricating scale-like processes 1/20 in. long, with a slight ridge on the back. The wood is very resinous, reddish-yellow, straight-grained, compact and even, combining great strength with extreme durability.

It is applied to the same purposes as the preceding species, and is especially valued for boat-building. It is now used for railway-sleepers, and might also be employed in the manufacture of agricultural implements. It is considered to excel the white silver-pine in durability; if its dimensions were larger it would be one of the most valuable timbers in the colony.

11. Puriri (Vitex littoralis), “Forest Flora,” Plate 105. North Cape to Poverty Bay and Taranaki.

The puriri is often called the New Zealand oak, on account of its great strength. It is, however, more closely allied to teak. It forms a handsome tree from 40 ft. to 60 ft. high, with a trunk 2 ft. to 5 ft. in diameter. The tree is smooth in all its parts, and the bark is thin and almost white. The leaves are of a deep, glossy green, consisting of from three to five stalked leaflets, 2 in. to 5 in. long, springing from the apex of a stout stalk. The leaflets are about 3 in. wide. The flowers are red or (rarely) white, forming panicles which spring from the axils of the leaves. They are of irregular shape and about 1 in. long. The fruits are spherical, red, and enclose a curious club-shaped nut containing four seeds. The wood is excessively hard, dense, heavy, and is the strongest as well as the most durable timber in the colony. It is of a dark-brown colour, with the fibres crossed and interlaced, so that very often it is difficult to work, although, as a rule, it splits easily, except in aged trees, when it is necessary to employ blasting-powder. It is extensively used for fence-posts, house-blocks, piles, culverts, bridges, &c., and is the most durable of all timbers employed for railway-sleepers. Unhappily it has become comparatively rare in districts where it was formerly abundant.

12. Tooth-leaved Beech (Fagus fusca), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plates 90, 91. Ahipara to Southland.

This fine tree is the tawhai, or tawhai-rau-nui of the Maoris; the black-birch of the settlers in Auckland, parts of Otago and Southland; the red-birch of Wellington, Nelson, and parts of Otago; and bull-birch of the Southern Lake District. So much trouble and loss have been caused by the misleading common names used in different districts, that the name of tooth-leaved beech has been brought into use to supersede them, and is generally adopted in the Government departments.

Tooth-leaved beech is a noble tree, from 80 ft. to 100 ft. high, or more, with a trunk from 2 ft. to 10 ft. in diameter, clothed with rough, deeply-furrowed bark, which in the mature state is of a deep rich brown colour, easily recognised at a short distance, but scarcely distinguishable at close sight; it is often black or blackish-brown. The leaves are larger than those of any other New Zealand beech. They are from 3/4 in. to 1 1/2 in. in length, and from 1/2 in. to 3/4 in. broad, somewhat variable in shape, but always wedge-like at the base. When first developed they are clothed with short, downy hairs, which speedily disappear after the leaves attain their full size. The upper portions of the margins are cut into sharp, rather coarse teeth. The fruits are woody cups formed of four valves or leaves, each valve having curious membranous transverse bands or plates on the outside, and the cup contains three or four three-sided nuts; with a narrow membranous wing produced from each angle.

The wood is of a red colour, very tough, of great strength and high durability; consequently it is extensively used for bridges, railway-sleepers, piles, house-blocks, mine-props, also for house framing, flooring, joists, and weather-boarding. As the timber is easily split, it is much used for fencing, which, when properly erected, should last for forty years.

The weight, when seasoned, is 34.124 lb. to 40.648 lb. per cubic foot. The breaking-weight varies from 156.83 lb. to 262.5 lb. It must rank amongst the most valuable timbers in the colony.

13. Entire-leaved Beech (Fagus solandri), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 56. Cape Runaway to Otago; chiefly in lowland districts: often local.

Like the preceding species, the entire-leaved beech has different names in different districts: black-birch, white-birch, red-birch, black-heart birch are amongst the most common; it is sometimes termed tawhai-rauriki by the Maoris. It is a handsome tree, commonly from 60 ft. to 90 ft. high, with a trunk 3 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter, although specimens 100 ft. high and upwards, with still larger trunks, are not infrequent. The leaves are small, about 1/2 in. long and 5/16 in. broad, oblong and quite entire; white beneath, and of very thick texture. The fruits are small. The wood is pale red, or greyish, in colour, often streaked with darker markings; the heart-wood is black, and irregular in outline. It is very strong, tough, and durable if used when thoroughly ripe and properly seasoned. The wood of immature trees, or of trees that have stood too long, is not satisfactory. The weight per cubic foot when seasoned is 40.292 lb., and the breaking-weight 339.53 lb.

14. Blair's Beech (Fagus blairii), T. Kirk; “Forest Flora,” Plate 57. Central parts of North Island; Buller River and Little Grey; Lake Ohau; Lake Wakatipu and Dart Valley.

This handsome tree resembles the European beech more closely than any other New Zealand species, but has larger leaves, which are quite entire, green above and yellowish-brown beneath. It is usually 50 ft. to 60 ft. in height, with a trunk 2 ft. to 3 ft in diameter.

The timber is similar to that of the entire-leaved beech, but somewhat smoother in the grain.

15. Maire-raunui (Olea cunninghamii), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plates 59a and 59b. Mongonui to Marlborough and Nelson.

A noble tree, one of the most valuable in the colony for strength and durability. It is from 50 ft. to 70 ft. high, with a trunk 3 ft. to 6 ft. in diameter. The leaves of young plants differ widely from those of the mature state, being from 6 in. to 10 in. long, and about 3/8 in. broad; those of mature trees are from 3 in. to 6 in. long and nearly 2 in. broad. The flowers are arranged in racemes developed in the axils of the leaves, and being destitute of petals are inconspicuous. With the exception of the puriri and manoao, it is the strongest timber in the colony. It is of a deep-brown colour, dense, compact, even and straight in the grain, while it is easily worked, and takes a good finish; it is of extreme durability, and when fully mature exhibits but little sap-wood. It is suitable for bridges, wharves, and constructive works generally; for railway-sleepers, farm-gates, posts, &c., and for the framing of railway-carriages and wagons. It has been used for machine-beds, bearings, &c., framing for heavy machinery, millwrights' work, and agricultural implements. Old specimens are beautifully streaked and figured, and are in demand for ornamental cabinet-work, veneers, ornamental turnery, &c. Its specific gravity varies from 1.113 to 1.193; weight per cubic foot, 70.63 lb. to 74.40 lb.; breaking-weight, 327 lb. to 335 lb.

16. Maire (Olea lanceolata), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plates 60, 61, Mongonui to Marlborough and Nelson.

The white maire, as it is often called by the bushmen, forms a round-headed tree 30 ft. to 50 ft. high, with a trunk 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter, clothed with white bark. The smooth, glossy, pointed leaves are about 3 in. long, with veins prominent on both sides. The flowers are inconspicuous, and are followed by trigonous, bright red fruits, containing a single seed. The wood is firm, even, compact, very strong, and durable, but of smaller dimensions than the preceding, and is used for similar purposes.

17. Narrow-leaved Maire (Olea montana), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 29. Whangaroa North to Nelson.

A twiggy, round-headed tree, 20 ft. to 50 ft. high, or more, with a trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter, clothed with brownish-grey bark. The timber closely resembles that of the preceding species, and is applied to the same purposes. It has also been used for the teeth of gearing-wheels, &c.

18. The Northern Rata (Metrosideros robusta), A. Cunningham; “Forest Flora,” Plate 128. North Cape to Greymouth.

The northern rata forms a noble tree, with an irregular head. It is sometimes 100 ft. in height and 3 ft. to 12 ft. in diameter. It was formerly supposed to be a climber, owing to its peculiar habit. The dust-like seeds are often blown into the forks of lofty trees, and readily germinate in the mould formed by the decay of epiphytic vegetation, so that very often the plant commences life at a great height above the ground, and continues to grow in this position for a longer or a shorter period, until its store of nutritive material is exhausted, when it sends one or more aerial roots down the stem of the supporting tree. The aerial roots enter the soil, and, drawing larger supplies of food, soon become changed into stems. Some of these stems have been found over 20 ft. in diameter. Sooner or later the supporting tree is killed by the usurping rata: if two or more aerial roots are given off it is squeezed to death: and the dead stem may retain its position for years, sometimes completely hidden as the rata stems increase in bulk. The leaves are about 1 1/2 in. long, quite entire, and of rather thick texture. The flowers form compact clusters at the tips of the branch-lets, and present a brilliant appearance.

The wood is of a dull-red colour, plain, straight in the grain, dense, and heavy; it is durable, and of great strength. Its large tortuous limbs are often used for ship timbers, and it is in demand for the arms of telegraph-posts. It is suitable for the framework of railway-wagons, for bearings, machine-beds, bridges, wheelwrights' work, &c., and is highly valued for firewood.

19. The Southern Rata (Metrosideros lucida), Menzies; “Forest Flora,” Plate 58. Great Barrier Island and Thames Goldfield to Auckland Islands.

The southern rata, or ironwood, is easily recognised by the pale-coloured twigs, sharp-pointed leaves, and large panicles of bright-scarlet flowers, and invariably terrestrial habit. One of the most magnificent sights the colony has to offer is a mountain slope covered with the southern rata when the brilliant flowers are touched by the rising sun—rarely the flowers are of a lustrous golden-yellow. The wood has similar qualities to the northern rata, but it is often gnarled and twisted; it is of great strength and durability, and is used for similar purposes. It is considered of higher value than the preceding species for heavy framing; it is of smaller dimensions, rarely exceeding 50 ft. to 60 ft. in height, and 2 ft. to 6 ft. in diameter; at great altitudes it is reduced to a mere shrub. Its specific gravity varies from 1.010 to 1.146; its weight per cubic foot from 62.953 lb. to 71.429 lb.; and its breaking-weight from 175 lb. to 255.4 lb.

20. Pohutukawa (Metrosideros tomentosa), A. Cunningham; “Forest Flora,” Plate 118. North Cape to the Mimi River, Taranaki.

The pohutukawa sometimes attains a height of 70 ft., with a trunk from 2 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter, and large, irregular, massive, spreading arms. The brown bark is much furrowed and wrinkled. The leaves are simple, from 1 in. to 4 in. long, and 3/4 in. to 1 1/4 in. broad, of thick texture, silvery-white beneath. The flowers are of a deep blood-red colour, and form dense compact panicles at the tips of the branches. When in full flower a fine tree forms a magnificent object. The wood is excessively dense, very strong, and of great durability. It is extensively used for ship-building, machine-beds, bearings, trenails, &c., and for various special purposes.

21. Small leaved Pohutukawa (Metrosideros polymorpha), Forster; “Forest Flora,” Plate 119. Kermadec Islands.

This species is abundant on the Kermadecs, but does not occur elsewhere in the colony. It is somewhat smaller than the preceding species, and affords timber of similar quality. In a few years it will prove of great value to Auckland shipbuilders, as the pohutukawa is becoming rare in many localities.

22. Manuka-rauriki (Leptospermum ericoides), A. Richards; “Forest Flora,” Plate 69. North Cape to Otago.

An attractive tree with slender branches, clothed with short linear leaves 1/2 in. long, and producing a profusion of small white flowers. Its height is from 40 ft. to 60 ft., and the trunk is from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter, clothed with thin bark, which falls away in long narrow flakes. The timber is straight-grained, compact, heavy, tough, and elastic, usually of a red colour. It is of great strength and durability, and is largely used for piles, bridges, marine jetties, house-blocks, fence-rails, wheelwrights' purposes, cogs for machine wheels, axe handles, &c., and is highly prized for firewood. In the young state it is often called white tea-tree. Its specific gravity varies from 0.906 to 1.042; its weight when seasoned from 56.46 lb. to 64.95 lb. Its breaking-weight is from 200 lb. to 202 lb.

23. Maire-tawhake (Eugenia maire), A. Cunningham; “Forest Flora,” Plate 122. Mongonui to Queen Charlotte Sound; Pelorus.

The maire-tawhake is a handsome conical tree, 25 ft. to 50 ft. high, with a straight trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter, clothed with thin white bark; the leaves are entire, and the branch-lets carry rather large panicles of white flowers resembling those of a myrtle. These are succeeded by irregularly-shaped red fruits as large as a nut. The timber, although small, is of great value for many purposes requiring great strength and durability; it is straight in the grain, even, dense, and heavy; it is of a pale-brown colour, and when figured is valued by the cabinetmaker, but is most frequently used for piles, mooring-posts, fencepost's, &c. Its specific gravity varies from 0.618 to 0.943; its weight per cubic foot, 38.45 lb. to 60 lb.; its breaking-weight ranges from 135 lb. to 225 lb.

24. Kowhai (Sophora tetraptera), Aiton; “Forest Flora,” Plates 50, 51, 52. North Cape to Southland; Chatham Islands.

This elegant tree varies from 25 ft. to 40 ft. in height, with a trunk 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter; frequently it is a much-branched shrub 10 ft. to 20 ft. high, with several stems of no great thickness. Its light feathery foliage and showy yellow flowers, the appearance of which marks the near approach of spring, render it a favourite for ornamental planting. The leaves vary from 1/2 in. to 7 in. in length, and consist of a row of oval or oblong leaflets arranged on each side of a common leaf-stalk with a terminal leaflet at the apex. It is one of the few deciduous trees in the colony, and the flowers appear in August and September, before the new leaves are developed; they are from 1 in. to 1 1/2 in. in length, and are carried in pendulous racemes. The pod or tomentum is curiously constricted between the seeds, and has four narrow membranous winged margins. The wood is of a rich brown colour, compact and heavy, very strong, tough and elastic, extremely durable. It is used for piles, house-blocks, braces, bearings for shafts and machinery, agricultural implements, cabinet work, and ornamental purposes generally.

Its specific gravity is 0.667 to 1.037; its weight per cubic foot 41.57 lb. to 64.66 lb.; and its breaking-weight 170 lb. to 275 lb.

Class II

25. Rimu, Red-Pine (Dacrydium cupressinum), Solander; “Forest Flora,” Plates 18 to 22. North Cape to Stewart Island.

In the young state, under favourable circumstances, the rimu is one of the most charming trees known; its conical outline and long pendulous branch-lets suggest the idea of a living fountain. In old specimens this symmetrical outline is completely lost; the arms spread irregularly, and carry the uneven drooping branch-lets at the tips, so that the tree often presents a ragged, uneven appearance. It attains the height of from 40 ft. to 80 ft., with a trunk from 2 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter, clothed with rugged bark, which alone is sufficient to distinguish it from any other New Zealand pine. The leaves are awl-shaped, from 1/12 in. to 1/4 in. long, closely overlapping all round the branch lets, and very uniform in old trees. The fruit is a nut, seated on a red fleshy receptacle, having a few green scales on its surface. Rimu is the chief building timber employed over two-thirds of the colony, and is used for framing, flooring, joists, weatherboards, mantelpieces, &c.

It is of a brown colour, varying greatly in intensity, but often beautifully shaded, resembling some varieties of rosewood, so that it is extensively used in the manufacture of plain and ornamental furniture, for which indeed it is especially suited.

Although not durable when exposed, it is of great strength, and may be used for beams under cover. In Taranaki, selected logs are sometimes employed in the construction of bridges, great care being taken to prevent the access of water at the joints; but its general use in exposed constructive works is certainly unwise, although occasionally the heart-wood of very old logs is so thoroughly saturated with resin that it may be used for railway-sleepers and other purposes where strength and durability is required.

Its specific gravity is 0.550 to 0.664, and its weight per cubic foot, when seasoned, is from 24.38 lb. to 40.11 lb. Its breaking-weight is 350.88 lb., so that it is equal to English oak in strength. Rimu occupies a larger portion of the forest area than any other New Zealand timber.

26. Kahikatea, White-Pine (Podocarpus dacrydioides), A. Richard; “Forest Flora,” Plate 31. Mongonui to Southland.

A noble tree, 60 ft. to 150 ft. high, with a remarkable straight trunk, 2 ft. to 4 ft. and upwards in diameter. It often forms vast forests in swampy situations, but is also found on the hills. Old swamp specimens often develop fluted buttresses, but usually the trunk is remarkably symmetrical. In young trees the leaves are 1/4 in. long, spreading, and of a deep-brown colour, arranged in a single row on each side of the branches. In the mature state they are reduced to small scales, about 1/12 in. long, closely appressed to the branch lets, which resemble those of a cypress. The fruit is a red drupe, the jet-black seed being partly exserted at the apex. The wood is white or pale-yellow, tough, elastic, and of great strength, but it is not of great durability when exposed, although often employed for general building purposes, especially for flooring. It is extensively used for cheap furniture, and is exported to a considerable extent. Unhappily it is often attacked by a small boring-beetle, the larvæ of which drive their miniature tunnels through it in all directions until at length it crumbles to pieces.

In the Marlborough and Nelson districts a variety of this plant, growing chiefly on the hills, produces timber of a yellow colour, which is considered to be much more durable than the ordinary kind.

The specific gravity of the seasoned timber is 0.459 to 0.557; its weight per cubic foot 29.11 lb. to 29.505 lb. A piece 2 ft. long and 1 in. square, supported at each end and loaded in the middle, requires a weight of from 308 lb. to 358 lb. to break it. Occasionally logs are met with having a much higher specific gravity.

27. Miro, Toromiro (Podocarpus ferruginea), Don; “Forest Flora,” Plate 84. Mongonui to Stewart Island.

A round-headed tree, much resembling the English yew, with a trunk from 50 ft. to 90 ft. high, and from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter. When growing on hills at an altitude of from 1,500 ft. to 2,000 ft. the trunk is usually very short in proportion to the branches. The leaves are from 1/2 in. to 3/4 in. long, acute at the tips with a distinct mid-rib, green on both surfaces; those of very young plants are rather longer than these of the mature state, but all alike become of a rusty brown when dried. The handsome solitary fruits are of a bright red colour, 3/4 in. long and carried on short stalks. The timber resembles the matai, but is of a deeper brown, and may be easily distinguished in cross sections by the dark colour of the heart-wood, which is somewhat irregular in shape. It is clear and straight in the grain, of even texture, firm, elastic, and strong; but is not durable when exposed, and speedily decays if water is allowed to gain access to the joints. It is useful for all kinds of indoor work, and from its strength is specially suitable for beams under cover. On account of its hardness it is liable to split when nails are driven without previous boring, and less easily worked than other kinds; it is, however, found to be of great value for marine piles, when the bearing joints are carefully protected.

Its mean specific gravity is 0.787; weight per cubic foot 49.07 lb.; breaking-weight, 197.2 lb.

It is most plentiful in the South Island, and forms a large portion of the forests of South and Stewart Islands. In Otago it was formerly known as bastard black-pine, a designation which has happily fallen into disuse.

28. Tanekaha (Phyllocladus trichomanoides), Don; “Forest Flora,” Plates 6, 7. Auckland, plentiful; rare in Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, and Nelson.

The tanekaha is one of the celery topped pines, and is a strikingly handsome tree 50 ft. to 80 ft. in height, with smooth, dark-grey or blackish bark and spreading branches, which are often whorled. The fan-shaped expansions resembling leaves are modified organs termed phyllodia, and bear the female flowers on their margins; the true leaves are small and insignificant, speedily falling away. The wood is remarkably sound, straight in the grain, of firm and even texture, and is one of the strongest timbers in the colony, but not suitable for situations in which it becomes alternately wet and dry. it has been used for water-tanks with excellent results, for all kinds of inside work, and even for weatherboards. Notwithstanding its great strength it should never be used for bridges or constructive work of any kind. It is occasionally employed for the masts of small craft, and is largely used for mine props on the Thames goldfields. The young plants, being straight and slender and having the branches given off in regular whorls, make excellent ornamental stocks for gig whips, &c., and are specially suitable for walking-sticks.

The bark is the most valuable in the colony for tanning purposes.

29. Toatoa (Phyllocladus glauca), Carr; “Forest Flora,” Plates 98, 99. Mongonui to Te Aroha and Patetere.

“The most charming of all the New Zealand pines” is a handsome tree 25 ft. to 40 ft. high, with a trunk 12 in. to 18 in. in diameter; the large foliaceous phyllodia are sometimes 2 in. long and 1 1/2 in. broad, somewhat fan-shaped. The male catkins are crowded at the tips of the branches, and the fruits are lateral, forming cones as large as hazel nuts. The wood is white, very straight in the grain, and splits easily. It is tough, strong, and elastic, but in all probability will not prove durable when exposed.

The bark is probably equal to that of the tanekaha for tanning purposes.

30. Mountain Toatoa (Phyllocladus alpinus), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 100. Mountain districts from Cape Colville to Southland.

This species rarely exceeds 25 ft. in height, and the trunk is usually 5 in. to 12 in. in diameter; the phyllodia are smaller and thicker than in the preceding species. The wood is similar to that of the tanekaha, being of equal strength. It is much valued by bushmen for levers, lifting-poles, &c. Tar is occasionally extracted from it, but it is of no value for general building purposes.

31. Tawhai, or Mountain-Beech (Fagus cliffortioides), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plates 101, 101a. Waikare Moana to Preservation Inlet.

This is sometimes termed tawhai-rauriki by the Maoris, and mountain-birch, white-birch, &c., by shepherds and bushmen. It rarely exceeds from 40 ft. to 50 ft. in height, and when growing above 3,000 ft. is reduced to 6 ft. or 8 ft. or dwarfed into a flat-topped bush. Isolated specimens are exceedingly beautiful and picturesque. The wood is of small dimensions, and although of considerable importance in the mountain districts, where it forms the only timber, does not enter into commerce.

32. Tawhai, or Silver-Beech (Fagus menziesii), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 89. Hauraki Gulf to Colac Bay, Southland.

The silver-beech is the most beautiful and attractive of all the New Zealand beeches; unhappily different common names have been applied to it in different districts, so that it is variously termed brown-birch, red-birch, white-birch, silver-birch, &c. It is usually from 80 ft. to 100 ft. in height, with a trunk 2 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter. On immature trees the bark is thin, whitish, and silvery, but on old specimens it becomes rough and furrowed at the base. The leaves are smooth, somewhat rhomboid in shape, about 1/2 in. long by 1/3 in. wide, with blunt rounded teeth. The fruit is similar to that of the tooth-leaved beech, but the transverse plates on the valves are fringed with minute stalked glands.

The wood is of a deep-red colour, plain, remarkably straight and even in the grain, of great strength, but not dorable when exposed. Although rather heavy, it is used for the framing of houses, except ground-plates, and for all kinds of indoor work, and for the manufacture of ordinary furniture; it is especially useful for tubs, buckets, and other coopers' ware, more particularly for wine and spirit casks. Its weight, when seasoned, is 38.99 lb. per cubic foot, and its breaking-weight 185.50 lb. It is valuable for large beams under cover.

33 Pukatea (Laurelia novœ-zealandiœ), A. Cunningham; “Forest Flora,” Plate 71. Mongonui to Westland.

A lofty tree with pale bark, usually from 90 ft. to 120 ft. or even 150 ft. high, with a trunk from 3 ft. to 6 ft. in diameter, usually flanked with radiating buttresses at the base, which nearly double the diameter of the trunk. The glossy ovate or oblong leaves are 3/4 in. to 1 1/2 in. wide and barely twice as long. The wood is of a pale yellowish brown colour, streaked or clouded with deeper shades, and often very ornamental, rather soft, but of great strength and toughness. It does not split, and as it is difficult of combustion would be valuable for flooring-boards for factories, &c. It has been employed in boat-building, and was formerly valued by the Maoris for canoes. It has been used for house framing, except ground-plates and weatherboards. It is excellent for common furniture and for many kinds of ornamental work.

34. Hinau (Elœocarpus dentatus), Vahl; “Forest Flora,” Plate 11. North Cape to Catlin's River.

The hinau forms a round-headed tree 40 ft. to 60 ft. high, with a rather short trunk 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter, clothed with grey bark. The branches are often naked except at the tips; the leaves are linear-oblong, 2 in. to 3 in. long, and the drooping white flowers are produced in racemes which spring from the naked wood or from the axils of the leaves, and present a most attractive appearance. The wood is of a dull brown, usually with darker or even black heart-wood. It splits easily, and is tough, strong, and of great durability. It is used for piles, sleepers, bridges, culverts, posts, rails, &c., but is worthless for firewood, as it burns with difficulty. Its bark is highly valued by the tanner.

35. Pokaka (Elœocarpus hookerianus) Raoul; “Forest Flora,” Plates 12, 13. North Cape to Stewart Island, but often rare and local.

The pokaka bears much resemblance to the hinau, but is of smaller dimensions; its usual height is about 50 ft.; the trunk, 2 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter, is clothed with white bark. The leaves are shorter and narrower than the preceding species, and the flowers are smaller and less attractive. In the young state the branches are tortuous and interlaced with narrow linear or lobed leaves which bear no resemblance to those of the mature state. The timber is whitish, tough, and compact, but is not durable when exposed. The bark has been employed for tanning, but is inferior to that of the hinau.

36. Tarairi (Beilschmiedia tarairi), Bentham and Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 43. North Cape to Lower Waikato and Poverty Bay.

The tarairi is a handsome tree 60 ft. to 80 ft. high, with stout branches and large broad ovate or obovate leaves of thick texture, brown above and white beneath. The fruit is similar to that of the tawa, but larger. The wood is white, but red at the heart, and splits with the greatest ease; it is, however, not durable when exposed. It is sparingly used as a substitute for the mangeao in the manufacture of ship's blocks and light carts, but is not sufficiently elastic for this work. It is occasionally employed for the manufacture of cheap furniture; and, as it burns quickly, is largely used as a cheap firewood.

37. Tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa), Bentham and Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 126. Spirits Bay to Marlborough and Nelson.

In its slender twiggy branches and willow like foliage the tawa differs widely from any other tree in the New Zealand forests. In some districts it is so plentiful that it constitutes fully two-thirds of the timber. It is from 40 ft. to 80 ft. high, with a trunk from 1 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter, clothed with black bark. The lanceolate leaves are from 2 in. to 4 in. long; the flowers are green and inconspicuous, but the handsome fruit resembles a damson, and is about the same size. The wood is white, firm, hard, even, and very straight in the grain, but becomes rather brittle with age. It is not durable when exposed. It is now much used for dairy-ware, buckets, tubs, pails, and especially for butter-casks, for which it is highly valued, and preferred to either kauri or sycamore. Spears from 30 ft. to 36 ft. long were made from the trunk by the Maoris. The wood is valued for firewood, as it burns with comparative ease when wet.

38. Titoki, Tokitoki (Alectryon excelsum), De Candolle; “Forest Flora,” Plate 92. Mongonui to Westland.

The titoki, or New Zealand ash, as it is sometimes called, is a beautiful tree 40 ft. to 60 ft. high, with a trunk 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter; the leaves are from 5 in. to 13 in. long, and consist of from nine to fifteen stalked pointed leaflets on each side of a common leaf-stalk. The flowers are small, forming large reddish-brown panicles, which are followed by the curious fruits. These are very handsome; the outer coat is hard and woody, with a ridge on the upper surface which is produced backwards into a short spur; the fruit-vessel becomes ruptured transversely and exhibits a glossy jet-black seed, embedded in a bright scarlet granulated fleshy cup, forming a charming and harmonious contrast of colour. The wood is very straight in the grain, very even, and easily worked. It is highly valued for its great toughness, strength, and elasticity, but is not durable when exposed. It is used for bullock yokes, swingle-trees, axe-handles, light framing for machinery, and especially for light spokes, hubs, felloes, panels, framing for light vehicles, and bent ware.

Its specific gravity varies from 0.904 to 0.929; its weight per cubic foot from 56.31 lb. to 57.94 lb.; and its breaking-weight from 246 lb. to 250 lb.

39. Tawari (Ixerba brexioides), A. Cunningham; “Forest Flora,” Plate 48. Bay of Islands and Hokianga to northern part of Hawke's Bay.

The elegant foliage and striking flowers of the tawari render it one of the most beautiful trees in the colony. It is from 30 ft. to 70 ft. in height, with a trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter. The leaves are narrower and lanceolate in shape, of a pale glossy-green, and the handsome flowers, which are from 1 in. to 1 1/2 in. in diameter, are produced in terminal panicles. The wood is white, with a reddish-brown heart, but has been utilised only for mine - props and other temporary purposes.

40. Mangeao, Tangeao (Litsea calicaris), Bentham and Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 10. Mongonui to Rotorua.

A small tree, rarely exceeding 40 ft. in height, with a trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter. The leaves are ovate or oblong, 3 in. to 4 in. long; the cream-coloured flowers are produced in small umbels, which spring from the axils of the leaves. The wood is white, compact, strong, of great elasticity, and is suitable for any purpose requiring strength, toughness, and elasticity, with a light weight. It is valued for bullock-yokes, coopers' work, coach-panels, shafts, light felloes, and all kinds of bent ware. It is largely in demand for ship's blocks, for which purpose it is considered superior to English ash. It is not durable when in contact with the ground.

Its specific gravity is 0.621, and its weight 38.70 lb. per cubic foot.

41. Rewarewa (Knightia excelsa), R. Brown; “Forest Flora,” Plate 35. Mongonui to Marlborough.

This fine tree has much the habit of the Lombardy poplar, and is one of the most striking trees in the New Zealand forests, its strict ascending branches being unique among the arboreal flora. It attains the height of from 70 ft. to 100 ft., with a trunk 1 1/2 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter, clothed with dull brown bark. The leaves are from 5 in. to 8 in. long, rigid, and obtuse, with coarse teeth. The deep-red flowers are arrauged in dense cylindrical racemes 2 in. in diameter, which spring from the naked bark or from the axils of the leaves. The timber splits easily, is straight in the grain, highly ornamental, handsomely mottled, and often clouded; it is of great strength, and very difficult of combustion. It is largely employed for ornamental cabinet-work and turnery, and is valued for inlaying and writing-desks, also for ornamental fittings for steamers and houses. It is not durable when exposed, but has been used for shingles and similar purposes.

Its specific gravity is 0.785; weight per cubic foot 48.92 lb.; the breaking-weight of a piece 12 in. long and 1 in. square, fixed at one end and loaded at the other, is 161 lb.

42. Tawhero (Weinmannia silvicola), Banks and Solander; “Forest Flora,” Plate 72. North Cape to northern part of Hawke's Bay.

This species attains its greatest development in situations at an altitude of from 1,500 ft. to 3,000 ft. At the sea-level it rarely exceeds 20 ft. in height, but at 2,000 ft. specimens 70 ft. high and upwards, with trunks 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter, may be found. In all states it forms a handsome and attractive object when in full bloom. The leaves are extremely variable, sometimes 6 in. long, with many pairs of ovate or lanceolate leaflets, at others consisting of three leaflets, or even of a single leaflet. The flowers are whitish, very small, and developed in profusion at the tips of the branch-lets. The timber is of a light-red colour, very even, strong, tough, and elastic, but opinions differ as to its durability. It has been used for a variety of purposes, and makes excellent firewood; but the tree is more valued for its bark, which has been extensively used for tunning.

43. Towhai, or Kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), Forster: “Forest Flora,” Plate 73. Middle Waikato to Stewart Island.

This species is similar to the preceding, but of larger dimensions. Seedling plants exhibit compound leaves, but these speedily disappear, and the leaves of the mature state are simple, 1 in. to 4 in. long, ovate, and coarsely toothed. The flowers are similar to those of W. silvicola, but the seed-pods are hairy. The wood is deeper in colour than that of the preceding form, strong and durable; in many cases it is prettily marked, and is suitable for cabinet-making and for ornamental turnery, &c. It is used for house-blocks, piles, fence-posts, tramway sleepers, &c., and for railway sleepers in moist situations. It is especially suited for beams under cover, but when exposed to the sun, longitudinal cracks develop and water gains access. It has been used for house framing. Its weight per cubic foot, when seasoned, is 38 717 lb., and its breaking-weight 314.7 lb. The bark is highly valued for tanning.

44. Porokaiwhiri (Hedycarya dentata), Forster; “Forest Flora,” Plate 110. Three Kings Islands to Port Chalmers.

A small tree, 30 ft. to 50 ft. high, with a trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter, but often reduced to a short shrub, branched from the base. The leaves are from 2 in. to 4 in. long, and from 1 in. to 2 in. broad, quite entire; the flowers spring from the axils of the leaves, and are succeeded by the pale-red fruits, which are produced in profusion, and present an attractive appearance. The wood is white, soft, and splits readily, but is not durable when exposed.

45. Kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plates 64, 65. Mongonui to Marlborough and Nelson.

A round-headed tree 20 ft. to 50 ft. high, with a trunk 1 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter, clothed with pale bark. The leaves are from 12 in. to 18 in. long, and consist of about four pairs of large entire leaflets 3 in. to 7 in. long; the flowers form drooping panicles 12 in. long, springing from the naked bark or from the axils of the leaves; the fruit is a pendulous rounded capsule with thick leathery valves, and is usually three-celled, the seeds being enclosed in a scarlet envelope. The wood is even in the grain, soft and light, but fairly durable. It is used by the cabinetmaker, especially for work in which light timbers are required, and makes excellent firewood. It is greatly prized for wire-fence posts in loose sand; in situations of this kind it is more durable than totara. Its specific gravity is 0.678; its weight per cubic foot 42.25 lb., and its breaking-weight 117.4 lb.

Class III

46. Horopito (Drimys axillaris), Forster; “Forest Flora,” Plate 1. North Cape to Stewart Island.

A shrub or small tree, sometimes 30 ft. high; the trunk rarely exceeds 8 in. in diameter, and is clothed with black bark. Leaves entire, of a glossy green, or, in the South, of a yellowish green with red blotches. Flowers, small; wood, reddish, with pale markings, chiefly used by the cabinetmaker for inlaying.

47. Tarata (Pittosporum eugenioides), A. Cunningham; “Forest Flora,” Plate 49. North Cape to Southland.

A round-headed tree 20 ft. to 40 ft. high, clothed with white resinous bark. Its leaves are of a delicate pale green, 2 in. to 4 in. long, and upwards of 1 in. wide. The flowers are pale yellow, produced in rather large corymbs at the tips of the branches. The wood is white and compact, tough, elastic, and strong, but not durable when exposed. It is largely used by the wood-turner, and is suitable for chisel-handles, &c. It is extremely difficult of combustion. It is called by the settlers white mapau, turpentine maple, &c.

48. Karo (Pittosporum crassifolium), Banks and Solander; “Forest Flora,” Plate 14. North Cape to Poverty Bay.

A tall shrub or small tree, 30 ft. high, with a rigid habit of growth. Leaves, 2 in. to 3 in. long, entire, whitish beneath, with chocolate-coloured flowers and de-curved capsules, the size of small walnuts. The wood is white, tough, strong, and difficult of combustion. It is occasionally used for inlaying.

49. Tawhiwhi (Pittosporum tenuifolium), Banks and Solander; “Forest Flora,” Plate 46. North Cape to Stewart Island.

A shrub or small twiggy round-headed tree 30 ft. to 40 ft. high; trunk, 12 in. to 18 in. in diameter, clothed with smooth, black leaves; leaves, 1 in. to 1 1/2 in. long; flowers, chocolate-cloured, springing from the axils of the leaves. Fruit, an erect woody capsule as long as a hazel nut. Wood, brownish-white, even in the grain, tough, elastic, and very strong, but not durable when exposed. Its specific gravity is 0.959 to 0.972, and its weight per cubic foot 59.79 lb. to 60.57 lb. Its breaking-weight is 243 lb. for a piece 12 in. long, 1 in. by 1 in., supported at one end and weighted at the other.

50. Mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus), Forster; “Forest Flora,” Plate 3. Kermadec Islands to the Bluff.

A shrub or small tree, 25 ft. to 30 ft. high, with pale bark and inconspicuous greenish flowers; leaves 3 in. to 5 in. long; fruit a small round berry. The leaves are eaten by stock. The wood is of a pale-brown colour, and very brittle; it is occasionally used for inlaying, and is valued for charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder. It is largely used for firewood.

51. Houi or Manatu (Plagianthus betulinus), A. Cunningham; “Forest Flora,” Plates 103, 104. Mongonui to Stewart Island; Chatham Islands.

The ribbon-wood, as it is termed by the settlers, is a graceful tree, closely resembling the European birch in habit; it is from 30 ft. to 60 ft. in height, with a trunk from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter. The leaves are from 1 in. to 3 in. long, deeply toothed or lobed. The flowers are small, and crowded in panicles at the tips of the branches. The wood is white and of even grain; it splits easily, but is not durable when exposed; it is specially suited for “white-wood furniture.” When prettily marked it is valued by the inlayer.

52. Wharangi (Melicope ternata), Forster; “Forest Flora,” Plate 66. Kermadec Islands; North Cape to Marlborough and Nelson.

A shrub or small tree, rarely exceeding 20 ft. in height, with pale-yellow leaves, consisting of three leaflets dotted with oil-glands. The wood has a pale satiny lustre, and is used for inlaying, &c.

53. Kaikomako (Pennantia corymbosa), Forster; “Forest Flora,” Plate 78. Mongonui to Otago.

A shrub or tree, 40 ft. high; the leaves are broadly oblong and irregularly-toothed or lobed; the fragrant white flowers are produced in panicles at the tips of the branches, and are followed by the shining black fruits. The wood is strong, compact in the grain, and durable. It is often prettily marked, and is then utilised by the cabinetmaker and the wood turner. It is one of the woods used by the Maoris to obtain fire by friction.

54. Ake (Dodonœa viscosa), Linné; “Forest Flora.” Plate 17. North Cape to Banks Peninsula; Chatham Islands.

A shrub or small tree, sometimes 30 ft. high, but usually smaller, trunk rarely exceeding 1 ft. in diameter; bark reddish-brown, falling away in narrow flakes; the leaves are quite entire and broadest at the apex, the flattened fruits with broad membranous wings are very conspicuous. The wood is remarkably dense and heavy, blackish or dark-brown, variegated with streaks or patches of white; of great strength and durability. It is valued for picture-frames, cabinet work, inlaying, machine-bearings, and was formerly used for clubs and other weapons.

55. Karaka (Corynocarpus lævigata), Forster: “Forest Flora,” Plate 88. Kermadec and Chatham Islands; North Cape to Banks Peninsula.

A noble evergreen tree, 30 ft. to 50 ft. high, trunk 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter; leaves 3 in. to 7 in. long, 2 in. to 3 in. broad; flowers, greenish-white, in panicles at the tips of the branches, followed by deep-orange fruits. The wood is white, and splits easily, but is perishable. As it is the largest tree in the Chatham Islands the Morioris have utilised it for canoes. The kernel of the fruit is poisonous in the raw state, but when properly cooked is considered highly nutritious by the Maoris.

56. Putaputa-weta (Carpodetus serratus), Forster; “Forest Flora,” Plate 47. Mongonui to Stewart Island.

A shrub or small tree, rarely exceeding 30 ft. in height, with branches spreading in a fan-shaped manner; the leaves are entire, and sharply toothed, 3/4 in. to 1 1/2 in. long; the white flowers are arranged in broad clusters, developed in the axils of the leaves. The wood is white, tough, strong, and elastic, not unfre-quently it is prettily marked, but lacks durability when exposed. It is used for axe-handles and similar purposes.

Its mean specific gravity is 0.822; its weight per cubic foot 51.24 lb.; and its breaking-weight 177.6 lb.

57. Kumarahou (Quintinia serrata), A. Cunningham; “Forest Flora,” Plate 125. Mongonui to Jackson's Bay.

The New Zealand lilac, as it is often termed, is a shrub or small tree 40 ft. high, with a trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter; the leaves are 2 in. to 6 in. long and 3/4 in. to 2 in. wide, quite entire; the deep-lilac-coloured flowers are arranged in erect racemes 1 in. to 4 in. long, springing from the axils of the leaves. The wood is of a light-red colour, often prettily marked and figured, tough, strong, and elastic, but not durable when in contact with the ground. It is used by the cabinetmaker, and, in the absence of better timber, might be employed for inside work.

58. Makamaka (Ackama rosœfolia), A. Cunningham; “Forest Flora,” Plate 63. Mongonui and Hokianga to Whangarei.

A handsome shrub or tree, 20 ft. to 50 ft. high, with trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter; the leaves are from 3 in. to 10 in. long, and consist of from three to ten pairs oblong leaflets, with toothed margins; the flowers are arranged in lax panicles. The wood is of a brownish-red colour, and similar to that of Weinmannia silvicola. The bark is used for tanning.

59. Manuka, or KahikatoaLeptospermum scoparium), Forster; “Forest Flora,” Plate 117. North Cape to Stewart Island.

This is the most abundant scrub in the colony, in some localities covering thousands of acres, sometimes only 3 ft. to 4 ft. high, frequently forming a kind of spinny with straight stem 10 ft. to 15 ft. high, 3 in. to 5 in. diameter, and more rarely a small tree 20 ft. to 30 ft. high, with a trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. diameter. The leaves and flowers are larger than those of the manuka-rauriki (No. 22), and the wood is similar, but of a deeper colour and inferior in strength. An infusion of the leaves is often used by bushmen as a substitute for tea.

60. Ramarama (Myrtus bullata), Banks and Solander; “Forest Flora,” Plate 131. Mongonui to Marlborough.

This small myrtle is a shrub or small tree 30 ft. high; its reddish-brown ovate leaves are characterized by the spaces between the veins being tumid or inflated, as if blistered—a peculiarity which distinguishes it from all other native plants; its charming white flowers are developed from the axils of the leaves. The wood is red, and often prettily figured; it is straight, compact, and of considerable strength. It is used for ornamental cabinet-work and inlaying, as well as for the handles of chisels, axes, &c.; and makes excellent firewood.

61. Small-leaved Ramarama (Myrtus ralphii), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 94. Auckland to Nelson.

A shrub or small tree, sometimes 20 ft. high, and resembling M. bullata, but with smaller and less tumid leaves. The wood is prettily streaked and mottled, and is applied to the same purposes as the preceding.

62. Rohutu (Myrtus obcordata), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 70. Hauraki Gulf to Otago.

A shrub or small tree, rarely exceeding 15 ft. in height. The leaves are about 1/2 in. long, broadest at the apex, where they are indented by a shallow notch; the white flowers are developed in the axils of the leaves. The wood, although small, is of great strength, tough, and elastic: it is often prettily marked, and is used for all kinds of ornamental work, turnery, &c., as well as for the handles of carpenters' tools.

63. Rohutu (Myrtus pedunculata) Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 112. Mongonui to Stewart Island.

This is the most common of the native myrtles, and attains the height of 20 ft. under favourable conditions. It resembles the preceding species; but the leaves are rounded at the apex and destitute of the notch. The wood is applied to the same uses.

64. Kotukutuku or Kohutuhutu (Fuchsia excorticata), Linné f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 36. North Cape to Stewart Island.

The large native fuschia varies from a shrub to a tree 45 ft. high, with a trunk 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter, clothed with thin reddish-brown bark, which, in old specimens, divide into numerous paper-like layers. The pointed leaves are very soft, white beneath, and from 2 in. to 4 in. long; the flowers are solitary, pendulous, at first greenish, streaked or blotched with deep purple, passing into a dull red. As the trunk is often gnarled and curved, it is difficult to obtain timber of great length; but with this drawback it is one of the strongest and most durable timbers in the colony. It is difficult of combustion, hard, dense, and heavy. In many instances the deep-brown colour which forms the ground is relieved with broad streaks of a paler shade, and narrow waved black markings, which render it highly ornamental. It is used for house-blocks and fencing-posts, which seem almost indestructible either by lapse of time or the ravages of fire. After a forest has been destroyed by fire, fencing-posts of this wood have been found uninjured, not even charred. It is highly prized for ornamenta work, picture-frames, turnery, inlaying, &c., and contains 5.3 per cent. of tannin.

65. Horoeka (Pseudopanax crassifolium), Seeman; “Forest Flora,” Plates 38a to 38d. Mongonui to Stewart Island.

The “lancewood” of the settlers exhibits remarkably diverse forms of foliage at different stages of its existence; but space does not allow of a detailed description being given here. In young plants, 3 ft. to 15 ft. high, the stems are unbranched, and the leaves are entire, slightly toothed, and excessively rigid, from 1 ft. to 3 ft. long or more, but only 1/3 in. broad; they are invariably de-flexed, the lower surface forming a very acute angle with the stem, so that the tip of the leaves are nearest the ground. In the next stage the leaves are erect, compound, and consist of three or five leaflets springing from the apex of an erect leafstalk; but in the mature state these are superseded by simple entire and toothed erect rigid leaves on very short leafstalks. The flowers are produced in umbels, springing from the tips of the branches, and are followed by the black fruits. In the southern parts of the colony the stage with compound leaves is not developed.

In the mature state the horoeka forms a round-headed tree, with a trunk 12 in. to 18 in. in diameter, and forms a dense compact timber of great strength, but of moderate durability. It has been used for small piles, struts, fencing-posts, sleepers, &c., with good results.

66. Toothed Lancewood (Pseudopanax ferox), T. Kirk; “Forest Flora,” Plates 24 to 26. Whangoroa North to Dunedin. Rare and local.

This is closely related to the preceding species, but is of smaller dimensions, seldom exceeding 40 ft. in height; it exhibits the same curious de-flexed leaves up to 16 ft. in height, but never produces compound leaves. The de-flexed leaves are excessively rigid and acutely toothed or lobed, so as to be capable of inflicting a serious wound if incautiously handled; the mature leaves are shorter than those of the preceding species, but thicker, narrower, and more rigid, while the flowering panicles are smaller. The wood is similar to the preceding, but of a deeper colour, and has been applied to the same purposes.

67. Papauma (Griselinia littoralis), Raoul; “Forest Flora,” Plate 42. Cape Colville Peninsula to Stewart Island.

A handsome spreading tree, 40 ft. to 60 ft. high, often with a gnarled and crooked trunk 2 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter, clothed with furrowed brown bark. The yellowish-green leaves are slightly wedge-shaped at base, and from 1 in. to 3 in. long; the flowers are arranged in small panicles, which spring from the axils of the leaves. The timber is dense, hard, of even grain, and slightly brittle; it splits easily, notwithstanding its distorted habit, and is of extreme durability. It is used for fencing-posts, boat timber, sleepers, and other purposes for which small rigid timber of great durability is required.

68. Puka (Griselinia lucida), Forster; “Forest Flora,” Plate 41. North Cape to Nelson.

A shrub or small tree, sometimes 30 ft. high, and 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter; very similar to the papauma, but the leaves are 4 in. to 6 in. long, and very glossy, the panicles also are much larger. The wood is similar to the preceding species, and is applied to the same purposes, so far as its smaller dimensions will allow.

69. Tree Karamu (Coprosma arborea), T. Kirk; “Forest Flora,” Plate 132. Mongonui to Lower Waikato.

A small round-headed tree, 20 ft. to 30 ft. high, with a trunk 6 in. to 16 in. in diameter; the leaves are of a brownish-green tint, about 2 in. long, often purple or reddish beneath; the flowers are inconspicuous; the fruits at first white and translucent, ultimately black. The wood is yellow, straight-grained, compact, and very tough, but not durable when in contact with the ground. It is utilised for ornamental cabinet-work and inlaying.

70. Yellow-wood (Coprosma linariifolia), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 95. Thames Valley to Southland.

A shrub or small tree, sometimes 25 ft. high. The narrow linear pointed leaves are about an inch in length: the flowers are inconspicuous; the fruit is a two-seeded berry, at first translucent, ultimately black. The wood is of a deep yellow colour, compact, and tough; it is valued by the cabinetmaker for ornamental work, especially for inlaying.

71. Tupari (Olearia colensoi), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 102. East Cape to Stewart Island.

A bushy shrub or small tree, sometimes 40 ft. high, with trunk 2 ft. in diameter. The broadly oblong leaves are from 3 in. to 8 in. long, and from 2 in. to 3 in. broad, of thick texture, glossy above but white beneath, with toothed margins. The flower-heads are carried in erect racemes at the tips of the branches. The wood is firm, compact, and strong, with a satiny lustre and small silver grain, often streaked or clouded. It is suitable for many kinds of ornamental work.

72. Akeake (Olearia traversii), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 34. Chatham Islands.

A small tree 25 ft. to 35 ft. high, with a trunk sometimes exceeding 3 ft. in diameter at the base. The branch-lets and underside of the entire leaves are white; it is the only large-leaved species with opposite leaves in the flora. The wood is of a dark-brown colour, dense, heavy, and compact, with a satiny lustre, and often beautifully mottled. It is of great strength and extreme durability. Except the kowhai, it affords the only durable timber on the Chatham Islands, where it is extensively used for fencing-posts, sleepers, &c., and is shipped to the mainland for ornamental cabinet-work and inlaying.

73. Heketara (Olearia cunninghamii), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 114. North Cape to Nelson.

A shrub or small tree, sometimes 25 ft. high, with a trunk 1 ft. in diameter or more. The ovate leaves are 2 in. to 5 in. long, and from 1 in. to 2 1/2 in. broad, sparingly toothed. The small daisy-like flowers are produced in large panicles near the tips of the branches. The wood is light-coloured, compact, and satiny, with handsome silver grain and small figure. It is used for ornamental cabinetwork.

74. Akeake (Olearia avicinniæfolia), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 111. Nelson to Stewart Island.

A shrub or small tree rarely exceeding 20 ft. in height, with entire leaves 1 1/2 in. to 2 in. long, and 1 in. to 2 in. wide, white beneath; flower-heads small; arranged in large panicles springing from the axils of the leaves. The wood is similar to that of the heketara, but more ornamental.

75. Neinei (Dracophyllum latifolium), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 123, Auckland to Westland.

A small tree of singular beauty and striking habit, 10 ft. to 25 ft. high, trunk rarely more than 1 ft. in diameter, with brown fibrous bark and distantly whorled branches, bearing at their tips a large cluster of recurved leaves, sometimes 1 1/2 ft. to 2 ft. long and 1 in. to 2 in. broad at the base, tapering into long narrow drooping or rigid points. The red flowers are very small, crowded into a cylindrical much-branched panicle 6 in. to 18 in. long, springing from the apex of the branch. The wood is of a reddish colour, even and compact, prettily figured and often waved or clouded; it is rather brittle, but extremely durable, and is suitable for all kinds of ornamental work.

76. Mountain Neinei (Dracophyllum traverii), Hooker f.; Mountain passes, chiefly in the Canterbury District.

Similar to the preceding species, but larger in all its parts except the flowers, which are smaller; the trunk often exceeds 2 ft. in diameter, and the crowded branches are more numerous. The wood is similar to the preceding but of a paler colour and satiny lustre, also of greater strength and durability.

77. Inaka (Dracophyllum longifolium), R. Brown; “Forest Flora,” Plate 109. Tararua Mountains to Southland; Stewart Island; Auckland and Campbell Islands.

A shrub or tree, sometimes 30 ft. high, of singular habit; the strict erect grass-like leaves are from 3 in. to 10 in. long, and confined to the upper parts of the branches, so that the plant presents a tufted appearance; the white flowers are arranged in dense racemes springing from the base of the tufts of leaves. The wood is of a whitish-brown hue, with a satiny lustre and oblique wavy markings, which render it very ornamental; it is somewhat brittle, but of great durability, and takes a high finish, which renders it valuable for all kinds of ornamental work, turnery, and inlaying.

78. Toro (Myrsine salicina), Heward; “Forest Flora,” Plate 15. North Cape to Awatere and Westland.

A handsome tree, 30 ft. to 40 ft. high, with trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter; branch-lets leafy near the tips only; leaves 4 in. to 6 in. long, 1/2 in. broad, narrow, oblong. Flowers arranged in small fascicles, springing from the naked bark, and followed by the red fruits, which are nearly 1/2 in. long. The timber is of a deep red colour and beautifully marked, but is not durable when exposed. It is suitable for rafters, small beams, and all kinds of inside work, also for ornamental cabinet-work and turnery, veneers, &c.

79. Mapau (Myrsine australis), A. de Candolle; “Forest Flora,” Plate 16. North Cape to Stewart Island.

The mapau is also called matipau and tipau; it is an erect shrub or small tree 12 ft. to 20 ft. high, with leaves about 1 1/2 in. long, of a pale reddish-brown; the small white flowers are produced in great abundance. The wood resembles that of the preceding species, but is of a paler colour, and, although of smaller dimensions, is more generally used for ornamental work. Both species afford excellent firewood.

80. Tawaapou (Sideroxylon costatum), Bentham and Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 133. North Cape to the East Cape; in places near the sea.

A handsome tree, 20 ft. to 60 ft. high, with a trunk 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter; the branch-lets and leafstalks contain a milky juice; the oblong leaves are from 2 in. to 3 in. long, 1 in. to 2 in. broad, entire; the flowers are inconspicuous, but the handsome fruit resembles a small plum, and contains two or three polished bony seeds, which were formerly used as necklaces by the chiefs. The wood is white, with a fine compact wavy grain; although very tough it is easily worked, and takes a fine finish, but is not durable when exposed.

81. Maire (Fusanus cunninghamii), Bentham and Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plates 75, 76. Mongonui to Cape Palliser.

A small tree rarely exceeding 25 ft. in height. The glossy leaves vary from narrow linear to broadly ovate, the extreme forms being sometimes found on the same branch; 1 in. to 4 in. long, 1/4 in. to 1 1/2 in. broad. Flowers of a lurid purplish green; fruit red, as large as a cherry. From the agreeable odour of the wood it is often termed New Zealand sandal-wood. When sawn it is of a deep-brown colour, with dark streaks and markings: it is of even compact grain, dense, heavy, very strong and durable. It is often used for fencing purposes on account of its strength and durability, but is more highly valued for ornamental cabinet-work, turnery, and inlaying.

82. Ngaio (Myoporum lœtum), Banks and Solander; “Forest Flora,” Plate 124. Kermadec Islands to Otago.

A shrub or small tree, sometimes upwards of 30 ft. high, with a trunk 1 ft. or more in diameter; leaves 1 in. to 4 in. long, 1/2 in. to 1 1/2 in. broad, thickly dotted with pellucid glands; the white flowers form small clusters in the axils of the leaves. The wood is of a deep-brown colour with black streaks, which often form an irregular figure; it is dense, hard, and durable; it is used for fencing and other rustic purposes, also for ornamental cabinet-work and inlaying.

83. Toru (Persoonia toro), A. Cunningham; “Forest Flora,” Plate 74. Mongonui to Rotorua.

The toru rarely exceeds 50 ft. in height, with a trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter, and is often reduced to a shrub, branched from the base; the leaves are very ornamental, 4 in. to 8 in. long and 1/4 in. broad; the flowers are about 1/4 in. long, and spring from the axils of the leaves. The wood is of a deep red colour and beautifully marked, but rather brittle, and not durable when exposed. It is valued for ornamental cabinet-work, and especially for inlaying.

84. Milk-tree (Paratrophis microphyllus), Bentham and Hooker f. North Cape to Otago.

A shrub or small tree, sometimes 30 ft. high, with trunk 1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter, clothed with smooth pale bark, which exudes a copious milky juice; the leaves are 1/2 in. to 1 in. long, and the flowers are inconspicuous. The wood is white, compact, and even in the grain, but rather soft and not durable.

85. Makomako (Aristotelia racemosa), Hooker f.; “Forest Flora,” Plate 113. North Cape to Stewart Island.

The “wineberry,” as it is commonly termed, is one of the most frequent plants in the colony, forming a shrub or tree 10 ft. to 30 ft. high, with distant slender branchlets clothed with red bark; the broadly-ovate pointed leaves are sharply toothed and almost membranous; the rosy flowers are produced in vast abundance in the early spring, and render the tree most attractive. The wood is white, straight in the grain, and often prettily figured, it is very light and of small durability, but it is highly valued for the manufacture of charcoal for certain kinds of gunpowder.

86. Tumatukuru (Discaria toumatou), Raoul; “Forest Flora,” Plate 136. Port Waikato to Southland.

Usually a low shrub, but in mountain valleys attains the dignity of a small tree 20 ft. high, and is easily recognised by the stout rigid spines, which were formerly used for tattooing. The wood is strong, tough, and durable; before roads were generally opened in mountain districts it was often converted for building purposes, and was greatly valued.

Native Barks suitable for Tanning

  1. Tanekaha (Phyllocladus trichomanoides), Don. The bark contains 23 to 28 per cent. of tannin, which possesses special value as an organic mordant in the preparation of basils for kid gloves. It has realised from £30 to £50 per ton in London for this purpose, but is used chiefly in France. The tree is plentiful north of the Waikato. There can be little doubt that the phyllodia, if collected in the spring, would be of considerable value for tanning purposes, and in all probability the bark and phyllodia of P. glauca and P. alpina would answer the same purpose.

  2. Tawhero (Weinmannia silvicola), Banks and Solander.

  3. Towhai (W. racemosa), Forster. The bark of these fine trees contains from 10 to 13 per cent. of tannin, and could be obtained in vast quantities, especially in the South Island.

  4. Hinau (Elœocarpus dentatus), Vahl. This is of still higher value, as the bark contains 16 per cent. of tannin.

  5. Pokaka (Euœocarpus hookerianus), Raoul. The bark contains 10 per cent. of tannin.

  6. Maire tawhake (Eugenia maire), A. Cunningham. The bark yields 16.7 per cent. of tannin. The tree is almost restricted to the North Island.

  7. Rata (Metrosideros robusta), A. Cunningham. The bark contains 18.5 per cent. of tannin, and can be obtained in large quantities.

  8. Tooth-leaved Beech (Fagus fusca), Hooker f. The bark affords 7.6 per cent. of tannin.

  9. Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum), Solander. The bark contains 4.3 per cent. of tannin, and could be obtained in vast quantities at small cost by stripping the logs before sawing.

  10. Kohutuhutu or Kotukutuku (Fuschsia excorticata), Linné. The wood of this common tree contains 5.3 per cent. of tannin, but in all probability a larger yield could be extracted from the leaves and young shoots.

  11. Tutu (Coriaria ruscifolia), Linné. The bark of this common shrub affords 16.8 per cent. of tannin, but is rather slim. There is, however, good reason to believe that a profitable extract could be obtained from the stout spring shoots and leaves.

Chapter 60. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE NEW ZEALAND FORESTS

The following article is extracted from a report by George S. Perrin, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Conservator of State Forests, Victoria:—

The Experience of other Countries

The value of timber from New Zealand forests which has been used in the building of prosperous provincial cities and in other directions during the past fifty years is not easily estimated. It is quite safe to say, however, that the kauri-timber alone thus used represents an almost fabulous sum of money. Yet, in spite of expert evidence as to the utilisation of these magnificent resources, in the face of rapid denudation of forest areas near the centres of trade and industry, the probable total extinction of the noble kauri, and the absolute certainty that thousands of acres of forest are practically perishing—since, unlike those of Victoria, New Zealand forests do not readily renew themselves by natural growth—the extraordinary fact remains that in the past forest-conservation has been allowed to retrograde, although disaster must inevitably result from such neglect in the loss of timber-supplies.

Nature invariably avenges reckless disregard of her laws, and if the firestick is thoughtlessly used to strip hillsides of their natural protectors, floods and landslips very soon destroy the arable country at their bases. Because, up to date, no very serious disasters of this kind have overtaken New Zealand farmers it by no means follows such will not occur. On the contrary, it may be regarded as certain that, unless the teachings of experience in European forestry lead to the adoption of such scientific means as are there employed, the occurrence of disaster is merely a question of time. Although not due to precisely the same causes, the disastrous floods at Napier, whereby property valued at £100,000 was destroyed, is an illustration of what is likely to occur through deforesting. All experience shows, indeed, that a disregard of the value of trees in the economy of daily life entails serious consequences upon the country interested; that the wholesale destruction of timber-trees is a national mistake; and that reparation of damage thus caused involves the outlay of enormous sums of money.

France, for instance, stands as an object-lesson and warning to those who oppose necessary official control of the timber-cutter's work. The French people cannot be regarded as a nation of fools; yet it would seem to the uninitiated clear evidence of folly that they permitted the destruction of timber on the slopes of the Alps and Cevennes to such an extent that already they have had to expend £850,000 in replanting a hundred and fifty miles of the denuded areas, and are still engaged in the gigantic task of reforesting a further six hundred miles. These mountains were at one time covered with timber. As the grazing of sheep and cattle extended rapidly, timber was ruthlessly destroyed in favour of the grass. Retribution followed. In due course the flood-waters, pouring down the sides of these mountains, carried and distributed over the valuable farm-lands—some of the richest in France—millions of tons of silt, sand, and stones, rendering utterly valueless tens of thousands of acres of splendid country, till the scheme of reforestation above referred to became an imperative necessity.

In view of the experiences elsewhere, the question of how best to deal with conservation of forests must be regarded as of momentous importance to the people of New Zealand, since upon the efficiency or otherwise of the work undertaken depends whether they shall gain a substantial revenue from their timber or suffer tremendous national loss.

The Cutting-out of Timbers

The sawmiller should be encouraged to place his mill in such a position as will insure the readiest means of cutting out timber in “rotation blocks,” marked out and shown on working-plans, to provide for the removal of one block per year, a sufficient number of blocks being so laid out as would enable the miller to carry on work continuously for a stated number of years. The exact number, of course, depends upon the length of time required to bring the young trees, either planted by hand or growing up naturally, to maturity. Such sawmill-sites should, in the first instance, be let by tender, and no more than one mill should be allowed to operate on the same series of “rotation blocks.” The effect of this system would be to check that undue competition by close proximity of several mills which results in too close a cutting of the forests. It would also insure greater care on the part of the sawmiller, by giving guarantee of permanent occupation for the stipulated period. The annual output could be gauged by the work of previous years at each min, and thus the size of blocks required for an annual supply could be determined. This briefly describes the “rotation” system of cutting, which should be carried out on a working-plan approved at headquarters, and from which no deviation should be allowed.

Nature of Measures necessary

  1. A new Act, or amendment of Acts now in force, should be passed to create a Forest Department, and fix the status, duties, and emoluments of its officers. Power should be given—(1) To make permanent and inalienable existing reserves, no curtailment of area being permitted except such as is sanctioned by both Houses of Parliament; (2) to permanently reserve such other areas as from time to time may be found necessary. Political interference with the actual working of the forests, apart from State policy, should be specially guarded against. The Conservator should manage the forests from a scientific and national standpoint, giving due consideration to all interests involved. All technical work should be left to his expert and trained judgment, and in no case remitted to the political chief, who should, as far as possible, give the Conservator a free hand with regard to his professional duties.

  2. No new settlement within the area of State forests should be permitted, and where such have been established the settlers should be bought out.

  3. Areas should be so reserved that each forester could supervise one large or a group of smaller forests, except in sparsely timbered districts. State forests should not be of small area; such are relatively more expensive to supervise and work than those of large extent.

  4. It is absolutely essential that the chief officer, or Conservator, should be a trained expert, otherwise the principles of scientific forestry cannot be carried out, and the work of the department must end in failure.

  5. The Conservator should have absolute authority in all matters of technical or professional detail connected with plantation, conservation, supervision &c.; also over the employés of his department. To this end, he should have special powers, and be entirely free from political pressure or interference of any kind.

  6. Apparently, the only means of making this officer independent of political influence would be the creation of a powerful buffer between him and the Minister who presides over his department. Such a buffer could only be provided by constituting a Forest Board of three Commissioners, with the Conservator as ex officio Chairman. The Trust should be non-political, and meet once a month, members receiving a stated fee for each attendance. The duties of these Commissioners would be,—(a.) To safeguard the forests as national property against all attempts at encroachment by private individuals or local bodies. (b.) To act as a board of advice to the Minister on questions of forest policy, such as royalties, increase or reduction of forest areas, and generally to strengthen the hands of the Conservator. (c.) To submit an annual report upon the work of the department during the past year.

Culture of Forest-trees must proceed without break

The life and growth of trees vary to such an extent that years must of necessity elapse before a system modelled on the French, German, Swiss, or Indian forest-codes can be fully worked out. Any interference with the Conservator in carrying out the details of his scheme must therefore in many instances render futile the work of years, and in some cases risk the overthrow of the entire system. It must be remembered that the culture of forest-trees entails a “rotation” plan, extending from forty to eighty years. However well conceived and carried out such a plan may be, any “break” must overthrow it. It is quite simple for a Minister, influenced by people who are ignorant of forestry principles and requirements, to cause such a “break,” but it is a work of greater difficulty, which involves many years of time lost, to repair the damage so done.

For all these reasons the foundation and most essential condition to the establishment of a successful Forest Department is an Act of Parliament giving the Conservator of Forests secure tenure of office and ample powers to insure the uninterrupted and continuous progress of the work entrusted to him. This Act should contain clauses to provide that all timber areas now in the hands of the Government (or that may be hereafter acquired from the Maoris) should be proclaimed permanent State forests, and should be safeguarded by the most stringent conditions. It should further provide for the adoption, in working the forests, of the broad principles of systematic and fixed conservancy, details being left entirely in the hands of the skilled officers; and insure the officers from all danger of intimidation in the exercise of their duties.

Demand for Wood-paving, etc

Enormous quantities of timber are required to meet the great and increasing demand for wood-paving in all the great cities of the world—a trade as yet only in its infancy. When the authorities really grasp the fact that Australian hardwoods are absolutely the best timbers in the world for such purposes the possibilities of forestry will assume startling significance, and neglect to provide for profit from this demand must be regarded as almost criminal.

Blue-gum is largely grown in New Zealand, and as soon as jarrah and red-gum become scarce (the latter already is so in most of the colonies) this timber must be one of the foremost in public favour, being particularly adapted for wood-paving, and especially so for such use in wet places. Large plantations of these and other Eucalypti (which mature so rapidly that in twenty-four years they are ready for the sawmiller) could be planted with great profit, both by the Government and by private persons.

Already the Americans have become dissatisfied with their own deals for street-paving, and the City of Philadelphia has commissioned its Museum authorities to inquire into the suitability in price, quality, and quantity available of Australian hardwoods for this purpose. This fact alone indicates the probability of an extensive trade in such timbers in the near future.

During the past forty years millions of money have been sent to America in payment for the soft woods of that country, and now there is every probability, if our opportunities are seized upon, of some of these millions coming back to Australia.

The cultivation of such Eucalypti as may be found by experiments now being conducted in Melbourne and elsewhere most suitable for the purpose, opens up a vast field for the operations of up-to-date forestry, and there is no reason why New Zealand should not compete with the other colonies in supplying the demand for these timbers, while her own indigenous timbers will become too valuable for use in this way.

Concluding Remarks

I feel bound once more to warn the Government of New Zealand that if forestry operations—of such vital and momentous importance to them—are not placed at the outset upon a solid and permanent basis no practical good can result. No half-hearted measures, no subsequent “tinkering” with the subject, can insure the maintenance of the forests and profitable use of their timber. It is absurd to appoint experts, waste money upon a “bastard” system, and yet allow what little good work might be done even under that to be neutralised by alterations of policy on a change of Ministry or in the exigencies of some political interest.

Systematic and scientific treatment has been proved and recognised as indispensable in the experience of every one of the older countries. Such treatment cannot be applied if the system is disarranged merely to oblige Jack, Tom, or Dick, who supposes that an elector's or miner's right gives him authority to burn, cut, or otherwise destroy timber at his own sweet will, and without any reference to the rights of the people as a whole, who really own the forests.

If in these suggestions I have been able to throw any light on a somewhat difficult problem, and through my candid criticism on the position which forestry unfortunately occupies on this side of the globe New Zealand reverts to real forestry, and takes it up this time in a large-hearted, vigorous fashion, determined that there should be no faltering or turning back, then I am certain she will find her forests a blessing and means of employment to thousands, and the Government will never regret any money spent in insuring systematic scientific conservation.

Chapter 61. KAURI-RESIN

Although a true resin, this is usually miscalled kauri-gum. It is the solidified turpentine of the kauri, and occurs in great abundance in a fossil condition in the northern part of the Auckland Provincial District, from the North Cape to Middle Waikato, and is dug up alike on the driest fernhills and the deepest swamps. The purest samples are found on the Cape Colville Peninsula. A large quantity is also obtained from the forks of living trees, but is considered of inferior quality, and fetches a lower price. At the present time gum-digging employs nearly or quite 7,000 persons, including Maoris and aliens.

In the fossil state kauri-resin occurs in larger or smaller lumps, from the size of a walnut to that of a man's head. Pieces have been found weighing upwards of 100 lb. When scraped, the best specimens are of a rich brown colour, varying greatly in depth of tint. Sometimes translucent or even transparent specimens are found, occasionally with leaves, seeds, or small insects enclosed. When obtained from swamps the resin is very dark-coloured, or even almost black, and fetches a low price. Waikato resin is the darkest of all. Transparent or semi-transparent specimens fetch very high prices, being used as a substitute for amber in the manufacture of mouthpieces for cigar-holders, pipes, &c. The great bulk is used in the manufacture of oil varnishes, and in all countries where much varnish is made it holds the chief place in the market. It is exported chiefly to England and the United States of North America. In 1860 the export was only 1,046 tons, valued at £9 per ton; in 1898 it amounted to 9,905 tons, valued at £59 4s. 9d. per ton. The following statement, taken from the Customs returns, shows the quantity exported in each year from 1891 to 1898, with the total value, and average per ton:—

Year.Quantity.Total Value.Average per Ton.
Tons.££ s. d.
18918,388437,05652 2 1
18928,705517,67859 9 4
18938,317510,77561 8 3
18948,338404,56748 10 5
18957,425418,76656 8 0
18967,126431,32360 10 7
18976,641398,01059 18 8
18989,905586,76759 4 9

From the report of the Commissioners appointed in 1898 to inquire into the kauri-gum industry, are taken the following extracts:—

The gumfields north of Auckland City comprise 724,000 acres; those south and east of Auckland 90,000 acres; total, 814,000 acres: and this area consists of 435,000 acres of Crown lands, 166,000 acres of Native lands not yet adjudicated upon by the Native Land Court, and 213,000 acres of private lands held by Natives or Europeans. This total area of 814,000 acres comprises the land known up to the present to be gum-bearing, but may be greatly augmented by new discoveries, for lands in many parts of the district are being worked which some years ago were thought to be non-gum-bearing. There is also this peculiar feature about the gumfields of the north: that in many places two, three, and sometimes four layers of gum have been found, betokening the existence of two or three kauri forests, which on disappearing, or, as is probable, on being destroyed by fire in ages past, left in succession their quota or layer of gum in the ground. On this account it has frequently happened that fields which years ago have been pronounced worked out have been taken up again and profitably reworked, and this same process is going on at present.

In many respects the conditions which obtain with the gumfields of the Auckland District resemble to a remarkable extent those which obtained on the alluvial goldfields of the South Island: the richest deposits or layers in both Otago and Westland were discovered and worked first, and these were found near the surface. Subsequently the lower layers were discovered and worked, and thereafter ground was and is still profitably worked by combination of labour and improved means, which, owing to the small quantity of gold it contained, was declared worthless by experts a few years previously. Exactly so was it with the kauri-gum—the largest pieces, technically called “bold gum,” were found on the surface, or barely embedded in the soil. Next, the gum-digger bad to search for it 10 in. or 12 in. deep with the spear; then a second and third layer of gum was discovered on fields that were thought to be exhausted, and the large gum-spear, 8 ft. to 12 ft. long, was used to discover, and a hook to bring to the surface, the gum in the swamps, which a few years ago were not known to contain gum. At present the smallest pieces of gum are greedily sought after, which could not have found a purchaser in years past, and fields are worked which before had been considered worthless. The cry for the past twenty years has been that the product was nearly exhausted; but at the present day the output is nearly as much as ever, and the price of the gum is higher than ever before.

These remarks naturally lead to considering the likelihood of permanency of the gum industry, but, as we propose to deal with this question in connection with some other phases of the subject, we shall content ourselves now with simply expressing our profound regret that an industry which up to the end of 1897 has yielded product for export to the value of over eight millions sterling, has not been made to contribute anything to the revenue of the country, although the procuring of that product involved the destruction of the little soil on the land from whence it was dug, and a large expenditure annually for reconstruction and maintenance of roads from the gumfields to the towns and shipping-ports. We have evidence to show that kauri-gum is a unique article among gums, inasmuch as it has good qualities not found among other gums: but it stands unique also in this respect, that it is the only product which has been practically allowed to be abstracted from Crown lands without being paid for.

The persons engaged in procuring the gum from the soil may be divided into three classes, namely: the diggers proper, who entirely depend for a living upon the gum; the settlers, who, as a rule, only occasionally work on the gumfields to supplement their earnings from the land; and the Maoris, who take to gum-digging only when their crops prove a failure or their stock of provisions gets exhausted. The mode of working is invariably that with spear and spade, and, except in the case of the Austrians, regarding whom particulars will be given in a subsequent part of this report, there is no combination of labour, but every man works for himself.

For digging gum on Crown lands a license-fee of 5s. has been charged in years past. The collection of this fee was left to the several County Councils. These, however, with one exception—that of the Hobson County Council—abandoned the collection, as they found that the cost of doing so amounted to as much, and in some cases to more, than the sums collected; moreover, the Collector of the Hobson County, in his evidence, after enumerating the many difficulties he had to encounter in trying to obtain payment of this fee, expressed his opinion that the revenue derivable therefrom was not worth collection

For the right to dig gum on private lands or on Native lands various systems of charges are in vogue. In most cases payment of a fee ranging from £1 to £7 10s. per annum is the condition of being permitted to dig gum; but, in the case of those holders of private lands who are storekeepers, the usual arrangement is that the gum-digger working on such lands must sell his gum and obtain his provisions or stores from these storekeepers. A great deal of gum-digging is carried on upon lands owned by absentees, but administered by agents in the colony, and your Commissioners have been urged to recommend the Government to acquire these lands by repurchase, for the benefit of the industry. It is a matter to be deplored that these gum-lands have ever been parted with; but, seeing that they are now being worked for gum, we cannot perceive the necessity of the country incurring a large expenditure for the purpose of simply enabling a few hundred diggers to obtain gum therefrom without paying an annual fee to the agent of the absentee. Wherever these absentee lands contain a fair proportion of cultivable land fit for settlement, we are, however, of opinion that Government should avail itself of the opportunity given of obtaining it for that purpose at a reasonable cost per acre, and so give the diggers employed thereabout the opportunity of establishing a permanent home for themselves. There are also other lands owned by non-residents, from which gum-diggers have removed and are removing quantities of gum, apparently under the idea that non interference in the past constitutes a right under which they can help themselves to the gum and sell it to the storekeeper.

The great drawback to settlement in most parts of the country north of Auckland is the scattered nature of the really good settlement-lands. Generally speaking the good land is in the valleys, and is of comparatively small extent: 5,000 acres here, then a stretch of perhaps ten miles of poor pipe-clay gum-lands; next, 6,000 acres of fair settlement-lands, and again a stretch of fifteen miles of pipe-clay lands, and so on: thus necessitating many miles of roads to connect the various settlements. The first requirement for successful settlement, next to good quality of soil, is the road communication, and this is kept in the worst possible state through the damage and mischief done to the roads by the gum-traffic. The state of these roads in winter time is bad beyond description. The Kauri-gum Industry Inquiry Commission that reported in 1893 stated as follows:—

“The present desperate condition of the northern roads is due chiefly to the gum traffic, including under that term the cartage of stores to the fields, as well as of gum from them. Other causes, such as, in some parts, the cartage of timber, have their share in the mischief, but the gum is chiefly responsible. In the Maori parts of the district the surface of the ground which is supposed to indicate a line of road is reduced to a state scarcely describable, by the use of bullock-drays, which in proportion as they destroy the roads require the services of a more numerous team of bullocks, and by this means the mischief is continually augmented. Some particulars relating to this subject may be found in various parts of the evidence; but it would be very difficult to pen any description which would enable the state of the roads to be realised. It is sufficient to say that their condition is now such as to render nugatory any prospect for future settlement which the North might otherwise have; that it largely increases the cost of carriage, and so renders living much more onerous to the gum-digger as well as the settler; that it wears out and destroys to a lamentable extent the livestock, to say nothing of the men engaged in the work of conveyance; that the county authorities and Road Boards have no adequate means of improving it, but are obliged to leave it a permanent and hopeless impediment to the progress and prosperity of the country.”

This description of the roads, given by the former Commission, as to their state, applies to-day. We have it in evidence that in many cases the charges for freight from certain gumfields to shipping-port or town, and vice versé, during seven months out of the year ranges from £3 to £3 10s. per ton, when a charge of 10s. to 15s. per ton would be quite as remunerative to the carter if there were properly constructed roads. In other words, the cost of living would be reduced to the gum-digger by about 1s. 6d. per week, and the carriage of his gum by 3s. per hundredweight. On the other hand, proper road communication with a shipping-port, &c., would be a boon to the struggling settlers of the North, that in many cases would mean transposing failure into success, and would enable them to establish themselves permanently on their holdings. It may be mentioned here that it is the absence of suitable road-metal in the north of Auckland that makes the construction of roads so expensive in that district, and accounts for their being speedily cut up and transformed into quagmires by gum-traffic, &c., as soon as the wet season sets in.

The gum industry, though in so many respects a blessing to the Auckland District, has had its abuses, and has in some ways acted detrimentally to that part of the colony; but for this, it must be admitted, those that have had the administration of affairs are to be blamed rather than the industry itself. Under judicious management it should have been made to yield the means requisite for supplying the arterial lines of communication for the whole of the North, and steps should have been taken to counteract, to some extent, the evil effects to the soil which are so apparent to any one traversing our gumfields. The ground has been roughly dug up wherever gum was suspected to exist, and the thin layer of top soil, generally only a couple of inches thick, was buried a foot or more; deep holes were made, and left unfilled; and even the very roads were dealt with in the same way; but what has led to far greater destruction of the soil was the continual burning-off of the tea-tree and fern. The gum-digger does not cut down and clear away the vegetation on the surface of the ground he wishes to work for gum. Doing so would be too much trouble to him, and he therefore has recourse to the simpler method of “putting a match into it,” and burning-off what there is of vegetation. If he were to adopt this method, and burn only the particular spot he meant to work, then no fault could be found with him; but invariably the fire is allowed to spread, and hundreds and often thousands of acres are burned, when the object was simply to work a few square yards, or, at the utmost, a few square chains of ground. This wanton burning-off is fearfully detrimental, even ruinous, to the ground, as the fire consumes the rootlets, pulverises the little soil there is, and then ashes and soil are carried away by the wind. There are stretches of gum-land everywhere throughout the North where repeated burnings have caused every vestige of soil to disappear, and where there is nothing but the bare white pipe-clay left. Not only has the soil been thus destroyed, but in many instances these gum-fires have caused great loss to the settlers—their fences have frequently been destroyed, their homesteads placed in imminent danger, &c. On our journey north we saw the effect of several of these fires; at one place we found four telegraph-poles burned to the ground, and at least eight others badly damaged.

It is true that until lately there never seemed to be much chance of grasses taking root and growing on these gum-lands, but there is certainly far less chance of their doing so where the few inches of soil have disappeared altogether. This state of things is the more to be deplored, as experiments carried on during the last four or five years with the view of establishing grasses on poor gum-lands have proved fairly successful in several localities. The grass named Poa brownii has spread remarkably well in different places, and seems even to drive the small tea-tree off the field. Although it is not a very nourishing grass, and is not one of which stock is particularly fond, it is better than the natural growth on these gum-lands—viz., fern and tea-tree, which neither cattle nor sheep will eat. There are, besides the Poa brownii, several other grasses, such as rat-tail and buffalo grass, which are making fair progress in some parts of the gumfields.

While on this subject we may also direct attention to the very valuable experiments with gorse carried on by Mr. T. C. Williams, of Wellington, at Pakaraka, under the supervision of his son (Mr. Guy Williams), who kindly showed us over the estate and explained the cultivation and working of the gorse-culture for pasture. A perusal of his evidence attached to this report will no doubt be read with great interest. The procedure, in short, is this: The ground is ploughed, and gorse is sown either broadcast, or in drills or rows 3 ft. apart, leaving a space sufficiently wide to allow the sheep to pass up and down between the rows. When the gorse reaches a certain height, stock is turned in, and the gorse eaten down. The stock is then removed to the next paddock, then to a third and fourth, by which time the first paddock is ready again for pasturing. Experiments of various descriptions have been made by Mr. Williams as to gorse culture, and the fattening of stock, into the particulars of which it would not be expedient to enter here. Suffice it to say that land which formerly would not feed a sheep to the acre has been made to carry and fatten five and six sheep to the acre when planted with gorse. It has been proved beyond a doubt that our gum-lands are capable of being thus cultivated to good purpose, and, as this is a matter of such great importance to the country north of Auckland, your Commissioners would venture to suggest the advisability of Government following up these experiments by setting apart a portion of our poor gum-lands as an experimental farm for gorse-pasture only, and by issuing pamphlets from time to time, giving the best courses of procedure, in order to instruct our settlers how to proceed to put these clay-lands to a profitable use. It is in view of the prospect of this future usefulness of the poor gum-lands that your Commissioners recommend that prompt steps should be taken to put a stop to the wanton burning-off of the scant vegetation thereon, and a heavy fine should attach to any digger burning more than about a chain square at a time. It would be still better if “burning-off” on gumfields could be prohibited altogether.

Another use to which our gumfields might be put is the planting of marketable and useful trees. On many parts of the gumfields—more especially those which have escaped the ravages from fires—the natural growth (tea-tree and fern) is sufficiently high and thick to make tree-planting rather precarious on account of fires; but no such objection could be urged to planting pipe-clay lands, which carry only small stumpy tea-tree and fern of a foot or less in height, or those clay lands from whence the little soil has disappeared by reason of repeated burnings. It is strange, but true, that several of the European and Australian trees will grow where the top-soil has disappeared, and where neither fern nor tea-tree seems able to start growing again. Judicious tree-planting, therefore, and more especially the sowing of seeds of suitable grasses, which on many parts of the gumfields have proved a success, would be of immense benefit to the North, and assist in gradually transforming the waste of clay and gum-lands into useful country. The cost of any seed-sowing or tree-planting would, of course, be a legitimate charge against the export duty, which your Commissioners recommend further on.

Regarding the permanency of the gumfields, a mass of contradictory opinions was expressed by the various witnesses examined. In many cases the opinions given—that the fields would soon be exhausted—have reference only to the particular part of the gumfield on which the witnesses happened to live, or with which they were familiar: not a few of those best acquainted with our gumfields as a whole consider that the present generation will not see the end of the gum industry in New Zealand, and your Commissioners are strongly of opinion that this will be fully verified. Fresh fields and new layers of gum are being constantly discovered, and immense areas of the known old fields have only been touched here and there, or have practically been only “skimmed over.” It is all but certain that systematic and co-operative working of the fields will in years to come replace the present working by individual diggers, and fields now abandoned will be re-worked. It has been urged that the gradual decrease of gum export since the time the first Commission reported in 1893 to the present time is a proof positive that the gum is getting scarcer. Such, however, is not the case.* In 1893 there was a great over-production of gum, and this, together with the commercial crisis in America, Europe, &c., in subsequent years brought about a drop in the price of gum of £15 per ton in round numbers. Soon after the mining boom began in New Zealand the timber trade became exceedingly brisk. Thousands of those employed at gum-digging left that occupation and found work on the goldfields and in the forests, and of course the output of gum proportionately diminished. It is a matter for congratulation that this turn of events took place, for it at once relieved a glutted market, and raised the price to its former height. At the present time, as already stated, the price is higher than ever before in the annals of the gum industry. The export during the year (1897) was 6,641 tons. Roughly speaking, the requirements of the trade in London and New York—our two principal markets for kauri-gum—are 8,000 tons per annum, and hence the large rise in price. To insure good prices in the markets the output of gum must be restricted to the above tonnage per annum, and special encouragements to go upon the gumfields should on no account be given; legislation, indeed, should be entirely in the opposite direction, lest we be made to pass through a season of low and ruinous prices again, as in 1894. These considerations, we respectfully submit, are another powerful argument for the imposition of an export duty, for the purpose of compensating the North to some extent for the great losses suffered in the past through the gum industry, and for enabling the different counties to construct the much-needed roads.

* This opinion of the Commissioners has been completely verified as correct by the fact that the quantity exported in 1898 (9,905 tons) is the largest yet recorded.

Many of the settlers have brought under your Commissioners' notice the desirability of reserving special blocks of gum-land for the exclusive use of the settlers in their several districts. While realising the desirability of making some of the reserves thus specifically applied for, in order to insure to the genuine settlers gum lands conveniently situated, and so give them the opportunity of earning some money for the further improvement of their holdings, we consider that the carrying-out of the project is beset with many difficulties. The surveys of these blocks would involve a very heavy and perhaps a practically useless expenditure. Many of the settlers, there is reason to believe, prefer to be at liberty to dig gum where they please. These special reservations, moreover, would be a source of dispute and strife, and would require continuous supervision to prevent trespass. Your Commissioners, therefore, do not see their way to recommend that such special blocks of gum-lands be reserved for particular sections of the community.

An indirect result of the kauri-gum industry has been to a certain extent to diminish the resourcefulness of settlers themselves. In other parts of the colony a farmer has to rely upon the proceeds of his farming industry for his sole subsistence and that of his family, but in the North the knowledge that a few pounds can always be obtained by gum-digging prevents some of the settlers from obtaining all the benefit that could be wrested from the tillage of the soil. Nor has the northern settler gained greatly by being able to furnish supplies to the large number of gum-diggers around him. The food supplied by storekeepers to diggers is in most cases imported from abroad — tinned meats, tinned milk, tinned butter, tinned fish, tinned fruit, &c., being the staples of consumption, not only in the diggers' tents, but in the accommodation-houses also of the far North.

The men known as Austrians on the gumfields are visitors from Lower Austria. They are mostly natives of Dalmatia, but some are from Istria and Croatia, a few also being from the Balkan States—Montenegrins, Bulgarians, &c. They are a hardy, sober, industrious, law-abiding people. This character is given to them with one consent by all the witnesses, whether storekeepers, settlers, or British gum-diggers. In their own country they were mainly agriculturists, engaged at work in the vineyards, olive groves, &c.; but some are fishermen from the islands in the Adriatic. Many of them are very young men, and it is asserted that their desire to escape military service prompted emigration. Very few of them have wives or children in this country, but many of the older men have families in Europe. Those who have already put in part of their time at military service have every now and then to report themselves and get their passports visèd by the Austrian Consul in Auckland; but the younger men do not attend at the Consulate for this purpose, and hence there is no check upon the number arriving or leaving the colony. (Subsequent events have shown that check is possible.) They speak a Slavonic dialect, not German. The older men are not educated, but the younger men can all read and write, under the excellent system of education that now obtains in Austria. They appear to have strong family affections, much of the money sent home being for the purpose of aiding brothers and other male relatives to come out here also, or for the purpose of helping their families at home. They appear to have been attracted to this country by accounts sent from New Zealand some years ago by two sailors, but still more recently by the return of some lucky Austrian gum-diggers, who took home some £9,000 drawn in one of Tattersall's racing-sweeps. They began to appear on the gumfields in great numbers, and we consider that there are between fifteen hundred and sixteen hundred now in New Zealand, but they are so widely scattered, and their numbers are so constantly changing locally, that it is difficult to give the exact enumeration. It is said that there has been failure of the fruit-crop, and general scarcity, of late years in Dalmatia, and, if so, it would account for the necessity of many leaving home in search of work; but, as most of the men earned previously, on an average, only 1s. 2d. a day, it is easy to understand that the country in which some of them are gaining from £3 to £5 a week would have sufficient attractions, without even the spur of hunger behind them.

They generally camp together in twenties or thirties, digging in the swamps in summer and on the hills in winter. They work very long hours, often being in the field awaiting the first light of dawn to commence their labour, and ending only when darkness compels them to desist. The evenings and part of the night they spend in scraping the gum. Unlike the British gum-digger, who is generally a solitary worker, the Austrians seldom stray from each other, and upon a rich find of gum being made they all proceed to work it “on the face,” as it is technically called—that is, digging up and turning over the whole of the ground, sometimes for many feet in depth. This is, of course, the proper method to pursue if the whole of the gum in the ground is to be removed, but is one of the causes of offence alleged against them by the British digger and the settlers, as the thoroughness of the manner in which the ground is cleared leaves no hope of any gleaning after them. Formerly the digger or settler prodded here and there, dug a hole in a likely looking spot, and then wandered on: there was probably as good gum behind him as before him; but no one could hope to work after the Austrian digger with any prospect of success. The Austrians live frugally at first, and with due regard to their own slender finances; but after being here a little while, and earning money, they soon find that to continue labour in the exhausting manner they work, and for such long hours, a more generous diet is indispensable. Their food on the gumfield costs them generally 10s. to 14s. a week, and consists of tinned meat, potatoes, flour, lard, coffee, butter, &c., averaging quite as much as that of the British digger.

The trade in kauri-gum practically commenced in 1847, and its price continued from that date up to 1853 to be about £5 per ton. After the year 1853 the fluctuations, both in value and tonnage, of the gum were of an interesting character … . The quantity of gum exported increased from 1,440 tons in 1856 to 8,317 tons in 1893, and since that date has diminished to 6,641 tons in 1897. The price has, however, steadily risen, till it now stands at the highest figure it has ever attained—that is, at from £60 to £70 for the best samples. Much less gum is now obtained by the individual digger than was formerly the case, some witnesses considering it as fully one-half, others one-third less. The steadily rising price enables a living to be obtained, even with the lesser quantity procured, and this increasing price justifies the idea that the rise in kauri-gum is not only because of the demand caused by the world's larger population, but also on account of the industrial virtues of the gum making it recognised as an indispensable ingredient in the manufacture of good varnish. It is true that there are other competitors with kauri-gum in the market; of these, the principal is that called Manilla, the Zanzibar and other African gums not being produced in sufficient quantity to offer effective rivalry. On this subject we will quote from the report of the former Commission the remarks made by Mr. Ingham Clarke, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., an eminent London varnish-maker. He says:—

“The total annual imports of varnish gums into England, a part of which is re-exported, amount to about 4,000 tons, nearly two-thirds being represented by the kauri-gum of New Zealand. About 400 tons come from our West African colony of Sierra Leone, 400 or 500 tons from the Philippine and adjacent islands (usually known as Manilla gum), and the remainder from various parts of the world. The “gum animè,” exported from Zanzibar, is a high-class gum, but very limited in quantity, and is worth, in London, from £200 to £350 per ton. Manilla gums are so like the kauri-gum in appearance that it is almost impossible at sight to distinguish them, the greatest adepts being able to do so by the sense of smell only. The Manilla gums have all some tricky characteristic, which causes trouble to manufacturers even months after the varnishes are made. Some qualities are used in the manufacture of certain grades of ordinary varnishes. Others are unfit for use in the manufacture of oil varnishes. The Damar gums are unsuitable for oil varnishes, being only employed in the manufacture of spirit varnishes, and do not come at all into competition with kauri-gum. Kauri-gum commands a supremacy in the market. There is, however, a shadow to this pleasant picture, for the excessive production, stimulated by the ever-increasing demand, is, without doubt, rapidly exhausting the known sources of supply. If it were not akin to heresy in these days to make such a proposition, one would be inclined to suggest that the New Zealand colonists should place an export tax on gum. No other gum could take its place, from a peculiarity which it possesses (entirely its own) of assimilating with oil more rapidly and at an easier temperature than any other gum. The Manilla gums, it is true, enter largely into competition with kauri; but, as we have already stated, they are treacherous in use, and mostly contain strong acids and other objectionable substances, thereby upsetting all theory and practice, and resulting often in injury to the manufactured article, and subsequent regret to those who use them. Kauri-gum is extensively employed by the leading manufacturers in every country where varnish is made. This universal favour we by no means attribute to the superior results to be obtained by its use, but rather to the fact that it is easier to manipulate—that is, it unites with linseed-oil quicker, and at a lower temperature, than any other gum. It is probable that the essential oil it contains acts in the fusing process as a solvent; hence, less heat being necessary, carbonisation is minimised, and a relatively paler varnish is the product.”

The result of the Commission was “an Act to regulate the Kauri-gum Industry,” which came into operation on the 1st January, 1899. It provides, amongst other matters, for the division of the North Island into kauri-gum districts; for kauri-gum reserves; two classes of licenses for digging—special and ordinary—and one for buying gum. There are qualifications prescribed as to who may hold licenses. Local authorities are to keep registers of licenses, stating names of licensees; and buyers, gum-purchase books. Rangers are to be appointed; and the police are to aid local authorities in carrying out the provisions of the Act.

Chapter 62. THE GOLD-DREDGING INDUSTRY

P. Galvin, Secretary Mining Bureau.

From very small beginnings, the gold-dredging industry has, in the course of about thirty-five years, become one of the most stable in this colony, affording employment to large numbers of miners, carriers, engineers, and fitters, and returning considerable profits on the capital invested. For some years past the engineering shops in Dunedin have been fully employed, and of late they have been working at high pressure, to keep pace with the demands for new dredges and alterations and improvements in those already working; while in some of the towns along the Clutha River engineering shops have been springing up, and workmen are profitably employed. In this branch of mining New Zealand takes the foremost position, and inquiries are frequently received from Siberia, New Guinea, Borneo, California, British Columbia, and the Australasian Colonies as to the methods in vogue for dredging auriferous streams in this colony. Recently two Russian gentlemen, who are largely interested in gold-dredging in Siberia, came to Otago on a tour of inspection, and visited the principal dredges; and so well satisfied were they with the improved methods and appliances which have been brought to such a state of perfection in Central Otago, that they gave an order to the firm of A. and T. Burt (Limited), Dunedin, to construct three dredges from designs supplied by Messrs. Cutten Bros., who have made a speciality of dredge construction. Dredges on the model so generally adopted in Otago have also been introduced into California by Mr. R. H. Postlethwaite, who acquired his experience in gold-dredging in Otago; and Mr. Satchell Clarke, who also gained his knowledge in Otago, is supervising the construction of dredges in England for British Columbia.

In a paper on “Dredging as a Profitable Means of Working Alluvial Auriferous Drifts,” read before the New Zealand Institute of Mining Engineers on the 23rd August, 1898, Mr. W. H. Cutten has given a historical sketch of the dredging industry in Otago, and the evolution of the gold-dredge is thus traced from an iron ring and ox-hide bag to the perfection of engineering and mechanical skill shown in the illustration facing page 512:—

As far as the author can ascertain, dredging was first started on the Clutha River, near Alexandra, by a man named Brown, who made a primitive spoon-bucket dredge. This spoon was simply an iron ring and ox-hide bag, attached to a long pole, with a hauling-rope fastened to the iron ring, and led ashore to a hand-winch. The method of working was to carry the pole with the bucket attached out into the river in a boat and drop it down to the wash at the bottom, pressing the bucket hard down by means of the pole, while the whole contrivance was hauled along the bottom to the shore by the winch. The wash thus obtained was then cradled in an ordinary miner's cradle.

The next advancing step in dredging was taken by two men named Ben Knight and Edward Halliday, who made a larger and improved spoon-dredge. This consisted of a wooden punt about 26 ft. long by 12 ft. wide, and 3 ft. deep, carrying an ordinary hand-winch and a cradle. The spoon consisted of a strong iron ring bolted to the end of a long pole. The part of the ring furthest from the pole was flattened to form a cutting-edge, and to the back of the ring a bag was fixed, made of ox-hide. The punt was moored in the river by a rope and an anchor, while two poles were driven into the gravel, one on each side of the punt, to keep it steady. The spoon was lowered on to the bottom at the end of the punt furthest from the winch. A rope was fastened to the lower end of the pole near the spoon, and led to the winch on deck. Another rope was secured to the upper end of the pole and to the side of the punt, to hold the spoon down into the wash. At the winch, either one or two men wound the spoon towards the winch along the bottom, while another man pushed the spoon down into the wash and guided it by means of the pole. In this way the auriferous wash-dirt was scraped up into the ox-hide bag and lifted on to the punt, to be afterwards cradled to separate the gold. It took five and sometimes six men to work the dredge, and during the day of eight hours about fifteen tons of wash could be lifted in favourable dirt, but the quantity raised depended upon the nature of the ground.

Quite a number of these dredges were put upon the Clutha River at different parts, but mostly between the Townships of Manuherikia and the Dunstan—now called Alexandra and Clyde respectively. Some of these dredges did apparently very well, for, although the returns were usually kept secret, it sometimes leaked out that as much as 70 oz. to 80 oz. of gold had been obtained for a week's work. These dredges were mostly put on and worked by parties of working miners; but some were put on by private individuals, who paid the men wages ranging from 15s. to £1 per day.

During the time the spoon-dredges were working there were also extensive sluicing-claims being worked along the banks. These claims discharged immense quantities of tailings into the river, and the tailings so interfered with the dredges that they ceased to pay, and one by one they were laid up, sunk, or washed down the river by floods. A man named Sedeberg then built a steam spoon-dredge to try and cope with the drifts, or tailings, which were travelling in the river. As near as can be ascertained, this was in the year 1870, and it was the first occasion on which steam was used to work upon the river. The dredge was made with two pontoons, held apart by beams bolted on to the decks, so as to leave a well of about 3 ft. wide between them. A strong pole was driven down hard into the river bottom at the bow end of the dredge, and two struts of timber were secured to the lower end of this pole and to the two pontoons, at about the centre. A sheave or block was fastened near the lower end of the pole, and a chain passed through the sheave and to the steam-winch on deck. The spoon was somewhat similar to that used by Messrs. Knight and Halliday, but much larger. It was lowered at the after end of the dredge, between the pontoons, and was drawn along the bottom by a chain attached to the winch, then lifted by a rope attached to the spoon. This machine was kept working for about two years, and paid fairly well for a time. Although it lifted much more dirt than the ordinary spoon-dredge, it could not cope with the ever-increasing quantity of tailings coming down the river, and was finally abandoned.

After a lapse of some years, an enterprising engineer named Charles McQueen induced a number of Dunedin and Alexandra men to form a company and allow his firm to build a steam bucket-and-ladder dredge. During the time this dredge was being constructed another engineer named Scott built a small bucket-dredge with a wooden hull; but, although this was the first in actual work, to Mr. McQueen belongs the credit of constructing the first steam bucket-and-ladder dredge. The small dredge was called the “Eureka,” and it was finished and made a start a short time before the large one, in the year 1882; but the fatal mistake was made in purchasing an old worn-out boiler and engines, which, being much too large, the weight crushed the pontoons out of shape and the machinery out of line, while the consumption of fuel was so great that the dredge did not pay. The engines and boilers were then thrown out, and side paddle-wheels fitted, which were driven by the force of the current in the river and transmitted the power to the buckets, while a number of square sheet-iron buckets attached to the paddle-wheels lifted the water required to wash the dirt. The dredge, after a varied career, fell into the hands of two working miners, who were fortunate in striking good gold. It has done so well ever since that its owners are now in very comfortable circumstances, and possess two fine large dredges of modern type. The dredge was kept working until 1890, when it was again fitted with steam-power to follow the leads of gold into the beaches, where there was no current to drive the paddle-wheels.

Meanwhile Mr. McQueen's dredge, or, rather, the Dunedin Company's dredge, started work in 1882. It was a most elaborate machine. The hull was 70 ft. long, 15 ft. beam, and 6 ft. deep, made of iron, and had a sharp bow. There were two bucket-ladders, one on each side of the hull, and two chains of buckets, driven by one set of compound condensing-engines set in the centre of the hull. The buckets discharged the spoil into two revolving perforated cylinders, which screened the fine dirt and gold into the sluice-boxes or tables. These boxes were fitted with revolving copper pans to amalgamate the gold, but they were soon thrown off as useless, and the gold caught on matting in the boxes. The two ladders were not altogether a success, for the alternate action of the dredging into the wash, first on the one side, and then on the other, occasionally rolled the decks under water, while the sharp bow made the dredge almost unmanageable in a strong current. Several dredge-masters were appointed, but none seemed to work the dredge satisfactorily or profitably, until an old miner and seafaring-man named McLay took charge. He had a pair of wooden pontoons fitted, one on each side, outside the ladders, thus increasing the stability. The dredge then commenced to pay, and did fairly well for some years; when her owner, either thinking the claim worked out, or that distant fields looked greener, floated the dredge some twenty-six miles further down the river to a place called Coal Creek Flat, where it paid remarkably well. For some time it was getting returns of about 150 oz. of gold per week, the highest being 175 oz. The two ladders were afterwards taken off, and one, with much larger buckets, substituted. The dredge is still running, though not doing so well: but during the sixteen years it has worked it has taken over 15,000 oz. of gold out of the river, of the value of nearly £60,000… . .

In the year 1889 a wealthy and enterprising Chinaman named Sew Hoy took up a claim on the Shotover, a tributary of the Kawarau River, which was known to be rich in gold in the early days. A company with 300 ten-pound shares was formed, and a small steam bucket-dredge put on the claim. Although the ground had been thrice worked by hand—twice by Europeans, and then by Chinamen—the dredge got so much gold that the ten-pound shares rose to nearly £250 each. A boom set in, and ground was taken up in all manner of places, quite regardless of its gold-bearing qualities… . Towards the end of 1892 there came a slump, and a number of the dredges which had been put upon the upper reaches of the Kawarau River, and did not pay, were sold in liquidation. Several of them were bought cheap by private parties, and shifted down on to the Clutha River between Alexandra and Clyde, where they got such good returns that the attention of the public was again turned to the industry, and a number of claims were pegged off along the low banks and beaches of the Clutha River.

Up to this time the dredges were only working the river-beds and low beaches, but could not work the higher banks on account of the difficulty in stacking the tailings clear of the stern. In June, 1894, while engaged working the “Enterprise” dredge, the author was confronted with this difficulty, and took the matter in hand, designing and constructing a machine now called a “tailings elevator,” which consisted of a ladder fixed to the dredge, and projecting over the stern at an angle of about 35 degrees to the water-level. On this ladder there is a continuous chain of buckets or, rather, trays, working over tumblers at the top and bottom of the ladder. The rough portion of the tailings, after being washed and separated from the fine by a revolving screen, were delivered into the elevator, carried up, and stacked to any desired height or distance from the stern of the dredge, according to the length of the elevator. This was the first attempt to deal with the difficulty, and the author has great satisfaction in stating that the success of this machine has simply revolutionised the industry. Claims have been pegged off, and dredges put to work claims where dredging was previously considered next to impossible, and now several large dredges can be seen tearing down the high banks of the Clutha, in some cases fully 40 ft. above the river-level, and passing the whole of the dirt through their gold-saving appliances.

For some time there was a pretty general impression amongst gold-dredgers that buckets lifting 2 cubic feet of wash were large enough, and that buckets of greater capacity would lift too much dirt to be efficiently washed; but experience has shown that such is not the case, and now most of the buckets made will lift 4 cubic feet and upwards; the Earnscleugh No. 2, one of the largest dredges, has buckets of 6 cubic feet. The evolution of the dredge, though somewhat remarkable, is not yet complete. In a recent communication from another consulting engineer in dredging matters, Mr. F. W. Payne, that gentleman states:—

The chief points of interest in the dredging industry at the present time I consider to be the development of elevating. A year ago a face of 20 ft. to 30 ft. above the water-level was looked upon as a big undertaking in the way of elevating the tailings, but at the present time dredges are being constructed to work into faces of 60 ft. or even 70 ft. above water-level. As regards the comparative lifting capacity of the dredges, a bucket with 3 cubic feet capacity was considered large a year or so ago, but at the present time the average size is 4 1/2 cubic feet capacity. As the buckets generally travel at the same rate of speed—viz., twelve buckets per minute—the actual capacity of the dredge is as the difference in size of the buckets. The largest bucket at present working is 7 cubic feet capacity. The Magnetic dredge has buckets of 5 1/2 cubic feet, and the Ranfurly (or Electric No. 3) 6 cubic feet.

A description of one of the most modern and up-to-date dredges lately put to work near Cromwell by the Hartley and Riley Beach Gold-dredging Company will not be inappropriate:—

The pontoons are 90 ft. long by 11 ft. wide, and 5 ft. 6 in. deep at bow and 6 ft. at stern. They are built of heavy timber throughout; each pair of uprights is braced by two diagonal struts, all the framing being of best quality blue-gum. A beam of kauri 21 in. by 5 in. runs the whole length of the craft inside, and helps to support the deck. The pontoons are double-lined with 4 in. kauri outside and 5 in. inside. The well, which only runs back to the tumbler framing, is 4 ft. 6 in. wide. The connecting ligature of the pontoons is a very powerful one, so that the whole structure is rigid enough to stand the great strain put upon it when working heavy ground. The whole of the pontoons are caulked and tarred, and there is no bilge. The tumbler framing is very strongly constructed, and is further strengthened by a pair of double steel rails, which are used as fore-and-aft struts, and which are bolted in the heavy beams running under the deck at the upper part of the side, thus increasing the rigidity of the framing. The framing is supported by uprights of kauri 14 in. by 14 in., braced by diagonal struts rising to a height of 14 ft. to tumbler centre. The masts for supporting the elevator rise to a height of 38 ft., and are braced to the forward deck. The elevator, which is 50 ft. long, delivers to a height of 27 ft., and is in a framing of 18 in. by 5 in. kauri. There are thirty-eight trays running on wheel-rollers, which causes less friction than running on slide-rollers. The elevator is driven from the bottom by a pulley from the underneath spindle, and delivers thirty-six trays a minute. The centrifugal pump is a Tangye, 10 in., driven by a belt from the 4 ft. 6 in. fly-wheel to a 15 in. pulley on the pump.

Hartey and Riley Dredge. [To face page 512.

The engine is 10-horse power, and has high-pressure cylinders of 7 in. and low pressure of 11 in. diameter, with 18 in. stroke. The boiler is multitubular, steel throughout, carrying a pressure of 140 lb. to the square inch, the furnace being 7 ft. long and 3 ft. wide inside, with all the latest and most improved asbestos-packed mountings and fittings, and has a damper and ash-pit in furnace front, and another damper at the funnel, as a preventative against fire. The winches are driven by a worm-shaft and worm-wheel, built into a strong framing of wood, 21 in. by 5 in. There are eight barrels; the one for the head-line is double-geared, by which means an increase of about 3 to 1 in power is made. The winches are driven by a separate pair of engines with 5 in. cylinder and 6 in. stroke. The levers and purchases are so arranged that all the winches can be worked by the winch man without moving more than one step. The main engine is furnished with a patent ejector for carrying away the condensed steam on the jacketing, and with improved sight-feeding lubricators. The main driving-belt is 10 in. wide, and the pump-belt is 8 in. wide. The dredge is furnished with a super-heater for heating the water before it goes into the boiler, containing copper tubes inside, through which the waste steam passes from the engine to the condenser, heating the water on the way. The condenser stands on the force-pump; a 3 in. copper pipe carries the steam to the condenser, which is 6 ft. high and 2 ft. in diameter. Inside is a set of tubes, through which the water from the pump passes on its way to the tables, condensing the steam en route. At the top of the condenser is a flap-valve faced with rubber. An ejector for ejecting the air when starting the centrifugal pump is worked by an air-pump bolted to some framing.

Connected with the condenser is a pipe for supplying supplementary water. The water is taken from the condenser to the streaming-down box by a pipe. The crown wheel is 6 ft. in diameter, and 4 in. wide at pinioned circumference, gearing on to a 5 in. steel shaft; the wheel and pinions are flanged to pitch-line, as are all the gearings of the machinery The screen is 16 ft. long; the holes in first two lengths are 3/8 in., and in the last two pieces 1/2 in. The screen delivers on to double tables, one on each side of the dredge. The tables are 14 ft. by 12 ft., covered with matting in the usual way. The bottom tumbler is five-sided, deep-flanged, made in two pieces, bolted in the centre, and all the tumbler bears on the shaft on which it revolves, instead of the shaft bearing the tumbler revolving on bushes, which is the usual method. This gives the tumbler a longer life, as the friction is distributed over a larger surface. There are two steam ejectors for driving water from the pontoons, supplied with steam by tubes from the boiler.

The ladder is 70 ft. long, and carries thirty-eight buckets of a capacity of 3 1/2 cubic feet: thus each complete revolution is capable of delivering about 5 cubic yards of stuff, supposing the buckets to run full. The rollers run in bushes supplied with self-feeding lubricators. The links are 2 1/2 in. thick at end and 1 5/8 in. at centre. The gantry is of steel, and all the ropes are of the best quality. The works are covered in by substantial housing, and there is plenty of room on deck for the crew to move about.

In some places the cost of fuel is very high; in consequence it has been found advisable to use the highest class of engines and boilers obtainable, and the boilers are specially adapted to burn the local fuel, which is widely distributed, but is generally an indifferent kind of lignite. Electricity has been suggested as a motive-power, and it will not be surprising if a number of the dredge-owners are found co-operating in schemes for the transmission of electric power for working the dredges at such centres as Alexandra, Clyde, Miller's Flat, Cromwell, and other localities.

In a report recently furnished by the Inspector of Mines for Otago, Mr. Hayes stated that there were seventy-three working dredges in Otago and Southland; four were under removal, and nine standing, while fully thirty were building or projected—making a total of about one hundred and sixteen. In addition to this number, there are a few dredges at work on the west coast of the Middle Island, and a number of other dredges will shortly be placed in the rivers and streams in that portion of the colony.

As illustrating the state of perfection to which the New Zealand type of dredge has been brought, it may be stated that the largest is now worked with two men on an eight-hours shift, while the number employed in Siberia is ten or twelve. The dredge-master is generally an engineer, and, with six men to do the work, in three shifts, the 144 hours constituting the week's dredging is generally accomplished without much friction. This is principally due to the compactness and handiness of the winches, and to the simplicity of the machinery, which is almost automatic in its working. It is, however, open to question whether the improvements in the gold-saving appliances are in a corresponding ratio to the improvements effected in the ladders, buckets, and machinery of the large dredges recently built; but the engineers and dredge-masters, who have already accomplished so much in this branch of mining, may safely be trusted to make any required alterations for the saving of the fine gold that may escape under present conditions.

The expenses on a large dredge will be about £23 per week for wages, £16 for fuel, £2 for oil and sundries, and £12 for wear and tear to machinery—in all, say, £53 a week. In the smaller dredges the expenses are, of course, much less, £25 to £30 being sufficient to cover expenses. The two following tables, prepared from information supplied to the Mines Department by dredge-owners and masters, and the third table, from some of the companies' statements published in the Gazette, will be of interest:—

Dimensions and Cost of some Dredges.
Name of Dredge.Length.Breadth.Depth.Length of Ladder.Number of Buckets.Capacity of each Bucket.Average Weekly Cost of Working.Number of Men employed.Present Approximate Value of Dredge and Machinery.
 Ft.Ft.in.Ft.in.Ft. Cubic feet.£s.d. £
Evan's Flat602404636263 1/2260072,800
Tuapeka602404636263 1/2250072,800
Sunlight962505065413 1/2300062,000
Jutland Flat842025252293 1/251868 to 105,000
Enterprise802004656393£40to£4573,000
Manorburn......50333495683,000
Alpine......563633810063,000
Unity852666061364 1/2450075,500
Naseby702305035303 1/2400073,150
Carrick......50353300064,000
Golden Terrace No. 190180..72442 1/2380091,500
The Little Waikaka662402633262 1/2250072,000
Operations of some Dredges.
Name of Dredge.Locality of Operations.Nature of Material operated on.Depth from which Material is dredged.Average Quantity of Material raised per Hour.Number of Cubic Yards raised and treated during Year.Cost per Cubic Yard.Area of Ground operated on during Year.Quantity of Gold obtained during Year or Period stated.Value.

* Ten months' work.

† Nine months' work.

‡ Cost per cubic yard includes all stoppages, repairs, and expenses.

§ Eight months' work.

|| About seven mouths' work.

¶ Owing to the frost being so severe, can only dredge eight or nine months in the year; gold obtained averages about 6 oz. weekly.

        Oz.dwt.gr.£s.d.
Evans's Flat*Near LawrenceGravel and clay: old diggings9 ft. to 16 ft.70 c. yd.....About 9 acres4379231,682411
Tuapeka†Near LawrenceGravel and clay: old diggings12 ft. to 14 ft.70 c. yd.360,0003/4d.7 1/2 acres32912131,2681811
Jutland Flat‡WaiporiQuartz gravels: occasionally large blocks of schist5 ft. to 22 ft.74 c. yd.413,3621.55d.19.9 acres1,13215204,43211
EnterpriseNear AlexandraMedium - sized boulder wash18 ft. to 30 ft.40 c. yd.270,000Nearly 2d.About 5 acres1,100004,23500
ManorburnManuherikia RiverGravel7 ft. to 20 ft.60 c. yd.310,0001 3/4d.About 9 acres6454102,58894
Alpine§Near CromwellGravelAbout 35 ft.About......1,381005,316170
UnityNeat Clyde Fine and coarse shingle10 ft. to 35 ft.100 c. yd.350,0001 1/2d.......     
Naseby||Main Gully, NasebyLoam and gravel12 ft.40 tons116,000..6 acres541402,083180
Carrick¶Nevis RiverSchist gravel2 ft. to 14 ft.About 50 tons....10 acres....
Golden Terrace No. 1Shotover RiverCoarse gravel14 ft. to 25 ft.55 c. yd.378,6751.22d.10 acres880003,41000
The Little WaikakaWaikakaQuartz gravel11 ft.30 c. yd.117,000..About 7 acres....
Returns from some Dredges, and Dividends Paid.
Name of Company.Locality of Operations.Capital actually paid up in Cash.Value of Gold produced during Preceding Year.Total Value of Gold produced since Registration.Total Amount of Dividends declared.
  ££££
Clyde DredgingAlexandra3,8503,92815,4657,300
Dunedin Gold-dredgingRoxburgh7,5402,33461,48814,835
Empire Gold-dredgingWaipori2,9702,8302,830960
Enterprise Gold-dredgingAlexandra2,0004,23915,6333,121
Ettrick Gold Steam-dredgingMoa Flat1,9372,22116,0132,700
Golden Beach Hydraulic Elevating and DredgingAlexandra4,5005,3975,4682,275
Golden Gate DredgingIsland Block2,5002,88510,9883,000
Golden Run DredgingMiller's Flat7,7982,77220,7945,194
Golden Treasure DredgingMiller's Flat1,3843,29719,4167,693
Golden Terrace DredgingLower Shotover3,7505,1775,177500
Jutland Flat (Waipori) Gold MiningWaipori4,0004,65328,2797,500
Manorburn Gold dredgingAlexandra3,0002,5326,26275
New Sandhills Gold-dredgingUpper Shotover8121,3693,327125
Otago Gold-dredging Miller's Flat2,0005,24411,8164,700 
Success Gold-dredgingWaipori2,4003,0143,224240
Turakina Gold-dredgingManuherikia2,9901,8011,880200
Upper Waipori Alluvial Gold-dredgingWaipori5,9502,93335,1074,800

As many of the best paying dredges are owned by private parties, their returns are not generally published, but it is known that they give handsome profits. Provision has been made in “The Mining Act, 1898,” for half-yearly returns being sent to the Inspectors of Mines, so that a more accurate account of the yields will in future be possible. One of the five banks doing business in Otago purchased gold obtained by dredging for a period of twelve months, ending 31st March last, to the value of upwards of £100,000.

Chapter 63. THE HEIR OF THE MOA

Mervyn J. Stewart, Hon. Clerk to the Katikati Road Board.]

One of the undeveloped industries for which much of New Zealand is believed to be favourably conditioned is ostrich-farming, and a few notes as to the experience of a pioneer may be of value to many owners of light, patchy ground, especially in the North.

The Rev. W. Katterns, when incumbent of a parish in Kaipara nearly twenty years ago, suggested this industry to Messrs. Nathan, but the export duty made Cape birds too expensive, and the project was dropped for the time. A farm was started later in Canterbury, but, being on a heavy soil and perhaps with a rather cold climate, the birds did not thrive, and the nock was dispersed in the fifth season, numbering some eighteen, and with only two chicks as the last season's increase. I believe these were part of the nucleus of the Whitford Park flock, which now counts by hundreds.

Mr. Katterns, being moved later to Katikati, in the northern portion of Tauranga County, carried out his long-deferred plan by getting a pair of adult birds (three years and a half old), in May of 1897, from Whitford Park, Messrs. Nathan remembering his advice and being glad to give him a start in turn. The hen laid nineteen eggs the following winter, sitting on thirteen, all of which were hatched and reared, save one, which the owner fears was maliciously poisoned; none of the fatal diseases so prevalent on African farms being noted here. The feathers sold; and the price of four pairs of the chicks exported to Sydney more than paid for the year's feed, as well as the cost of the original pair. The eight exported are believed to be the first in New South Wales, as well as the first New Zealand birds sent over-seas. A larger number could have been readily sold In the 1898 season the hen laid thirty eggs; but, owing to a disappointment with an incubator ordered, only nine were hatched (those left with the hen), which were, at six months' old, as high as a good-sized sheep, and larger than the first brood at the same age; these at eighteen months being larger than the parent birds. Mr. Katterns hopes to get the average size well up to the African maximum of 9 ft. by plentiful feeding in this moderate climate. Of course, the larger the bird the larger the feathers, and greater the value.

The flock is thus now fifteen in number. The yearling birds have the feathers cut in the second summer, and every eight months thereafter, just when the feathers arrive at full size and condition. The quills left are pulled out by hand after they become thoroughly dead and dry, when the new feathers start. That this gives no pain to the birds is shown by their fearless and even affectionate bearing; in this they are more like horses than any domesticated birds. The cock bird is rather quarrelsome in the breeding season—being locally named “Paul Krüger”—but otherwise they are perfectly gentle. When alarmed they straighten up in a regular kiwi attitude, in which the eyes are exactly the highest point, enabling them to see all round without moving the head. It is rather alarming to strangers, as these “small” ostriches are about 30 in. above a tall man's eye in this position! The chief trouble in New Zealand is from lice, which eat right across the filaments, reducing the value of the first-quality feathers (“ terminals”—white wing-feathers) from £10 to £7 per pound; second quality from £5 to about £4; and proportionally in the other three classes, down to “body-feathers” worth a few shillings per pound. These last Mr. Katterns does not trouble about. Sulphur-dusting and good feeding are the only permanent cures for the pest. Birds free from lice would, at weight of feathers gathered, bring in from £3 10s. to £4 10s. a year; but a large improvement in size and quality of each cutting is noted, and is not yet checked. The London market is unlimited, both for choice and inferior feathers, the latter being much used for Highland bonnets and making up in bits by milliners.

The birds eat practically anything. They have a large paddock of grass, with a scattering of fern and manuka scrub. The fern, old and young, is consumed, and also manuka berries, which seem a delicacy to the ostriches. They get a little maize to keep them friendly, and turnips in winter, besides any garden or orchard waste produce. Green maize is very good for them, and a little oil-cake before taking the feathers pays itself over again. Quantities of broken bones and pipi-shells are eaten, but not iron or gravel to any extent; the ordinary feed for stock the birds receive probably not requiring vigorous treatment. The cost per bird may be said to be that of two long-wool sheep per year for grass and extra feed together. They are stopped by any fence they can see, even a single 4 ft. rail!

The land in use for the farm is ordinary—the dry loam over a pumice subsoil like much Auckland uplands; wet or heavy soil being very bad indeed for these birds. The climate is not so cold in winter as Waikato and Thames Valley, and the temperature is not likely to prove the coldest at which ostriches will thrive. How far south did the moa go?

While I do not think ostriches will displace agriculture in any place where the latter pays, nor yet sheep, where rich grasses make a permanent sole, I expect that vast areas of the northern gumlands, the central “pumice deserts,” and much land now used for sheep, with poor results, will find the ostrich-farm their financial salvation. One acre of good land in a hundred will grow the turnips or maize for winter feed, and there are everywhere rich patches, while the long bare legs will take the birds from one bit of feed to another through the manuka scrub, where sheep and all but worthless horses and cattle would be lost.

It should be needless to argue that the ostrich can live in our country, where his family came to the highest perfection. Personally, I believe better conditions will raise the Struthio to be finer than ever were the Dinornithidice, the Katikati birds being 6 in. higher in each generation, and requiring only 3 ft. or so to “tie with the record.” It is more important if these notes will lead to a consideration of the industry as to its remunerativeness, and, in so doing, to bear in mind that it is as payable on the worst waste land as on the best and dearest. From the colonial point of view the country on which it can best be carried out is the worst fitted for anything else.

Lydekker's “Royal Natural History” says of New Zealand in the moa period: “Such a marvellous exuberance of gigantic bird life was unknown elsewhere on the face of the globe in so small an area… the size of individuals, their abundance, and the variety of species being equally wonderful.” Now that their cousin and heir-at-law is taking over his inheritance, with man as his ally and guardian, who can at present set a limit to the advantage to both?

Chapter 64. SECTION III.
THE WAIKATO DISTRICT, AND THROUGH TO WANGANUI

[Abridged from “The Tourist's Guide.”]

APPROACHING Waikato by the train from Auckland, the first glimpse of the great river that gives its name to the district is obtained at Mercer. Mercer was a bustling place in the war days and for some years after. It is a pleasant place, and from its position must always remain a point of interest. The Waikato River is here seen at its best. Broad and clear, it sweeps between the old time-worn wharves and the thickly wooded island that fronts the settlement, and up-stream or down embraces within a few miles some bewitching scenery. Occasionally during the holiday times the steamer owners run excursions down the river to the Heads, and the trip is a delightful one. Arrangements for visiting the Heads, where there are several cottages at the disposal of holiday-makers, can be made, and, were the beauties of this locality and its adaptability for bathing, fishing, and all kinds of ruralism better known, there can be little doubt that regular communication would soon become a necessity. A mile or so southward of the township the Whangamarino Creek empties its sluggish waters into the river, and not far away up the stream are the remains of the old Meremere Pa, which, with a garrison of half a dozen old men and women, barred the way to General Cameron, while the tribes were busy piling up the earthworks at fatal Rangiriri.

Rangiriri

There is little to be seen at Rangiriri itself nowadays. The remains of the old military redoubt on the site of the famous pa are still visible; and here, too, is the plot of ground in which the victims of the assault are buried. A handsome obelisk has been erected in the graveyard to the memory of the gallant fellows who fell in that-memorable attack in November, 1863. But Rangiriri is now a rendezvous for sportsmen, and in the duck season the commodious and comfortable hotel is always filled with guests. Near by are the big lakes Waikare and Whangape, and during the season boats and horses are available for those bent on visiting them. Rangiriri is the seat of extensive pumice-works, where a number of men are-engaged in preparing the raw material for insulating purposes. The capture of Rangiriri has been thus described:—

Battle of Rangiriri

On the 20th November, 1863, General Cameron moved from Meremere with a force of 770 men up the right bank of the Waikato River, with the intention of attacking the enemy's entrenched position at Rangiriri, in which operation Commodore Sir William Wiseman had arranged to co-operate with the as. “Pioneer” and “Avon” and the four gunboats. The troops, steamers, and gunboats arrived together near Rangiriri at 3 p.m. The enemy's position consisted of a main line of entrenchment across the narrow isthmus which divides the Waikato River from Lake Waikare. This line had a double ditch and high parapet, and was strengthened at the centre by a square redoubt of very formidable construction. Behind the left centre of the main line and at right angles to it there was an entrenched line of rifle-pits, parallel to the Waikato River, and obstructing the advance of the troops from that direction. On a reconnaisance made previously, General Cameron determined on landing a force in the rear of the position, simultaneously with attacking it in front, with the view of turning and gaining possession of a ridge 500 yards from the main entrenchment, and thus intercepting the retreat of the enemy. With this object 300 men of the 40th Regiment were embarked in the “Pioneer” and “Avon,” to land, on a pre-concerted signal, at a point which had been selected. Unfortunately, the strength of the wind and current was - such that the steamers were unable to reach this point, notwithstanding the persevering efforts of Sir William Wiseman and the officers and men under his command. The same cause prevented the gunboats from reaching the point. After shelling the position of the enemy for some considerable time from Captain Mercer's two 12-pounder Armstrongs and the naval 6-pounder under Lieutenant Alexander, R.N., in which the gunboats joined, and it being nearly 5 o'clock p.m., General Cameron determined not to wait any longer for the landing of the troops from the steamers, and gave the word for the assault. This was brilliantly executed by the troops, who had to pass over a distance of 600 yards in the face of a heavy fire, the 65th Regiment leading, and escalading the enemy's retrenchment on the left.

After passing the main line of entrenchment the troops wheeled to the left towards the enemy's centre, and came under fire of the line of rifle-pits facing the Waikato River. This they at once stormed and carried, driving the enemy before them to the centre redoubt, which they now defended with desperate resolution. While the troops were forcing their way over the parapet of the main line, the 40th landed sufficiently near a point indicated by the General to enable them to carry and occupy the ridge in the rear, and to pour a heavy fire on a body of the enemy, who were driven by them from that part of the position and fled by the Waikare Swamp. The troops who carried the main line being still checked by the fire from the centre redoubt, two separate assaults were made on this work, the first by thirty-six of the Royal Artillery, armed with revolvers, and led by Captain Mercer; the second by ninety seamen of the Royal Navy, armed in a similar manner, and led by Commander Mayne, under the personal direction of Sir William Wiseman. Both attacks were unsuccessful, on account of the formidable nature of the work, and the overwhelming fire which was brought to bear on the assailants. An attempt was also made by a party of seamen under Commander Phillimore to dislodge the enemy with hand-grenades thrown into the work. The darkness coming on, General Cameron resolved to wait for the return of daylight before undertaking further operations, the troops remaining in the several positions they had gained, in which they almost completely enveloped the enemy. Shortly after daylight on the 21st the white flag was hoisted by the enemy, of whom 183 surrendered unconditionally, gave up their arms, and became prisoners of war. Both sides lost heavily in the engagement.

Huntly

Situated 65 miles south of Auckland, Huntly is now the principal coal-mining centre in the North Island. From here both rail and road follow the windings of the river through a picturesque wooded gorge for three miles or thereabouts to the quiet little village of Taupiri.

Taupiri,

built on the tongue of land formed by the confluence of the Mangawhara with the Waikato, is dominated by the forest-clad conical mountain from which it takes its name. Across the river is a small Native settlement, the residence of the Rev. Heta Tarawhiti, and close by are the remains of the church and mission buildings erected by a missionary—the Rev. B. Y. Ashwell—in the early years of the colony. Formerly there were splendid groves of peach-trees at this place, but these have long since vanished, and their places are now occupied by thick acacia scrub. Some fine pears are still grown near the settlement, but the art of cultivation went, as it came, with the missionaries. Taupiri for the present is a place of some note, being the burial-place of the late Maori king, Tawhiao, but whether it will be the ultimate resting-place of his bones remains to be seen. From Taupiri the railway runs in an almost direct line for miles to Ngaruawahia, but the road, as before, follows the graceful sinuosities of the river, here broad and sweeping, willow-arched on either side. From Woodlands to Newstead runs a drain known as the “Telephone” drain, 9 miles in length, alongside of which is a telephone-line. One can ride all the way right through the heart of the swamp. This property consists of 88,000 acres of land, nearly all of which was originally swamp. Now many thousands of acres are reclaimed and laid down in grass, carrying thirty-seven thousand sheep, as well as some three thousand cattle and numerous horses. There are several stations on the property. Woodlands is the main station, and is a regular little village, containing a sawmill, smithy, &c., with, of course, a schoolhouse close at hand. Another out-station, Mount Pleasant, on the Mangawhara Creek, is aptly named, and is a great place for fruit as well for sheep and cattle.

Ngaruawahia

The approach to Ngaruawahia, the old capital of the Maori monarch, Potatau I., is made viâ the fine road and railway cylinder bridge which here spans the Waikato just above the point of its confluence with the Waipa. Ngaruawahia is not only one of the most charming places in the Waikato, but one of the prettiest to be found anywhere. No visitor can fail to appreciate the beauty of its position, washed by two rivers, and sheltered by the hills. Not a little of its charm is due to the colonist, who, seconding the efforts of Nature, has planted the streets and squares with bourgeoning trees, and tinted the delta with green, in contrast to the sombre foliage of the bush-clad hills. The Waipa River, sluggish in comparison with the full volumed Waikato, is here, and for miles upward towards the blue outline of Pirongia, a stream made for the oarsman. Calm and still, overhung with willows, it bears about it an air of romance, and fits well as the framework for the oldest of all romances which we yet see renewed about us every day.

Te Awamutu

This town, which occupies the site of an old Church of England mission station, lies mainly in the basin formed by the confluence of the Mangahoe with the Mangapiko, and may he said to he the chief business centre of the Upper Waipa. Te Awamutu is surrounded by some of the best land in the Waikato, and has always been considered to he strongly reminiscent of the Old Country. Meadows, willows, and thorn hedgerows make up a thoroughly English landscape, and the illusion is heightened by the time-worn appearance of the old mission church and the antique style of most of the older buildings of the settlement.

Time, which works so many wonders, has somewhat changed the appearance of Te Awamutu. The hawthorn is not so conspicuous, the country lanes, picturesque though unserviceable, have been replaced by roads made for traffic, and the early English style of architecture has given place to the smart colonial pattern. The old church, renovated, and with its God's acre beautified, still stands; and even the chimneys of the old mission station still smoke, though the fires have long since been tended by secular hands.

During the closing days of the war Te Awamutu was General Cameron's headquarters, and it was in a skirmish with the Natives who turned at bay at Rangiaohia that Colonel Nixon and several other intrepid members of the Colonial Defence Force lost their lives. To the memory of those who were killed in this affair and at Hiarini and Orakau, the final conflict, the Government have erected a plain but striking obelisk in the churchyard, most of the original headboards erected over the graves having fallen into decay. These memorials have been gathered together and stacked inside the church, where is also a tablet setting forth the names of all who died in the service of their country in this campaign. From this record the names of the brave Maori allies who fell have not been omitted.

Orakau

Orakau, the name now given to the district between Kihikihi and Parawera, owes its designation to the fact that it encompassed the sites of the pa renowned in the story of the war as the place where Rewi, the great fighting chief of the rebels, made his last stand. The position of the fortification is indicated by a dilapidated blockhouse, built for the conveniences of outpost duty. The story of the fight is familiar enough, and so long as heroic deeds are deemed worthy of remembrance the resistance of the Maoris at Orakau is not likely to be forgotten. Just beyond is the historic river Puniu, which formed for many years the aulcati line, beyond which the Queen's writ did not run.

Battle of Orakau

It having been reported by Lieut. Colonel Haultain, commanding at Kihikihi Redoubt, that Natives were seen in force at the Village of Orakau, about three miles distant from his post, Brigadier-General Carey immediately rode over and made a reconnaissance. He found that the Maoris were engaged in building a pa; but, as it was too late in the day to attack at once, he made arrangements to march on the enemy's position during the night. At midnight Major Blythe, of the 40th Regiment, marched with 250 men, with directions to take the road to the right, to cross and recross the Puniu River, and to gain the rear of the enemy's position before daylight, halting there until the attack was commenced from the front, and then to dispose of his force so as to cut off the retreat of the enemy. Captain Blewitt, commanding at Rangiwahia, was also instructed to march during the night, and endeavour, to form a junction with the main forces before daylight, on the proper right of the enemy's position. At 3 o'clock on the morning of Thursday, the 31st March, 1864, Brigadier-General Carey, in command of the main body, marched along the dray-road to Kihikihi, taking on Lieut. Colonel Hauitain and 150 men from that post, and proceeding by the same road to the Village of Orakau, which was reached without opposition as the day dawned. The enemy, evidently taken by surprise, opened fire on the advanced guard (composed of 120 of the Royal Irish and twenty of the Forest Rangers, gallantly led by Captain Ring, 18th Royal Irish, and supported by 100 of the 40th Regiment), who immediately rushed forward to the attack in skirmishing order. The position being found very strong, this party was forced to retire; but it at once reformed, and, being reinforced by another company of the 40th Regiment, again essayed to take the pa by assault, but with no better success. Captain Ring, 18th Royal Irish, fell mortally wounded, and Captain Fisher. 40th Regiment, severely so, besides four men killed and several wounded. On Captain Ring's falling, Captain Baker, 18th Royal Irish, D.A.A.-General, gallantly galloped to the front, dismounted, and, calling for volunteers, again endeavoured to carry the place by storm; but his attempt also failed.

Finding there was no chance of taking the pa in this manner, from its immense strength, General Carey determined to change his tactics, and immediately proceeded to surround the place and adopt the more slow but certain method of approaching the position by sap. These operations proceeded under the direction of Lieutenant Hurst, 12th Regiment, attached to the Royal Engineers' Department. During the afternoon a reinforcement of some 150 or 200 of the enemy from the direction of Mangatautari appeared in sight, evidently determined on relieving the place. They advanced to a bush situated about 900 yards in the rear of the outposts; but, seeing it was impossible to break through the line formed by the troops, they halted and commenced firing volleys, at the same time inciting their comrades in the pa to increased energy by dancing war-dances, shouting, Ac. The sap was pushed vigorously forward, and tho troops so posted as to prevent any possibility of escape by the Natives during the night. Heavy firing was kept up by the enemy on the troops, both in the sap and around the place, during the day and night, causing but few casualties, the men contriving to cover themselves in temporary rifle-pits dug out with their bayonets and hands.

A reinforcement of 200 men, under the command of Captain Inman, 18th Royal Irish, arrived from headquarters during the afternoon, while a further reinforcement under Captain Greaves arrived about daylight next morning. This enabled the sappers to be relieved more constantly, and therefore the work was carried on more quickly. During the night a few of the enemy were perceived trying to effect an escape from the pa, but being immediately fired upon, they returned to the earthwork. Captain Betty, Royal Artillery, threw some well-directed shells at the Maori reinforcement on the hills, which disconcerted them considerably.

At an early hour on the morning of the 2nd April hand-grenades were thrown into the enemy's position with great effect, and about noon a 6-pounder Armstrong gun was carried into the sap. An entrance having been made, it opened fire on the enemy's work, destroying the pallisading, making a considerable breach, and silencing in a great measure the fire of the enemy on the men engaged at the head of the sap. As it was known that women and children were in the pa, the enemy were called upon to surrender previous to the concentrated fire of the Armstrong gun and hand-grenades on their work. They were told that their lives would be spared, and they were requested to at least have compassion on their women and children and send them out if they declined to surrender. The reply was that, they would not do so, but would fight to the last. The pa was then carried. The enemy, effecting their escape from the opposite side of the work, dashed through a space from which the troops had been thrown back under cover to enable the gun to open. They were, however, speedily followed up, and suffered severe loss during a pursuit of nearly six miles. The troops were recalled about sundown, and bivouacked round the enemy's late position. The loss amounted to sixteen killed and fifty-two wounded, while the Maoris had 101 killed and thirty-three wounded or taken prisoners.

Rewi Maniapoto was the leader in this defence. His reply to General Carey's call to surrender, “ka whawhai tonu, ake, ake, ake” (“We will fight for ever and ever and ever”) has become historical. Rewi escaped through the lines of the 40th, and died in his bod a few years ago in a house built for him by the Government at Kihikihi.

Otorohanga—Hangatiki

Otorohanga is 14 miles from Te Awamutu. It is situated on the bank of the Waipa, which is here a clear shallow stream, shingly, and fordable in most places, and it is said to abound in trout. The valley of the Waipa is one of the best and largest of its kind in the country. It extends from Ngaruawahia to some 5 miles above Otorohanga, where the river emerges from the forest-clad broken country. The land is of good quality, and when the part of the valley above Pirongia is cultivated like that lower down it will be very productive, and a pleasing picture of farm-land scenery. The Waipa is navigable for canoes and small boats up to Otorohanga. The banks are low, and in many places shaded with graceful weeping-willows and other trees.

Otorohanga is the largest of the business places in the King-country. From it tracks available for horse traffic and konekes (Maori sledges), and to a limited extent for wheeled vehicles, radiate to Kihikihi, up the valley to the hill country, to Te Kuiti, Waitono, Kawhia, Kopu, and Pirongia.

There is a post- and telephone-office, with a mail twice a week, one temperance hotel, several general stores, and a sawmill; also, and very important, a school, which is well attended by troops of happy, healthy children of all gradations, from the pure Maori of Aotearoa to the white-skinned descendants of Saxon forefathers.

Otorohanga is the only place within the King-country at which the Native Land Court has sat. That Court has been investigating titles to the land for the last ten or twelve years, and has done an immense quantity of work. Otorohanga is also the headquarters of the Government Land Purchase Officer for this district. The population is estimated at about four hundred. The Maoris have to a very great extent adopted the European manner of living in cottages, and no longer live in closely-packed whares in pas, as in former days.

The Waipa River is crossed immediately after leaving Otorohanga, and the valley of the Mangapu—its largest tributary—is entered and followed. This is a pretty valley, much smaller in every respect than those of the Waipa and Puniu. It contains several patches of native bush, many grassy meadows, clumps of fruit-trees here and there, and in many places the weeping willow grows on the river-banks. The Mangapu River is about 25 yards wide, deep, and slow running, with muddy banks. It is navigable for canoes and boats, but in the upper parts this is much hampered by logs and snags. At Hangatiki (6 miles from Otorohanga and 20 miles from Te Awamutu) is another station.

This place in years gone by was a populous Maori settlement, but now the inhabitants do not exceed a score or so.

From Hangatiki a road 5 miles in length leads to the Waitomo Caves, a limestone formation, the only “sight” at present known of in this district. As there is no accommodation for travellers at Hangatiki or at the caves, except that offered by a few resident Maoris, it is usual for those intending to visit them to form a party.

Passing on from Hangatiki, the railway runs up the Mangaokewa Valley. At 23 1/2 miles from Te Awamutu is Te Kumi Station, where there is nothing particular to describe. A bridle-track—sometimes, and with difficulty, used for wagons—leaves this point, going to Mokau and Awakino.

Te Kuiti-Mokau

At 26 miles is Te Kuiti Station and village, the next in importance to Otorohanga. Here there is a post-office and telegraph. There are several general stores. There is also a carved Maori-house about 70 ft. long, 30 ft. wide, and 18 ft. high. It is worth a visit, and is situated only about 200 yards from the station.

The land in the valley, and on the hills too, is of good quality. The hills here are higher and steeper than those before mentioned, but are not too steep for grazing purposes, and in many parts for crops. Limestone crops out here and there on their flanks, and many of the tops are covered with forest, with intervening grass-grown openings. The population of Te Kuiti is estimated at about two hundred. Riding-tracks lead to various Maori cultivations.

As far as Te Kuiti the railway is all through gently undulating open country of fair quality of soil. There is no striking scenery the whole way—no mountains, gorges, or gigantic cliffs to relieve the mild undulations of the fern-clad landscape; consequently no steep grades, tunnels, or ravine-crossing viaducts.

Leaving Te Kuiti, however, and going towards Te Poro-o-Tarao, there is a marked change in the configuration. The hills are steeper and higher, there are both limestone and basalt cliffs, deep gullies, and ravines, requiring engineering skill and heavy works to construct the line. Two miles from Te Kuiti there is an iron viaduct spanning the Waiteti Gully, 120 ft. high, and 424 ft. long. The line ascends from Te Kuiti a continuous grade of 1 in 70 for 7 miles, when the divide between the waters of the Waipa and of Mokau is crossed. A slight descent is then made to Mokau Station, 34 1/2 miles from Te Awamutu. This station is on the bank of the Mokau River, here a stream some 5 or 6 yards wide and uninteresting. The surrounding country is not good. At this place there is no settlement.

From Mokau the line ascends again, climbing the rugged flank of the valley to Paritikona Station, a place at present quite uninhabited. It is 39 miles from Te Awamutu, and in the small valley of the stream from which the station takes its name.

Passing on, the railway leads up the rock-bound gully of the stream, and, passing over a low saddle in the hills, descends a little to the Mangapehi Valley, which here is swampy and not much good. At 42 1/2 miles Mangapehi Station is reached, another at present uninhabited spot, shut in by high wooded-topped hills.

Te Poro-o-Tarao

Passing this place, the line again ascends. Winding its way among the hills forming the west side of the Mangapehi Valley, it enters the forest, and a mile further on Te Poro-o-Tarao is reached. The tunnel at this place pierces the summit of the ridge which divides the waters of the Wanganui River from those of the Mokau River; its length is 53 chains, it is about 1,100 ft. above sea-level, and is 350 ft. below the summit of the ridge. At this place is at present the headquarters of the engineering staff now engaged in constructing the railway extension beyond the tunnel. There is an accommodation-house, a general store, and a post-office, with a mail once a week. The country is forest-covered, the land fairly good, on which grass and root-crops grow very well. Nearly the whole population consists of those connected with the railway-works, who shift from place to place as the work proceeds, and number somewhere about a hundred.

From the top of the ridge on a fine day an extensive view is obtained to the southward down the Ongaruhe Valley. Across the Waimiha Plain, and beyond the basalt-capped hills of Maramataha, away in the hazy distance, are seen the mountain ranges from which rise the snow-clad giants of Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe.

To Taumaranui

Leaving the comparatively easy and luxurious railway, the traveller can now proceed by vehicle, or horse, to either Taumaranui or the Ohura. The distance to Taumaranui is 30 miles. There is a well-made road all the way, excepting that the larger bridges have not been built, and therefore there are several rivers to ford. None of them, however, are dangerous or very deep. Passing on from the tunnel, the road leads down the gully of the Ohinemoa Stream, and at 2 miles enters open fern and scrub land of a poor quality.

At about 5 miles the Ongaruhe River is forded for the first time. Here it is a shallow pebbly stream some 40 yards wide, with low banks. Rising from the stream about 100 ft. the Waimiha Plain is crossed, the land of which is but poor, being principally composed of pumice. Descending again, the Maramataha is crossed, a very serpentine and shallow silvery stream, with shingly bed and banks, and flanked with pumice terraces. Following the bed of this stream for about a quarter of a mile, the Ongaruhe is again crossed close to their junction, at about 7 1/2 miles from the tunnel.

On to Tekawakawa, at 15 miles, the road is in the valley of the Ongaruhe, which is about half a mile wide, the hills on either side being very steep, and from 200 ft. to 500 ft. high. At Tekawakawa the only thing to note is a solitary pioneer store, which also serves as a post-office. There is no accommodation-house or other hostelry at Tekawakawa. Proceeding again towards Taumaranui, a fine rapid or cataract on the Ongaruhe is passed, from the foot of which canoes can be taken the whole way to the town of Wanganui, on the west coast.

A little farther on, and about 17 miles from the tunnel, is the “point of divergence” in the rival railway routes for the Main Trunk Railway-line—one going to the right, and joining the present railway near Stratford; the other going more to the eastward, and meeting the railway at Mangaonoho, near Hunterville. (See description in next article.) In the meantime a road is to be made from this point towards Stratford.

The next place on the way to Taumaranui is the Maori village of Te Koura, at 19 miles, situated on the banks of the Ongaruhe. Two miles beyond Te Koura the Ongaruhe is forded for the last time.

Taumaranui to Wanganui

At 27 miles the Taringamutu Stream is forded. At this stream the road leaves the banks of the Ongaruhe and crosses a pumice plateau sparsely covered with scrub and mosses in endless variety, rushes, and stunted fern, and at 30 miles reaches Taumaranui, the principal Maori settlement on the Upper Wanganui River, and situated on its bank. Here there is a small store, where the necessaries of life can usually be obtained at very reasonable prices. At Taumaranui there is no accommodation-house or other convenience for travellers, who have either to accept the hospitality sure to be offered, or camp.

The valley of the Wanganui, which here joins that of Ongaruhe, is about a mile wide, of good open land, with high, steep, wooded hills on either side. The Wanganui Valley continues at about the same breadth up the river for some 6 or 7 miles, but down the river it contracts to a narrow and broken river-course, shut in by high hills, and there is little naturally open land for many miles. Canoes are taken up and down the river to and from Taumaranui. It is, however, impossible to give the charges, as they depend on the caprice of the canoe-men, who probably estimate how much is likely to be obtained from the proposed passengers, and how the latter are circumstanced.

The trip down the river to Pipiriki, to which place the steamboats now run regularly, occupies about two days, but depends greatly on the quantity of water at the time. There is grand scenery on the way, and considerable excitement in “shooting” the rapids.

Chapter 65. UP THE WANGANUI RIVER—TOKAANU—RUAPEHU AND NGAURUHOE

The Town of Wanganui is situated on the right bank of the river of the same name, at a distance of four miles from the sea. It was founded in 1840 by the New Zealand Company, and now contains a population of over six thousand persons. With the suburbs—Sedgebrook, Durietown, Putiki, Castlecliff, Mosstown, St. John's Hill, Aramoho, and Eastown—the population is over eight thousand. The town is accessible for sea-going steamers drawing up to 13 ft. of water.

The trains connect with New Plymouth and Wellington at Aramoho, Wanganui itself being on a branch line. There is also a private line to Castlecliff.

Wanganui to Pipiriki

This trip is made by steamer, there being three on the river. The “Wairere” is 100 ft. long, carrying 250 passengers. The “Manuwai” is 116 ft. long, carrying 400 passengers. The “Ohura” is 77 ft. long, and carries 150 passengers. Good, well-served meals, at 2s. each, may be obtained on all the steamers. The steamer “Ohura” meets the lower-river steamers at Pipiriki, and on the morning following their arrival there she runs up to Utapu and back by noon (fare 15s. return), so as to allow the passengers to be carried on by steamer or coach to their destinations after having had a short glimpse of the beauties of the upper river. The fares are: Wanganui–Pipiriki, or vice versé, 15s. single, £1 5s. return; Wanganui–Tangarakau, or vice versâ, £1 5s. single, £2 return.

An important native settlement, Parikino, is reached at 23 miles. Here a stop of a few minutes is usually made, in order to discharge supplies, &c. From Parikino upwards the bush is mostly down to the water's edge, except where cleared away round Native settlements. Immediately below and at several places just above Parikino may be seen stone walls or groins constructed in the river, for the purpose of improving it. From here, when the river is at summer level, the steamers usually have to resort to hauling themselves up the rapids by means of wire ropes laid for the purpose in the rapids. The ropes are passed round powerful winches on board the steamers, the ends being dropped over astern as the steamer works her way up. For ease in picking up, the ends of the ropes are supported by buoys. A thorough knowledge of the channels, combined with great skill and patience on the part of the crew, are necessary in order to pilot the steamers through these rapids, though there is no actual danger in the accomplishment of this.

At Atene (Athens), 30 1/2 miles, a picturesque kainga is passed. A very sharp bend in the river is here caused by the river at some long remote period having cut through a narrow ridge, thus shortening its course by over a mile.

Koriniti (Corinth), at 39 miles, is also prettily situated.

Karatia, 43 miles, is just above the bad rapid, Matahiwi. Here the fall is 6 ft. in a quarter of a mile.

Ranana (London), 46 miles, was formerly an important place, but is now becoming very quiet. About half a mile above it is the island of Moutoa, on which, on the 14th May, 1864, was fought a pitched battle between the friendly Wanganui Natives and the Hauhaus. This fight probably saved the Town of Wanganui. Dr. Featherston's account of the fight, as extracted from his official report, is as follows:—

Matene [the leader of the Hauhau party], and his followers, immediately on their arrival on the Wanganui River, entered into negotiations with the friendly Natives for permission to pass down the river to attack the town of Wanganui; but, not only were all their overtures indignantly rejected, but they were told that their passage would be prevented, no matter at what sacrifice of life. Matene then said he would wait two months, if at the expiration of that time the loyal Natives would give way. The latter, at length, sick and wearied of these negotiations, on Friday, the 13th May, 1864, sent a special messenger to Matene and his fanatics proposing that they should do battle on the following day at a certain hour on the Island of Moutoa. The challenge was at once accepted, it being stipulated that neither party should attempt to surprise the other, or in any way violate the conditions of the duel. The time fixed was the break of day. On the day of the battle there was so little water in the river that the friendly Natives on the left bank had not to wade probably more than thirty yards through water not more than 1 ft. to 1 ft. 6 in. deep to get to the island. The rebels, located at Tawhitinui, nearly opposite the north-eastern extremity of the island, could only reach the island by canoes, the river between it and the right bank being both deep and rapid. The friendly Natives mustered some 300 strong, and the rebels did not number more than 120 to 140, of whom not a few were mere boys. Before daybreak a party of the loyals, headed by Hemi Napi, were on the island, and posted themselves at the extremity at which their foes were to land. They were shortly followed by the remainder of their force under Mete Kingi. The advance party was formed of three companies. The reserve companies were some distance in the rear. Matene and his fanatics landed out of seven canoes on the shingle spit without opposition about 7 a.m. Their forces were arranged in a similar fashion to those of the loyal Natives. Immediately after they were formed they commenced their incantation, shouting “Hau, hau!” (“Up, up!”) and using gestures not unlike the passes made by mesmerists. They laboured under the strange delusion that, while they themselves were invulnerable, their opponents would be forced by their incantations to approach close to them without power to offer any resistance. For two hours were these incantations kept up, the advanced companies being not more than 20 yards from each other. As soon as the first shot was fired by one of the rebels, the opposing forces slowly advanced until they were within 30 ft. of each other, when a volley was exchanged. Several fell on both sides, and amongst them the chief Kereti, whose less dispirited the loyal natives, for they immediately commenced to retreat, slowly at first, but when after another volley or two their other two leaders, Hemi and Riwai, were killed, they fairly broke and fled. The reserve, instead of coming to their support, also fled, most of them recrossing the river. The battle seemed at this moment completely lost, and probably would not have been retrieved had it not been for the chief Haimona Hiroti, who, when he had reached the end of the island, shouted, “I will go no further!” and immediately rallied some twenty men just in time to pour a deadly volley into the rebels, who were close upon them. After this, it seems to have been a hand-to-hand fight; but the rebels, having lost several of their leaders, and Mete Kingi with the reserve having rejoined Haimona Hiroti, soon broke and fled, being hotly pursued till they reached the head of the island, when all who survived (with the exception of a few who escaped in a canoe) took to the river, and were most of them shot down. Matene, though he was badly wounded while swimming, succeeded in gaining the bank, but was immediately tomahawked by a Native policeman, Te Moro, who lost no time in swimming after him. Nearly all the survivors were wounded. The friendly Natives had twelve killed and twenty-five to thirty wounded, while the rebels lost about fifty.

Hiruharama (Jerusalem), at 49 miles, is at present the most important native settlement on the upper river. It possesses a Roman Catholic church, convent, and orphanage. The considerable area of farm-lands attached to the establishment is worked almost entirely by the nuns or sisters. From here to Pipiriki, at 56 miles, the scenery is much finer than in the lower reaches, the channel being confined between high cliffs of limestone and papa rock, densely wooded to the water's edge.

Pipiriki is the terminus of the lower-river navigation. Here the coach-road turns off to Raetihi, Karioi, and the Lakes. There is at present (1899) only one accommodation-house; tariff, 2s. 6d. all round. There are fair paddocks for horses. Canoes or horses may be had by arrangement. A township was sold here in July, 1897.

Pipiriki to Taumaranui

This tour has hitherto only been possible by means of canoes. It is proposed in the future to clear the river for steamers to within about fifteen miles of Taumaranui, the balance of the distance being easy country, through which a good coach-road could easily be constructed to connect with the proposed Main Trunk Railway at Taumaranui. Beyond Tangarakau the steamer rates have not yet been fixed. The canoe charges are very uncertain, but may be put down at 10s. a day for the canoe, and 10s. a day for each man employed.

As the canoe is propelled up the rapids by poles, it is absolutely necessary that skilled labour be employed; the attempt to ascend or shoot the rapids when only novices are on board would most probably end in a serious accident. Voyagers on the river will notice along the steep papa banks of the river large numbers of holes made by the hardened points of the poles used by the Natives in poling their canoes up-stream. If canoeing for more than one day is decided upon, a supply of tents, blankets, waterproof cloth, cooking utensils, and food will have to be provided, sufficient for the whole party, including the crew. These are obtainable at Pipiriki. The canoes are usually about 40 ft. long, by 3 ft. beam, with side-boards, and are furnished with seats, oars, poles, and paddles. In ascending, the average speed is about two miles an hour, and in descending about four.

From Pipiriki to Ohura, and a few miles beyond, the scenery on the river is very fine indeed, much finer than any to be seen below Pipiriki, the part between Pipiriki and Tieke being probably the best on the river.

From Pipiriki, 56 miles, to Manganui-a-te-ao, 63 miles, there are a number of very swift rapids, the rise in this part being greater than on any other within the first 120 miles. The names of the worst rapids are Paparoa (immediately above Pipiriki), Te Aomaranea, Autapu, Mangaio, and Ngaporo. These rapids are now being improved, and shortly will present no greater difficulties or dangers than those below Pipiriki.

About 5 miles up on the proper right bank there are two caves, through one of which a large creek rushes, forming a waterfall at its junction with the river. At this point there is a splendid site for a suspension bridge at some future period.

The Manganui-a-te-ao is a large turbulent stream fed chiefly by the snows of the Ruapehu, but is only navigable by canoes for a few miles on account of the roughness of its bed and its great fall.

Tieke, reached at 70 miles, is pleasantly situated on some undulating and partly open country.

At 72 miles, another native kainga, Utapu, is passed. From here to Retaruke, at 108 miles, there is practically no settlement on the river.

At 80 miles the Wangamomona Stream, flowing from the western side, joins the river.

At 86 miles the Tangarakau River is reached. This is a long stream running in a deeply-cut gorge, abounding in fine scenery, rising nearly 100 miles to the north-west. The water is of a dark-brown colour, forming a striking contrast at the junction to the clear water of the main river. There are several coal-seams on the Tangarakau, but at present they are too inaccessible to be utilised. This river has been cleared for a distance of fourteen miles for canoe-traffic, to a point whither coach-traffic can be brought from Stratford vié the East Road. Steamer traffic has not yet been taken past the Tangarakau, but no doubt in time it will be extended up, as previously stated.

At 98 miles there is an extremely bad rapid, called Tareipokiore, caused by a landslip.

Retaruke Stream, coming from the Waimarino country to the east, joins the river at 108 miles. This stream is navigable by canoes for about twenty miles.

At 111 miles the Ohura River, from the north-west, joins the main river, forming two waterfalls, one just at the junction, and the second about a quarter of a mile up. Above this waterfall the Ohura is navigable by canoes for a considerable distance, and traverses some fine grazing country as yet untouched.

About 120 miles the valley of the river begins to widen out, and the scenery becomes much less striking. From Jerusalem to this point, a distance of 70 miles, the river runs in a narrow, and often very deep channel, mostly between precipitous papa cliffs, every available foothold being covered with a more or less luxuriant growth of ferns, shrubs, or forest-trees. The numbers of waterfalls to be seen tumbling into the river on either side, especially after heavy rain, greatly enhance the beauty of the river scene.

At 136 miles Taumaranui is reached. Here the main river is joined by its most important tributary, the Ongaruhe, from the King-country. Down the valley of this river runs the Main Trunk Railway. There is a large Native settlement here. The country is fairly open, but of poor quality, pumice being everywhere visible. There is a horse-track from Taumaranui to Raetihi.

Canoes can ascend the Wanganui for a few miles beyond Taumaranui, but the rapids are numerous and swift and the settlement very small; also, the scenery is of a character not requiring any decription. Rumours have been floating about here for years as to the existence of gold in certain of the creeks above Taumaranui, but as yet none has been discovered.

Pipiriki-Waiouru Road

Distance, 41 1/2 miles. The journey is made by coach. From Pipiriki to Raetihi it is very desirable, if possible, to obtain a box-seat, in order to thoroughly appreciate the very picturesque scenery with which this part of the road abounds.

Leaving Pipiriki, a very long ascent is made for the first 7 miles up the valley of the Kaukore Stream. In two places the road is cut out of the solid papa precipices, forming what are now known as the “Dress Circles.” The creeks here run in perfect cañons, excavated by the erosion of the water during countless ages. All this valley is most beautifully forest-clad. In January the hill-sides are especially attractive, on account of the scarlet rata, then in full bloom.

At 8 1/2 miles from Pipiriki the Mangoihe Creek is crossed by a truss bridge. Just above this is a third “Dress Circle.”

At 11 miles the Waipuna Saddle is reached. This is the watershed of the Wanganui and Wangaehu Rivers. Its height is 1,791 ft. About a quarter of a mile past the saddle a very fine and extensive view is obtained of the Waimarino Plain, covered with dense forest, and backed by the snowy peaks of Ruapehu and the active volcano Ngauruhoe. Two miles' descent brings the coach to the Mangaetoroa Stream, which rushes through a tunnel excavated beneath the road.

At 17 1/2 miles Raetihi is reached. This township is five years old, and well situated for becoming an important place in years to come, though as yet it only contains a population of about one hundred people. The coaches change horses here, and the passengers have an hour for lunch. For many miles around here, in all directions, there is an extremely fine forest—rimu, or red-pine, being the most common tree. There is a large amount of settlement going on in this district, but the settlers have much to contend with in the expense they are put to in felling the heavy bush to improve their lands, and by the distance to markets.

From Raetihi, at 17 1/2 miles, past Ohakune, at 24 1/2 miles, to Waione, at 30 1/2 miles, the grand forest country still continues, with occasional small Native and European clearings. There are a few fine glimpses of Ruapehu, notably so at Ohakune, a small township on the Mangawhero River, and not far from the line of the proposed Main Trunk Railway. There is an old natural clearing at Ohakune, but as a township it has not prospered. The Mangawhero and Mangateitei Rivers are both crossed by good fords, but when the rivers are at all swollen it is preferable to make a detour at this part for about three miles, vié what is known as the Rangataua Road.

At Waione, 30 1/2 miles, the open country is come upon quite suddenly. From here practically to Rotorua there is no more bush to be traversed, and throughout all this distance the land is of very poor quality, and is only fit for Pastoral purposes in large areas. Except for the fine views of the mountains and fine bracing air the coach drive from Waione to Waiouru is very monotonous.

At 32 1/2 miles Karioi is reached. There being no facilities for the accommodation of travellers at Waiouru, the night is usually spent at Karioi, the passengers staying at the accommodation-house. Stabling and paddocking can also be obtained here. The view from Karioi of the glacier on the southern slope of Ruapehu is very fine.

On the following morning Waiouru is reached early. Four miles further on the Wangaehu River is crossed by a good ford. The waters of this river are strongly impregnated with sulphur, and at times quite unfit to drink. Waiouru is merely a coaching station at the junction of the Ohingaiti, Tokaanu, and Pipiriki Roads. It is situated upon a bleak tussocky plateau 2,600 ft. above the sea-level, the only habitation near it, besides a small accommodation-house, being a shepherd's hut, an outpost of the Karioi sheep-station, though there will in time probably be an important coaching station here.

Waiouru-Tokaanu

This coach road was opened for traffic in 1894. It is all through open country, and in better condition in wet than in dry weather, for it is of pumice formation, which cakes hard in wet weather and becomes very dusty in dry. Rapid travelling, comparatively speaking, is made on this trip, especially from Waiouru to the Desert. The splendid mountains Ruapehu and Tongariro dominate the view on the left, and the fine range of Kaimanawa closes the view on the right, so that although the trip is otherwise monotonous, with only occasional mountain torrents and a view of Lake Taupo, the fine bracing air and clear cold water serve to make the journey pleasant.

Waiouru is left immediately after the arrival of the coach from Karioi. A level tussocky plain for 2 1/4 miles brings the traveller to the edge of the deep gully formed by the Waitangi Creek. On ascending from that another plain 3 miles long is traversed. The Paripokai Terrace is then climbed. From here the Wangaehu River can be seen wending its way for miles across the plains from its source in Ruapehu, till it enters the bush near Karioi. On top of this terrace the road runs perfectly straight along a plain covered with tussocks and snow grass for 4 1/2 miles. The elevation of Waiouru above sea-level is 2,570 ft. This upper plain is from 3,100 ft. to 3,300 ft.

Mamoenui Creek is crossed by a ford at 12 miles. This is a tributary of the Moawhango River. Just beyond this lies the Onetapu Desert, a region of loose sand and gravel brought down from the slopes of Ruapehu, and sparsely covered with stunted vegetation. It is to be noted that three small streams are here running almost parallel, within half a mile of one another. One goes to join the Wangaehu, another to join the Rangitikei, and the third to join the Waikato.

The head-water of the Waikato is crossed at 14 1/2 miles. Just below the bridge the stream dives into a deep cañon, in which it runs for miles.

At 15 1/4 miles the summit of the road is reached, the height being 3,410 ft. Here the first view is obtained to the north of Taupo Lake, over 2,200 ft. lower in elevation, and nearly 30 miles distant. From here there is a general fall all the way, but there are numerous ups and downs on the road, many of them being long and steep, though no steeper grades than 1 in 15 are met with.

The Kaimanawa Range, with bare tops and over 5,000 ft. high, with the lower slopes thickly covered with birch (beech) bush is seen to the right, and on the left are the Ruapehu and Tongariro Mountains.

The Mangatoetoenui Stream is crossed by a ford at 18 miles. There is at 19 3/4 miles a picturesque bridge situated in a wooded gully just below the confluence of the Ohinepango and Waihohonu Streams.

A birch bush, about a mile nearer the mountains, affords good camping places from which to make excursions to Ruapehu. This mountain is 9,008 ft. high, with perpetual glaciers on the summit and southern sides and snow on the other sides, except from January to March, when they are all bare except in shaded places. For the ascent a clear calm day should be selected, as on the summit the cold is very severe if there is any wind. A guide is advisable for strangers, but not absolutely necessary if members of the party are accustomed to mountaineering work, and if good directions are obtained before starting. The mountain was probably first ascended by Europeans in 1877, but since then it has frequently been climbed. In 1881 Mrs. W. Birch reached the summit and crossed the ice-field. The ascent may be made from Waihohonu to the north peak, Te Heuheu. This is the easiest climb. If horses are available they can be ridden from Waihohonu for two hours up the long stony lower slopes of the mountain, and then tethered to rocks in a sheltered gully. A long spur on the north-eastern slope of the mountain is then climbed, and after three hours' labour the summit should be reached. The ascent is not at all dangerous, but somewhat laborious on account of the loose surface stones, gravel, &c., being all on the move, though in the descent this can be taken advantage of to immensely quicken the pace. On the summit the views are very extensive and grand, nearly one-third of the North Island being spread out to view like a map, but the large extent of the top renders a simultaneous view of the whole impossible. The southern peak, Para-te-tai-tonga, may be ascended from the Karioi side, but near the summit the ascent is very steep and rather dangerous. In order to obtain an early start for this route, the camp should be pitched on the previous evening at the “Round Bush,” about 10 miles from Karioi.

Another route is by way of the Wangaehu River. By making a very early start from Waiouru, crossing part of the desert, and leaving the horses above the Black Rock, which divides the Wangaehu and Waikato Rivers, the ascent may be made to the summit, striking the plateau at its lowest point. But the climb this way is also much steeper and more dangerous than by the north-eastern spur. On the western and southern slopes there is bush to an altitude of 5,000 ft., but the other slopes are formed of long bare rounded stony spurs, gradually increasing in steepness towards the summit. On the summit there is a large ice-field, near the margin of which is the crater-lake. This lake is about 80 ft. below the general level of the ice-field, with steep walls, and is about 10 acres in extent. The temperature varies from tepid to boiling. Some mountaineers have reported it (1885) with no appearance of heat, while others state (1890) that it was in a state of intense activity. Specimens of water from the lake have been obtained and analysed. In March, 1897, the descent to a beach on the edge of the crater-lake was accomplished at one place with tolerable ease, but at all other places the sides were very precipitous. The water was then cool at the edges, but nearly boiling in the centre. Though the mountain was covered in ice and snow the temperature at the lake side was quite mild. The water from this lake flows by underground channels into the Wangaehu River, and in 1859, probably from a heating of the mountain, the lake-water was suddenly thrown over the adjoining ice-fields, causing an enormous mass of water, ice, and débris to tear down the mountain-side, sweeping down the Wangaehu, and destroying the traffic-bridge near the sea-coast.

At the 22-mile peg the half-way station is reached. Here a halt is made for an hour or so for lunch and horse-feed. Lunches have to be brought in the coach, as there is no one resident here, though probably in time this will form the starting point for the mountain tours. The coaches from Waiouru and Tokaanu meet here, and passengers change coaches.

A long descent into and out of Oturere Creek is made at 24 3/4 miles. About this point of the journey the creeks are nicely wooded, and occasional clumps of birch bush give the country quite a park-like appearance. Some deer were liberated here in the autumn of 1897.

From Oturere, where good camping-places are obtainable, the excursions to Ngauruhoe and Tongariro can be conveniently made. As before stated, Waihohonu is a good starting-point for excursions to Ruapehu, but Oturere is about four miles nearer to the mountains. An early start should be made up the long spur to the north of Oturere Creek. Horses may be taken for about 4 miles, and thus save a lot of exertion to the travellers. The horses being securely tethered in some sheltered gully, the course should be directed over the bleak waste of lava and ash to the saddle between Ngauruhoe and Tongariro. A lava ridge should be selected for the final ascent of the cone, for climbing up the cindery face is most fatiguing work. The ascent can be made on foot, and the camp again reached in ten hours, by moderate walking. The height of the cone is 7,515 ft. The crater is about a quarter of a mile in diameter, and the western wall is much lower than the rest of it. Great volumes of steam and sulphur-fumes are constantly issuing from this crater. Care should be exercised to keep on the windward side of the fumes. There was an eruption in 1868–69, and considerable extra activity in 1881 and 1892.

There is evidently intimate connection between Ngauruhoe, Ketetahi, and Te Mari, other volcanic vents in the Tongariro Range some miles to the north, for increased activity in one sometimes means increased activity in all, and sometimes almost a total extinction of all except the specially active one. On a clear day the view from the summit of Ngauruhoe is very fine, especially to the westward, over the Waimarino Plains and undulating bush-clad country right to the slopes of Mount Egmont, 8,280 ft. On the elevated plateau between Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe are two crater-lakes, known as Nga-Puna-o-Tama. From these lakes Native tradition says that Taranaki—i.e., Mount Egmont—was expelled by Tongariro on account of his having paid undue attention to Pihanga (a cone 4,000 ft. overlooking Tokaanu), wife of Tongariro. There is also a Native legend as to how Ngauruhoe first became active. Shortly after the Maoris first came to New Zealand from Hawaiki a great chief, Ngatoro-i-rangi, climbed this peak, and, requiring fire to perform certain rites, he called to his wife at Whakaari (White Island, in the Bay of Plenty) to bring him some of the sacred fire carried thither from Hawaiki. As this fire must not be seen by ordinary mortals, it was brought underground all the way. Here and there, however, as at Rotorua, Tarawera, Orakeikorako, Taupo, and other places, some of it was spilled, and sprouting up formed the thermal springs, &c., at these places. But the main portion of the fire was brought to Ngauruhoe, into the crater of which the chief then threw his slave wife Ngauruhoe. This mountain is called by some Auruhoe, but most commonly Ngauruhoe, though both names are considered correct.

The ascent of Tongariro may also be made from Oturere, but it is best done from Papakai (described in the Tokaanu–Raetihi route, see page 540).

At 25 miles the Mahikaikatoa Stream is crossed; then come the Mangatawhai and Mangamate Streams, at 27 1/4 and 27 3/4 miles respectively, all running in deeply-cut gorges fringed with birch bush.

At 30 miles the Moturoa Bush is seen to the right. From here there is a fine view of Taupo Lake, and from a little lower down Rotoaira Lake is seen to the left, lying between Tongariro and Pihanga.

At 31 3/4 miles the Puketarata Creek is forded. From this onwards the country consists of low, undulating ferny ridges of very poor quality.

At 34 3/4 miles the road to Rotoaira turns off. This is described under Tokaanu–Raetihi route.

At 36 1/2 miles the Poutu River is crossed by a two-span bridge. This stream drains Rotoaira Lake, and has a very rapid fall. About half-a-mile down it joins the Waikato River, which has now become a large stream with shingle bottom, pumice banks, and beautiful clear rushing water.

The Waikato falls into Lake Taupo by a sort of delta, and in conjunction with numerous other streams flowing into the lake, finally emerges out of the lake at Taupo Township on its way to join the ocean on the west coast.

After crossing the Poutu River the road skirts the north-eastern slopes of Pihanga, with fine forest on its slopes, and an extinct crater on its summit.

At 39 3/4 miles one road turns to the right, going to the Waikato Bridge and onwards to Taupo, while the one to the left leads to Tokaanu.

The route now lies over low undulating ridges, flats, and swamps, covered with manuka, scrub, toetoe, raupo, or flax, into Tokaanu, which is reached after passing round the southern base of the volcanic cone, Maunganamu. The total distance from Waiouru to Tokaanu is 43 3/4 miles, the mileage being marked by red posts, with the numbers cut on them, on the western side of the road.

Tokaanu is situated on a stream of the same name, about a mile from the lake, and is 1,200 ft. above sea-level. The whole flat between the Tokaanu Stream and the volcanic range behind teems with thermal action of all descriptions. The hotels are cleanly kept, and can supply good meals, beds, horse-feeds, and paddocking. If the travellers prefer camping out there are plenty of good sites in the locality, though possibly the Natives will object to camps being pitched too close to their dwellings or to the puias which they frequent.

In order to see the chief attractions of the place, it is necessary to cross the Tokaanu Creek by a bridge formed by a hollowed-out tree. The geyser Te-korokoro-a-te-poinga is reached by taking a small path to the right, after crossing the bridge. It does not now throw out the water, but at intervals raises the water-level several feet. It is always in a state of turmoil, and emits a large column of steam. Across the bridge are several puias, in which very pleasant baths may be had. The temperature varies from time to time. A puia may be cold one year and boiling in the next, and vice versé; in fact, even from day to day there are great variations in temperature. It is, therefore, always necessary to try the temperature of the water before entering. It is dangerous to wander about in the locality of the puias anywhere off the beaten track without a guide, as the ground is notoriously treacherous, several painful accidents having been recorded. Hitherto these puias and the sights generally of Tokaanu have not been improved in any way by the formation of tracks, by shelter-sheds, dressing-rooms, regulation of the waters, or in any other way. A township has recently been laid off under Government supervision. After this is sold, however, private enterprise on secure tenure will soon remedy these deficiencies.

On the slopes of Kakaramea, to the south-west of Tokaanu, there is a regular line of steam-holes, supposed to indicate approximately the upper limits of the great landslip that overwhelmed many of the Native inhabitants in 1846, the chief, Te Heuheu, and fifty-four of the inhabitants of the kainga being killed, only three escaping.

Waihi, a Native settlement on the shores of the lake, 2 miles westward from Tokaanu, may be reached by a rough track, but it is much pleasanter going there by boat or canoe, provided that the lake is sufficiently smooth. The present chief, Te Heuheu, grandson of the chief of the same name who was killed in the landslip above mentioned, lives at Waihi. There is a Roman Catholic mission station and church at Waihi. The Waihi waterfall is situated close to here. It consists of three drops, the upper of which is 25 ft. the middle 125 ft., and the lower 15 ft., making a total of 185 ft. There is a fairly large body of water, and its surroundings are very pretty.

Pleasant boating excursions along the western shores of the lake may be made from Tokaanu, but voyagers are warned of the sudden squalls that visit the lake, very soon raising a heavy sea. Excursions by land may be also made to Pihanga, Kakaramea, and Roto Aira. There is a Native bridle-track leading over the saddle to Roto Aira between these mountains. Pihanga, 4,000 ft., is on the left of the track, and Kakaramea, 4,259 ft., on the right. A guide through the bush is necessary to both of them. The views from the summit of either of them are very fine. Both are extinct volcanoes.

Roto Aira may be reached on foot or on horse in about three hours from Tokaanu by going over this saddle, or by driving along the Waiouru Road, turning off at the Roto Aira Road Junction. This track going over the saddle to Roto Aira may be continued in order to reach Papakia, from which the ascent of Tongariro is made. It is about 10 miles shorter than by following the main road.

Tokaanu-Raetihi

This road is up to the present only passable for riding, as about 25 miles in the centre still remain unformed. It is now being improved throughout, and in the course of a few years will be a very picturesque tourist route, considerably shorter for travellers to the Wanganui River at Pipiriki than by the present one. And, besides, it will supply better bases for the ascent of the mountains, the land on that side being much more suitable for close settlement than on the Tokaanu–Waiouru route. Horse-hire is usually at the rate of 7s. 6d. a day, but special arrangements may be made for a longer period—probably £1 15s. a week.

As previously mentioned the Tokaanu–Waiouru Road is left at a distance of 34 3/4 miles from Waiouru, the turning-off point being marked by a direction board. The distances on this road are not marked; low pumice ridges covered with fern, manuka, and tutu are traversed. A very deep creek—Mangapouhounui—is crossed about a mile and a half from the junction.

The Poutu River, running down the valley between the road and Pihanga, drains Roto Aira, a fine sheet of water about 2,000 ft. above sea-level, and about 3,700 acres in extent. At the outlet of the lake is a small kainga, the remains of a once important pa, at which some skirmishes took place during the war. From a cave on the northern side of the lake there are said to issue at certain times a curious variety of blind fish named “Inanga,” which are captured and eaten by the Natives. To the south of the road is the Tongariro Range.

The powerful blow-hole, Te Mari, is seen on the north-eastern slope, at an elevation of 4,990 ft., and on the north-western slopes are the Ketetahi Hot-springs, at an elevation of 4,800 ft.

At 10 miles the Native kainga Otukou is reached. This kainga is situated on the stream issuing from Ketetahi.

A sideling is then ascended, and a tussocky plateau reached, on which is situated Papakai, at 12 miles from the junction. The kainga is about a mile nearer the mountain than the road. Here the short cut from Tokaanu over the saddle joins the main road.

From Papakai the ascent of Tongariro is most conveniently made. Though there are a few Native whares and other buildings here, it is advisable to bring all camping requisites, for it is almost impossible to leave Tokaanu, see anything of the sights of the mountain, and return the same day. A proper riding-track is being formed up to Ketetahi, so as to render it more easily accessible for invalids. At present it is only possible to walk there, and persons unable to walk have to be carried. The distance from the road to the springs is 7 miles. The first few miles is over tussocky plains, but the rest is over ground covered with lava and scoriacious ash. A hot stream from the springs is crossed, and soon after this the springs are reached. The quantity of steam finding vent here is enormous, and the noise is deafening. The column of steam is clearly visible at Taupo Township, 40 miles away. The waters have wonderful curative properties, and if they were only more easily accessible, and some accommodation at the spot was available for invalids, the place would soon become a regular sanatorium.

After leaving Ketetahi, the summit of Tongariro, 6,040 ft., is easily reached. The vents of Te Mari, a mile and a half distant, may also be reached from Ketetahi. Immense volumes of steam also issue from this blow-hole. There was an eruption from here early in 1897, the quantity of ejecta being so great that it covered the road three miles distant. There are on top of the Tongariro Range eight craters of various sizes, all extinct, but some of them still showing signs of thermal activity. One crater contains a pond of blue water, and another crater has on its floor three ponds of green water, and on top in all directions may be seen evidences of former enormous volcanic activity. The views from the range northwards especially are very fine. This mountain may be ascended without a guide, but it is much better with one, as the guide knows where the best sights are, and in case of fog can pilot the travellers down. Guides can also regulate the disposal of time. When the bridle-track is formed up to Ketetahi it will then be possible by severe exertion to leave Tokaanu, ascend Tongariro via Ketetahi, and return on the same day.

Resuming the journey from Papakai, the road traverses undulating open country, intersected by numerous streams draining into the Wanganui River, which is crossed at 16 miles by a good bridge. At the edge of the bush, 3 to 4 miles north-west of Papakai is Porere, where a severe skirmish took place between the friendlies, assisted by a few whites, and the hostile Natives under Te Kooti, ending in the dispersal of the latter.

From the Wanganui River the road continues over undulating tussocky ridges of poor quality, with the spurs of Tongariro coming down on the left, and the forest about 2 miles to the right.

At 18 miles another large stream, the Mangatepopo, is crossed by a dray-bridge. A long hill is ascended, on top of which there is a wide-reaching view of the Waimarino Plains—open country, consisting of long rounded tussocky ridges, intersected by creeks and swamps. Most of the creeks about here are inclined to be dangerously soft in the bottom, and horsemen should enter cautiously.

About two miles to the right is Okupata, the homestead of Messrs. Robison and Co., who graze sheep over these plains.

A track branches off to the left towards an isolated volcanic cone of striking appearance named Pukeouaki, 4,023 ft. Some distance beyond this cone there is a good lava-stream extending from the bottom almost to the top of Ngauruhoe, which affords one of the easiest routes for ascent of this peak, and when the dray-road is completed along this western side this will probably be the favourite route. Good camping-places may be found at the small clumps of bush near Mangatepopo, but all supplies and camping requisites must be brought from Tokaanu or some other centre.

Continuing the journey on horseback two large streams, the Whakapapaiti and the Whakapapanui, are forded. When the rivers are in fresh great care is necessary in fording, for the bottoms are composed of rough boulders, on which horses are apt to stumble.

A large swamp is now skirted, the track keeping round to the left. A belt of bush has here to be gone through, the Mangahuia Stream being crossed about the centre of it. The country here is mostly open, but scattered over it are picturesque clumps and belts of bush, mostly composed of birch-trees, the whole scene being backed up by the range of craters on Tongariro, by the ever-active volcano Ngauruhoe. and further to the south by the colossal Ruapehu, which is more or less snow-clad, though the northern side is bare from about December to April. The views of the range on this side are distinctly finer than are seen from the eastern side.

This park-like country continues till the Waimarino Pa (2,600 ft.) is reached at 32 miles. Here there is a deserted Government hut, at which in the present condition of the country it is desirable that the travellers should camp and spend the night, the horses being tethered among the tussocks in front. There are a few Natives at this pa, but they are gradually leaving for the warmer country towards the Wanganui River. The hut above mentioned is situated on the right bank of the Waimarino Creek, across which is dense forest, which spreads over the slopes to Hauhangatahi (4,983 ft.), a volcanic cone long since extinct.

From the Waimarino Pa a bridle-track, 28 miles in length, leads to Taumaranui, but, except for the splendid forest passed through for 20 miles, this route is uninteresting. On this track the first four miles or so are through open tussock country, when the forest is entered. For about 2 1/2 miles the track is newly formed, and in good order, but beyond this it is narrow in places, and frequently blocked by scrub and fallen limbs. Numerous creeks are crossed, all running into the Piopiotea or Whakapapa Streams, down whose valleys the track runs. At about 20 miles, after passing a natural clearing, a grand totara forest is traversed. It is said to be the largest and one of the finest in New Zealand. Its area is still doubtful, but covers probably 8,000 acres. At 24 miles the track enters upon open country, through which the Wanganui River is seen far below, flowing between low terraces mostly composed of pumice. The left bank of the river is followed for about four miles, when the track crosses by a capital ford, and shortly afterwards Taumaranui (592 ft.) is reached.

Resuming the journey from Waimarino to Raetihi, four miles after leaving the pa the bush is entered, and except for settlers' clearings there is no break till Raetihi is reached. The track is notorious for being about the worst in the district, but it is now being converted into a dray-road. The forest is very fine, and gradually becomes heavier as the elevation becomes less, towards Raetihi. Rimu is the predominant timber, but yellow-, black-, and white-pine, totara, maire, and tawhero are also seen. Kaikawaka, or New Zealand cedar, is also noticed, especially on the higher elevations. One mile after entering the bush the Makatote Stream, running in a gorge cut deeply through conglomerated rock, is crossed by a viaduct, dray-road width, 520 ft. long and 85 ft. high, which has, however, never yet been even approached by wheel-traffic. After another mile and a half has been traversed the Manganui-a-te-ao Stream is crossed by another large bridge, 138 ft. long. Three miles further on the Mangaturuturu is forded. The water of this river is of a sulphurous nature, somewhat resembling that of the Wangaehu, and, like it, rises in Ruapehu.

From on wards to Raetihi, a distance of 12 miles, there is nothing of interest to note, except the great extent and luxuriance of the forest, and occasional pretty glimpses of Ruapehu, which lies about 5 miles to the left of the track. Here and there are settlers' clearings, but the herculean labour of converting this forest-land into farms is too great for men with limited means. The felling only of the bush is valued at about £2 an acre. There is a gradual descent for the last 9 miles down the valley of the Makotuku Stream. The last two miles before reaching Raetihi is dray-road, and partly metalled.

At 20 miles from Waimarino Pa the township of Raetihi (1,715 ft.) is reached.

Waiouru-Mangaonoho

This is a coach-road, open all the year round.

Waiouru, 2,570 ft., is on the high tussocky plateau before described. The route lies for 8 1/2 miles through open undulating country, usually close to the Hautapu Stream. Three thousand trout were put into this stream in 1894, and as its banks are low and clear, and it is clear water with plenty of shelter, it ought soon to become a favourite fisherman's resort. The Hautapu River is crossed by a ford, the bridge previously existing there having been washed away by a flood in April, 1897. A belt of bush is passed through for 2 miles, the Hautapu River rushing along deep down below the road on the right.

Turangarere, 10 miles, is situated in an open valley. The Main Trunk line will pass through it. The place is very busy during the wool season—packing, scouring, drying, baling, and carting wool.

Passing along through the open country, Te Horo Junction is reached at 14 miles. Here the road to Moawhango and Napier turns off to the left. There is an accommodation house here.

Open undulating country, of very much better quality, is passed through till the 17-mile peg is reached, when a belt of bush is traversed. After a short glimpse of open country, bush is again entered, and, except for settlement clearings, it continues all the rest of the distance. A long descent is made, and the Hautapu River is again crossed, this time by a picturesquely-situated bridge.

At 21 miles the Township of Taihape is reached. This is at present a promising place. There are several farms and a large labour-settlement in the vicinity. The route of the proposed railway is again struck here. There will be a large viaduct across the Otaihape Creek. The coach-horses are here changed, the passengers meanwhile having lunch at one of the two accommodation-houses. From Taihape the road runs down the right bank of the Hautapu River for miles through splendid bush-country, mostly flat.

At 25 1/4 miles there is a road (Torere) turning off to the left, a quarter of a mile along which there is a bridge 83 ft. long, thrown across a deep cañon cut in the papa by the Hautapu River.

At 26 1/2 miles Utiku, a settlement on Native land, is reached. The place is kept busy by the co-operative men working on the railway and adjacent roads, as well as those employed in the sawmill, the timber being mostly conveyed by wagons from here to Mangaonoho. A quarter of a mile to the left there is a splendid gorge on the Hautapu River. Low undulating ridges, with fine forest, are passed for the next 2 miles, parties of co-operative workmen being seen to the left engaged in the formation of the North Island Main Trunk Railway. Fine sandstone precipices tower over the road at 28 7/8 miles, the Rangitikei River running to the left in a confined bed cut 200 ft. below the adjoining terraces.

From 29 miles the road climbs round rough sandstone and papa sidelings for 7 1/2 miles. Extensive views are obtained (especially about the 32-mile peg) of the forest-clad valley of the Rangitikei River, while about 20 miles to the east lie the Ruahine Mountains, whose bare, rugged tops are 5,000 ft. high and more.

From here onward the settlement clearings become more and more extensive. The land being of excellent quality is eagerly taken up. The road runs down the valley of the Mangaweka Creek for 3 miles, when, on rounding a point Mangaweka Township, 37 miles, elevation 1,066 ft., comes suddenly into view. This township was sold in March, 1895; since then its growth has been remarkable. Within a 2-mile radius it already has a population of over seven hundred. Corner sections are changing hands at large sums. The cause of this sudden increase is partly due to the large amount of Government money spent in the vicinity on railway, road, and bridge works, but more owing to the great amount of new country being developed in the surrounding district, most of which drains into here. A large bridge is being erected across the Rangitikei River, about a mile to the east of the township. The cliffs of the Rangitikei for several miles both up and down from the bridge are exceedingly picturesque, ranging in height from 200 ft. to 400 ft., every available space of ground being covered with vegetation. It is, however, melancholy to notice how this scenery is being spoiled of much of its charm, by the destruction of the beautiful native bush in places where the ground is so rough as to be almost useless for any practical purpose.

From Mangaweka roads run eastward to Kawhatau and Pemberton, and westwards to Te Kapua. The coaches only stop here for a few minutes to pick up mails; but if good accommodation is desired it may be obtained. Horses or buggies may be hired here at reasonable rates. The railway works to this point are now almost completed, with the exception of the Makohine Viaduct. The work involved in constructing the railway northwards of Pouwhakarua is of a very heavy and costly nature.

Crossing Mangaweka flat, a mile and a half long and perfectly straight, Pouwhakarua Hill is climbed. After descending the same and traversing 4 miles of flats, now all in grass, the Township of Ohingaiti, 43 1/2 miles, elevation 838 ft., is reached.

In the present state of the railway-works the trains do not come further than Mangaonoho, at 47 3/4 miles. As the accommodation there is limited, the coaches usually stay the night at Ohingaiti and catch the early train from Mangaonoho in the morning. There are three hotels in Ohingaiti. Horses and buggies may be hired here. This township was very busy some years ago, but is now being supplanted by Mangaweka. The coaches usually arrive here about 5 p.m. and leave next morning for Mangaonoho at 5.45, in time to catch the 6.40 a.m. train for Wanganui or Palmerston North.

Leaving Ohingaiti by either of the two lines of coaches, the road at about 45 miles passes just along the top of the Rangitikei Cliffs, 200 ft. almost vertical above the river; then a sharp descent (1 in 13.2) is made to the Makohine Stream, crossed by a bridge 95 ft. long.

Fifty yards up stream the Makohine Viaduct for the Trunk Railway is now under construction. It is a large structure, 750 ft. long and 238 ft. above the bed of the river. It consists of a central span of 176 ft., with two side-spans of 247 ft. and two end-spans of 40 ft. each, all founded on concrete piers, those for the central span being especially massive. The piers are composed of steel lattice-work towers, the superstructure consisting of two latticework steel trusses. The approach to it on the southern side is through a tunnel 9 chains long. A sharp ascent is again made out of the Makohine Valley, when after another mile and a half of flats Mangaonoho Station, 47 3/4 miles, is reached. This is the present terminus of the railway.

Hunterville is the first station reached. A pleasing ride or drive from here is up the Turakina Valley Road. There is pretty scenery nearly all the way. Along the Turakina River the cliffs are very striking. The river is crossed at 12 miles by a ford made of concrete. At 17 miles there are two fine falls, the lower one (Rerepara) with a depth of about 80 ft., and the upper one (Otaemata) about 25 ft. There are other falls 3 miles higher up even finer, only they are as yet inaccessible by vehicle.

From Hunterville the train proceeds to Marton (491 ft.) where the main line is struck. Distances from Junction: To Wanganui, 34 miles; Palmerston North, 29 miles; Wellington, 117 miles. From Marton to Wanganui, a journey of a little over two hours by train, good well-settled country is passed, sheep-grazing being the chief use to which the land is put. The country is of a terrace formation. The Turakina and Wangaehu Rivers are crossed. A stiff ascent and descent of the Fordell Hill is made. A few miles down the Matarawa Valley the Wanganui River is crossed by a bridge 600 ft. long, in five spans on cylinder piers, and Wanganui is reached.

Chapter 66. TUHOELAND

Elsdon Best

THE isolated district known as Tuhoeland, or the Urewera Country, is situated between Rotorua, the thermal district of the North Island, and Hawke's Bay on the East Coast. It has an area of about 700,000 acres, and is mountainous in the extreme, containing but very little flat land. The whole country is covered with forest, with the exception of clearings made by Natives for the purpose of cultivation. On the tributaries of the Whirinaki River lies a splendid forest of totara, a valuable timber. The soil is light, being usually a few inches of vegetable soil overlying pumice sand.

This district is inhabited by the Tuhoe or Urewera tribe of Maoris, who are direct descendants of the original Polynesian people of New Zealand found here after the famous migration of the ancestors of the present Maori to these isles at about the fourteenth century. The Urewera have ever been noted as a warlike and independent people, fierce, wild bushmen, who raided down upon their lowland neighbours on all sides, and who for many generations past gradually extended the boundaries of their tribal lands at the point of the spear.

From an ethnological point of view, this tribe is the most interesting of any of the Native peoples. They have always been isolated from the changing tribes of the lowlands, and have thus preserved to a great extent the old-time customs, as also a vast amount of legendary and sacerdotal lore.

These Urewera were our most bitter foes during the Maori war, and have kept their country closed to Europeans until some four years back, when road-surveyors were sent in to lay off a line of road to connect the Rotorua district with the East Coast, the desired result being fortunately obtained without serious trouble through a firm policy being adhered to by the Government of New Zealand.

As a specimen of Native legends, we present the following account of how Maui, the Polynesian demi-god, endeavoured to obtain eternal life for mankind—in the days when the world was young:—

How Maui Strove to Gain Eternal Life for Mankind

Far back in the very night of time dwelt Maui the Hero, son of Taranga. He it was who slew Tuna, the dread eel-god, and stayed the sun in its course by snaring it at the edge of the world, where the sky hangs down, that it might travel more slowly through the heavens and thus lengthen the hours of light to man. For man was yet young upon the earth, and remembered full well the horrors of the Primal Darkness before Light was.

Rangi (the Sky) lay with Papa (the Earth Mother). Born of the Great Void and Darkness were they, and begat Tane, the god (tutelary deity) of forests and of birds; and Tu, the Red-eyed, god of war, who turns his dread visage upon mankind, when war parties ravage the earth and wailing, desolation, and the fierce joy of slaughter fills the land; and Rongo of the Peaceful Mind, whose mission was to cultivate the soil and strive against war.

And Tane took Hine-rauamoa, who descended to the under-world, where she became Queen of Hades, and was known as Hine-nui-te-Po (the Great Goddess of Oblivion or Death). She it is who drags down the offspring of man to the Realm of Darkness.

Maui of the Many Lands arose. He said: “Let death be brief, and, as the moon dies and returns again to life, young and beautiful, so let man die and revive.” But Hine of the Dark World said: “Not so. Let death be eternal, that wailing and grief may be the portion of man for all time.” And Papa (the Earth Mother) spoke: “Return unto me my children, for they shall know death. From me they sprang, and to me shall they return.”

And Maui the Hero spoke truly. For we know that the moon wanes and dies, and that she goes afar off to bathe in the Wai-orao-Tane (the Life - giving Waters of Tane), where she revives and returns to us again young and fair.

Then the thought came to Maui. He would descend to the Reinga (Hades), and by entering the womb of Hine-nui-te-Po he would obtain her manawa (vitality, breath of life). Then life would depart from that dread goddess. No more would man be dragged down to decay and death, but life eternal be his for evermore. Then shall man say,—“Behold! It is Maui, son of Taranga. Maui, the Sun Snarer, has brought eternal life to man.”

So Maui called upon his people, the forest folk, the Hakuturi and the Children of Tane (birds), and told them of this, his great task. But they said: “Go not, O, Maui, for never shalt thou prevail against great Hine of the Night, but death shall be thy lot.”

But Maui persisted. Should he who conquered the Sun shrink in dismay from this man-destroying Hine? Not so. And the way opened to them as they went, Maui and the light-hearted forest people, the sunny-haired fairies, and the singing birds.

So came they to the drear realm of Hine of the Sullen Deeps, and found that fearsome female asleep. Then Maui warned his companions that they might make no noise to awaken the Queen of Hades, and proceeded to enter into her that he might obtain her manawa. But even as he entered so far as his shoulders, the little tiwaiwaka (fantail, a bird), thoughtless and merry as now, laughed aloud at the strange sight. Then Hine of the Night awoke, and Maui the Hero knew Death.

Now Hine had long known of Maui's desire to destroy her dread power, and had worked the works of old in order to be enabled to slay him. She first sent the mosquito to obtain a drop of the blood of Maui as his ahua (semblance), and to be used as an ohona.* But Maui heard the humming of the mosquito, and slew it Then Hine sent the silent namu (sand-fly), which obtained a drop of Maui's blood and hastened back with it. The life of Maui now lay in the hand of Hine of the Night, and the end was near. Great, indeed, were the powers of our ancestors in makutu, and so it was that Maui found death. And man, for whom he died, shall never gain eternal life, but die—and die—and die.

Chapter 67. THE JOURNEY FROM CHRISTCHURCH TO THE WEST COAST

[From a paper by G. J. ROBERTS.]

THE most - frequented route into and out of Westland is viâ Arthur's Pass. The whole distance from Hokitika and Greymouth, the leading centres, may be traversed by rail and coach, and is a favourite run for cyclists, who pronounce it one of the smoothest journeys in the island.

Springfield, 44 miles by train from Christchurch, situated at an elevation of 1,252 ft. above sea-level, is the usual starting-place for what is undoubtedly one of the finest coach-trips in the colony, along the Christchurch–Hokitika Road, which is kept in splendid order, being one of the few roads maintained at the expense of the colony. Lord Brassey, in writing of it, says: “The road is in many places cut out of the steep face of a precipice, with sharp turns in most critical places. If the horses were not perfectly trained, and the driving most skilful, coaching would be impracticable.”

The Kowhai Bush Village, situated at the foot of Mount Torlesse, on the edge of the Kowhai Forest, 1,300 ft. above sea-level, 3 miles by road or rail from Springfield, is a very favourite resort for picnic parties, and for excursionists from Christchurch and the surrounding plains. Comfortable rooms can be secured from several of the settlers at reasonable rates by those wishing to extend their stay. Trips beyond the village can be made, either on foot or horseback, to the Waimakariri Gorge, Otarama, the waterfalls, and Staircase Gully.

About 5 miles from the hotel at Springfield, lying under Mount Torlesse, is the Rubicon Lake, on which skating may be had in suitable weather.

* Ohona.—Something connected with a person, a piece of his clothing, or hair, &c., used as a medium over which to perform the rites of makutu (witchcraft) in order to slay the original.

Another attraction in this neighbourhood is the ascent of Mount Torlesse, an easy climb, which can be undertaken either from Springfield or Kowhai Bush. A magnificent panorama of the whole of North Canterbury, Banks Peninsula, the plains as far as the eye can reach, and the snow-capped peaks of the Southern Alps, awaits those who reach the top, which is 6,433 ft. above sea-level. From where the ascent commences it is 1,400 ft., making a climb of 5,000 ft., which should easily be done in four hours by quite inexperienced climbers.

From the hotel at Springfield, where good accommodation can always be obtained, horses and vehicles are on hire at reasonable rates, experienced drivers being supplied when required. Situated within a mile of Springfield are pottery-works, and mines from which an excellent lignite-coal is obtained.

Nine miles from Springfield, on the Hokitika Road, the foot of Porter's Pass is reached, about 2,000 ft. above sea-level. The road ascends to the pass by easy gradients, the top, 3,102 ft. above sea-level, being the highest point touched on the road; from top to bottom being a distance of two miles and a quarter.

A mile and a half further on Lake Lyndon is reached. Here the road from the Rakaia and Lake Coleridge branches off.

Five miles beyond the lake the Castle Hill Rocks are reached. These form fantastic groups of various forms, and fine bold masses of limestone rocks, from which an excellent building-stone is obtained. The limestone caves, a mile and a half from the Castle Hill Hotel, and less than half a mile from where the main road crosses the Broken River, are of great interest. The whole Cave Stream runs underneath the surface through a limestone cavern for a quarter of a mile, the stream rushing into the cavern over a waterfall about 20 ft. in height. For the first few chains it is very difficult to follow, on account of deep pools, but after these are passed the stream can easily be followed through the cavern to its junction with the Broken River, where, at the exit, there is a beautiful natural cavern, through which a very large load of straw might be taken without touching the top or sides. The Castle Hill Hotel, 20 miles from Springfield, and 2,371 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by ranges and peaks from 6,000 ft. to 7,000 ft. high, is an ideal resort for invalids and those desirous of a thorough change.

Seven miles further on Lake Pearson, 1,990 ft. above sea-level, is reached. This is a sheet of water two miles and a half long and three quarters of a mile wide, round which the road winds for over a mile.

Within a few miles the road passes Lake Grasmere, with easy sloping flats on the southern side, and abrupt precipitous country covered with scrub and patches of bush on the north. The Cass, 35 miles from Springfield, and 2,371 ft. above sea-level, is the junction for the road leading to the country on the north side of the Waimakariri. The cuttings along the Waimakariri are very interesting, the road in places being cut out of the solid rock, and in places built up from the river a considerable height.

The Bealey, 45 miles from Springfield, situated 2,130 ft. above sea-level, at the junction of the Bealey and Waimakariri Rivers, is the usual stopping-place for the night, occasionally as many as a hundred visitors having been there at once. Lying at the foot of rugged mountains, covered to a height of over 4,000 ft. with tawhai, and running back into perpetual snow, the situation of the Bealey Township is a particularly favoured one, the sunsets on the evenings after a nor'-wester being remarkably fine.

From the Bealey an interesting trip is to the head-waters of the Waimakariri, where there is an easily-accessible glacier. There is a fair riding-track to within 2 miles of the glacier, which could easily be extended right up to it. From the junction of the Crow River, 6 miles above the Bealey, the first true glacier is seen, ascending to about 4,500 ft. above sea-level. It is situated at the head of the former tributary, on the southern flank of Mount Rolleston. About a mile beyond the junction of the northern branch, and 10 miles from the Bealey, the White River turns to the south, and its valley for a mile and a half has still a considerable width. Here, at an elevation of 400 ft., the growth of the Fagus (tawhai) ceases. The view up the valley, narrowing with almost every step, now assumes each moment a grander and more alpine aspect. A high peak with noble outlines appears at the head of the valley, from which a glacier of considerable proportions descends. The mountains on the left bank also rise high into the sky, and are covered with perpetual snow, from which small glaciers and torrents issue, several of the latter forming fine waterfalls. The mountains on the right bank rise almost perpendicularly for more than 3,000 ft. above the valley, so that only here and there can snow remain lodged on the lesser declivities. After 2 miles the rocks on both sides approach closely, and for 2 miles more the river forms a series of rapids and smaller falls, possessing a different character from that of our large glacier rivers. Near their sources at several points old moraine accumulations cross the valley, through which the river has formed a narrow passage. Near its termination the valley is considerably enlarged, and has the form of an amphitheatre, into which the main glacier, about 200 yards wide at its terminal face, descends to 4,260 ft. above sea-level.

About half a mile from the head of the valley, at an altitude of about 6,000 ft., a magnificent sight is offered to the traveller by a large glacier broken up into the wildest and strangest forms, actually overhanging a perpendicular rocky wall about 1,000 ft. high, and at one spot, where a small rill could form, it descends for some distance in the shape of a gigantic icicle. A rare harvest of alpine plants may here be gathered.

After leaving the Bealey Township the road crosses the Waimakariri, winding up through avenues of tawhai, along the steep banks of the Bealey River.

About 8 miles from the Bealey the Devil's Punchbowl is reached. This is the basin of a magnificent waterfall, broken in the middle, of a total height of over 500 ft.

The road from here ascends very rapidly up the slopes of Arthur's Pass, through a dense tawhai forest, until it reaches the summit, 3,038 ft. above sea-level. Looking to the south, the Goldney Glacier is seen arising out of the perpetual snows of Mount Rolleston.

Fares

The coach-fare from Springfield to Jackson's (distance 74 miles' the present termini of the railway on either side of the range) is £2 10s. single, and £3 15s. return. This does not include meals, or expenses for the night passed at the Bealey. The service is twice a week.

Arthur's Pass

Leaving the Pass, the road runs westward, and is fairly level for a mile along the northern side of the tarn-dotted depression which lies between the moss-grown angular rocks of two ancient lateral moraines. The bottom of this trough is carpeted with a velvety sward, variegated with a sprinkling of alpine flora and blossoming shrubs. The adjacent sidelings are covered with loose débris, partly overlaid with brooms, veronicas, &c., with interspaces of tussock grass. Above all, on either side, stand the bold, roughened slopes of the main divide, ribbed with naked spurs and scarred by numerous stone couloirs. Looking eastward, the far-reaching vista of the bush-clad faces and rock-crowned heights of the Bealey Gorge may be seen, while outlined in the distance loom up the smooth-flanked mountains of the Waimakariri Valley. Westward, on the right, appear the rocky crests of Hill's Peak, and on the left the snow-flecked summit of Mount Temple, with the miniature Goldney Glacier overhanging the rock-strewn slopes of the Upper Otira.

Otira Gorge

The road now dips sharply into the valley, whence a short smooth stretch, bordered by stunted cedar and the palm-topped neinei, leads to a huge talus of enormous rocks, up and down which it winds to the top of the “Zigzag,” from which a lovely view is obtained. Behind and in front are precipices, fully 2,000ft. high, topped by fantastic rocky pinnacles, presenting bold faces of rock almost destitute of vegetation. Below, on the left, the river surges over obstructing boulders, and falls in picturesque cascades; in front appears the ravine of the Otira Gorge, coated with shaggy, gnarled, storm-twisted forest, and bounded by the snowy crown of Mount Barron. The grade now descends rapidly, snaking through accumulations of rocks overgrown with dwarfed ratas, and a tangle of alpine under-bush. And thence for a distance of 2 1/2 miles there are obtained swiftly-succeeding glimpses of waterfalls, fissured cliffs, and plunging rapids. The coach-road twists down the cañon, sometimes benched out of the rock and overhanging the foaming river 200 ft. below; at other places the traveller is carried along on timber buttresses almost level with the water, crossing and recrossing the stream on single-span bridges of 120 ft. clear, which appear dwarfed by the surrounding magnitudes, until, sweeping round a bush-clad spur, the stage of Otira is reached at the junction of the Rolleston River. This small settlement consists of the hotel, roadman's cottage, and Cobb and Co.'s stables. The telephone- and post-offices are located in the hotel, which commands an extensive outlook on the surrounding mountains.

Varied excursions from this as a centre may be made on foot, horseback, or by buggy.

One excursion is up the gorge, passing the intermittent hot-spring, and making rests in the many nooks which are inviting by their cool shadows and bright outlooks. The gorge can be explored on horseback or by buggy, or it may be comfortably exploited on foot in six hours, and a rich harvest gathered of ferns, mosses, and alpine flowers. A succession of days can be enjoyably employed on this outing.

The whole or part of a day may be taken on horseback, by buggy, or on foot down the valley of the Otira, every bend of the road disclosing new prospects before and behind, the luxuriant vegetation on either hand tempting many side excursions.

A third is with horse or on foot up the boulder-strewn valley of the Rolleston River. In half an hour the tourist is out of sight of civilisation and surrounded by lofty rock-faces patched with snow, scored by deep gullies, and swathed with forest.

A fourth excursion includes various easy ascents of the adjacent hills, which may be made on foot, up Goat Hill just behind, and Mount Barron right in front of the hotel; up the grassy, shale-strewn slopes of the divide at the Pass, and up Hill's Peak. A pleasant scramble just behind the hotel can be obtained up Barrack Creek, the terminus being a lovely waterfall. The experienced mountaineer can attempt various peaks in the vicinity, such as Mount Franklin, at the head of Deception River, and Mounts Rolleston, Temple, and Armstrong at the sources of Otira and Rolleston Rivers.

The New Zealand Midland Railway is in course of construction from Jackson's to a point in the Otira Valley, about 1 1/2 miles below the Otira Gorge Hotel, and the works are now so far forward that the authorities expect to be able to open the line for public traffic by Christmas, 1899.

Aicken's

Leaving the Otira, the road crosses the river and works down the western bank, skirting the forested base of the Barron and Kelly Ranges. Every mile reveals new beauties of scenery, for, as the road passes the outlet of numerous gorges, glimpses are obtained of distant peaks, while each moment the snowy crests of the Kaimata Range loom nearer and nearer, until, rattling down a beech-covered avenue, Aicken's is reached. This has been happily termed “a quiet nook on the West Coast Road.” The surroundings are very lovely, and fine collections may be made of rare ferns and mosses. A post-office and telephone is attached to this hostelry, which is conveniently situated near the junction of the Teremakau and Otira Valleys, thus permitting three main outlets. First, either by buggy, on horseback, or on foot, up the main road towards the Otira.

Otira Gorge.
[To face page 552.

Second, down the coach-road towards Jackson's. Third, on horseback, up the main valley of the Teremakau, amongst ever-changing aspects of mountain, forest, and flood.

Two other favourite outings from this centre are frequently made by artists and others—viz., ascents of Kelly's Hill and Mount Alexander, on both of which ranges are several beautiful tarns begirt with eidelweiss and other alpine plants, while the views from the summits are superb and far-reaching.

Jackson's

Proceeding westward the road passes through an avenue of magnificent red- and black-pine forest for a mile, when the valley of the Teremakau opens forth inland and seaward, spreading out an ever-changing vista of forest-clad mountains, the giant cone of Mount Alexander dominating the whole. The vegetation alters every mile onward, scattered tree-ferns are visible, todeas abound, until, on reaching Jackson's, the forest-trees have attained their full proportions, and the under-growing tangle of ferns, shrubs, and creepers exhibit the rank luxuriance of the lower country. Nature here offers a most strenuous opposition to the farmer, and the best efforts of the bushman barely succeed in redeeming the few isolated patches passed en route. Jackson's is the present terminus of the railway, and contains post-office, telegraph-station, school, the scattered houses, stores, and cots of the workmen employed on mining-, road-, and railway-works; it has two hotels, and is also the coach stage. It is likewise the place whence the miners, who are exploiting the gold-bearing reefs in the vicinity, obtain their supplies.

From here the traveller has the choice of two routes: either by rail to Still-water Junction, and thence to Greymouth and Hokitika or Reefton, or by coach down the Teremakau Valley to Kumara, and thence north, or southward.

Greymouth

This borough is the principal shipping port of Westland, large quantities of coal and timber being annually exported. There is regular steamer communication with all parts of the colony, and the s.s. “Waipara” connects twice weekly with Hokitika. The visitor has here the choice of several comfortable hotels, which are all centrally situated.

Hokitika

This town is prettily situated at the mouth of the Hokitika River, quite close to the sea-beach. It is mainly dependent on the adjacent sawmills, farming settlements, and gold-mines.

To Lake Mahinapua is the favourite trip of strangers and the townspeople, who usually make it a whole day's outing. Mahinapua Creek is a canal-like stream which winds for five miles through the dense forest, edged by charming aquatic plants, and reflecting the whole with marvellous accuracy. Mahinapua Lake is completely bush-girt, and has numberless corners of sylvan beauty.

Another trip is to Kanieri Lake, 11 miles, by a smooth, well-kept carriage-road, which passes through the mining township of Kanieri, and thence up the valley of the Kanieri River, of which beautiful peeps are obtained. This lake lies amongst mountains. The bush-clad hills sweep upward from the water's edge on either side, with the distant snow-topped range in the background, and this again is reflected in the placid waters. Almost equally fine is the prospect of the snows and intervening hills from Hans Islands on the left. By taking boat the coves and gulfs may be explored, and delightfully refreshing rambles can be taken to the Dorothy and other falls. There is a good hotel at the lake, and boats are always on hand.

Chapter 68. MOUNT COOK DISTRICT

T. N. Broderick, District Surveyor.

* Mr. Broderick and others have previously mentioned that Mount Cook is not on the main range, but lies to the east of it. See report on Tasman Glacier, Annual Report Department of Lands and Survey, 1890–91, p. 39.

THE oldest and most generally accepted limitation of the “Southern Alps” is that given by Hochstetter, when he defines it as being that portion of the main range of the Middle Island of New Zealand commencing on the south side of the saddle between the Teremakau and Hurunui Rivers, on the boundary between the Provinces of Nelson and Canterbury, as far south as Haast's Pass, leading from Lake Wanaka to the West Coast, a distance of about 150 miles. He goes on to remark that “they form, in the direction from northeast to south-west, a chain of towering mountains which as to the height of their summits, and as to the size and extent of their snow-fields and glaciers, rival the Pennine and Rhaetian Alps.” This range presents an almost impassable barrier between the east and west coasts of the Island, and reaches its greatest height in Mount Cook or Aorangi,* 12,349 ft. which has the proud distinction of being the highest mountain in Australasia. Here for scores of miles the main range maintains an average height of between 8,000 ft. and 9,000 ft., with only one depression or pass so low as 5,359 ft. All along, many fine peaks exceeding 10,000 ft. in altitude rear themselves above their fellows, especially in the vicinity of Mount Cook, where they are represented by such well-known names as Sefton, Stokes, Tasman, Haidinger, De la Bêche, Elie de Beaumont, &c. From the main chain subsidiary ranges branch out on both sides, those on the eastern in a southerly direction. For a considerable distance these differ but little in the boldness of their outline and height of their peaks from the parent stem. Two of them—the Huxley, branching from Mount Ward, and the Two-thumb, dividing off at Mount Tyndall—enclose between them most of the great hydro-graphical basin of the Waitaki River (three times the extent of any other river-basin in Canterbury or Westland), and to the upper portion of this basin northwards to the junction of the Ohau with the Tekapo River is generally given the name of the Mount Cook District. This in its own way is one of the most interesting parts of New Zealand. It exhibits most clearly the power of ice in modifying the features of a country; the effect of an ancient glacial period in juxtaposition with a present glaciation of much greater magnitude than could be supposed to exist in so temperate a climate: it contains large lakes, magnificent mountains, and glaciers exceeding in size those of the European Alps. Although the mountains are not so high as their brethren in Europe, what they lack in height is made up for by the perpetual snow-line in New Zealand being considerably lower; its altitude on the east side in the vicinity of Mount Cook being about 7,000 ft., and on the West Coast somewhat over 6,000 ft., while the glaciers are forced as low as 2,550 ft. on the east, and between 700 ft. and 800 ft. on the west. This extensive glaciation is accounted for by the fact that when the prevailing westerly wind, which is of equatorial origin and heavily charged with moisture, meets the obstruction of the mountains, it is driven up into colder regions, and parts with its moisture in the form of snow. The summer atmosphere not being sufficiently warm to melt the annual supply, the result is an accumulating surplus, which, by the pressure of its weight acting in a manner well understood, but by laws about which there has been considerable controversy, finds its way down the valleys in the form of glaciers, until it reaches the points at which the annual melting keeps pace with the advance, called the terminal faces.

Mount Cook (the Hermitage in foreground).
[To face page 554.

The difference between the rainfall on the east and west sides of the range is remarkable. From statistics furnished by Sir James Hector, the average annual fall, taken for a period of eighteen years at Hokitika on the West Coast, was 117.9 in., while in Canterbury on the east it only averaged 25.5 in. for the thirty-three years during which records were kept. This great difference may explain one of the causes which have operated to force the glaciers on the west to so much lower a level than on the east, and to the same causes may be attributed the forest-covered western spurs and the comparatively bare eastern ones. In the district under consideration the forest proper is almost entirely confined to a few small patches of Fagus, but every variety of alpine and subalpine vegetation flourish, in favourable positions, even up to an altitude of 6,700 ft.

Amongst the flora perhaps the most typical plants are the several varieties of ranunculi, the white blossoms of one, the Mount Cook lily, being very delicate and beautiful; equally interesting from the Old World traditions that cling to it is the edelweiss, nearly similar in every respect to the Swiss plant.

In his geological map of the Provinces of Canterbury and Westland, the late Sir Julius von Haast has classed most of the mountain ranges in the Mount Cook District as belonging to what he calls the Mount Torlesse formation (Young Palæozoic). This classification includes the isolated hills on the Mackenzie Plains, such as the Maryburn Range near Pukaki Lake, and Mount John near Tekapo, &c., the exception to this being a strip of country embracing the Sealey Range, in front of the Hermitage, and extending southwesterly between Lake Hawea and the Ahuriri River, which he has called the Waihao (or Middle Palæozoic). The coach road between Burke's Pass and Pukaki runs for nearly the whole distance through old morainic accumulations, but is nearly on the southern boundary of them, below which the plains consist of Post Pliocene alluvium.

Speaking of the arrangement of the rocks and position of the strata, Haast has noted the interesting fact that the main range is “a continuation of anticlinal arches and synclinal troughs; but instead of finding the mountains formed by the arches and the valleys by the troughs, exactly the reverse has taken place. Thus, to give one instance, whilst the enormous mass of Mount Cook occupies a synclinal trough, the broad valley of the Godley River runs along an anticlinal arch.” Most of the glaciers occupy the position of an ancient anticlinal arch, or, in other words, what was the upper fold at the time the strata were bent from the horizontal.

Frost and ice have been great factors in forming the features of this district. The former breaks up the rocks, which then roll or are swept by avalanches on to the glaciers; these in their turn carry forward the débris or moraine, as it is called, and deposit it in the valleys. The glaciers near Mount Cook carry great loads of this moraine on the lower portion of their surfaces; they move forward at rates that change with the seasons and differ according to position. The officers of the Government Survey Department are instructed to note these rates of motion when such work can be done without interfering with their other duties, and much information has thus been gained. The details of this, however, would occupy too much space here, and it must be sufficient to remark that the Franz Josef Glacier moves at a much quicker rate than any on the east side of the range, and that the speed and volume of the Mueller, near The Hermitage, has been decreasing from year to year since 1889.

Native traditions state that the basin of the Waitaki was once occupied by a small tribe of Maoris, who had permanent camps at the Pukaki and Lake Ohau; these had, however, disappeared before the advent of Europeans into the district, and there were then no inland tribes. That there was some truth in the traditions has been proved by the discovery of Maori stone implements in several places, amongst others at Glentanner, about eight miles north of the head of Lake Pukaki. It is conjectured that the owners were contemporaneous with the now extinct moa, for bones of that bird were found overlying some adzes in an undisturbed stratum. The settlement of this part of the country by runholders (flock-masters) took place about 1857. In 1862 Dr. Haast made his explorations and geological classification, and, by the publication in 1879 of his “Geology of Canterbury and Westland,” spread far and wide a knowledge of its attractions. In 1882 the Rev. Mr. Green did for alpine men what Haast had done for scientific, by bringing Swiss guides from Europe, climbing nearly to the top of Mount Cook, and afterwards publishing his book, “High Alps of New Zealand,” in which he pointed out what a splendid field there was for alpine climbers. Many visitors and several mountaineering parties followed, and the fame of the scenery spread so much that in 1884 Mr. Huddle-stone formed a company and built The Hermitage accommodation-house, which has since developed into the present large and comfortable hotel.

Chiefly owing to the exertions of Mr. Mannering, an enthusiastic mountaineer, who has recorded his own and Mr. Dixon's adventures in attempting to climb Mount Cook, in his book, “With Axe and Rope in the New Zealand Alps,” an Alpine Club was formed in 1891. Up to 1896 the journal of this society published a record of what was being done in the New Zealand Alps on the lines of similar European clubs.

The labour of collecting material and editing the journal was cheerfully undertaken by Messrs. Mannering and Malcolm Ross, the latter another enthusiast, but, owing to the scattering of the most prominent Christchurch members, the work has been practically suspended since 1896.

There is now a large amount of material on hand, and it is hoped that before long the journal will again spring into life. The library, containing folios of exchanges from English, American, African, and Continental kindred societies, as well as some few standard works on mountaineering, is still in charge of Mr. Mannering, at Hastings, and is accessible to members and subscribers by correspondence.

In the journals of the above society, and in several interesting books published since those quoted above, may be found the history of many adventures, climbs, and expeditions, too numerous to mention here, but all of which have added to our knowledge of the country, and helped to open it up.

The New Zealand Government has assisted this work liberally, so that where there was formerly only a bullock-track to the Hermitage there is now a very fair road, with a good coach-service running regularly twice a week from the beginning of November to the end of April. The Hermitage has fulfilled Mr. Green's prediction of a “Grand Hotel, Mount Cook,” much sooner than he anticipated. Tracks have been made to the most interesting places, a horse-track to Mr. Green's fifth camp on the Tasman Glacier, where now stands a comfortable two-roomed hut, and a similar one has been erected eight miles higher up the glacier, and only four miles and a half from the top of Hochstetter Dome, which has thus been brought within easy reach of tourists. The question will naturally be asked, What is the scenery like? Competent authorities have declared it equals anything of the same kind to be found elsewhere.

Mr. Green, speaking of the Tasman Glacier, says, “The glacier on which we stood, having an area almost twice as great as that of the great Aletsch, the largest glacier in Switzerland… . I tried vainly to recall the view in Switzerland on the great Aletsch Glacier in front of the Concordia hut to establish some standard for comparison. Then I tried the Gomer Glacier, on the way to Monte Rosa; but the present scene so completely asserted its own grandeur that we felt compelled to confess in that instant that it surpassed anything we had ever seen. My old idea was that the view from the summit of the Col d'Erin in Switzerland on a cloudless day was the most charming alpine scene I had ever beheld. Now, I felt rather bewildered on the subject, and can only conclude that comparison of such ineffable glories is worse than useless.”

A table giving the comparative sizes of the Canterbury glaciers is to be found in the introductory pages of this work.

The following are some of the principal books and pamphlets dealing with the sounds, lakes, and alps of New Zealand. Many of the works mentioned are out of print, but nearly all can be seen in the public libraries of the colony:—

New Zealand Alpine Literature

BLAIR, W. N.—“The Cold Lakes of New Zealand”; Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. iii., No. 11, 1867.

BRUNNER, T.—“Explorations in the Middle Island of New Zealand”; Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xx., 344, 1851.

FITZGERALD, A. E.—“Climbs in the New Zealand Alps.” 1895.

GEIKIE, Sir Archibald.—“Tarawera Eruption”; Nature, xxxiv., 320–22; Contemporary Review, October, 1886, pp. 481–92.

GREEN, Rev. W. S., A.C.—“Fels u. Gletscherspuren am Mount Cook in Neu-Seeland”; Peterm. Mitt., 1883, p. 53.

GREEN, Rev. W. S., A.C.—“The High Alps of New Zealand”; Macmillan and Co., 1883. Contains an account of Ascent of Mount Cook.

HAAST, Sir Julius von.—“Geology of Canterbury and Westland”: Times Office, Christchurch, 1879. Contains geological maps, coloured and plain, and illustrations from photographs by E. P. Sealy; both printed at Vienna.

HAAST, Sir Julius von.—“Head Waters of the Rakaia”: Press Office, Christ-church, 1886. Contains twenty illustrations.

HAAST, Sir Julius von.—“Notes on the Mountains and Glaciers of the Canterbury Province”: Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xxxiv., 87, 1864.

HAAST. Sir Julius von.—“On the Physical Geography of New Zealand, principally in reference to the Southern Alps”: Proceedings of the Royal Society of Melbourne, 1861.

HARPER, P.—“Pioneering Work in the Alps of New Zealand.” 1896.

HECTOR, Sir James.— “Geological Expedition to the West Coast of Otago”; Otago Provincial Government Gazette, 5th November, 1863. With sketchmap.

HECTOR, Sir James.—“Handbook of New Zealand”; Lyon and Blair, Wellington, 1879. With maps and plates.

HINGSTON, J.—“The New Zealand Sounds”; Victorian Review, viii., 622–38, September, 1883. Also pamphlet, “Seeing the Sounds,” obtainable from the Union Steamship Co., Dunedin.

HOCHSTETTER, F. von.—“Der Franz-Josef-Gletscher,” Ausland, 1867; Mittheil. der Georgr. Ges. zu Wien, x., 57, 1866–67.

HOCHSTETTER, F. von.—“New Zealand: its Physical Geography, Geology, and Natural History”; English edition, published by Williams and Norgate in 1868. Maps and illustrations.

HUTTON, F. W.—“Report on the Tarawera Volcanic District”; Government Printer, Wellington, 1887.

HUTTON, F. W.—“Sketch of the Geology of New Zealand”; abstract, in Nature xxxi., 305, 1885.

LENDENFELDT, R. von.—“Ascent of Hochstetter Dom”; Canterbury Times, 14th April, 1883; Australasian, 5th May, 1883.

LENDENFELDT, R. von.—“Der Tasman-Gletscher und seine Umrandung,” Ergän-zungsheft No. 75; zu Petermann's Mittheilungen, Gotha; Justus Perthes, 1884. Contains illustrations and a very fine map.

MANNERING, G. E.—“With Axe and Rope in the New Zealand Alps”; Longmans, Green, and Co., 1891. Illustrated.

“Maoriland: An Illustrated Handbook of New Zealand”; published by the Union Steamship Company of New Zealand, 1884. Articles by Rev. R. Waddell, M.A.; A. Wilson, M.A.; and T. W. Whitson. Maps and illustrations.

MC HUTCHESON, W.—“Camp-life in Fiordland: A Tale of the Sutherland Falls”; Government Printer, Wellington, 1892. With map and illustrations.

MC KERROW, J.—“Reconnaissance Survey of the Lake Districts of Otago and Southland”; Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xxiv., 56, 1864.

“New Zealand Alpine Journal”—Nos. 1 to 7; Whitcombe and Tombs, Christ-church. Various articles by members of the New Zealand Alpine Club.

“Report of the Survey Department of New Zealand”; Government Printer, Wellington. Recent numbers contain interesting articles by T. Mackenzie, M.H.R., T. N. Broderick, P. Harper, and others, regarding mountain exploration.

Ross, Malcolm.—“Aorangi: or, The Heart of the Southern Alps, New Zealand;” Government Printer, Wellington, 1892. With maps and illustrations.

Ross, Malcolm.—“Guide to the Lakes of Central Otago”; Government Printer, Wellington, 1889. Map and illustrations.

Ross, Malcolm.—“The West Coast Sounds of New Zealand: An Account of a Trip in the Union Company's s.s. ‘Tarawera'” J. Wilkie and Co., Dunedin, 1893. Numerous illustrations.

SMITH, S. Percy.—“The Eruption of Tarawera”; Government Printer, Wellington, 1886.

THOMSON, J. T.—“Survey of the Southern Districts of Otago”; Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xxviii., 298.

TOULA, Franz.—“Uber die Südlichen von Neu-Seeland”; D. Rundschau f. Geographie, ii., 245 (1880).

Chapter 69. HANMER THERMAL SPRINGS

R. Bell, with analysis of waters (Hector) and directions for use (Dr. Little).

AMONG the many pleasure and health resorts in the Middle Island of New Zealand the Hanmer Thermal Springs District is justly very popular. As a health-recruiting ground, pure and simple, it undoubtedly holds the first place. There are various reasons for this preference for Hanmer. It is situated beyond the Leslie Hills in the Nelson Province, nearly a hundred miles from the hurry and bustle of a large city, and twenty-four miles from a railway-station. The healing natural waters are, of course, the great attraction. Their fame has gone abroad, and year by year brings an ever-increasing number of visitors. The climate must also be credited with its fair share of the attractiveness of the district. Although situated in latitude 42° 30'S., the heat, even in midsummer, is not oppressive. The height of the springs above the sea-level, 1,220 ft., and the distance from the coast, thirty-two miles, insures a dry heat during the day, with cool mornings and evenings. The air is bracing and salubrious, and allows feats of walking and hill-climbing to be performed with less fatigue than on the lower levels and in the more humid atmosphere near the coast.

Besides attracting the physically weak and the mere seeker after pleasure, Hanmer is yearly growing in favour with the fagged brain-worker, the nerve-worn man of affairs, and the mechanic who “needs a spell.” To them Hanmer is a veritable Elysium, where business is not thought of. The world with its distracting cares and life-shortening ways is shut out.

Journey to Hanmer

To get to Hanmer the train is taken from Christchurch to Culverden, the northern terminus at present of the Hurunui—Bluff railway system, a distance of sixty-nine miles. Leaving Christ-church at 7.35 a.m., Culverden is reached at 12.10 p.m. The railway runs through some of the most fertile country in the Middle Island. Along the route are the Townships of Kaiapoi, Rangiora, Amberley, and Waikari.

Culverden is the centre of the fine pastoral country which extends to the neighbourhood of Blenheim. At its yards the largest sheep sale in New Zealand took place in March of 1898, when 250,000 sheep were brought under the hammer. Having lunched here, the passenger transfers himself and baggage to the coach, and the remaining portion of the journey is performed in three hours and a half. The coach route runs through the picturesque valley of the Waiau. The road winds in and out among the hills until crossing the river by a fine iron bridge the plains are unexpectedly reached. This level plateau, which stands at an altitude of 1,220 ft., is about ten miles long by four miles broad, and is surrounded on all sides by mountains, some of which rise over 5,000 ft. high. About the middle of the plains are the hot springs. These are of an alkaline and saline character, with a strong escape of sulphuretted hydrogen, and they possess undoubted curative properties for certain diseases.

Accommodation, etc., at the Springs

The springs are situated in an area of 13 acres, enclosed by live fences and trees, and laid out in pleasant walks and lawns, bordered by flowers, all neatly kept. A croquet-lawn and bowling-green have also been laid down. The hotel-accommodation for visitors is ample. The Government Sanatorium is capable of accommodating sixteen persons. So far the Sanatorium has been chiefly used by patients more or less affected by the diseases which the springs give relief to or cure.

Mr. Hood, of the Jollie's Pass Hotel, has also recently erected “The Lodge,” a commodious two-story house within a few chains of the bathing-grounds. The Jollie's Pass Hotel (licensed) is situated two miles and a half from the baths, and was originally built by the Government as an accommodation-house for travellers crossing the Pass, the great highway between Nelson and Canterbury. Mrs. Lahmert has removed her Temperance Hotel from Jack's Pass to near the springs, and it is well spoken of.

During the 1898–99 season fully fifteen hundred people came, taking twelve thousand baths; of these about eight thousand were taken in the private baths, and four thousand in the ladies' and gentlemen's baths.

The bath-houses contain in all twenty private baths, with massage rooms and Turkish baths supplied with hot and cold mineral-water. The water is brought in pipes from the adjacent springs. The temperature ranges from 86° to 97° Fahr., and may be increased at will to 114°. Besides the private baths, there are a ladies' swimming-pool and a gentlemen's swimming-pool, both surrounded by high iron fences. The all-round depth is 5 ft. The temperature of the pool is 85° Fahr., and is so comfortable that, once in, the bather hardly cares to come out again. The charge for the private baths is 1s. each or 8s. for twelve, while for the pool 6d. a bath is the price. Situated in the grounds is a spring where visitors may not only assuage their thirst, but get relief for stomach, liver, and kidney troubles as well. The water is warm, and when it is remembered that it contains chloride of sodium and sulphurous acid, it will be easily understood that it does not taste like nectar. Despite the nausea which almost overwhelms them at every draught, many are only too pleased to testify to the beneficial effect of the water.

The gases may also be inhaled by the patient, and this, like the drinking of the waters, is anything but a pleasant experience. Most people do it from a sense of benefit only, and many who would inhale the fumes cannot, they are so overpowering.

A comfortable reading-room has been provided in connection with the baths, on the tables of which may be found works descriptive of the scenery, resources, and history of New Zealand, also a few of the best monthlies, &c.

Natural gas will shortly be used to light and heat the baths and sanatorium.

A post- and telegraph-office supplies facilities for communicating with the outside world.

Masseuse Available

In premises fitted up for her use, Miss Edith Cook, certificated masseuse, practises her art. She has great experience, and those who have been under her hands testify to her skill as a manipulator. In fact, it has come to be recognised that the bathing and the massage treatment go hand in hand towards affecting cures in cases of muscular ailments.

Medical Attendance Procurable

Dr. Little, of Culverden, visits the springs once a week during the season, and his services are at the disposal of the visitors free of charge. If urgently required he can be communicated with by telephone at any moment.

Tourist Season, Charges, etc

The tourist season extends from the 1st November to the 1st May, and during those months coaches from Culverden to Hanmer run daily up and down. During the rest of the year coaches only run on Tuesday and Saturday from Culverden, and from Hanmer on Monday and Thursday. The baths are open throughout the year; but the massage treatment can only be obtained during the summer months. The Government Sanatorium and the other hotels, of course, provide accommodation all the year round.

Apart from the cost of getting there—the railway issue through return first-class tickets from Christchurch for £1 10s., and from Dunedin, £4 2s. 6d.—Hanmer, unlike many other pleasure resorts, is not an expensive place to stay at. There are no “extras,” in the shape of boating and driving excursions, as in the cold lakes district, and no guide-fees, as in the alpine district. The only way one can make extra expense is to indulge in a superfluity of baths, and that is hardly likely. The cuticle would not stand it, even if the pocket could.

To those capable of Alpine work there are Mount Perceval (5,335 ft.) and Mount Captain (6,600 ft.). On a clear day, from either of these peaks, the Port Hills, Lake Ellesmere, and the long sweep of the Canterbury Plains to the ocean, can be seen. Jollie's Pass to the Saddle affords a fair morning's walk, so also does Jack's Pass, and there are many other short excursions which may be made by those whom the baths have restored to vigour.

There is good fishing in the Clarence, the Waiau, the Hanmer, and their tributary streams; while for dog and gun there is such game as hares, rabbits, wild ducks, and swamp-hens.

The analysis of water taken from No. 1 Spring at Hanmer Plains, made at the Colonial Museum in 1891, gave these results:—

Chloride of sodium62.09
Chloride of potassium0.15
Chloride of lithiumTrace
Iodide of magnesiumTrace
Carbonate of lime0.55
Carbonate of magnesia1.77
Carbonate of iron0.05
Sulphate of soda7.48
Carbonate of soda2.66
Phosphate of aluminaTrace
Silica2.63
            Total grains per gallon77.38
Gas—Sulphuretted hydrogen2.19

An analysis made ten years ago, prior to the earthquake which occurred in 1888, by Professor Bickerton, of Christchurch, is interesting from the fact that it includes an examination of the sediment and organic matter contained in the water. The sample was taken from Spring No. 8 before it was incorporated with No. 1. It is as follows:—

Sediment—Silica and free sulphur 1.400
Nitrogen as free ammonia0.092 
Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia0.048 
Nitrogen as nitric acid0.047 
            Total nitrogen0.187
Sulphuretted hydrogen, free 3.430
Sulphate of lime9.940 
Sulphate of potash1.960 
Sulphate of soda0.400 
Bicarbonate soda7.770 
Chloride soda56.230 
Bicarbonate of magnesia0.640 
            Total fixed matter76.940
            Total grains per gallon 81.957

The total amounts of fixed salts in the two analyses correspond very closely. The sulphates and carbonates in either case are so small that the fact of their varying in the two analyses is a matter of no importance. The fact of the discovery of traces of iodine and lithium in the recent analysis is interesting.

Directions for using the Baths at Hammer Sanatorium

Charles T. W. Little, M.B., Ch.B., Visiting Medical Officer.

The temperature of the Hanmer Baths can be regulated from cold up to 114° Fahr. Patients are cautioned against using the baths at first at too high a temperature, and against remaining too long in them. The caretaker in charge will be glad to give information on this point. A cold shower is provided with each bath. Invalids and those unaccustomed to the shower must use it with caution. After leaving the bath, patients should cool gradually, and be careful to avoid exposure to cold.

The water of the springs is laxative and diuretic, and may at first nauseate. It should be drunk in moderation, not more than one or two glasses daily for a commencement.

During their stay at Hanmer, visitors are recommended to freely take exercise in proportion to their strength. The Sanatorium affords facilities for this. The walk from the accommodation-houses to the springs will benefit those in fair health. Those suffering from feeble circulation, and those convalescent from acute diseases, must be specially careful with regard to the temperature of their bath and the duration of their bath, and should first ask information from the caretaker.

Patients suffering from bronchial catarrh will find inhalation of the steam beneficial, but must carefully avoid cold after leaving the bath. For local affections of a chronic rheumatic nature, &c., patients will find the hot douche useful, but must persist in its use. Massage both during and after the bath is here very useful.

Experience has shown that the benefit derived in skin affections varies much with individual cases. Dry and scaly skin affections generally benefit by prolonged immersion. Irritable and moist skin affections, on the other hand, benefit more by a short immersion. Should such affections be aggravated by the treatment, the baths should be discontinued for a time at least.

The benefit derived by gouty patients has been found to vary with the case. Patients suffering from derangements of the alimentary system (constipation, torpid liver, &c.), asthma, whooping-cough, nervous debility, and insomnia have testified to receiving benefit from a stay at Hanmer. Giddiness, bleeding from the nose, chilliness, nervous depression, increased irritability of the skin, are indications either that the baths do not suit, or that they have been too freely used and should be discontinued for a day or two at least.

Visitors in fair health will find a plunge in the swimming-pool very enjoyable. Visitors to the Sanatorium finding no appreciable benefit from the first few baths have often discontinued them altogether. Provided that the treatment is not aggravating the complaint, such action does not give the springs a fair trial. In chronic affections a long course of treatment is often required, and the immediate benefit is not seen.

Chapter 70. THE THERMAL-SPRINGS DISTRICT, AND THE GOVERNMENT SANATORIUM AT ROTORUA

Dr. Ginders.

Climate of Rotorua

THE geographical position of the North Island of New Zealand will naturally suggest something of the character of its inland climate at an elevation of 1.000 ft. Rotorua is some forty miles from the coast. Its elevation is 990 ft. above the sea-level. The atmosphere is drier and more bracing than on the coast—in winter considerably colder, and in summer perhaps somewhat hotter, but of a dry pleasant heat, free from the moist oppressiveness which characterizes the summer heat of Auckland and other coast towns. The mean temperature of spring is 53°, of summer 66°, of autumn 57°, and of winter 45°. The relative moisture of the air for the four seasons (taking complete saturation at 100°) is—for spring, 74°; for summer, 66°; for autumn. 67°; and for winter, 74°. The steam which rises so abundantly and perpetually all over the district no doubt adds considerably to the moisture of the atmosphere. This was clearly shown in the month of June, 1886, when the great eruption of Tara-wera took place. The relative moisture for that month was 10° in excess of the average, owing to the immense amount of vapour caused by the eruption. The rainfall for the year is about 60 in., and the number of days on which rain falls about 140. Auckland has 18 in. less rain, and thirteen more rainy days. The daily range of temperature is greatest in the summer and least in the winter. This obtains throughout the whole of New Zealand, and is, indeed, one of the most charming features of our climate. No matter how hot a summer's day may be, the nights are invariably cool. The mean daily range of temperature for spring is 21°, for summer 28°, for autumn 23°, and for winter 20°.

These annual means, it must be remembered, are based on observations extending over ten years only, and consequently have no more than a relative value. For example, the rainfall for the six years ending with the year 1891 averaged 50 in. per annum, but in 1892 it was 67 in., and in 1893—an exceptionally wet year—it reached 93 in.; so that for these averages to have an absolute value they must be based on observations extending over a far longer period. The annual mean temperature for 1894 was 55°, and the rainfall 55.22 in.

The annual means for the year ending 31st March, 1898, stand thus: Mean barometer, 29.41°; mean maximum shade temperature, 65.2°; mean minimum shade temperature, 44.6°; annual mean temperature, 54.6°; mean daily range, 20.2°; mean solar radiation, 112.9°; mean terrestrial radiation, 39.6°; mean relative moisture (saturation = 100), 77°; total rainfall in inches, 70.63; total days on which rain fell, 167; mean amount of cloud (0, clear sky; 10, overcast), 6.0.

The most agreeable months of the year for an invalid to visit Rotorua are February, March, and April; the least pleasant are August, September, and October; but, as there is ample boarding accommodation close to the baths, the invalid is virtually independent of the weather. A climate better adapted to the necessities of the class of patients visiting this health-resort could not be desired. They are, as a rule, persons in fairly vigorous health, in whom it is desirable to maintain the normal power of adaptation and resistance to climatic changes. A climate in which the same conditions prevailed for long periods of the year would fail to secure this end; but one in which the various factors of temperature, moisture, light, electricity, wind, and atmospheric pressure are subject to moderate variations is, in every way, the one to be desired.

It is most desirable that invalids visiting Rotorua should be well informed as to the character of our climate. I have found that considerable misapprehension exists on this point, particularly amongst our visitors from Otago and Southland, their impression being that Rotorua is a very warm place, and that in summer they have to bring only the lightest possible clothing. This is a great mistake, as will be understood at once when I say that in February and March it is not uncommon to find in twenty-four hours a thermometric range of 100 degrees between the solar and terrestrial radiation temperatures. Our visitors, therefore, should provide themselves with both light and heavy clothing, no matter at what season of the year they may arrive.

Area of Thermal-springs District

The Thermal-springs District of New Zealand comprises an area of upwards of 600,000 acres, or close on 1,000 square miles. The length of the district is some fifty miles, with an average breadth of twenty miles. Its altitude varies from 1,000 ft. to 2,000 ft. above the sea-level.

Physical Features

The most striking physical features of this region are the extensive pumice-plains, intersected in various directions by high ranges of igneous formation, which are relieved here and there by enormous trachytic cones. Forests of extraordinary luxuriance and beauty clothe the mountains and border the extensive plateaux, while hot lakes, boiling geysers, and thermal springs are dotted far and wide over the country. The Thermal-springs District, however, as defined on the maps, by no means embraces the whole volcanic and hydrothermal activity of the island. Although the volcanic slopes of Ruapehu and Tongariro bound this region on the south, hot springs are found here and there for fully 250 miles beyond its western boundary—in fact, as far north as the Bay of Islands. Within the district it is no exaggeration to say that hundreds of hot springs exist, to say nothing of mud-volcanoes, solfataras, and fumaroles.

Varieties of Mineral Waters

These springs are of the most varied chemical character, and of every degree of temperature from 60° to 212°. Numbers have yet to be submitted to analysis. Those which have been examined in the laboratory of the Geological Survey Department in Wellington are divided by Sir James Hector into five classes: (1) Saline, containing chiefly chloride of sodium; (2) alkaline, containing carbonates and bicarbonates of soda and potash; (3) alkaline-siliceous, containing much silicic acid, but changing rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere, and becoming alkaline; (4) hepatic, or sulphurous, characterized by the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid; and (5) acidic, containing an excess of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, or both. In addition to these we have saline waters, containing iodine, cold acidulous chalybeates, and saline acidulous chalybeates. These, however, are in situations at present inaccessible to the invalid, or, if not out of reach, at least destitute of the conveniences and comforts essential to the sick, but they are no doubt destined in the near future to attain a high medical reputation.

The Rotorua Sanatorium: Names of the Principal Baths

The Government of New Zealand has very wisely chosen the southern shore of Lake Rotorua as the basis of operations for opening-up this wonderful district. Here are grouped together numerous examples of the five classes of springs I have mentioned, and here the Government fixed their first sanatorium and bathing establishment. The sanatorium reserve at Rotorua comprises an area of some 50 acres, bounded on the north and east by the lake, and on the west and south by the Township of Rotorua. Fifteen or sixteen years ago this was a howling wilderness, covered with manuka scrub, and diversified only by clouds of steam rising from the various hot springs. Here the adventurous invalid of that day had to pitch his tent, and be satisfied with a hole in the ground for a bath; and if the spring he wished to use happened to be too hot for his purpose he probably had to dig the hole for himself, and regulate the supply and temperature of the water to the best of his hydraulic ability. In many instances he immortalised himself by giving his name to the spring—a name still retained. Thus we have “Cameron's Bath,” “McHugh's Bath,” “Mackenzie's Bath,” and “The Priest's Bath.” Other springs have received their names from some real or imaginary quality. Thus we have “Madame Rachel,” “The Pain-killer,” “The Coffee-pot,” and “The Blue Bath.” Now this scene of desolation is completely transformed. Walks and drives planted with evergreen trees traverse it from end to end, fountains—amongst which are the artificial intermittent geysers constructed by the late Mr. C. Malfroy—and flower-gardens delight the eye, and commodious buildings for the entertainment of invalids are springing up on every side. The principal of these are the Sanatorium Hospital, the medical residence, the Priest's Pavilion, the Rachel Pavilion, the Ladies' Swimming-bath, the Blue Swimming-bath (to which is attached the sulphur-vapour bath), the Postmaster Bath houses, Brent's boarding-house, the Grand Hotel, the Palace Hotel, and many other residences and houses where apartments are let to visitors.

The twelve private Rachel Baths, used chiefly in the treatment of skin affections, have been fully occupied. The number of cases of skin-disease resorting to Rotorua for treatment is rapidly increasing: due, no doubt, to the remarkable cures of eczema effected here, and to the resulting change in the opinion of many New Zealand medical men as to the propriety of constant bathing for this disease. The concrete coolers cover an area of 2,250 square feet, are 2 ft. deep, and capable of containing 27,500 gallons of water, so that the whole of the outflow from the Rachel Spring is conserved.

The ladies' swimming-bath is 48 ft. by 24 ft., from 3 ft. to 4 ft. deep, and capable of accommodating twenty bathers at one time. Its capacity is 25,200 gallons, and its temperature will be maintained at about 96°. It is provided with dressing-rooms and shower-baths

The new sulphur baths, known as the “Postmaster,” are situated on the western shore of the lake, at a distance of about half a mile from the Priest and Rachel Pavilions, and are approached by a good carriage-drive. They consist of two large public piscinœ (each 24 ft. by 12 ft.) and four smaller ones (each 12 ft. by 10 ft.), one of the former and two of the latter being appropriated to each sex. There are twenty dressing-rooms, ten in each department. It has been found necessary to leave the baths open to the air, as the gases arising from them are apt to produce vertigo and fainting unless they are exposed to very free ventilation. In the summer weather they are sheltered from the sun by canvas awnings. Verandahs have been built opposite the dressing-boxes. The temperature of the spring supplying these baths is 114° Fahr., and the outflow varies from six to seven thousand gallons per hour. The water rises through a fissure in the rock of considerable length, and an efficient method of regulating the temperature was devised by our late ingenious engineer, Mr. Malfroy. It consists of a series of sluices, one of which is connected with each bath; if all the sluices are closed the water cools by natural radiation of heat, and if any sluice is opened the bath fed by it rises in temperature.

These baths are increasing rapidly in popularity as curative agents in all forms of rheumatism, gout, and neuralgias. There still are a few cases of fainting and involuntary muscular twitching, without loss of consciousness, among men using these baths. The women appear to enjoy a singular immunity from these troubles, due, most likely, to the gases arising from their baths being either less in quantity or different in quality. The baths are complete in their appointments. An abundant supply of cold water from the town main has been introduced; cold showers and warm douches have been constructed; also two comfortable waiting-rooms, each containing five couches. There are male and female attendants.

The rules posted up in these baths for the guidance of bathers are as follows: “In order that these baths may be used in comfort and safety, bathers should observe the following rules: (1) Sit quietly in the water, so as to avoid any unnecessary disengagement of gases; (2) Do not sit immediately over any spot where gases are rising through the water; (3) If any breeze is blowing, sit with the back to windward, that the gases may be blown from and not towards the bather; (4) Never remain in the water longer than fifteen minutes, and in the event of any disagreeable sensation coming on, leave the bath at once.”

The Hospital

The hospital is designed to accommodate twenty-one patients—twelve males and nine females. The stipulations made by the Government with regard to admission are that the patient shall be able to show that his case is one likely to be benefited by the use of the baths, and that he is unable to pay the usual hotel or boarding-house charges.

The Regulations and Tariff

The following is a copy of the regulations under which patients are admitted to the institution:—

  1. Applications for admission of persons shall be addressed to the Resident Medical Officer at the Sanatorium, Rotorua.

  2. No person shall be admitted (unless in accordance with Regulations 5, 6, and 7) except on the recommendation of the Hospital or Charitable Aid Board of the district to which he belongs, or of the Trustees of the benevolent society or hospital (if separate institutions) of the town in which he lives.

  3. The charge for maintenance and treatment is £1 1s. a week.

  4. The Board or Trustees, in making such recommendation, shall guarantee the cost of such patient, shall send him or her at their own charge to Rotorua, be responsible for his cr her return-passage, and provide a sufficient supply of clothing. They shall also furnish a report on the case by a duly-qualified medical practitioner, in order that it may be seen whether the case is one that is likely to profit by treatment at the Sanatorium.

  5. Members of any duly-registered friendly society may be admitted, on the recommendation of the lodge to which they belong, on the same terms as patients recommended by a Hospital or Charitable Aid Board, and Regulations 3 and 4 shall be read as applying to them in all respects: Provided that not more than three such persons shall be resident at the Sanatorium at anyone time, and that all the hospital beds are not required by patients admitted under Regulation 2.

  6. When all the beds are not occupied by patients admitted under Regulations 2 and 5, the Resident Medical Officer may at his discretion admit persons, being boné fide hospital cases, who have undertaken to pay £1 10s. a week for maintenance and treatment.

  7. When all the beds are not occupied by patients admitted under Regulations 2, 5, and 6, persons may be admitted on the following conditions:—

    1. That the Resident Medical Officer has certified that each such person is likely to be benefited by treatment at the Sanatorium.

    2. That the expenses to and from Rotorua are provided by each such person, together with a sufficient supply of clothing.

    3. That not more than four such persons shall be resident at the Sanatorium at one time.

  8. The stay of each patient is limited to three months, but the Resident Medical Officer can, at his discretion, extend the period to six months.

This means, in brief, that patients sent by the Charitable Aid Boards of the country are to be admitted at all times at one guinea per week; that three beds may be occupied by members of registered friendly societies on the same terms; that not more than four free patients shall be resident at the same time; and that if all the beds are not occupied by the three classes of patients enumerated, the medical officer may, at his discretion, admit suitable cases paying for themselves at the rate of £1 10s. per week. Such patients, if they with to avoid disappointment, should not leave their homes until they have communicated with the resident medical officer, and been assured by him that their cases are suitable, and that they will be admitted on arrival.

It should be distinctly understood that Hospital Trustees, or Charitable Aid Boards, or Friendly Societies recommending patients to this institution are held responsible for payment in case such patients are unable or fail to pay for themselves.

It cannot be too widely known that there is no private accommodation in this institution: whatever the regulations under which the patients are admitted, they are on equal terms; they take their meals together in the same hall; the women have their own sitting-room, and a dormitory containing nine beds; and the men have their sitting-room, and a dormitory containing twelve beds. Patients are admitted for three months, and if, in the opinion of the medical superintendent, a second period of three months is desirable, it is granted; but in all cases six months is the extreme limit.

The great object of this institution, as at present constituted, is to enable the Charitable Aid Boards of the country to send up for treatment a class of patients who would not otherwise be able to avail themselves of the springs, while at the same time in no way interfering with the private enterprise of hotel and boarding-house proprietors.

Analysis and Action of the Waters

Patients who frequent our springs are always anxious to see the analysis of the waters in which they bathe, and are usually under the impression that they absorb into their systems the entire list of salts enumerated. This is an error. The body cannot absorb any salts from an aqueous solution. If the water, or any portion of it, is allowed to dry on the skin, a minute quantity of the constituent solids, of course, remains, which, through the friction of the clothing, becomes incorporated with the fatty elements of the integument, and is eventually absorbed. After a course of sulphur baths the underclothing is redolent of sulphur for some time after leaving the springs, and silver carried in the pockets becomes blackened, showing that a considerable amount of sulphur has been absorbed in the manner described. The shipwrecked sailor adrift in a boat finds his thirst relieved for a time by saturating his shirt with sea-water; if he absorbed the salt his suffering would be only intensified, but the wet shirt, by temporarily checking the transpiration and evaporation of moisture from his body, affords him relief. The direct influence of hot mineral water used for bathing—apart from the effect of temperature—is twofold, according to its chemical character: it either excites and stimulates the nervous and vascular elements of the skin, as in the case of acid sulphur waters; or it exercises a soothing and emollient effect, as in the case of alkaline siliceous waters. We should never lose sight of the fact that the skin is the most important emunctory of the body; and that, as a means of maintaining its normal functional activity, bathing, well-advised and regulated, is the most efficient agent we can employ; and that in skin diseases especially our cures are brought about not by any absorption of fixed salts contained in the water, but by the prolonged maceration of the cuticle, causing the ready removal of the débris of dead and diseased cells, and their gradual replacement by cells of a more healthy character, due to the employment of a suitable regimen and the influence of a highly vitalising climatic environment.

Properties of the Principal Bath Springs at Rotorua

The following springs are those which have the most valuable properties, and whose therapeutic action is best known:—

1. Te Pupunitanga, or “The Priest's Bath,” at Rotorua, only a few feet from the lake's edge; the water is strongly acidic and aluminous, depositing flocculent sulphur on the bed and sides of the bath; reaction, acid. It is considered the finest and most curative bath in the southern hemisphere. Analysis (in grains per gallon): Sulphate of soda, 19.24 gr.; sulphate of potash, traces; sulphate of lime, 7.41 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3.03 gr.; sulphate of alumina, 21.67 gr.; sulphate of iron, 1.24 gr.; sulphuric acid, 22.12 gr.; hydrochloric acid, 3.65 gr.; silica, 18.41 gr.—total, 96.77 gr.; also, sulphuretted hydrogen, 2.98 gr.; and carbonic acid gas, 2.16 gr. Temperature: From 98° Fahr. to 106° Fahr.; average, 99° Fahr. Special indications: Gout, dyspepsia, sciatica, skin diseases, disorders of the liver, sexual impotence, cold feet, amenorrhœa, dropsy, and all forms of rheumatism.

No spring in the district has attained a higher reputation, or proved itself more generally useful, than that known as the Priest's Bath. The variation in temperature is due to the rise and fall of the lake and the direction of the wind. When the lake is high and the wind blowing towards the baths the conditions are favourable to a high temperature, and vice versé, the cold water of the lake affording a more efficient barrier to the escape of heat than the open pumice-gravel of which the shore is composed. A patient emerging from his bath looks like a boiled lobster, and I regard this determination of blood to the skin as a most important therapeutic factor: the vascular and nervous apparatus of the skin is powerfully stimulated by it, and internal congestions are relieved. Our alkaline waters, on the other hand, which contain the chlorides and silicates of the alkalies, have a soothing and emollient effect on the skin, and are of great value in eczema, and other cutaneous ailments. The water of the Priest's Spring is brilliantly clear when undisturbed, and pale-green in colour. A faint odour of sulphuretted hydrogen pervades the neighbourhood, which gas, together with sulphurous acid, is copiously evolved. Since the eruption of Tarawera this offensive odour has been much modified, owing, probably, to an increased evolution of sulphurous-acid gas at that time. Fortunately for the nasal organs and general comfort of the bathers, these gases effect a mutual decomposition, resulting in the formation of sulphur and water, thus—2H2S+SO2=3S+2H2O; which means that two parts of sulphuretted hydrogen, combining with one part of sulphurous acid, form three parts of sulphur and two of water. Wherever steam charged with these gases is able to penetrate, sulphur is deposited. This is the origin of all the sulphur in the district. It permeates readily the siliceous sinter rock, forming beautiful needle-like crystals of sulphur in the interspaces. Sulphur being thus constantly transformed from the gaseous to the solid state in the water of this spring, it is very possible that, coming into contact with the skin in this nascent and impalpable form, its therapeutic power may be considerably enhanced: there can be no doubt about its absorption, for our patients tell us that their underclothing is redolent of sulphur for weeks after returning home. The Priest's bathing-pavilion is a building 74 ft. long by 44 ft. wide, having a superficial area of 3,256 square feet. It is divided into male and female departments. Each department comprises two public piscinæ, 16 ft. by 12 ft., with two private baths (each 6 ft. by 6 ft.) for special cases, lounging-rooms, and comfortable dressing-rooms. Each bath is provided with a cold fresh-water shower, and douches either hot or tepid, thus materially enhancing the hydropathic efficiency of this remarkable water.

It is rather unfortunate that these baths are at their best in the winter, when they maintain a more even temperature and a more convenient depth. During the summer months the rapid changes of temperature they undergo give us a good deal of trouble and inconvenience.

2. Whangapipiro, or “Madame Rachel's Bath,” at Rotorua.—Analysis (in grains per gallon): Chlorine of sodium, 69.43 gr.; chloride of potassium, 3.41 gr.; chloride of lithium, traces; sulphate of soda, 11.80 gr.; silicate of soda, 18.21 gr.; silicate of lime, 4.24 gr.; silicate of magnesia, 1.09 gr.; iron and alumina oxides, 2.41 gr.; silica, 5.87 gr.: total, 116.46 gr.; in one gallon; also carbonic-acid gas, 3.79gr. Temperature: Formerly 174° Fahr., but rose to 194° Fahr. after eruption in June, 1886. Special indications: Diseases of the skin, especially psoriasis. By internal administration (where-by an increase in the elimination of urea and uric acid is produced) in rheumatism, gout, and certain forms of dyspepsia.

The “Rachel” bathing-pavilion adjoins Te Pupunitanga, or “The Priest's Bath.” Here we have a water diametrically opposite in character to the last described—an alkaline siliceous water having a temperature at its source of 180°. This source is a cauldron of enormous depth, situated some 200 yards from the bathing-pavilion, and yielding 50,000 gallons daily. We have a simple system of cooling by which the water may be used at any desired temperature. Here also is a separate department for either sex, each containing a public piscina 16 ft. square, four private baths, a lounging- or waiting-room kept at a constant temperature of 70° by hot-water pipes, and dressing-rooms. The reaction of the water is alkaline, and it contains a small amount of sulphuretted hydrogen. The delicious sense of bien-ètre produced by bathing in this water, with the soft satiny feeling it communicates to the skin, must be felt to be appreciated. It is useful in all forms of skin-disease—indeed, in eczema it may be considered a specific if continued long enough, together with a suitable regimen. I frequently recommend the internal use of this water. Its taste is not unpleasant, and its action is mildly antilithic. Waters containing silicates are said to be useful in the uric-acid diathesis, and I have certainly found it suit gouty patients admirably.

3. Oruawhata, a hot pool within the Sanatorium grounds, supplying the warm swimming bath, was originally a favourite Maori cooking and bathing place. Fifty years ago it was rendered tapu for a long period by the fact that a Maori boy, when flying his kite and running backwards, fell bodily into it and was scalded to death. However, it was used for both cooking and bathing as lately as 1880. At the time of the Tarawera eruption in 1886 it was a single irregularly-shaped pool, having two powerful springs at its northern end. These our late engineer, Mr. C. Malfroy, isolated from the surrounding water and converted into artificial intermittent geysers, thus forming not only one of the most interesting objects in the Sanatorium grounds, but a work of eminent practical utility, as we are able to convey the water from the geysers to the swimming bath at an almost boiling temperature, instead of leaving it exposed to a large cooling area, as was the case formerly. This hot basin—some 60 ft. long by 30 ft. wide—is now built round with concrete and protected by a substantial iron railing. The water is saline in character, with silicates. Analysis (in grains per gallon): Chloride of sodium, 60.44gr.; chloride of magnesium, 1.04gr.; sulphate of lime, 5.48 gr.; silicate of magnesia, 0.32 gr.; silicate of soda, 8.38 gr.; silicate of iron oxide, 1.42 gr.; silica, 14.20 gr.: total 91.28 gr. in one gallon. Sulphuretted hydrogen, 5.52 gr.; carbonic acid, 2.21 gr. Temperature: 140° Fahr. Special indications: Almost identical with those of the foregoing spring (Whangapipiro).

The Blue Bath is a warm swimming bath, 62 ft. long by 24 ft. wide. It is built of stone and concrete, with a smooth surface of Portland cement; has a depth of from 4 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft., and contains about 30,000 gallons of water, maintained at a temperature of 98°. This is the popular pleasure-bath of the Sanatorium, in which our rheumatic invalids are able to take exercise without undue fatigue. It was completed in 1885, and opened by Mr. George Augustus Sala. While excavating this bath the workmen struck upon a remarkable sulphur-cavern, its roof and sides thickly coated with brilliant acicular crystals of sulphur, and at its base a hot-spring yielding steam so strongly impregnated with sulphur-gases as to be quite irrespirable. This we have conducted to the surface, and employ as a sulphur-vapour bath, diluting it as occasion requires with steam of a milder character. In sciatica, and all forms of rheumatism, this is one of our most popular and efficacious remedies.

4. Cameron's Bath (known as “Laughing-gas Bath”), within the Rotorua Sanatorium Reserve, a quarter-mile from the bath-pavilion, on the shores of Lake Rotorua, at a point called Te Kauwhanga. It is a muddy pool 30 ft. in diameter, with a constant discharge of gas (sulphuretted hydrogen, with sulphurous acid), which, when inhaled, causes faintness and great excitement of the respiratory and vascular functions. The pool has no outflow; the water is a dirty chocolate colour, hepatic, feebly saline, and has a persistent acid reaction and offensive odour. Bathing in the spring itself is to be deprecated. Analysis (in grains per gallon): Sulphate of soda, 44.54 gr.; chloride of potassium, 1.67 gr.; chloride of sodium, 12.04 gr.; chloride of calcium, 5.22 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 1.28 gr.; chloride of aluminium, 0.62 gr.; silica, 9.22gr.; hydrochloric acid, 5.92 gr.: total, 80.51 gr. in one gallon. Sulphuretted hydrogen, 4.42 gr. Temperature: 109° Fahr. to 115° Fahr.

5. The Painkiller Bath, situated at Te Kauwhanga, resembles the above water (No. 4), but is a little more saline and hepatic; it is one of the most valuable sulphurous springs in the reserve. The water has a distinct acid reaction, an offensive odour, and deposits a brownish sediment on being boiled. This spring has great curative properties, and two baths with sheltered dressing-accommodation have been built in connection with it. This spring is now so rarely used that the accommodation has been allowed to fall into decay. It underwent some modification in its composition at the time of the eruption, in 1886. Analysis: Chloride of sodium, 46.42 gr.; chloride of potassium, 1.71 gr.; chloride of calcium, 2.66 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 1.47 gr.; chloride of iron and aluminium, 4.22 gr.; sulphate of soda, 29.14 gr; hydrochloric acid, 6.84 gr.; silica, 18.02 gr.: total, 110.48 gr. in one gallon. Sulphuretted hydrogen, 4.84 gr. Temperature: 204° Fahr.

6. The Coffee-pot, also situated at Te Kauwhanga, a small mud spring, 10ft. in diameter; the water is thick, brown, and muddy, covered with an oily slime, in fact, of a most uninviting appearance; it has a persistent acid reaction and an offensive odour; hepatic and feebly saline. Analysis: Silica. 13.86 gr.; sulphate of soda, 23.71 gr.; chloride of potassium, 0.77 gr.; chloride of aluminium, 1.46 gr.; chloride of calcium, 2.04 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 1.62 gr.; chloride of iron, 1.47 gr.; hydrochloric acid, 7.66 gr.; sulphuric acid, 7.60 gr.: total, 60.19 gr. in one gallon. Sulphuretted hydrogen, 3.19 gr. Temperature: 80° to 100° Fahr. Special indications of the last three baths (Nos. 4, 5, and 6): Chronic rheumatism and gout, chronic rheumatoid arthritis, cutaneous diseases.

7. Hinemaru (“Stonewall Jackson” or “McHugh's Bath”), situated in the Rotorua Sanatorium Reserve. The water is of a yellowish colour, of a saline character, with silicates; reaction, alkaline. Analysis: Chloride of sodium, 93.46 gr.; chloride of potassium, 4.69gr.; chloride of lithium, traces; sulphate of soda, 2.76 gr.; mono-silicate of soda, 6.41 gr.; silicate of lime, 2.89 gr.; silicate of magnesia, 1.02 gr.; iron and aluminium oxides, 2.10 gr.; silica, 8.29 gr.: total, 121.62 gr. in one gallon. Temperature: From 98° Fahr to 118° Fahr. Special indications: Cutaneous diseases, rheumatism; if filtered, suitable for internal administration in atonic dyspepsia and uratic diathesis (dose, one tumbler thrice daily between meals).

The above analyses were made in 1881 and 1882, and a re-analysis was made in 1893 by the Government Analyst, who reports as follows: “These results show that some changes have taken place in the constitution of several of these waters since their analysis in 1881 and 1882—that is, prior to the volcanic eruption of Tarawera. The ‘Painkiller’ Spring has evidently acquired quite a new character, being an alkaline in place of an acidic water. The Hinemaru Spring (McHugh's Bath) contains a little less chloride of sodium than formerly, and more silica, while Rachel's Spring contains a little less of the alkaline sulphate. These facts are interesting, but with the exception of the total change of character of the ‘Painkiller’ water, nothing has been elicited to show that any of them have changed so much as to seriously affect them for the medical purposes to which they have hitherto been applied.” This should reassure those who may have been led astray by a report—diligently circulated by certain interested individuals—that our springs are weaker and less efficacious than formerly. The “Painkiller” Spring is gradually assuming its original character and composition. It is true that there is no spring in the district so erratic in its temperature and density as the Priest's Bath, but, fortunately, temperature and density are not its most important therapeutic factors. The analysis of 1893, as compared with that of 1881, shows that there has been a falling-off in certain of its negative ingredients, but the curative properties of the water are maintained by an actual increase in two, at least, of its more positive constituents—free hydrochloric acid, and sulphuretted hydrogen. No one has a better opportunity of judging of the physiological and curative effects of this water than I, who, for many years, have had the advantage of daily observation; and my deliberately expressed opinion is that the water of the Priest's Bath is as powerful a skin stimulant, and as valuable a curative agent, as it was twelve years ago. It would be well if the last-four-mentioned springs were called springs, and not baths, as the latter term is apt to be misleading to visitors; indeed it would be well if a block plan of the Sanatorium Reserve were to be bound in with this publication, giving the name and position of each spring.

Analyses of Five New Springs

The baths have been constructed at the Postmaster as already mentioned, and the following are analyses of its waters and of four other springs which have lately been brought into notice, owing to the overcrowding of the Priest's and Rachel Baths. No doubt they will shortly be brought under the control of the Government authorities, as part of the Sanatorium Reserve, and suitable bathing accommodation built. They are as follows:—

(1.) Waikirihou, or “The Vaux Spring,” Supplying the New Sulphur Baths, commonly known as the “Postmaster.”

 Grains per Gallon.
Sulphate of soda32.87
Sulphate of potash1.24
Sulphate of lime4.93
Sulphate of magnesia1.83
Sulphate of alumina33.32
Iron oxides4.42
Sulphuric acid (free)30.32
Hydrochloric acid (free)6.14
Silica17.61
 132.58
Sulphuretted hydrogen3.02

This is the strongest acidic water in the district, and most valuable as a local application to rheumatic or injured joints, but, for immersion of the whole body, requiring the greatest care and caution. Its action is that of a modified mustard-plaster, producing a strong determination of blood to the surface, the redness remaining much longer than that caused by the Priest's Bath. The cause of this will be seen on comparing the amount of free acid in the two waters. It is not a water to be trifled with; and patients with weak hearts or delicate skins will do well to take advice before using it.

The latest discovery with regard to the therapeutic power of this water is, that it abolishes the craving for alcohol. If I had heard this from one or two individuals only I might have disregarded it, but hearing it commented on almost daily, I have taken the trouble to look up the cases. Two of these were very aggravated examples of inebriate, whose acquaintance I first made in the Court-house, where I found myself under the painful necessity of fining each of them the usual 5s. and costs. They assure me that they find themselves new men since bathing in these sulphur baths, and have lost all taste and desire for liquor of every kind. Three other patients of mine, to whom I found it necessary to advise total abstinence, corroborate this testimony, stating that they have felt no craving for stimulants since using the baths. They are very enthusiastic in the matter, and think that an asylum for inebriates should be established here at once. No doubt the craving for alcohol is kept up by a congested state of the mucous membrane of the stomach, so that the modus operandi of these waters is not far to seek; the congestion is relieved by the powerful determination of blood to the skin. In like manner, hæmorrhoids are cured by our acid waters, from the relief afforded to a congested liver. We do not for a moment affirm that bathing in these waters will engender a distaste for alcoholic stimulants, but there is no doubt that the craving for drink is materially modified by such bathing, and any man sincerely desirous of abandoning the habit will find great assistance from the use of the baths. An institution combining the use of these waters with the Hagey system of treatment would probably be of great value.

(2.) Toko, or “The Postmaster's Bath.”

 Grains per Gallon.
Sulphate of soda45.09
Sulphate of potash0.41
Sulphate of lime2.45
Sulphate of magnesia0.30
Sulphate of alumina1.34
Iron oxides0.71
Sulphuric acid (free)17.86
Hydrochloric acid (free)7.40
Silica10.11
 85.67
Sulphuretted hydrogen5.69

This is a strongly acidic water, fulfilling all the therapeutic indications of the Priest's Spring.

This spring has died out since the excavations were made for the new sulphur baths.

(3.) Matuatonga, or “Corlett's Bath.”

 Grains per Gallon.
Chloride of sodium with a little potassium66.44
Chloride of calcium6.72
Chloride of magnesium0.31
Sulphate of lime10.32
Carbonate of lime0.21
AluminaTrace
Soda silicate with a little carbonate29.27
 113.27
Sulphuretted hydrogen2.21

This water is very similar to the Rachel Spring, and calculated to fulfil similar therapeutic indications. Being situated some thirty or forty yards from the new sulphur baths, and at an elevation of about 8 ft above them, the water of this spring may be easily led into the baths. This would give us as complete an arrangement as is at present afforded by the Priest's and Rachel Baths; and, as regards showers and douches, the necessary power will be readily obtainable from the cold-water main, which is within reasonable distance.

(4.) Waikupapapa, or “The Saddler's Bath.

 Grains per Gallon.
Sulphate of soda33.18
Sulphate of potash0.26
Sulphate of lime2.44
Sulphate of magnesia0.24
Sulphate of alumina0.32
Iron oxidesTrace
Sulphuric acid (free)4.29
Hydrochloric acid (free)7.49
Silica8.23
 56.45
Sulphuretted hydrogen3.61

This is an acidic water, similar to, that of the Postmaster's, but less stimulating, and consequently more suitable for delicate skins.

(5.) Ngaruapuia, or “The Gemini Bath.”

 Grains per Gallon.
Sulphate of soda29.80
Sulphate of potash0.64
Sulphate of lime6.87
Sulphate of magnesia0.31
Sulphate of alumina 
Iron oxidesTrace
Sulphuric acid (free)3.11
Hydrochloric acid (free)6.76
Silica12.01
 59.50
Sulphuretted hydrogenTraces.

This is a valuable acidic water, less astringent and stimulating than the foregoing (the Saddler's), from the fact of its containing less free acid and more silica, and is, in many cases of skin disease, a most desirable intermediate water between the soothing alkaline waters and the more powerful waters of the acid type.

The Whakarewarewa Baths

At Whakarewarewa, two miles from Rotorua, there are two springs which have a well-merited reputation.

  1. Turikore, or the “Spout Bath.”—This water is in great repute among the Maoris for the cure of cutaneous diseases, rheumatism, lumbago, sciatica, and kidney complaints. It is of a sulphurous character, and has a faintly-acid reaction, which changes to alkaline on boiling the water. Analysis: Silicate of soda, 16.32 gr.; silicate of lime, 1.61 gr.; silicate of magnesia, 1.14 gr.; silicate of iron, 0.39 gr.; sulphate of soda, 13.47 gr.; chloride of potassium, 1.24 gr.; chloride of sodium, 53.61 gr.; phosphate of alumina, traces: total, 87.78 gr. in one gallon. Temperature: 96° Fahr. to 120° Fahr. Special indications: Cutaneous diseases, lumbago, chronic rheumatism, local palsy of muscles.

  2. Koroteoteo, or the “Oil Bath.”—This water is alkaline and slightly caustic. Analysis: Mono-silicate of soda, 2.08 gr.; monosilicate of lime, 3.16 gr.; mono-silicate of magnesia, 0.76 gr.; monosilicate of iron, 0.85 gr.; sulphate of soda, 7.49 gr.; chloride of potassium, 1.46 gr.; chloride of sodium, 66.34 gr.; chloride of lithium, traces: total, 82.14 gr. in one gallon. Temperature, 212° Fahr. Special indications: Cutaneous diseases.

Would a Medical Guide-Book to the Thermal Springs of Rotorua be of any Practical Value?

This is an important question, since the general public would be almost unanimous in answering it in the affirmative, perhaps adding as a rider, “provided it contained full and explicit directions for self-treatment.” The medical profession, on the other hand, would be equally unanimous on the negative side. If we could tabulate diseases, and attach to each its appropriate remedy or remedies, the science of medicine would be simplified indeed; but, unfortunately, this cannot be done. Every case requires to be dealt with on its own merits. One of the first lessons a medical student learns is, “Treat your patient first and his disease afterwards.” An old Latin adage says, “Quot homines, tot sententiæ”—So many men, so many minds. It would be equally true to say, “Quot homines, tot corpora,”—So many men, so many bodies—as no two are identical physically and mentally. When a man applies to a life-assurance society for an insurance on his life, such society requires the fullest information as to his family and personal antecedents, his physique, the condition of his internal organs, his occupation and habits of life, before they feel competent to judge of the risk they run in accepting his proposal. This is precisely the information a physician requires before he feels competent to form a correct diagnosis or prognosis, or to decide what plan of treatment is most likely to prove successful; and yet there are thousands of people who believe in such books as “Every man his own Doctor” and “Every man his own Lawyer,” It is a matter of everyday experience to find the nervous, excitable man, who reads medical books, imagining himself the victim of every ill to which flesh is heir; and, no doubt, the man who thirsts for cheap legal knowledge finds his litigious proclivities accentuated. The legitimate practitioners of the two professions are, in the end, the persons chiefly benefited by such works.

Perhaps nothing will better emphasize the foregoing remarks or prove more generally interesting than a short sketch of the position held by rheumatism in the medical mind of to-day. A recent writer on the subject remarks: “Rheumatism is a systemic disease, of which the articular lesions are the most frequent and conspicuous manifestations, but which implicates many other structures and tissues, assuming widely different forms in different cases.” This is well seen in the great differences which rheumatism presents in childhood, adolescence, and old age. Again: “‘Rheumatism’ and ‘rheumatic’ are terms very loosely applied. If they refer to one definite set of phenomena, and depend on a single morbid process, the nature of such process cannot, as yet, be spoken of with any degree of certainty. A great variety of disorders are popularly styled ‘rheumatic,’ which have no real connection, either with each other or with the more typical forms of the disease. The word is a convenient designation for any ache or pain which does not readily fall under any other category.” The frequency with which peripheral neuritis is spoken of as muscular rheumatism is a case in point.

Of the numerous theories in explanation of the pathology of rheumatism, the following are the chief: (1.) That the heart is the starting-point, and inflammation of its lining membrane (endocarditis) the principal event on which all other lesions depend. (2.) That it is due to some disturbance of the central nervous system, caused either by surface-chill, or the action of a chemical or organized poison upon the great nerve centres. (3.) That it is caused by an excess of lactic acid which is supposed to play a part analogous to uric acid in gout. (4.) That it is an infective disease, due to the presence of certain micro-organisms in the system, or toxic matters generated by them. This theory is rapidly gaining ground, and is, perhaps, more generally accepted to-day than any other. The facts on which the assumption rests are these: that certain micro-organisms have been found in the blood and urine of patients suffering from acute articular rheumatism, and that their abundance or scarcity is determined by the stage, or degree of severity, of the attack; also, that it is the only hypothesis that will account for acute rheumatism appearing as an epidemic, as it does in some localities. “Not one of these theories,” says Dr. Garrod, “can claim to be clearly established, and no one of them has met with universal acceptance. The problem of the pathology of rheumatism still remains unsolved.”

Cases suitable for Treatment

The selection of cases suitable for treatment at Rotorua is a most important matter. I am aware that there is a strong tendency, both with physician and patient, to try anything as a dernier ressort. It is a serious matter, however, to put a patient to the trouble and expense, and possibly pain, of making a long and weary journey, to rob him of the comforts of home and the society of his friends, without at least some reasonable hope that his labour will not be thrown away.

The two most important questions to be answered before deciding to send a case to Rotorua are: (1) Has the patient sufficient strength to bear the journey? and (2) is the case one likely to benefit by the treatment? With regard to the first question, it must be remembered that the long thirty-four miles coaching journey over a bad road is a thing of the past. The railway now gives through communication with Auckland within a little over ten hours. Still, a ten hours' railway-journey will not be accomplished by an invalid without some fatigue, and possibly increase of pain; but, if there be sufficient vitality to render such inconvenience a matter of mere temporary concern only, it is no insurmountable barrier. Nor need the partial or even total loss of the patient's locomotive power prevent his coming. We have many instances on record of patients who on arrival required the aid of crutches, or had actually to be carried to the bath, and yet went away enjoying the full use of their limbs. In considering the second question, medical men will not need to be reminded that where profound organic structural change exists very little benefit can be expected, so that considerable discrimination must be exercised in selecting cases of paralysis for treatment. Where nerve-elements are extensively destroyed hot water has no regenerating power that I am aware of. The same may be said of osteo-arthritis or chronic rheumatic arthritis, with structural change and great deformity of the joints. Such cases may improve in general health, gain weight, and lose pain, but there the improvement ends. Our treatment is contra-indicated in phthisis as long as active destructive change is going on in the lungs. Certain chronic poitrinaires, however, pay us periodical visits with advantage.

Paraplegia Cured

Primary functional paralysis, in which there is reason to believe that the nerve-centres have undergone no organic change—such paralysis, for example, as may be induced by depressing morbid influences, as malaria, influenza, sexual excesses, mental or physical fatigue, exposure to wet and cold, alcoholism, or hysteria—are likely to benefit by treatment at Rotorua.

Several cases in point are given in the New Zealand Year-book for 1893. One illustrative case will be sufficient to quote here.

H. C., a bushman, aged twenty-three, had become completely paraplegic, presumably from exposure to wet and cold. He had been for many months dependent on a Charitable Aid Board, which sent him to Rotorua. For three weeks he was carried to his bath, at the end of which time he was able to stand alone. At the end of five weeks he could walk with two sticks, and ride on horseback. In three months he was as well as he had ever been in his life.

Gout, Rheumatism, and Skin Diseases

No more favourable field for the observation and study of these allied diseases could be wished for than that afforded by Rotorua, nor is there any place more bountifully favoured by Nature for their successful treatment. These diseases furnish fully 75 per cent. of the cases resorting to Rotorua for treatment. With regard to gout, several prominent physicians of the French school are of opinion that sulphur baths are distinctly injurious, and should be rigidly proscribed in gout. They affirm that the formation of uric acid is increased by them, and the solvent power of the blood for that acid diminished. We are aware that certain medicines have the latter effect, notably, the mineral acids, and, perhaps, strychnia and arsenic; but during an experience of thirteen years we have never found that our sulphur baths have had other than a beneficial effect in the disease. Two remarkable examples of this may be interesting.

H. W., aged fifty, has been a martyr to gout for twenty years. During the season of 1897–98 he spent two months at Rotorua. His condition was so critical that his friends scarcely expected him to return home. He was extremely anæmic and debilitated, could not stand or even sit upright; the mind was enfeebled, his conversation in-consequent and childish; wept on the slightest emotional excitement. It was quite two weeks before he was strong enough to take the baths with safety; he then had one Priest bath daily, greatly to his advantage: his strength, appetite, and mental condition improved, he could stand and take a few faltering steps. After this he was able to take two Priest baths daily: the improvement continued, and on leaving he was able to walk with the help of a stick fairly well. The only medicine he took was salicine, with dialysed iron. After his arrival home his condition was reported as improved.

A. B., aged forty, a professor of music from South Australia, has been for some years a sufferer from gout. He has the usual deformity of finger-joints, with chalky concretions. Occasionally the immobility of the fingers has been so great that he has been unable to practise his profession. He has paid Rotorua an annual visit for some years past. A very few of our sulphur baths always set his fingers at liberty, and enabled him to continue his music-teaching. The result is that he has left South Australia and settled himself permanently in Auckland, in order to be within easy reach of Rotorua.

We cannot afford to ignore results like these in favour of any theoretical objection; so that I think we must continue to prescribe our sulphur baths in gout, the French medical dictum to the contrary notwithstanding.

In all forms of rheumatism and rheumatoid arthritis we have much success, especially where arthritic degeneration is not too pronounced. Hot acidic sulphur-baths at a temperature not exceeding 104°, or sulphur-vapour up to 115°, taken twice daily for a carefully regulated time, according to individual tolerance—which we find to vary greatly—forms our routine treatment. These waters redden the skin, and cause some tingling sensation for an hour or two. Occasionally some irritation of the skin occurs, which is readily allayed by a few warm alkaline showers or douches. In those numerous and well-known cases of chronic hip-rheumatism, often due to injury, we find nothing so efficacious as the hot douche. The beneficial result is due partly to the quality of the water, and largely to its mechanical action: fortunately, our arrangements are so complete that we are able to vary the temperature and percussive power of the douche at will. We are able to quote several cases of cure even where a considerable amount of fibrous anchylosis has existed. If the rheumatic patient progresses favourably under the bath-treatment alone, neither medicines nor electricity are employed, but if after a few weeks his progress is not satisfactory we find galvano-faradism a valuable adjunct. Usually thirty cells are put into circuit with a faradic machine, and the double current applied in the labile manner to the parts affected for fifteen minutes daily. We find this answers better than either current alone. In cases of muscular atrophy faradism is resorted to from the commencement. Massage is also occasionally of use.

Great Success in Cases of Skin-disease

Perhaps there is no class of diseases in which we meet with more uniform success than those affecting the skin. The solid and gaseous constituents of the waters are no doubt important; but I have more confidence in the influence of change, and all that it implies in its effect on both mind and body, combined with the prolonged maceration of the cuticle, and the constant exposure of the skin to air and light which frequent bathing entails. General eczema, which may have resisted every form of treatment for years, is usually cured in a period varying from six to thirteen weeks if the patient is willing to submit himself to rigorous medical discipline. The same may be said of psoriasis,—at least, as far as its disappearance for a longer or shorter period is concerned. It is rare indeed to see psoriasis completely eradicated. For ringworm and the impetiginous eczema of children the water of the Priest's Spring is a specific. In sycosis epilation is necessary, after which our alkaline waters complete the cure.

We had great success during the year 1897 in the treatment of skin diseases. Several cases of general eczema have been completely cured in the Sanatorium.

Pemphigus is one of the rarer forms of skin disease, and, in its severer manifestations, not infrequently proves fatal. It is characterised by an eruption of large vesicles—technically termed “bullæ”—which vary in size from that of a sixpence to a hen's egg. These vesicles are distended with serum, and require to be punctured and evacuated. M. J., a girl aged nineteen, came to the Rotorua Sanatorium suffering from this disease. Fortunately, it was not the graver form of the ailment, but a more benign manifestation well described by Kaposi (Hebra's successor in Vienna) as “Pemphigus vulgaris benignus.” The irritation was severe, and interfered greatly with her rest at night; however, she had not taken more than six baths when all irritation ceased; at the end of a week the vesicating process ceased also, and her skin was simply marked with purplish-red patches corresponding in area with the bases of the bullæ: these faded to a pale-brown and then disappeared. In three weeks she was virtually well. I kept her a fortnight longer and then sent her home, which was close to the sea. To my surprise, in less than a week, I received a letter from her father stating that the whole thing had reappeared and she was as bad as ever. We readmitted her to the Sanatorium, put her under the same treatment, and on this occasion the curative process went on even more rapidly than before. In three weeks she was again apparently well, but instead of sending her back to the sea, she was advised to go forty miles further inland, which she did. After residing there three months she wrote to say that she remained perfectly well.

I could quote numerous instances in which sea-air has greatly aggravated skin affections attended with violent itching, particularly in stormy weather, when the atmosphere is laden with saline particles.

In these cases we do not pin our faith exclusively to the baths, to the exclusion of all internal medication. However inoperative such treatment may have been at home, we find that, in conjunction with the new environment, rest, change of air and scene, with the baths, such treatment is of the greatest use. Patients frequently decline to take medicine, saying that they have exhausted the Pharmacopœia, and have come to Rotorua to try the baths as a last resource, but have little faith in them. Such cases are discouraging. It is difficult to engraft an improved physical state on a hopeless mental condition.

During the season of 1897 three rare forms of skin disease presented themselves at Rotorua for treatment. They are known respectively as Diffuse Fibroma Molluscum, Scleroderma, and Viteligo. Of course, bath treatment is utterly useless in such cases.

Neuralgia

Patients suffering from sciatica are a numerous class with us, most of them presenting a very chronic history. When the disease is not distinctly associated with the gouty or rheumatic diathesis, is not of long standing, and has been caused by exposure to cold, it is very quickly cured. A few baths relieve the pain, and there is rarely any stiffness or weakness remaining. Chronic cases are not so easily dealt with—they require great patience and perseverance on the part of both physician and patient. Our routine treatment consists of hot baths, sulphur-vapour, the douche, and galvanism. After six or eight weeks it often happens that nothing remains to remind the patient of his old enemy beyond some slight weakness or soreness of the limb, and I usually advise him to try a week's sea-bathing on his way home. In order to accomplish this he should arrive in Rotorua not earlier than September or later than February. We have had some good results in the treatment of cervico-brachial neuralgia. An interesting case is detailed in the Year-book of 1893.

A man about fifty years of age presented himself some time ago suffering from a spasmodic neuralgia of the facial nerve. Any movement of the jaws, as in eating, yawning, putting out the tongue, and even sometimes in speaking, brought on a paroxysm, lasting, fortunately, only a few seconds, but evidently agonizing; in fact, his life was a burden to him. After four weeks' persistent bathing, with iron and arsenic internally (which no doubt he had taken before) he left cured.

A Case of Sciatica

A. B., a man forty-five years of age, was admitted to the Sanatorium, suffering from severe sciatica. Prior to his arrival he had been unable to lie down for three weeks,—slept in a chair when he could, or with his head on his arms at a table. In a few days he was able to lie down and rest fairly well, with the assistance of 15 grains of antikamnia at bed-time. He took the Priest and Postmaster baths alternately, and left us at the end of three weeks without a trace of his ailment remaining.

Peripheral Neuritis cured

The subject of this is, or rather was, Dr. King of Auckland. He is very glad, no doubt, to be able to speak of his ailment in the past tense. I have his permission to publish the following letter; indeed, he is most anxious that his case should receive the fullest publicity. The letter explains itself and needs little or no comment of mine:—

DEAR SIR,—                                                                                                Auckland, 5th May, 1897.

I was sorry to have missed you while at Rotorua, although, to tell you the truth, I was solely on a health-seeking mission, little expecting to receive the benefit I did, and therefore not much inclined for company. My trouble was peripheral neuritis, caused perhaps by the diphtheric poison acting on a nervous system already exhausted by over-work and worry. Without going fully into details, I may say that I began to fail in January last, and had to leave my practice on the 16th of that month, almost unable to do anything for myself. Mrs. King and I went south to Dunedin, Wakatipu, Invercargill, Christ-church, and Hanmer Springs, where, after ten days' bathing, I seemed to receive a little benefit from the use of baths at a temperature of 110° to 114°, but not less. I then returned to Auckland very little the better, after seven weeks, having to be helped in and out of the cab on Saturday, 6th March. On the following Monday I left for Rotorua, where I took chiefly hot Rachel and Postmaster baths, with a Priest bath occasionally, but this I could not get hot enough. The Postmaster I took up to 111° and could almost feel it do me good. The Rachel I took up to 118°, and I attribute my recovery mainly to that. I cannot speak in too great praise of Rotorua, and I think such a place ought to be the sanatorium of the world. Of all the baths I took, I certainly like the Postmaster best. I shall be perfectly willing at any time to bear out all I have said. I will gladly give you my assistance for a few days at any time should you be needing a change. I intend to put my case before the Medical Association, and shall endeavour to publish it in the Medical Journal, so that you will hear further on the matter. My last word is: I thank God, from my heart, for Rotorua.

Thanking you for this opportunity of saying a word, believe me

Yours very faithfully,

T. W. KING.

This evidence, coming from a medical man, is of double value, since it leaves no doubt as to the correctness of the diagnosis, or the efficacy of the treatment adopted. In the interest of those who may be inclined to take baths at the high temperature described by Dr. King, I think it right to state that gentleman did not immerse his whole body in such baths, but only the affected limbs.

Curative Effects of Mineral Waters

To enumerate every ailment in which our thermal springs have proved useful would prolong this paper indefinitely. Suffice it to say that in many cases their healing power has been discovered accidentally. Many women bathing for rheumatism have found themselves cured of chronic metritis and leucorrhœa, and as a result of such cures have proved fruitful after years of sterility. Congestion of the liver, biliary catarrh, with jaundice and hæmorrhoids, have been cured by the acid sulphur waters, which also prove useful as a topical application in ozæna and ulcerated throat. This class of water also tends to reduce plethora and corpulency without prostration, insures healthy action of the skin, and relieves torpor of the bowels.

Ulcerated Throat

The mention of ulcerated throat reminds me of two most interesting cases which presented themselves recently from the island of New Caledonia. In this island, it appears, chronic laryngitis is common.

The first case was that of a French gentleman engaged in business, whose throat ailment was of long standing. He remained with us a few weeks, used the water of the Priest's Spring as a gargle, and as a wet compress to the throat at night, and bathed in the same water twice daily. He left perfectly cured.

The second case was a much more serious one. The patient was a French Roman Catholic priest. He attributed his ailment to excessive use of his voice in preaching, teaching, and singing. He had constant cough, his voice was hoarse and scarcely audible, and there was occasional slight hæmorrhage from the laryngeal ulcers. After pursuing for four weeks the treatment described in the foregoing case, he left very much improved, but by no means well. To my surprise, in a few weeks after his departure he wrote to our late Resident Engineer, Mr. Malfroy, stating that to his great delight he found himself perfectly cured, and that he could use his voice in preaching and singing as well as ever he did in his life.

Permanent Benefits realised

During past years my correspondence with patients proposing to come to Rotorua, and with those who have left after a longer or shorter experience of our bath treatment, has been considerable. No fact has struck me more forcibly than this: that patients who have left greatly benefited, but not cured, almost invariably write to say that, after being a short time at home, they realise the benefit they have derived, and, in most cases, they find themselves permanently cured.

It appears that, whatever it is that our patients take into their systems by absorption or inhalation, and whatever may be the influence of change of climate, scene, and occupation, of relaxation and rest, time is required for assimilation, and the true benefit is only realised some time after their return to their former surroundings.

I am glad to find that this experience is not peculiar to New Zealand, but is quite common with those who frequent the spas of Europe.

Balneological Appliances still Necessary

Although during the past year much has been done to perfect the bathing arrangements at Rotorua, several useful appliances are still wanting: (1) Moveable hose douches, so arranged as to control at will temperature, pressure, and volume; (2) hot-air baths; (3) a cold needle bath; and (4) the Tallerman-Sheffield apparatus for local hot-air treatment. This apparatus consists of a copper chamber, usually cylindrical, and made in various shapes and sizes, so that any limb, or part of a limb, can be treated separately. The air in the chamber is kept dry, and its temperature can be raised or lowered at will. The treatment is applied for a period of from fifty minutes to an hour, and is gradually raised from about 150° to 220°, or even 300°. The immediate effects are relief of pain and stiffness. After the treatment the whole body is briskly rubbed down and the limb massaged with oil. Dr. Sibley has found the treatment of great service in rheumatoid arthritis which has reached a stage in which other treatments are likely to be of but little avail. He has employed this treatment for two years, and knows of no unsatisfactory result following it, although many of the cases treated have been by no means promising. Many of the patients were old and debilitated people, and in some cases cardiac and other visceral complications were present. One of the most valuable effects is the sleep which usually follows the treatment, particularly in cases in which pain has precluded any rest for long periods.

Massage

That department of medicine which relates to the discovery and application of remedies to the cure of diseases being known as Therapeutics, it follows that we may appropriately speak of the application of thermo-mineral waters to the cure of diseases as balneo-therapeutics, of massage as masso-therapeutics, and of galvanism as galvanometer-therapeutics. Now, any one writing in this day on balneo-therapeutics could scarcely afford to ignore the subsidiary agencies of galvanism and massage. I say subsidiary advisedly; since both find their truest value and highest use as adjuncts to bath treatment, bathing diminishing the resistance of the skin to the galvanic current, and by its emollient influence greatly assisting the manipulations of the masseur. We hear a good deal now-a-days about massage; there is scarcely a spa in Europe where it is not practiced. Aix les Bains appears to be its headquarters. Some of those who desire to be considered professors of the art are too apt to represent it as a panacea for all human ills, and so mislead the unwary. It is desirable, therefore, that the general public should get some definite idea of its real worth. The following is what a lecturer on therapeutics at the Westminster Hospital, and examiner in Materia Medica to the Royal College of Physicians of London, says about it: “By massotherapeutics I mean the scientific aspect of the subject: massage, that is, simply as a therapeutic agent, and not massage as a means of earning a living, or as a modified form of hotel-keeping. It must be admitted that many people regard massage and all that appertains to it with a good deal of suspicion, and not without reason. The difficulty is, not that massage fails to receive the credit to which it is entitled, but that it is employed in a number of cases for which it is unsuited. No discrimination is exercised, but its use is advocated for all sorts of chronic ailments. This is a grave mistake, and greatly to be deplored. The work is too often carried on by people who know little or nothing about it, and have not mastered even its most elementary details. They regard it as a special system of treatment, whereas, in reality, it is only one of a number of therapeutic agents at the disposal of every physician. They practice without knowledge, and often do incalculable harm. It is not pleasant to hear of an aneurism or an ulcer in the stomach being ruptured by the efforts of a too zealous rubber; and such mishaps are not unfrequent. The so-called masseur or masseuse, who goes about the country armed with a ‘certificate,’ which is simply a receipt for money paid, is an abomination, and has been the means of bringing a legitimate mode of treatment into disrepute.”

The masseurs who have hitherto visited Rotorua for a few months in the summer have not proved altogether satisfactory. They are birds of passage, here to-day and gone to-morrow. We have, however, a lady well versed in this business, who for several years has been a constant resident in Rotorua. She is highly spoken of by those who have employed her, and her services are always available.

Magnitude of Resources

There are two questions which are perpetually propounded by visitors to Rotorua. The first is usually put in this way: “How is it that the Government of New Zealand does not advertise these springs? Little or nothing is known of them in Australia, or America, or England [or wherever the questioner happens to hail from]. I should not have been here, but that I heard, quite casually, that a friend of mine had been cured here; and if I am cured I shall be able to send you dozens of patients.” My usual reply is: “We believe that good medical work will advertise itself, and your remarks confirm the assertion. It is evident you believe in your own advertising power, and so do we. It will be quite time enough to spend money in advertising when we find that our bathing-accommodation is in excess of the demand made upon it; at present it is barely equal thereto. At the same time our resources are practically unlimited. We have one spring in Ohinemutu estimated to discharge not less than a million gallons daily, which means that it is capable of supplying 10,000 baths daily of 100 gallons each. This is at present running to waste. At Whakarewarewa there is a spring almost, if not quite, its equal. Should the time ever come when these springs are not equal to the demand made upon them we have the Waiotapu Valley to fall back upon, which is surely destined in the future to be the centre of the Thermal-springs District of New Zealand. Immense as our resources are at Rotorua, they sink into insignificance when compared with those of the Waiotapu Valley.”

Comparison of the Rotorua Springs with those of Europe

The second question usually takes this form: “How do your springs compare with those of Europe?” This is a much larger and more interesting subject. The first fact that strikes the inquirer is this: that cold mineral spas, of high therapeutic value as internal remedies, are abundant in Europe, whereas they are rare in New Zealand. In the Rotorua district our mineral waters are all hot, and more suitable for bathing than for internal administration. It does not necessarily follow that because a water is hot it is unfit for internal use. The water of our Rachel Spring is an admirable dietetic-water for gouty and dyspeptic patients, used either hot or cold; and a spring has recently been discovered at the head of Lake Roto-ehu containing, in spite of its high temperature, a large amount of carbonic-acid gas, which holds in solution a good deal of carbonate of iron. After keeping a sample of this water securely bottled for about three weeks, I sent it to a chemical friend for examination. His report was as follows: “On opening the bottle of ‘iron-water’ from Roto-ehu I found a good deal of free carbonic-acid gas, the water effervescing briskly like ordinary soda-water; it contained what was equivalent to 172 cubic inches per gallon. Of course this estimate is not to be relied on, as it would only represent a part of the gas contained in the water direct from the spring. There is more iron than I thought would be in it. This most probably exists in the water as ferrous carbonate dissolved in the carbonic acid. It resembles the European water of Pyrmout, with this difference, that it contains more chlorine and silica. As far as I have gone I find the water to contain, in grains per gallon: Chlorine, 11.2; lime (CaO), 12.74; magnesia, 1.177; silica, 10.266; iron (FeO), 1.177—total solids per gallon, 36.560; carbonic acid, 172 cubic inches.” This spring has an enormous outflow, and is destined to be of great value in the future both for external and internal use.

The next fact that strikes the inquirer is this: that the thermal springs of the Rotorua district contain a far smaller amount of dissolved salts than those of Europe. The difference amounts to 7 to 1 in favour of Europe. If we take the mean of the total solids in grains per gallon of the nine springs first enumerated, we find that they amount to 99.51 gr. only; whereas if we take any nine European springs at haphazard—say, Vichy, Ems, Baden Baden, Marienbad, Seidlitz, Wiesbaden, Saltzbrunnen, Kreuznach, and Leuk—we find that their dissolved constituents amount to 708 gr. per gallon.

Fortunately, the therapeutic efficacy of a thermal spring is not to be measured by the quantity of fixed salts it may contain. It would be a fortunate thing, of course, if we could discover in our district a cold mineral spring like that of Hunyadi-Janos, in Hungary, of which a wineglassful is an efficient aperient; but we can scarcely expect this in a volcanic region like ours. The so-called “chemically-indifferent springs,” such as Gastein and Wildbad, in Germany, contain absolutely less mineral matter than our ordinary drinking water. Thus, the New River water contains 2 1/2 gr. of solid matter to the pint, the East London Company 3 gr., and that supplied by the Hampstead Company 4 1/2 gr. Yet these waters cause no apparent effect, whilst the springs of Wildbad, with 3 1/2 gr. of salt to the pint, and Gastein with 2 gr., are capable of producing therapeutic results mainly due perhaps to the temperature at which they are employed. The chemically-indifferent baths, especially the cooler ones, possess peculiarly sedative effects, not only allaying nervous irritation, but also diminishing vascular excitement, whilst the warmer springs of the same class, being more stimulant, are chiefly used in aggravated cases of chronic rheumatism and rheumatoid arthritis. One important fact has been definitely established by experiment,—whatever may be Nature's secret in the preparation of these remedies, it can never be discovered by science or imitated by art. We must be content, therefore, with the empirical knowledge that certain mineral waters produce certain effects.

There are other salient points of difference between our springs and those of Europe. Our waters contain abundance of silica and silicates, and little or no lime, while those of Europe contain abundance of lime, and little or no silica or silicates. Our district appears to be one in which silica takes the place of lime, the latter being almost a chemical curiosity.

Another curious fact is that hepatic or sulphurous waters, characterized by the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen and free sulphuric acid, as in the case of the Priest's Bath, are abundant here, but absolutely unknown in Europe. The one sole point of resemblance—common not only to Europe and New Zealand, but to all thermal springs in the world—is the prevalence of chloride of sodium (common salt) as a leading ingredient.

The Surroundings of Rotorua

The Rotorua district enjoys the patronage of three classes of visitors: the tourist, the invalid-tourist, and the invalid proper. The question of common interest to them all is, What have they to do, and what have they to see when they get there? The best thing we can do for the tourist is to provide him with a local guide-book, and then transfer him into the hands of a guide. The most delightful trip he can take in fine weather—say from December to March—is to join a party, and do the round of the lakes.

Crossing from the old township of Ohinemutu in a steam-launch, he will first visit the Island of Mokoia, in the centre of Lake Rotorua; thence to the beautiful cold spring of Hamarana, one of the most charming picnicking spots in the district; thence through the Ohau Creek into Lake Roto-iti; here he would do well to camp for the night, and spend the following day in exploring the cosy bays and inlets with which the lake abounds, and visiting the hot spring of Manapirua, and the waterfall and hot springs in the neighbourhood of Taheke.

Crossing over to the western shore of the lake, and landing at Tapuaeharuru, a short walk of a mile or two will bring him to Lake Roto-ehu. Crossing this in a canoe, he will find the hot iron-spring already alluded to, and may readily convince himself of the presence of iron in the water by attempting to make tea with it, or using it to dilute his brandy.

Another walk of a mile will disclose one of the loveliest lakes in the district, Lake Roto-ma. The general consensus of opinion is, that this lake is a vision of beauty, which every visitor lingers round as long as possible and leaves with regret. This trip shows the visitor the Paradise of the district: he will find the Inferno at Tikitere. When George Augustus Sala visited this spot some eight years ago, he called it at once “Hell's Gates.” It is certainly a most weird and awe-inspiring place. The steam rising from its boiling pools and mud-geysers is a never-failing landmark seen from every point of the Rotorua basin. The hydro-thermal action is so powerful at this spot that the visitor feels the earth vibrating under his feet; and yet, in spite of these dismal horrors, invalids—ladies even—will spend weeks here in order to get the benefit of the healing springs, which are justly credited with many most remarkable cures. Tikitere is eleven miles from Rotorua, and the trip may be comfortably made in half a day.

The next point of interest for the tourist is the Wai-o-tapu Valley, distant from Rotorua some twenty miles. Leaving his hotel after an early breakfast, say at 7 a.m., the visitor may see the chief points of interest in the valley, and return in time for dinner at 6 p.m., but only to regret the inadequacy of a one-day's visit to fully inform himself of the wonderful resources of this remarkable district.

New Road-works

Excellent work has been done recently in the formation of new roads to the principal sights of interest. A good coach-road is now completed from Rotorua, through Tikitere, skirting the Lakes Rotoiti, Roto-ehu, to the head of Roto-ma. This is the most interesting and picturesque drive in the district. A good bridle-track has been formed to the summit of Ngongotaha Mountain, from which the finest panoramic view of the surrounding country is obtained. In the north, the Bay of Plenty may be seen with its numerous islands; to the south the snow-clad summits of the volcanic mountains in the Taupo district. A road has been completed from Rotorua, through the Waiotapu Valley and across the Waikato River to Wairakei, and on to Taupo, which shortens the distance between the latter place and Rotorua by ten miles, besides being a far more interesting and attractive route.

Tarawera

Perhaps there is no more enjoyable trip for the young and strong than the journey to Tarawera Mountain, the scene of the eruption on the 10th of June, 1886. A ride of ten miles on horseback brings the visitor to the buried village of Wairoa; thence a voyage by boat some nine miles, across Lake Tarawera, lands him at the foot of the mountain. The ascent will occupy an hour and a half, and having arrived at the summit, he cannot but feel well rewarded for his toil. No verbal description can possibly convey an adequate idea of the scene of devastation and desolation which the view from this standpoint reveals.

The best advice we can give to the invalid tourist is to attend to business first and pleasure afterwards. If he really wishes to derive benefit from the hot springs, he must not bathe irregularly on the advice of Dick, Tom, and Harry; taking a long fatiguing journey one day, and possibly three hot baths the next, and then wonder how it is that he feels so limp and exhausted: this kind of thing will only disappoint him, and do no credit to the springs. He may very well spend the first three weeks of his visit in bathing systematically, filling up his intervals of leisure by visiting places of interest near his hotel or boarding-house—and there are many, though usually neglected because they are so easy of access.

The Rotorua Basin and its Surroundings

Not one in twenty of the visitors staying at the Lake House Hotel takes the nearest route across the Pukeroa Recreation Reserve to the Government baths; and yet from this spot a most magnificent panoramic view of the whole Rotorua basin, 80,000 acres in extent, may be obtained. Standing on the highest point, and looking towards the north, the visitor sees spread out before him the tranquil beauty of Lake Rotorua—20,000 acres of water, with the lofty volcanic island of Mokoia in its centre. The lights and shadows on the surrounding hills, the cloud scenery reflected in the water, the white cliffs to the north and north-east gleaming in the sunlight, the steam column rising from Tikitere, the bluff of Wahanga—the most northerly point of the Tarawera Range—just peering above the intervening hills, and in the foreground the Maori village and the English Church on a promontory jutting into the lake, form a picture which would certainly delight the artist, who usually sees when he looks, if not the tourist, who too often looks without seeing. Turning to the south and south-west, I know of no prospect more lovely on a calm summer's evening at sunset. The steam columns of Whakarewarewa are thrown into relief by the dark background of hills, and through the Hemo Gorge a glimpse is caught of the deep blue Paeroa Ranges in the extreme distance. In the west is the bold bluff of Paparata, with its sky-line clothed with forest, through which the setting sun throws a flood of crimson light, making it look like a veritable bush on fire. North of west is the Ngongotaha Mountain, rising 1,600 ft. above the level of the lake, from the summit of which may be seen on a clear day the Bay of Plenty, with its numerous islands, and inland the snowcapped mountains of Ruapehu and Tongariro.

Whakarewarewa

At Whakarewarewa, only two miles from Rotorua, the visitor will find an epitome of all the neighbourhood contains; hotel and bathing-accommodation, geysers, hot springs, boiling pools, mud volcanoes, hot waterfalls, and siliceous terrace formation. It will interest the visitor to know that in our Thermal-springs District exist the only geysers in that British Empire on which the sun is said never to set. Geysers are found in the Yellowstone Park, in Iceland, and in Thibet. Of the latter we know very little; but geologists tell us that, of the geysers of the world, those of the States of Wyoming and Idaho are the oldest, those in New Zealand the next in age, and, strange to say, those of Iceland, with which most of us were first acquainted, the youngest.

It will be seen, therefore, that the invalid tourist has plenty to interest him close at home, without interfering in any way with a profitable use of the numerous hot springs at his disposal.

Accommodation

The opening of the Auckland–Rotorua Railway, which took place in December 1894, greatly increased the number of visitors. From December until the end of March the hotels and boarding-houses are filled to overflowing. A list of some of the hotels and boarding-houses now open, with the number they are able to accommodate respectively, may be interesting.

HOTELS.
The Grand70
The Geyser50
The Palace40
Lake House60
BOARDING-HOUSES.
Bathgate House85
The Langham20
Tarawera House20
Lake View20
Rotorua House22
Mokoia View20
The Pines25
The Blue-bath Coffee Palace20
              Total452

The tariffs vary from 25s. weekly. The returns of baths taken show 48,868 for the year ended 31st March, 1899, against 46,688 for the year ended March, 1898.

Routes from Australian Colonies

The most direct route for visitors from the Australian Colonies is from Sydney to Auckland, and thence by rail to Rotorua. Those who may desire to see something more of the country may take steamer from Melbourne to the Bluff, and from thence on to Wellington, continuing the journey overland to Rotorua—a four days' trip, most enjoyable in fine weather. Patients should be recommended to bring plain, warm clothing, and substantial boots and shoes. Rotorua is essentially a convenient place for the wearing-out of old clothes. Frills and furbelows, jewellery and valuable watches, had better be left at home, as they are not improved by the sulphurous vapours arising from the springs. The watch par excellence for Rotorua is the nickel-plated “Waterbury.”

PART IV.—DESCRIPTIONS OF LAND DISTRICTS

Table of Contents

Chapter 71. THE AUCKLAND LAND DISTRICT

G. Mueller, Chief Surveyor

Introductory

THE Auckland Land District covers about four and a half degrees of latitude, extending from 34° 30' to 39° S., its greatest length being about 365 miles, from the North Cape to the 39th parallel, south of Lake Taupo, while its greatest width is about 180 miles. In the peninsula north of Auckland, indented as it is on either side by harbours and arms of the sea, and with a mean width between the Pacific Ocean and Tasman Sea of little over forty miles, the range of temperature is remarkably small. The thermometer seldom registers above 80° in the shade in the middle of summer, whilst the heat is always tempered by a cool breeze, bringing the mean summer temperature to under 70° in the shade. The frosts are hardly worth mentioning, as the minimum register is seldom below 40°; but south of Auckland sharp white frosts occur very often, more especially beyond 38° of latitude, and snow lies upon the summits of some of the highest, hills or mountains in winter.

Physical Features

This land district may be said to have no real mountains, as the most prominent peaks of the several scattered ranges or hills seldom exceed 3,000 ft. in height above the sea-level, an altitude just enough—south of 38°—to clothe the last 1,000 ft. with snow in the depth of winter. North of Hokianga and the Bay of Islands there is one well-defined range of hills rising to a height of 2,463 ft.; whilst south of these places, and extending to the Wairoa River on one side and the Whangarei Harbour upon the other, the country is all more or less broken into ranges from 1,000 ft. to 2,000 ft. in height, with valleys between. The next really well developed main range lies within the Coromandel and Thames Peninsula. With a length of over 150 miles, it has an average height of over 2,800 ft., commencing with Moehau, or Cape Colville, 2,935 ft.; next, Te Aroha, a peak of 3,176 ft.; and ending at Weraiti with a height of 2,527 ft. There are two other well-defined ranges—namely, Tawairoa and Hauturu—lying between the West Coast and the Waipa basin, with their highest peak at Pirongia, which rises to 3,156 ft., and is often snow-capped. There are other ranges forming the watershed between the basins of the Waikato and Waipa Rivers, and dividing both from the streams running into the western side of Lake Taupo. Their highest peak is Pureora, rising to 3,793 ft. The eastern side of the land district is occupied by a very broken, forest-clad country, known as the Urewera country, the average height of which is about 2,500 ft. It is practically unexplored, and, being still in the hands of the Natives, is not as yet available for settlement. To the east of Lake Taupo lie the Kaimanawa Ranges, of about 4,500 ft., and generally open on the ridges, with valleys clothed in beech forests. Nearly the whole of the Auckland Land District is indented on both coasts with harbours and arms of the sea, forming a cheap and easy means of access. Of rivers, properly so called, there are only two of any great length—namely, the Wairoa and Waikato. The first empties itself into the Kaipara Harbour, a large arm, or rather succession of arms, of the sea, giving hundreds of miles of inland water-carriage to all parts of the Counties of Hobson, Otamatea, Rodney, and Waitemata. This river is navigable from its mouth to its junction with its tributaries Wairua and Mangakahia, a distance of ninety-one miles from the sea, and for forty miles it is navigable for ships of large burden. The River Waikato has a course of 200 miles, measured from its source in the Ruapehu Mountain through Lake Taupo to the sea on the West Coast. It is navigable for river-steamers for seventy-five miles from its mouth, and its tributary, the Waipa, for twenty miles from its confluence with the Waikato at Ngaruawahia. Another river—the Thames, or Waihou—though of no great length, affords a valuable means of inland water-carriage, and is navigable for small steamers for twenty-five miles. Generally speaking, every part of the district has an abundant water-supply, now and then lessened for a short time at the end of a very dry summer.

Plains

Of plains proper, this district has only the stretch of country called Kaingaroa, extending from the eastern side of Lake Taupo towards the Bay of Plenty, all more or less of a pumice formation; the valley of the Thames, and the delta between the Thames and Piako Rivers, which is generally level, the quality of the soil varying very much in different parts; and the Central Waikato basin, already thickly settled. Here and there in the North there are level plateaux of volcanic soil, more or less densely wooded, and along the main rivers there are stretches of level country, but there are no large plains of alluvial soil such as the Middle Island can show.

Lakes

Of these, which add so much to the scenery of a country, this district possesses a fair share, there being eight principal lakes, with some twenty or more smaller ones. To the north of Auckland, in the Bay of Islands district, there is only one lake of any size, called Omapere, three miles by two miles, an old crater. In the Waikato are Lakes Waikare and Whangape, the first six miles and a half long by three miles across, and the second five miles by one mile. These lakes are generally covered with numerous wild swans and ducks, and, being both connected with the Waikato River by navigable creeks, form a convenient waterway for transport of goods to settlers living around their shores. All the remaining lakes of large size are within the watershed of the Thermal-springs District, and are mostly from seven to eight miles long, and from three to six miles wide, except Taupo Moana, the queen of the North Island lakes, which is twenty-five miles long and eighteen miles broad, with a depth of 500 ft. The scenery round its western shore is of the most romantic kind.

Forests

The greater part of the Auckland Land District has been covered in the past with dense forests, which are now fast disappearing under the axe of the settler and being transformed into rich pasture-land. The only really good Crown lands fit for settlement in the North are still all covered with forest, and must be cleared and sown before any returns can follow. The area of forest land in the Auckland District at the present time is about 1,800,000 acres north of Auckland, and 3,420,000 acres south of it. The forests contain a mixture of trees of all kinds, from the giant kauri to scrubby tea-tree or manuka, but all the bush is useful for building, fencing, and household purposes, or at any rate may be converted into charcoal for sale. Of the giant kauri (the most valuable tree in New Zealand) great quantities, worth as much as £400,000 per annum, are being yearly cut, and exported or used for home consumption. To give some idea of the size of these trees, and the amount of timber contained in them, it is estimated that upon the Crown land to the north of Auckland, in the Counties of Hokianga, Hobson, Bay of Islands, and Whangarei, there are still remaining 498,000,000 feet, of a value, as the timber stands, of £498,000.

Soils

With respect to the soils of Auckland, nowhere in New Zealand within such short distances is there such a diversity in the quality—a distance of half a mile often makes all the difference between rich alluvial and barren pipe-clay. To the north of the Bay of Islands and Hokianga the lands are chiefly clay and sandstone, with here and there a volcanic area intervening. In and about the valley of the Mangonuiowae River, in the Hokianga County, there is some of the richest alluvial soil in the district; and, taking the whole Crown land remaining to the north of a line between the Hokianga and Bay of Islands Harbours, the really available good land fit for settlement would be about 40,000 acres. There are large areas outside of this which will carry good grass and feed one or two sheep to the acre, after clearing and laying down in grass; and there is also land highly suitable for fruit-growing. South of Hokianga, and between that place and the Wairoa River, the soil is, generally speaking, very good, being both volcanic and alluvial. Here the Crown has probably 200,000 acres of such land fit for settlement. Immediately south of the Bay of Islands, and extending thence to Whangarei, the soil is, for the most part, clay lying upon sandstone or marl, with alluvial flats in the bottoms of the valleys; but these are, as a rule, very narrow. Within the Puhipuhi State Forest there is an area, say, of 16,000 acres, more or less, volcanic soil, over a large portion of which a fire has run; having been surface-sown with grass, it is now carrying good pasture. Approaching Whangarei, at Hikurangi, the limestone crops out, overlying coal - deposits, and round Whangarei itself the soil becomes a rich volcanic, in a high state of cultivation. South of Whangarei Harbour, and from thence to Auckland, the Crown lands generally are of a broken character, with soil varying from alluvial swamps—as in the case of the Tokatoka Swamp of 16,000 acres- to the limestone areas round Maunga-turoto, the sandstone and clay lands of Rodney County, and the poorer clay lands lying north of the City of Auckland, which have, however, proved eminently suitable for fruit-growing.

For about 200 miles south of Auckland the land (with the exception of the Cape Colville Ranges) is, generally speaking, far less broken, and gradually opens out into large tracts of level country in the Waikato and Waipa basins. Immediately south of Auckland the soil is rich volcanic until it is gradually superseded by the prevailing clays; the greater portion of Manukau County, for thirty miles south of Auckland, may be classed as pastoral, and is under occupation as such. The Crown areas available for settlement—say, 16,000 acres—are chiefly in the Otau Parish, varying from volcanic clay to ordinary clay land, forest-clad, and well adapted for pastoral purposes. In the Counties of Waikato, Raglan, Waipa, Piako, West Taupo, and Kawhia, there is a still greater diversity of soils; Raglan County contains large areas of good limestone country, broken, but with rich black soil, and carrying most luxuriant grass. The lower Waikato country consists of clay soil and extensive swamps, almost undrainable, but at a distance of eighty miles from Auckland is found a flat and undulating country, lying partly within the Waikato and Waipa basins, and partly within the valleys of the Piako and Waihou Rivers, formed mainly of alluvial deposits of rhyoli lands brought down from the volcanic districts. In the Kawhia County there are so 300,000 acres of excellent limestone land, a large portion of which is heavily timbered, with numerous warm valleys. Most of this land has now been acquired by the Government from the Native owners, and is being prepared for settlement. Beyond this there is a large stretch of country consisting alternately of open valleys and forest-clad hills, a fair proportion of which is good land, both pastoral and agricultural. The County of Coromandel, with portions of Thames and Ohinemuri Counties, is chiefly devoted to the mining industry. The soil is nearly all clay, the land very broken, but suitable for pastoral purposes if cleared of the dense forest that now covers it. The western portion, however, of the Thames and Ohinemuri Counties contain large areas of alluvial and swamp lands, now in the hands of the Crown, but, through want of drainage, not yet available for settlement.

In the County of Tauranga, the clay lands extend from Te Aroha Mountain to Katikati entrance, changing, near Tauranga, to sandstone and black pumice soil of rich character, which improves towards Te Puke and Maketu, where the land is all good, and more or less volcanic. In Whakatane County there are very extensive swamps, of which large portions are drainable, and back from the coast seven miles or so are large areas of Crown lands, broken and forest-covered, opened ready for settlement. The soil is chiefly clay or light loam, with alluvial flats in the valleys, and all well watered. This kind of country extends to the boundary of the land district. The coastal lands are nearly all alluvial flats in a high state of cultivation, and the settlers mostly well-to-do.

Review of Soils: Uses and Returns

Briefly to set forth the capabilities of the Crown lands in the district, it will suffice to say that north of the Bay of Islands and Hokianga the land is suitable chiefly for two classes of persons—the gum-digger, and the fruit-grower or small farmer. The former has the range over large areas of Crown lands upon paying a small fee, and his earnings average from 5s. to 10s. a day. As for the latter, in and around Hokianga, with its 250 miles of water-frontage, almost anything can be grown, from the tropical banana to the more prosaic potato, whilst oranges and lemons flourish side by side with all kinds of apples, pears, and plums. Wheat does fairly well, and maize gives a return of 50 to 60 bushels an acre. Sheep also thrive; and most of the lands, when properly grassed with artificial grasses, will carry two or three sheep to an acre, but ordinary rough-grassed lands only one and a half to two sheep per acre. The Messrs. Williams, at Pakaraka, are feeding four sheep to the acre upon land sown with furze. The clearing of forest lands, ring-fencing and grassing them, will cost about £3 to £3 10s. per acre. The same remarks apply to the Bay of Islands and Whangarei, and to the country as far south as Auckland. Round about Whangarei district, and under similar conditions of culture, the average return for good agricultural or pastoral lands would be fully 12s an acre per annum. South of Auckland, throughout the Waikato, Piako, Waipa, and Raglan Counties, and thence south to the district boundaries, the land is both agricultural and pastoral. All the cereals do well, wheat averaging 27 to 30 and up to 40 bushels per acre, and oats 26 bushels per acre. Potatoes average from 5 to 7 tons per acre. Dairy-farming is carried on, yielding (upon well-cultivated farms) a net profit of 15s. to 20s. an acre per annum; whilst sheep-farming yields a profit of from 5s. to 7s. 6d. a sheep per annum on very large estates; allowing for greater losses from disease, &c., the average return would still be 4s. per sheep. The cost of clearing fern and scrub is generally from 7s. to 10s. an acre, and laying down fern land by surface-sowing and harrowing, about 17s. an acre.

The seaward counties of Tauranga and Whakatane are both agricultural and pastoral, growing wheat and maize alike to great perfection. In fact, the County of Whakatane, upon its alluvial shores and uplands, grows the greater portion of the maize produced in the district, and from the ports of Whakatane and Opotiki in one year some 34,000 sacks have been exported. In these counties the average yield of wheat is from 22 to 25 bushels per acre, oats about 29 bushels per acre, and maize 45 to 60 bushels per acre. It is quite possible within this district to select land early in the winter, fell and burn off by the ensuing summer, sow in grass in the autumn, and put on stock within twelve months from selection.

Rainfall

The rainfall during the year averages about 39 in., the greater portion of which, as a rule, falls between the 1st of May and 1st of November, or during the winter and spring months. Owing to the constant changes of wind, caused by the configuration of the coast-line, the shortness of the distance between the two coasts, and the influence, greater or less, of the trade-winds, it is quite common for one neighbourhood to have double the rainfall of another, even though the two be only twenty miles apart. Droughts of more than a couple of months are practically unknown, and grass is always abundant.

Winds

One of the chief means whereby the great healthiness of the climate is maintained is the constant presence of fine breezes, blowing both summer and winter, the prevailing winds being north-east and south-west, and very seldom passing into really heavy gales. In the middle of summer, the sea-breeze during the day and the land-breeze at night are almost unvarying.

General Products and Industries

Timber.—The vast forests of kauri and other valuable trees have given this district the foremost place for production and export of timber. There are many safe and sheltered harbours for shipping, while streams and rivers without number form convenient highways for conveying logs to the mills or ports. Some idea of the extent of this industry may be given by quoting from the official returns made at the time of the last census. There were then forty-nine steam sawmills situated in various parts of the district, with engines of a total of some 2,000-horse power. These mills employed over a thousand men, and produced yearly some 80,000,000 ft. of sawn timber, valued at £301,328; of timber resawn into flooring, skirting, &c., some 21,000,000ft., valued at upwards of £91,000, not to mention posts and rails, mouldings, sashes, and doors. Besides this output, in the remoter parts of the district large quantities of timber are hand-sawn. The durable puriri is converted into railway-sleepers, for which there is a great demand, and the totara is largely sought after for telegraph-posts and wharf-piles.

Kauri-gum.—The most unique production of this portion of the colony is kaurigum, obtained for the most part from the country north of Auckland. It is formed by the hardening of the exuded turpentine from the kauri tree, and is dug out of ground from which the forest has been burnt off. The Royal Commission appointed in 1893 elicited the fact that the procuring of the gum gave employment then to no less than 6,897 persons. Last year 9,905 tons were exported, valued at £586,767. The kauri-gum is extensively used in the manufacture of varnish, and also for glazing calico. Nearly two-thirds of the varnishes in the market are produced from this gum. The average earnings of a digger may be taken as from £1 7s. to £1 10s. per week.

Flax (Phormium tenax).—An industry, which is for the present in a languishing condition, is the conversion of the broad leaves of the Phormium tenax into marketable flax suitable for the manufacture of rope, twine, mats, mattresses, and numerous other articles. The flax-mills are scattered over different parts of the district, as near rail- or water-carriage as possible, and employ about eighty men and boys, whilst the local rope-and-twine works give work to some forty more.

Gold.—This district has in the past produced large quantities of gold, but the area over which auriferous quartz-reefs have been discovered is limited to the Counties of Coromandel, Thames, Ohinemuri, and a small portion of Piako. In 1898 the output of this neighbourhood was 50 per cent. of all the gold produced in New Zealand, the quantity (142,383 oz.) entered for duty for exportation having been valued £527,786. From 1878 to 1892 the Thames Goldfield alone produced some 600,000 oz. Now that the area over which auriferous quartz-reefs have been discovered has increased, a much larger output may be expected in the future. The total estimated value of the gold was £545,463 for 1898–99, against £401,602 in the previous year. All the gold won was obtained by battery amalgamation, and the bullion by the cyanide process. There is a large amount of English capital being expended in developing new discoveries in out-districts away from the goldfield, but it will be some time yet before these discoveries have reached their full development. At the Thames there is a School of Mines, well attended and showing good results.

Coal.—Coal is found in most parts of this district, and in being worked with more or less success at Kawakawa, Hikurangi, Kamo, and Ngunguru, to the north of Auckland; whilst in the south there are three mines at Huntly, all turning out a good household coal. The total output of all the mines in 1898 was 148,390 tons.

Fruit.—The climate of the Auckland District is well adapted for the growth of the orange, lemon, vine, and olive, as also for the fruits of England, America, and Japan. The subtropical kinds flourish about Hokianga, in the north; those of the temperate regions, in the Waikato and neighbourhood. Now that the problem of how to land fruit in good condition in the London market has been solved, orchard planting is rapidly progressing, and it has been found that the culture of the hard varieties of the apple will repay export to England. Of late years a demand has set in for the poor clay-land that used to contain gum, as it is admirably suited for fruit-growing. Orchards are now planted in neighbourhoods where the soil has lain idle for years, for it has been proved that apples grown on this poor soil keep longer than those grown on richer land. What can be done by cultivation and care on poor lands is evidenced at the Waerenga Government Experimental Plantation in the Waikato, where the two orchards of fruit trees and vines show most luxuriant growth. More attention is being just now paid to stone fruits, for which there is always a steady local market, than to apples, which have of late years been heavily handicapped by blight. The fruit industry in Auckland is yet in its infancy, and is capable of great extension. At present peaches are the only fruit canned, though there is also a good deal done in the way of drying fruits and vegetables by the process of evaporation.

Fishing.—The sea and harbours abound in fish. At least eighteen different varieties, suitable for the table, are caught with little labour, and settlers living near the sea-coast, or any one of the many harbours and tidal rivers, can always obtain enough for all necessities. At present the canning industry is confined to mullet, of which there is a large amount exported, and an equal quantity used for home consumption. The rock-oyster is found over a large area on these coasts, and large quantities are sent both to the southern ports of the colony and also to Australia.

Chief Centres and Surrounding Districts

The City of Auckland lies on the southern shore of the Waitemata Harbour, one of the finest havens in the colony, on a narrow neck of land between the Waitemata and the Manukau. Alike from the sea and from the neighbouring hills the city and surrounding country present a charming picture. Especially fine is the view from Mount Eden, a low volcanic hill in the suburbs. Facing the town are the green hills and white houses of the North Shore, and the remarkable peak of Rangitoto; beyond lie the many islands of the Hauraki Gulf, with the blue hills of Coromandel and the Great Barrier in the far distance. Clustered near the foot of the hill, and scattered for many miles to the southward, are charming villa-like houses, with tasteful gardens and shrubberies, while to the north-west the view is closed by high wooded ranges. The city is unrivalled for its commercial position; it has communication by sea with both sides of the Island, while the Kaipara and Wairoa Rivers leading far into the northern peninsula, and to the south the Waikato and Thames Rivers leading into the heart of the Island, give it excellent natural facilities for inland communication. In April, 1896, the population of the city and suburbs amounted to 57,616 persons. The city is well supplied with gas and water, and amongst public buildings may be noticed Government House, the new Government Offices, Post and Telegraph Offices, Supreme Court, &c. There is a Free Public Library and Art Gallery, and a good Museum, containing what is probably the best Maori collection in the world. The Auckland University College is affiliated to the New Zealand University. The Victoria Arcade, the Exchange, Harbour Board Offices, hotels and clubs, as well as many commercial buildings, compare favourably with those in other parts of the colony. There are admirable recreation-grounds, including the Government Domain of about 180 acres, as well as the Botanic Garden and the Albert Park in the centre of the city. There is a tramway system extending through the suburbs. Auckland has numerous industries, including, amongst others, ship-building, sugar-refining, timber-converting, sash-and-door manufactories; rope-and-twine, pottery, brick-and-tile, and varnish works, printing-offices, &c.

The City of Auckland is the centre from which radiate all railways, road-, and steamer-routes. From it, by rail, lies the way to all Crown lands south of the Waitemata, while the Kaipara Railway connects it with the country north of Helensville. All lands to the north and along the Bay of Plenty are reached from its wharves by the Northern Company's steamers. The chief centres to the north are:—

Warkworth, on the East Coast, forty miles from Auckland, with communication by coach and steamer nearly every day. It is a thriving township, with post- and telegraph-office, public halls, hotels, &c. It is also the site of important hydraulic-lime and cement works. A good deal of agricultural and pastoral farming is carried on in its neighbourhood.

On the West Coast an important centre is Helensville, on the Kaipara Harbour, distant thirty-six miles from Auckland, with which it is connected by rail. It has all the conveniences required by travellers in the shape of good hotels, stores, &c., and is the starting-point of the river-steamers running to all places in the Otamatea and Hobson Counties. It is also one of the main centres for the export of balk timber.

Dargaville, on the Wairoa River, is a town of about 400 inhabitants, with all conveniences for travellers. It may be reached by rail and steamer from Auckland three times a week. Dargaville is the starting-point of the Kaihu Valley Railway, which is open for traffic for twenty miles from the town, and from the terminus of the railway all the Crown lands in the neighbourhood are reached, even so far north as Hokianga. The town is also the centre of a very large timber export. There are only two townships of any importance north of Dargaville—Port Rawene, or Hokianga, and Kohukohu, about four miles further up. Both have post- and telegraph-stations, and comfortable hotels, with fortnightly steam-communication from Auckland.

Whangarei, on the East Coast, is distant seventy-five miles from Auckland, with which it has steam-communication twice a week. The town is a thriving and important place, having a population of about 2,000, and is the centre of a large agricultural and pastoral country. In the neighbourhood is also a large coal-bearing and gum-producing district, while the export of oranges and lemons, which thrive magnificently on the rich volcanic soil, is on the increase. From here a coach runs weekly to Kawakawa, upon the arrival of the Northern Company's steamer, and from it, by carriage or horse, all lands can be visited within a radius of thirty to forty miles.

Kawakawa, at the head of the tidal portion of the river of the same name, is connected by a short railway-line with Opua, the calling-place of steamers from Auckland. Kawakawa possesses good inns. From it coaches run weekly to Hokianga and Whangarei. It is the centre of a coal and gum industry, and a port of lading for those products. The old town of Russell is situated further down the bay, and has a good hotel, besides having a post- and telegraph office. To Whangaroa and Mongonui the Northern Company's steamers run every week. Whangaroa is famed for its exquisite scenery, and is the centre of a large timber- and gum-export trade. Mongonui is the starting-point and centre from which to visit, by carriage or horse, all the Crown lands in the Mongonui County, and from it the steamer “Paeroa” runs to Awanui and ports beyond, in connection with the weekly steamer from Auckland.

South of Auckland, along the Waikato Railway, there are numerous townships of more or less importance, but no starting-point for Crown lands, until Mercer is reached at a distance of forty-three miles. It is situated at the borders of what is known as the Waikato Country, upon the Waikato River, which is tidal up to this point, and the township has a post- and telegraph-office and other conveniences. At sixty-five miles from Auckland by rail is Huntly, also on the Waikato River, a flourishing township, with a very large output of valuable coal. It has also pottery-, brick-, and tile-works. On the opposite side of the Waikato River large areas of Crown lands are being brought into use, and are carrying large quantities of sheep and cattle. The next town is Ngaruawahia, or Newcastle, seventy-four miles from Auckland, situated at the junction of the Waikato and Waipa Rivers, with hotels, bank, post- and telegraph-office. It is a centre from which portions of Crown lands in Raglan County are reached, and also from it river-steamers run north and south to the various settlements. Ngaruawahia has a flourishing creamery, a brewery, and a cooperage. At eighty-four miles from Auckland the train reaches Frankton Junction, where a line branches off to Hamilton, Te Aroha, Paeroa, Thames, and Rotorua, the main line going to Te Awamutu, ninety-nine miles from Auckland. The latter is a thriving town; but to reach available lands for future settlement the traveller passes on by rail to Otorohanga; Te Kuiti and Poro-o-te-Rau, fifteen and twenty-five miles further on respectively, are both of them places at which there are accommodation-houses, forming convenient centres for visiting the fertile undulating limestone lands in the vicinity. Hamilton is a busy, flourishing town, situated on both sides of the Waikato River, with a population of about 1,300 persons, and is the centre of a large agricultural and pastoral district. It possesses a creamery, flax-mill, brewery, and two soap-factories, besides other local industries. Cambridge, about thirteen miles by road and fifteen miles by rail from Hamilton, has a population of about 900, and is the headquarters of the Farmers' Club. It is a busy, thriving township, surrounded by good farming country. Between Hamilton and Cambridge, and in the country round, there are numerous creameries, cheese- and butter-factories; wine- and cider-making is also successfully pursued, and there are several apiaries, from which large quantities of honey are produced. There are three flour-mills in the district, one at Cambridge, one at Hamilton, and the third at the terminus of one of the before-mentioned branch lines. One hundred and sixteen miles from Auckland by rail is Te Aroha, a quiet township, celebrated for its thermal springs and good hotels. Another thirteen miles brings the traveller to Paeroa, a centre of mining industry, and in another twenty-nine miles the Thames Borough is reached.

The settlements at the Thames and Coromandel are essentially mining townships. The first is situated thirty-eight miles by steamer from Auckland, on the Firth of Thames, and at the mouth of the Waihou River. It has a population of about 5,000 persons. There is daily steam-communication with Auckland, and a railway connecting it with Paeroa and Te Aroha. Coromandel is about thirty-five miles from Auckland, with which it has constant communication by steamer; it is another mining centre, situated at the head of a picturesque harbour. Tauranga, with a population of about 1,050, is situated on the harbour of that name in the Bay of Plenty. Coaches run thither from the Thames, and from Rotorua; it has also constant communication by steamer with Auckland, and with Matata, Whakatane, and Opotiki. From the fact of the harbour being the only one on the East Coast capable of receiving large vessels the town is bound to be of importance in the future. Tauranga has a chemical and sulphuric-acid works, and a cheese-factory.

Opotiki, the second town of importance in the Bay of Plenty, is situated about sixty-five miles by steamer or road from Tauranga. It has weekly steam communication with Auckland, and is connected with Gisborne by a bridle-track. It is the headquarters of the maize-producing district, and has rich alluvial lands, from which good returns are obtained. It is a good starting-point from which large blocks of Crown lands suitable for pastoral purposes may be reached.

The Township of Rotorua is situated on the shores of Rotorua Lake, at a distance of 172 miles from Auckland. Since the railway from Tirau was opened travellers can now reach Rotorua in one day from Auckland. It is the chief township in the hot-lakes district, and has also a large area of fairly good Crown land near, adapted for pastoral purposes. Considerable quantities of sulphur are obtained from the neighbourhood.

Crown or Native Lands available for Future Settlement

In the Mangonui County the Crown possesses 100,200 acres of fairly good forest land, tolerably easy of access.

In the Bay of Islands County there are only about 12,670 acres of available Crown land, both forest and open, but the Natives still own some 152,000 acres, chiefly forest land, except about Kaikohe, where it is open and rich volcanic land, most of it broken, but fit for settlement.

In Hokianga County there are some 159,400 acres of available Crown land, of good quality, nearly all covered with forest, and fit for immediate settlement. The Natives still own some 104,650 acres, almost all good land, and fit for settlement.

In Whangarei County there are about 54,750 acres of available Crown land, mostly broken and forest-clad. The Natives still retain some 28,850 acres of land, part of it very rich.

In the Otamatea County the Crown retains only about 8,150 acres, a good deal of this being alluvial swamp, and well worth draining. The Natives still own about 20,000 acres, but not much of it is fit for settlement.

In the Rodney and Waitemata Counties about 10,100 acres of Crown lands are left, most of it fit only for pastoral or fruit-growing purposes. The Natives still own about 14,000 acres in these two counties, some of it very good land.

In the Manukau County the Crown owns some 10,600 acres of broken forest land, fit for pastoral purposes. The Natives still own about 15,000 acres, a portion of which is fairly good.

In the Waikato and Raglan Counties the Crown lands amount to about 32,500 acres, all fairly good land, mostly forest, and easy of access. In Raglan County the Natives still own the freehold of 150,000 acres, all good land, but difficult to secure.

In the Coromandel, Thames, and Ohinemuri Counties there are about 139,600 acres of available Crown lands. In the last two counties a good deal of the land is swampy, and requires draining. The Natives still own 97,200 acres, much of which is very good.

In Tauranga, Whakatane, and Rotorua Counties the Crown owns 487,700 acres, nearly all forest-clad, and generally broken; but in the last-named county the Natives retain a very large area, the greater part too broken or too much covered with pumice or volcanic ash to be fit for settlement.

In the Kawhia and West Taupo Counties the Crown is acquiring from the Natives large areas of very good land, all fit for settlement and easy of access. About 300,000 acres are really first-class land, and about 1,000,000 acres fairly good land, all suitable for pastoral purposes, and accessible from the Main Trunk Railway-line.

The Crown now hold about 25,700 acres in Kawhia County and 138,000 acres in West Taupo County.

Chapter 72. THE TARANAKI LAND DISTRICT

J. Strauchon, Chief Surveyor

The Taranaki Land District is situated on the western side of the North Island of New Zealand, at about its widest part, and may be said to be the most compact and fertile district of the colony, for, with the exception of the upper half of Mount Egmont, and of the ranges adjoining, which absorb about 36,000 acres, the whole of the area—minus what is taken up by the rivers, streams, and lakes—is suitable for settlement, and certainly two-thirds of the district is good land. The gross area of the district is 2,430,000 acres.

Physical Features

Of mountains, the principal one is the beautiful volcanic cone from which the district takes its name, Taranaki, otherwise called Mount Egmont, which has an altitude of 8,260 ft. This mountain is the centre of distribution for a radius of twenty miles of the volcanic formation known as the “drift,” which covers the volcanic rocks below an altitude of 3,000ft. Hummocks composed of trachyte boulders and cement crop up here and there and make excellent metal-quarries.

Beyond the volcanic formation—that is, from about Urenui on the north and Hawera on the south–the country is generally broken, and the formation is known as papa, a calcareous blue clay, capped in many places by shelly limestone.

The northern portion, between the Tongaporutu and the Mokau Rivers, contains also limestone, greensands, and coal outcrops. At Panirau, a small tributary of the Mokau, about thirty miles from the sea, there is an isolated patch of volcanic agglomerate and tufas, and a similar formation is found at the north-eastern corner of the district.

Eastward of the base of Mount Egmont there are few, if any, mountains worthy of the name, although there are many ranges varying in height from 1,000ft. to 1,500ft. above sea-level, and, in a few instances—such as the Matemateonga and Waiaria Ranges—they run up to 2,500 ft.

The principal river is the Wanganui, which bounds the district on the east between Taumaranui and Pipiriki, a distance of about ninety miles. Its average width varies from 2 to 3 chains. For nearly the whole distance it is shut in by high precipitous hills, and in many places by perpendicular walls of rock. The scenery is very grand and beautiful. There are numerous rapids, but few of them are dangerous to skilful canoeists. A steamer runs regularly from Wanganui to Pipiriki, a distance of fifty-five miles. Another small steamer of light draught and considerable power has now been built. This is intended for opening up the tourist and trade traffic on the upper portions of the river between Pipiriki and Ohura, a distance of some sixty miles. A channel is now being snagged up the Tangarakau River as far as Putikituna, a distance of twelve miles. From this point a road (nine miles in length) is being constructed to join the Ohura (or East) Road at a point about forty-seven miles from Stratford, and in the middle of the Whangamomona Improved-farm Settlement, the settlers in which and surrounding blocks will thus have double communication, with Wanganui on the one hand and Stratford on the other. When the road is completed through to Auckland (say within the next three, years) tourists can enjoy a trip up the Wanganui River as far as Ohura, then back, and up Tangarakau River across to Ohura Road, then on to Auckland, or back to Stratford, as they desire. The principal tributaries flowing into the Wanganui on the Taranaki side are the Whangamomona, at eighty-two miles; Tangarakau, at eighty-five miles; Ohura, at 114 miles; Ongaruhe, at 143 miles respectively from the Town of Wanganui.

The next river in size is the Mokau, bounding the district on the north. It is navigable for small steamers of 70 or 80 tons as far as the coal-mines, about twenty miles from its mouth, and for canoes as far as Totoro, twenty-six miles further up. Several outcrops of coal are found on its banks, and, as limestone is also present, the river is likely to become an important waterway of the district. The scenery on either side, although not on quite so grand a scale as may be seen on the Wanganui, is very beautiful.

The other large rivers are the Waitara and Patea. The former has its source about mid way between the coast and the Wanganui River, in an easterly direction from Pukearuhe, between New Plymouth and the Mokau. It is about a hundred miles in length, and runs out at the Town of Waitara, some ten miles north-east from New Plymouth. There is a bar at the mouth, but steamers of 300 tons can enter safely in calm weather, and, although there are numerous rapids on its course, it is navigable for canoes for about ninety miles.

The Patea River rises in Mount Egmont, and, after traversing a tortuous course of about 110 miles, runs out at the extreme southern end of the provincial district. It has a bar-harbour, with a depth of 13ft. to 14ft. at spring-tides. Steamers of from 40 tons to 50 tons trade regularly to the town of Patea, which is situated a mile or so north of the mouth. The Patea is navigable for canoes for fifty miles.

Besides these rivers there are many smaller ones, and streams innumerable—in fact, no district in the world could be better watered and at the same time be so secure from disastrous floods. It is estimated that between the Mokau and the Patea there are no fewer than eighty-five named streams emptying themselves into the Tasman Sea, fully sixty of which flow from Mount Egmont.

Excepting the Ngaere Swamp, a block of open land near Eltham, 3,700 acres in extent, now partially drained and recently disposed of for settlement purposes, there are no plains, properly so called, in the district, although the stretch of very fertile country lying between the Waingongoro and Otakeho Rivers, comprising an area of about 25,000 acres, is known as the Waimate Plains. Of this area 13,500 acres have been disposed of, and the remainder, 11,500 acres, has been handed back to the Natives as a reserve.

There are no lakes worthy of the name. The largest sheet of water is Rotokare, situate about twelve miles from Eltham; it is about half a mile in length, with an average width of six chains. There are also a few small lakes inland from Waverley, at the southern end of the district.

The whole of the district, with the exception of a fringe of open country along the coast from Pukearuhe to Patea, averaging three miles in width, and containing about 250,000 acres, and some valleys at the north-eastern corner of the district, about 150,000 acres in extent, was originally covered with heavy forest. Estimating the area already cleared for settlement at 240,000 acres, it will be seen that there still remain about 1,754,000 acres under bush.

The larger timber is chiefly rata, rimu, matai, tawa, kahikatea, kohekohe, pukatea, rewarewa, hinau, with a few totaras scattered here and there. Among the smaller trees may be mentioned the kotukutuku or fuchsia, karaka, and mahoe.

As regards the timber industry, there are altogether twenty-three sawmills, and the total quantity cut in 1898 was 13,138,000 ft., chiefly rimu (red-pine), kahikatea (white-pine), and matai (black-pine). Fifteen of these mills work together under Association rules and prices, their output for the year being 11,600,000 superficial feet. The other eight work independently, and their output amounted to only 1,538,000 ft. for the same period.

An area of 72,565 acres, measuring six miles on every side from the summit of Mount Egmont, has been set apart as a forest-reserve. At about three miles within the reserve the forest begins to get stunted; and at four and a half miles it gives place to low wiry scrub, which ceases at five miles, or an elevation of about 4,000 ft. At 5,000 ft. the moss ends; beyond this point to the summit the mountain is composed of loose scoria and lava.

A comfortable mountain-house has been built at an elevation of 3,200 ft. on the northern face of the mountain, at a distance of twenty miles from New Plymouth by the Junction and Egmont Roads. Eighteen miles can be driven over, and the remaining two ridden. This house is maintained by the North Egmont Forest Board of Conservators, and is open for the accommodation of visitors from the middle of December to the end of March in each year. The keeper acts as guide also. There are women's rooms at one end of the house, men's at the other, with large common living- and dining-room in the centre. Visitors have now the option of being supplied with meals at a cost of 1s. 6d. each, or they may provide and cook their own food. Horse feeds, 1s. 6d. each; paddocking, 6d. daily, or 2s. 6d. a week. A small charge is made of 2s. if stay is for one night only; if for longer, then 1s. per night throughout the visit. Guide's fee for mountain, £1 per party. During the past season there were 438 visitors, remaining various periods of from one or two days to as many weeks, while the total number of visitors to the mountain was for the season 690. In fine weather, when the snow is off, the mountain can be ascended without risk. A considerable sum has been expended in improving the accommodation at the house during the past season.

The mountain can also easily be ascended from Stratford side, the return journey occupying about thirteen hours, including stoppages. Tourists can ride over the first thirteen miles to a rough shelter-shed above the grass-line, altitude 4,325 ft.: time occupied, about three and a half hours. Here the horses are left, and the remaining climb has to be done on foot: time required for fair walker, a good three hours, although, coming down, the distance can be done in two hours. 350 persons visited the mountain by this route during the season. Good hotel accommodation, guide, horses, and provisions, can be obtained in Stratford on reasonable terms. The return trip can be varied by visiting Dawson's Falls and Kendle's Cascade.

Another route now coming into favour is from Hawera or Eltham viâ Manaia or Kaponga and Dawson's Falls. At the latter place a comfortable shelter-house, capable of accommodating over forty people, has recently been erected, and is known as the Falls Mountain-house (altitude, 2,990 ft.). This house, which is close to the Falls (65 ft.), is within an easy two hours' ride of Kaponga. During the season the house is in charge of a caretaker, and food, bedding, horse-feed, and paddocking can be obtained. The number of visitors to Falls and mountain by this route is said to have been about a thousand for the season. From the house to summit of Mount Egmont occupies a good six hours' climbing at a moderate pace. From the top, where the whole Taranaki District lies spread out to view at one's feet, the tourist can, instead of returning by same route, drop down to the mountain-house on the north or New Plymouth side of and 3,000 ft. up the mountain. The walk would not occupy over two hours, easy walking.

Soils

The volcanic soil, the boundaries of which have been already described, varies a good deal in quality. The best is believed to be on the south side of the mountain, between Stratford, Hawera, and Opunake, but not less than two or three miles from the forest-reserve boundary. It is thought that the country now being opened to the north and east of the volcanic deposit—that is, the papa and limestone formation—will, from the presence of lime, be much richer and more lasting as pasture-land than that around the mountain. The carrying-capacity of the land is, on an average, three sheep to the acre.

Dairying, Grazing, and Agriculture

Taranaki is essentially a grazing and dairying district, its chief products being butter and cheese.

There are 75 dairy factories, 66 creameries, and 1 condensed-milk factory scattered over the district. Of these factories. 62 produce butter only, 13 butter and cheese combined. Seventy-five factories and creameries are owned by proprietory companies, while 67 are run on co-operative principles. Resides the above are many small plants run on individual farms of which no record is obtainable.

In September, 1896, a new work in connection with the dairying and meat industries was started in the shape of the Taranaki Freezing Works. They are situated at Moturoa, near the breakwater, and close alongside the railway-line. Substantial buildings have been erected, and a railway siding laid down. The machinery consists of a “Paxman” compound surface-condensing engine of forty indicated horse-power, driving a “Livide” compressor, capable of freezing 400 sheep per diem: although up to the present time the company has confined its attention wholly to the freezing of dairy produce, 1,473 kegs of 1 cwt. each, 93,286 boxes each 1/2 cwt. of butter, and 6,532 crates each 1 1/4 cwt. of cheese having been sent from the works to the Home market. During the hot season the factories and railway-vans carrying butter have been supplied with ice from the works at a nominal cost.

At the Taranaki Bacon Factory, Fitzroy, substantial buildings have been erected, and a 6-horse-power “Livide” machine fitted up, and the owner, Mr. Drake, has the works in full swing. The pigs are purchased from the farmers in the district and delivered at the styes in connection with the factory, where they are topped off with corn-feeding for fourteen days before being slaughtered. The number of pigs put through during past season was 2,409, weighing 313,170lb., or an average dead weight of about 130 lb. each. The hams and bacon exhibited by this factory have always taken first-class honours in the various agricultural shows. An industry like this cannot but prove of great assistance to settlers in the district, and should receive their most cordial support.

There are in the Taranaki Provincial District 17,558 horses, 202,481 cattle, 486,980 sheep, and 26,596 swine. These figures include all kinds and ages.

Agriculture has not hitherto been carried on to any great extent in this district. The total area under corn-crops and cut for threshing during season 1898–99 was 11,034 acres; corn- and grass-crops cut for hay, chaff, or ensilage, 8,588 acres; corn-and green-crops for feeding to, or down with, stock, 10,238 acres; sown grasses and clovers for feeding down, 658,171 acres; sown grasses for seed, 7,647 acres; potatoes, 2,212 acres; beet, 10 acres: total area under crops of all kinds, including gardens, orchards, vineyards, 699,739 acres. Plantations, 1,119 acres; fallow, 641 acres.

The average yield of different grain-crops in business per for season of 1898–99 is: Wheat, 28.59; oats, 37.99; barley, 38.33; rye, 12.00.

Mining

The only mining going on at present is at the Mokau Coal-mines, which are situated on the Mokau River, about twenty-one miles from the sea, the river being navigable right up to the mines for vessels of 6 ft. 6 in. draught. The original mine recently changed hands, and is now held by a Scottish company, known and registered as “The Mokau Coal-mines Syndicate (Limited),” which occupies under a sixty years' lease from the Native owners. The coal is of best class of pitch brown, is rapidly gaining favour as an excellent household coal, and is also good for steam purposes. Eight distinct seams of this coal are already known, one overlying the other, and varying in thickness from 2 1/2 ft. to 8 ft. The one now being worked is the fourth of the series, and 8 ft. thick, with a 6 in. band of slate in middle, but this band is rapidly running out. At the entrance to the drive, which runs some 15 chains into the hillside on an upward incline of 1 in 24, and is laid with the usual light mining rails, on which the trucks are worked by horses, the altitude above level of the river is about 40 ft. The broken ground has now been passed through, and a face of 250 ft. of good sound coal exposed. It is proposed to sink on the lower seams to test their thickness and quality. The operations of the company have been greatly hindered through loss of two small steamers at sea. Extensive improvements have, however, been made in the shape of new buildings, in relaying the lines with iron rails, and in pushing on the construction of a new air-drive, which is now finished and will be sufficient to thoroughly ventilate all the working- for years to come. The company hopes to have more steamers in the trade again shortly. A new mine, about half a mile up the river from original one, and called the “Fernside Coal-mine,” was opened up in January, 1898, by Messrs. Bayly, Ogle, and Co., of Waitara, who also own the s.s. “Manukau,” and run her in connection with the mine. The seam now being worked is a lower one than that in the other mine, is 6 ft. thick of clean coal, and good quality. In opening up a new mine many difficulties have to be met and dealt with; consequently the output for 1898 was only about 1,200 tons, but the owners hope during the current year to greatly increase these figures. A considerable amount of work has been done both by the Government and coal companies in snagging and opening up the river for traffic, which must also prove of great advantage to the lands on both sides for miles above the mines. A signalman has been appointed at the entrance of the river. One or two fossickers are at work searching for gold near the old “Boar's Head” Claim, which was worked over thirty years ago, in the Patua Ranges, some sixteen miles south-west from New Plymouth, but so far have not found payable gold.

After a lapse of many years, boring for petroleum has been resumed. A new bore was sunk at Moturoa, close to the former bore, and at a depth of about 875 ft. oil was struck in considerable quantity. After fully testing this well, it was found that it was impossible to “shut off the water” from below, which seemed to rise and fall with the tide, thus indicating the existence of some fissure or other means of inlet from the sea. The result was that only about two or three barrels, of 42 gallons each, could be got per day, the oil rising at intervals only, and all efforts to pump having continuously failed. The company then chose a site about half a mile inland, and sank a bore to the depth of 1,534 ft. without, however, obtaining any oil. A third bore, which is still open and cased, was then sunk about a quarter of a mile from the first, and in this gas in a great volume was struck at about 908 ft., followed at 910 ft. by oil in great quantity and of excellent quality. Unfortunately, this was struck in soft papa, and after about twenty barrels had been pumped, and when the company was beginning to sell and to export its crude petroleum, the supply suddenly ceased. The gas, which had previously issued in sufficient quantity to enable the company to dispense with other fuel, ceased at the same time. The most probable explanation of this mischance is that the soft papa, of which the roof of the oil-seam is composed, having been deprived of the support of the formerly imprisoned gas and oil, has collapsed, and thus choked the oil-seam lying in the vicinity of the bore. After further efforts to pump out the mud filling the bore, the company resumed drilling with the hope of obtaining another oil-supply at a greater depth. At 1,384 ft. oil was obtained in small quantities, and gas was thrown up in great volume. At 1,865 ft. the bore passed through the sedimentary papa rock and entered sandstone, which continued to the bottom at 1,976 ft., where a large quantity of oil and gas was struck. The bore was cased with 6-in. casing down to 1,379 ft., where a thin hard streak of sandstone was found embedded in the papa, and was taken advantage of to shut off the water from above; but, unfortunately, water was again met with below this, and as no other hard stratum was passed between that and where the oil was struck, it was found impossible to shut off the water, although a 5-in. casing was sent right to the bottom. Packing was also tried several times. Each time the packer succeeded in shutting off the water for a few days when oil was pumped at the rate of about eight barrels per diem; the sides of the bore around the packer, however, kept crumbling away each time, and the rush of water from above effectually prevented further pumping of oil, and the company was reluctantly compelled to abandon this their third bore, the plant being unequal to deeper boring. Undaunted by frequent failures, the plant was moved about 100 yards west, and a fresh bore commenced. This passed through similar but harder strata, and is now down 2,050 ft., with the plant still on the ground. During the year a new drilling plant was obtained from America. This has been erected on the Frankley Road, and is some four miles south-east of former workings. Here, although drilling was prosecuted vigorously, several months lapsed before a depth of 300 ft. was reached, owing to an immense quantity of broken volcanic rock, gravel, and sand being encountered. Shortly afterwards it was found impossible to make any progress at all, the sand and gravel falling in faster than it could be pumped out, and after rising as much as 30 ft. in the iron casing. Another site was selected about half a mile nearer Moturoa and 331 ft. above sea-level, where, although similar difficulties were encountered, the papa formation was reached at 410 ft., after passing through 25 ft. of quicksand. This bore was continued to a depth of 1,335 ft., but no oil was struck. Seven bores having thus been tried to various depths without success, the company abandoned the enterprise, and sold all their property by public tender. A local gentleman became the purchaser, and he, after an interval, obtained the co-operation of a few other New Plymouth residents. A new site was selected near Moturoa, about 150 yd. south-east of the company's third bore, over which one of the plants has been erected, and from which oil still continues to flow in small quantities and mixed with water. The second plant has been erected at the site chosen for the new bore. The depth is now about 160 ft., and drilling operations are progressing satisfactorily. The company, having now two complete drilling plants on hand, with an experienced staff, is in a position, should the necessary capital be forthcoming, to thoroughly test the extent and value of the oil deposits of the district.

An enterprise like this, if successful, would enrich and give an immense impetus to the trade and importance, not only of the district, but also of the colony generally. Should the efforts now being made be abandoned through lack of capital, it is unlikely that further steps will be taken for many years to further test the value of these deposits, of the existence of which there can be no doubt.

Ironsand is found in great abundance on the seashore from Mokau to Patea, a distance of 130 miles. It produces, when smelted, from 50 to 60 per cent. of iron of the finest quality. The first attempt to smelt this sand was made in 1848, and several trials have been made since, but the heavy cost of production and the absence of capital and modern appliances have, so far, retarded the industry. Strong efforts are now being made to remedy this by the introduction of outside capital, and it is hoped these will shortly be successful.

Climate

The climate of Taranaki is remarkably healthy, without any extremes of temperature. Below is given a table of mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures in shade for each month of the year ending December, 1898:—

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.
Mean temperature   62.5   60.0   60.6   57.8   54.4   51.5   51.3   50.8   52.3   54.6   57.8   63.1
Max. temperature   82.0   79.0   79.0   75.0   74.0   69.0   67.0   67.0   67.0   68.5   76.0   78.0
Min. temperature   42.0   38.5   39.0   37.5   3.10   32.5   35.0   30.0   34.5   41.0   39.0   42.0
Number of days on which rain fell   7   11   10   9   15   10   20   16   16   15   18   15
Total rainfall per month in inches and decimals   2.63   3.06   4.73   3.35   3.97   3.05   4.77   3.70   2.67   5.21   7.42   4.50
Moan barometric reading for the month   29.94   29.89   29.99   30.09   29.88   30.10   29.72   29.99   30.94   29.72   29.89   29.88

The mean barometric reading was 30.00 in. for the year. Total rainfall, 49.06 in. on 162 days, the maximum fall being 1.67 in. on 18th June. The rainfall varies considerably, as, for instance, at Norfolk Road, three miles south of Inglewood, the rainfall for the year was 90.46 in. on 186 days; the maximum fall was 3.97 in. on 18th January. The average rainfall at New Plymouth during the past five years was 63.85 in., and at Norfolk Road for same period 103.11 in.

Chief Towns

The principal town of the district is New Plymouth (population about 4,176), situate on the seashore, about two miles from and to the north-east of the picturesque rocky islets known as the Sugar Loaves. The general appearance of the town is very attractive, and it abounds in neatly-kept gardens. The Recreation Grounds, from which a good view of Mount Egmont is obtained, form a favourite resort.

New Plymouth is 252 miles by rail from Wellington, the railway running in a northerly direction through the district from Patea to Sentry Hill, where it turns at right-angles westward for eight miles to New Plymouth. From Sentry Hill there is a branch line to Waitara, four miles distant.

The Port of New Plymouth is situated at the Sugar Loaves, two miles from the town. Protection for shipping is afforded by a concrete mole or breakwater running in a north-east direction for a distance of 1,900 ft. Under the lee of this there is wharf-accommodation provided for the coastal trade. Steamers of 1,000 tons can be berthed here in almost all weathers. The wharf is connected with New Plymouth by both rail and road. The breakwater was built at a cost of £200,000, borrowed under security of one-fourth of the land revenue of the Provincial District of Taranaki, and the right to levy a rate over certain lands. The present rate levied is 1/2d. in the pound on the capital value. The principal over-sea exports from breakwater for the year (exclusive of all coastal trade) were: Bacon and hams, 3 tons; butter, 2,530 tons; cheese, 583 tons; fungus, 90 tons; leather, 5 tons; potatoes, 86 tons; flax, 4 tons; grass-seed, 19 tons; tallow, 5 tons; wool, 30 tons; timber, 26,730 ft.—total value of £332,374. Imports (over-sea): Value, £55,512. Customs duties for the year, £19,045. During the year 410 steamers entered and left the port: tonnage, 141,226, with crews numbering 8,415. The number of passengers to and from the breakwater by sea, 11,800.

Manufactures in New Plymouth are represented by a sash-and-door, a boot, butter-keg, and three coach-factories, a brewery, a cordial, and also a patent stopper-factory, a flour-mill, tannery, fellmongery, bone-mill, and iron-foundry, with freezing-works and bacon-factory in the suburbs. The town has both water and gas laid on.

Hawera, the next largest town, is situate on the eastern edge of the Waimate Plains. The population is about 2,000. The Wellington–New Plymouth Railway runs close to it, the distance by rail from New Plymouth being about forty-eight miles. Hawera is surrounded by a first-class dairying and grazing country, capable of carrying a very large population. On 1st December, 1898, an up-to-date bacon-factory, costing some £1,200, commenced the work of killing and curing in Hawera, and the company expect to do large business during the current year.

The Town of Patea is situated on the coast, at the extreme southern end of the district, and has a population of about 800. There is a splendid grazing district inland, with a large area of land yet to be opened up. The principal industry is the canning, freezing, and boiling-down of meat. Exports for the year 1898 were: Wool, 4,863 bales; fungus, 230 bales; tallow, 1,040 casks; pelts, 692 casks; hides, 7,168; skins, 6; corn, 438 sacks; grass-seed, 1,308 sacks; cheese and butter, 2,101 boxes; flax, 788 bales; cased meat, 6,381 cases; bone-dust, 958 sacks; potatoes, 437 sacks; sundries, 311 packages; cattle, 85. The imports were: 6,375 packages of sundries; coal, 359 tons. The number of steamers in and out was 132. The Patea Harbour Board has just imported an up-to-date wool-dumping press and hydraulic pumps. It also proposes repairing and extending the present wharf and shed accommodation, and has also now in hand and well advanced the construction of a new guide pier (on western side of mouth of river), the estimated cost of which is £5,100. The width between the east and west pier heads is 260 ft.; width of channel about 180 ft., gradually narrowing to 100 ft. as the beacons are approached. The pilot reports the depth of water at not less than 12 ft. at high-water springs, and 9 ft. at high-water neaps, with a straight channel.

Stratford, a comparatively young town, lies about midway between Patea and New Plymouth. It has already a population of about 1,700, and is growing fast. The height above sea-level is 1,000 ft., and the climate is bracing though somewhat moist. The main road to Auckland—known as the Stratford–Ongaruhe (now Ohura Road)—starts here. It has been formed as a cart-road for forty-eight miles, and as a bridle road to fifty-six miles. If the work is continued energetically, communication with Auckland should be opened up in about three years' time. A bacon-factory has just been started at Stratford under very favourable circumstances, and is likely to prove a public benefit, and also a financial success to the proprietary company. The works are on a fair scale and up to date. The machinery is driven by a 30-horse-power Victor turbine, the power being obtained from the Patea River through a tunnel 865 ft. long, cut across a bend in the river. The refrigerating engine is a 6-ton British Linde, while hot water is supplied from a high-pressure boiler in an adjoining building. The chilling-chamber holds about 120 carcases (or one day's killing); here they remain overnight, and are then passed on to the curing-room, a spacious compartment of 80 ft. by 26 ft., capable of holding 1,000 carcases; from here they pass to the drying-room, of same size and capacity, on the upper story. A brick smoke-house, capable of dealing with 600 pieces at a time, has also been erected. The piggeries and slaughter-house are about a mile from the works, and are connected by tramway; the former consists of twenty compartments holding ten pigs each, and are conveniently arranged for feeding, &c. On the Eltham–Opunake Road another factory, called the “Pioneer Bacon Factory,” was started by Mr. Buchanan in 1897, putting through in that year 400 pigs; last year 900 carcases, weighing 121,500 lbs. (an average dead-weight of 135 lbs) were dealt with; in 1899 the above figures will probably be trebled or more.

Waitara, a seaport town of 628 inhabitants, is situated on the river of the same name, a mile up from the sea, and about ten miles north-east from New Plymouth. The Mount Egmont Freezing-works have during the year dealt with and exported to London frozen meat, dairy produce, wool, &c., to the value of £90,584. These freezing-works possess two powerful Haslam freezing-machines, capable of freezing 500 bullocks per month; they are also gazetted a Government grading and cool store, a great advantage to the outside dairy factories, whose butter thus avoids all risk of injury after grading. All produce is conveyed on board the New Zealand Shipping Company's ocean-going steamers (which anchor in Waitara roadstead) in specially-constructed and insulated bags. The oversea exports for the year were: Frozen meat, 1,410 tons; butter 131 tons; cheese, 245 tons; wool, 3,101 bales; leather, 27 bales; tallow, 196 casks; pelts, 10 casks; sundries, 6 tons. The exports coastwise were: Tallow, 418 casks; grain, 170 tons; potatoes, 131 tons; flour, 14 tons; general merchandise, 468 tons; frozen meat, 66 cwt.; butter, 287 boxes; sawn timber, 147,676 superficial feet; horses, 5; sheep, 319; cattle, 926; chaff, 429 sacks; fungus, 18 bales; skins, 54 bundles; hides, 1,263. Imports coastwise: Grain, 294 tons; potatoes, 28 tons; manure, 106 tons; lime, 294 tons; coal, 3,497 tons; flour, 516 tons; general, 2,276 tons; timber, 348,920 ft.; grass-seed, 301 sacks; sheep, 467; horses, 1; hides, 95; butter, 6 boxes; skins, 27 bundles; wool, 178 bales; fungus, 28 bales. Total imports, 7,747 tons; total exports, 3,913 tons. During the year 152 steamers and 22 sailing vessels entered and left the port, their gross tonnage being 36,944 tons, while eight large ocean-going steamers anchored in the roadstead.

Inglewood, situated on the railway-line, sixteen miles south-east of New Plymouth, is a flourishing little town of some 800 inhabitants, rapidly coming to the front.

The only other towns of importance are Eltham, population, 800; Opunake, population, 400; Manaia, population, 480; and Normanby, population, 410.

Roads and Railways

The chief means of communication is the railway from Wellington, which traverses the district between Patea and New Plymouth—a distance of sixty-six miles. Trains run every day between New Plymouth and Palmerston North—164 miles—and on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays there are through trains between New Plymouth and Wellington—252 miles. The Main North Road runs from New Plymouth, passing through the Towns of Waitara and Urenui; it is formed as a cart-road as far as Pukearuhe, a distance of thirty miles. From here a horse-track connects with the Mokau and Awakino Rivers, and from Mokau there is a road to Te Kuiti, in the Auckland District. At twenty-four miles and a half from New Plymouth and about three miles beyond Urenui a new main road is being formed up the Mimi Valley and over the main range east of Mount Messenger, thence down Tongaporutu Valley to near the sea, where it joins the old road. It is hoped that this road will be opened for traffic during the year, and, although some eight miles longer than the other, it will always be available independent of tides. About midway between New Plymouth and Waitara on the above road the Mountain road diverges and runs almost due south, and chiefly along the railway, for a distance of forty miles, connecting with the Main South Road at the Town of Hawera. This is at present the principal road in the district, tapping, as it does, large numbers of district roads, and passing through the Towns of Inglewood, Midhurst, Stratford, Eltham, and Normanby.

The Ohura Road branches from the Mountain Road at Stratford. It is formed and open for traffic to Whangamomona Village, a distance of forty-one miles and a half, and a coach now runs twice a week in summer (Tuesdays and Fridays) between Stratford and Whangamomona, fare 12s. 6d. The dray-formation has been completed for some seven miles further, but a small bridge requires putting in before it can be opened for wheel traffic; horsemen can, however, ride fifteen miles beyond Whangamomona without difficulty, and the road is now being extended into the interior so as eventually to connect with Auckland, and will open up a large area of fertile country.

The Main South Road from New Plymouth follows the trend of the coast to the south, and was at one time the coach-road to Wellington. It passes through the Villages of Omata, Oakura, Okato, Rahotu, Otakeho, Manutahi South, and Kakaramea, and the Towns of Opunake, Manaia, Hawera, and Patea.

The Junction Road runs south-east from New Plymouth, and crosses the Mountain Road and railway at Inglewood. It is formed and metalled for nineteen miles, and formed only for a further distance of thirty-two miles beyond this point, connecting with the Ohura Road at a distance of thirty-one miles from Stratford. This road crosses a number of district roads; hence its name.

The Opunake Road runs from Stratford to Opunake, twenty-six miles, skirting the southern base of Mount Egmont. It is formed and metalled for twelve miles from Stratford; the remainder is open for horse-traffic only.

The Eltham Road runs from Eltham to Opunake, twenty-five miles, connecting with the Opunake Road at Punehu, seven miles from Opunake. This is formed and metalled throughout.

The other main roads in course of construction are the Awakino Road, branching from the Main North Road at the Mimi; the Rawhitiroa Road, leaving the Mountain Road near Eltham; the Waitotara Valley Road, starting from the Main South Road at Waitotara Township; and the Otaraoa, Moki, and Okoke Roads.

Crown Lands available for Settlement.
 Acres.
Crown lands available for settlementAcres. 687,750
Native lands undealt with326,250
                Total1,014,000

Of the above, about 150,000 acres are open valleys and hills in the north-east corner of the district; a good deal of it more or less pumice-land, but still suitable for grazing. From the rest may be subtracted perhaps 10,000 acres for area absorbed by rivers, gorges, &c., and there remain 854,000 acres of forest-land yet to be dealt with. Of this area perhaps 50,000 acres, made up of strips of flats and terraces, may be suitable for agriculture; while the balance—804,000 acres—will be good pastoral land.

It may be said, in conclusion, that there is every sign of genuine prosperity throughout the district, which has advanced rapidly during the last few years, and will no doubt continue to do so.

Chapter 73. HAWKE'S BAY LAND DISTRICT

E. C. Gold-Smith, Chief Surveyor

The Land District of Hawke's Bay comprises that portion of the east coast of the North Island from Cape Turnagain, in latitude 40° 30', northwards to Lottin Point, about thirty miles beyond the East Cape, and contains the Waiapu, Cook, Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, Waipawa, and Patangata Counties.

It has a seaboard of 300 miles, with an average depth from the coast of forty-five miles, and embraces an area of 6,063,000 acres. Its western limit is defined by the Ruahine, Kaweka, Ahimanawa, Raukumara, and other high ranges that form the watershed between the rivers flowing through it to the sea, and those that run to the west coast and the Bay of Plenty.

Physical Features

The Ruahine Range extends northwards for about sixty miles from the Manawatu Gorge as far as the valley of the Ngaruroro River. Its altitude varies from 3,000 ft. to 6,000 ft., and for a considerable distance its summit is snow-clad during the winter months.

The Kaweka, a shorter range, divided from the Ruahine by the Ngaruroro River, attains an altitude of 5,650 ft., is very rugged and steep, and a prominent feature in the landscape in winter, covered as it then is with snow.

From these two ranges, which fall very abruptly on the Hawke's Bay side, the land slopes gradually to the sea, forming in some parts fine rolling hills—the essence of a sheep-country—in others extensive plains, with comparatively little poor soil.

Northwards from the Kaweka there is a series of forest-clad ranges of varying height, stretching away in the direction of the East Cape. Hikurangi, the highest point, is a bold peak with an elevation of 5,606 ft., rising so abruptly on all sides that the ascent can be made only at one point, and that with difficulty.

The only lake in the district of any extent is Waikaremoana, so famous for its magnificent scenery. It lies about thirty-five miles inland of the Wairoa (Clyde), and is eleven miles in length, with a breadth at the widest part of about eight miles. Nestled among precipitous mountain-ranges, wooded to the water's edge, with numerous bays and inlets, it has a natural beauty hardly to be surpassed.

From Wairoa there is a formed road to the lake, and sixteen miles round it, as far as the Mokau Falls and River.

The principal plains are: (1.) The Ruataniwha, some fifty miles south of Napier. This is 120 square miles in extent, is for the most part occupied as sheep-runs, and carries a large quantity of stock. (2.) The Heretaunga Plain, with an area of ninety square miles, lying immediately to the south of Napier. This is rich alluvial land; a large portion is thickly settled, the remainder used for grazing and agriculture. The only other plain of any extent is at Poverty Bay. It has an area of sixty-five square miles, is very fertile, well cultivated, and bears a large population.

The land district is well watered throughout by numerous rivers and streams, but none are navigable except the Wairoa and Turanganui, and these only for vessels of light draught. They are both tidal, and serve as ports to the Towns of Wairoa (Clyde) and Gisborne.

Communication

The chief outlets from Napier are three in number. First the Nippier–Wellington Railway, which traverses the centre of the southern half of the district for its whole length of 100 miles, and may be called the main artery of communication. Parallel to it throughout runs an excellent gravelled road, which was made before the construction of the railway. On either side there are numerous branch roads, which act as feeders, making a very complete system of internal transit. Another main road runs in a westerly direction to Kuripapanga, distant forty-five miles, a favourite resort in the summer time, removed as it is from the heat of the country near the coast. A coach runs thither twice a week, and on thence to Inland Patea, where the Napier Road meets the roads to Hunterville, Tokaanu, and the Wanganui River.

The part of the district served by these two main lines—viz., that between Napier and Woodville—contains the greater portion of the population, and from the extent of arable land within it is likely in the future to be very thickly peopled. Notwithstanding that so much of the Native land in this part is unoccupied and in its natural state, there are nearly a million of acres of land in sown grasses, carrying 2,750,000 sheep and 80,000 cattle, and the population, inclusive of towns and villages, is about 36,000 persons.

The only main road northwards from Napier is the coach route to Taupo, which, soon after leaving the fertile Petane Valley, begins to traverse poor country, and twenty-five miles out enters the light pumice soil.

From Napier to the Wairoa the journey must be done on horseback, as there is a break of twenty-three miles between Tutira and Mohuka unfit for wheeled traffic; but this is being gradually remedied. As a natural consequence, the traffic between these two places has to be done by small steamers.

From the Wairoa a main road runs northward, through the Village of Tiniroto and on to Gisborne, a distance of seventy-five miles. For a considerable distance it rune through hilly country, and, as it has not been gravelled, wheeled traffic is suspended during the winter months; but a coach runs weekly for nine or ten months out of the year.

Between Gisborne and Opotiki, in the Bay of Plenty, communication is not good. The road, which is 120 miles in length, has been formed only to the edge of the Motu Forest, a distance of fifty miles. In the neighbourhood of the forest a large area of Crown lands has been taken up and settled in the last two or three years. The rest of the journey must be done on horseback.

In the country north of Gisborne, formed roads for wheeled traffic are few in number, and not continuous; but small steamers trade regularly along the coast, calling in at Tolago and Tokomaru Bays, Waipiro, Tuparoa, Awanui, Kawakawa, and other small bays.

Pastoral Industries

The Hawke's Bay Land District is pre-eminently a sheep-grazing country. The extent of land in sown grasses was, in November, 1898, no less than 2,178,024 acres, while 2,243,949 acres were in tussock or native grass. In April of that year there were 4,406,020 sheep, 138,564 cattle, and 27,514 horses. The value of the wool exported from the district during the twelve months ending 31st March, 1899, was £931,844, and the quantity 31,414,810 lbs.

Freezing-works are now established at Tomoana, Port Ahuriri, and Gisborne, and the export of frozen meat for the year ending 31st March, 1899, was 243,122 cwt., the value being £252,927. This industry gives employment to a large number of persons, both directly to those engaged in breeding, shearing, freezing, and shipping, and indirectly to those who labour at bushfelling, grass-seed sowing, fencing, and otherwise opening up new country. Nor must the cutting of the immense amount of firewood consumed at the works be forgotten. All this benefits the settler with limited means, by providing him with funds to improve his holding, and to this is due, in a great measure, the general prosperity.

Agricultural Pursuits

Agriculture is not carried on to the extent it might be with so much land suitable for root- and grain-crops. No doubt this is due to the profits made in sheep-farming. It is chiefly confined to the Heretaunga Plains and the flat lands near Gisborne. The soil is favourable to root-crops; potatoes range from 12 to 15 tons to the acre, and in some instances exceed this amount. Only a moderate quantity of grain is grown; barley, for which the soil seems well adapted, returning from 20 to 60 bushels of good sample to the acre.

Dairying

Settlers are now turning their attention to dairying, and lately factories have been established in the bush districts at Norsewood, Ormondville, Maharahara, and Woodville, whilst several others are in contemplation. At the last-mentioned town a cheese-factory has been in existence for some years, and turns out an excellent article much sought after in other parts of the colony.

Timber Industry

The timber industry is considerable, numerous sawmills being in full work in different parts of the district. In the forest between Takapau and Woodville there are twelve, with an estimated yearly output of 10,000,000 ft. This tract of forest is the one most used for milling purposes, and will yield a plentiful supply for a long time to come, notwithstanding that for years past a large amount of totara timber has been taken out of it to send to other parts of the colony. Further north there is no totara to speak of, though rimu, white-pine, and other milling timbers are to be found scattered throughout the forests, and in the Poverty Bay District puriri is found in some quantity. There were 1,563,933 superficial feet of timber exported from Napier during the year ending 31st March, 1899.

Other Industries

Other industries, such as fellmongeries, soap-works, boot-, coach-, and sash-and-door factories, &c., are established in the principal towns.

Climate

The climate is generally of a mild character, and, though hot along the coast-lands in the height of summer, it is, owing to the dryness of the atmosphere, not so relaxing as in parts of the island farther north. The rainfall is light, excepting in the bush districts and high inland country.

Napier itself is recommended by many medical men as a resort for invalids suffering from pulmonary complaints, chiefly on account of the mildness of its winter season. During the year ending 31st December, 1898, rain fell only on eighty-one days, the total fall recorded being 35 in., while the average rainfall for the last thirty-three years is 37.070 in.

Towns

Napier is pleasantly situated on the peninsula known as Scinde Island, which is joined to the mainland by a narrow shingle-bank of several miles in length. It is a busy town, with a population of 9,400. The business part is on the flat land at the foot of the group of hills that take up the greater part of the peninsula. These hills, formerly barren and waste, are now occupied by numerous private residences, and the very general tree-planting has given the upper town a distinctive and pleasing character. There is an excellent water-supply, derived wholly from artesian wells of large size, and pumped by machinery to reservoirs on the tops of the hills. The shipping trade, as the large exports show, is especially active during the wool and frozen-meat season. It is at present carried on at Port Ahuriri, about a mile from the town; but will, before long, in a large measure be transferred to the fine breakwater which is now advancing towards completion. During the year ending 31st December, 1898, the imports amounted to £181,486, and the exports to £1,113,242.

Grisborne, the trade-centre and port of what is known as the Poverty Bay District, is a prosperous town of about 2,500 inhabitants, rapidly increasing in size and importance, as the large quantity of unimproved land in the Cook County is fast becoming settled and made productive. There are 810,961 sheep now in Cook County, and Gisborne's exports amounted to £353,155 in 1898.

Clyde, the county town and port of the Wairoa County, is picturesquely situated on the Wairoa River, about three miles from the mouth. The river is navigable for small craft as far as the village of Frasertown, twelve miles further up.

With a few exceptions, the towns and villages to the south of Napier are all situated on the line of railway running from that city to Palmerston North. The principal are: Hastings, a rising town of 3,300 inhabitants, Waipawa, Waipukurau, Dannevirke, and finally Woodville, about three miles from the Manawatu Gorge, and distant ninety-eight miles from Napier. It is at this end of the district that the Crown has, in the last few years, successfully planted settlement, and, in place of the continuous forest known as the Seventy-mile Bush of earlier days, there are now prosperous townships, with various thriving industries established.

Crown Lands

The land held by tenants of the Crown, of whom there are 767 in the district, under the various systems of tenure, amounts to 473,130a. 0 r. 8 p., and there remain about 400,000 acres not yet dealt with in any manner.

The latter is, for the most part, suitable for pastoral purposes only, any fit for agriculture lying in small, isolated spots, widely scattered, and such as could not be selected independently of the surrounding inferior land. Nearly the whole is broken forest country, fitted more for sheep than cattle, and having an average carrying-capacity, when cleared, of about one sheep to the acre, though the best of it might possibly graze from two to three. The land is chiefly in the Hangaroa, Koranga, Mangatoro, Norsewood, and Motu Districts, and the back-country of the Waiapu County.

About 28,000 acres are now open for selection, in addition to small grazing-runs to the extent of over 50,000 acres. In the Waiau Survey District, near Waikare-moana, there are over 8,000 acres, also hilly country, of limestone formation. In the Motu District, between Gisborne and Opotiki, there are about 16,000 acres open, and in the Mata and Hikurangi Survey Districts, situated from fifteen to twenty miles inland from Waipiro, there are 13,700 acres of rough forest limestone country, at the present time not easy to get at; but a road to the block will shortly be put in hand. There are also 1,000 acres open in the Pohui District, about twenty-eight miles north of Napier, and about 20,000 acres are shortly to be opened in the Waikopiro, Ngapaeruru, and other blocks near Dannevirke.

Native Lands

Of the Native lands in this district, a very considerable portion has been leased to Europeans, but there still remains in the hands of the Maoris a valuable estate, comprising both agricultural and pastoral country, and including some 800,000 acres of excellent land. This land lies for the most part in the Waiapu County, towards the East Cape.

Chapter 74. THE WELLINGTON LAND DISTRICT

J. W. A. Marchant, Chief Surveyor

The Wellington Land District is bounded on the north by the Districts of Auckland and Hawke's Bay, on the west by that of Taranaki, on the east by the sea, and on the south and south-west by Cook Strait. The area contained within these limits is about 6,810,958 acres. It lies between the parallels of 39° and 41° 30' south latitude; its greatest length north and south is about 180 miles, and its mean width east and west about sixty miles.

General Physical Features

The district is divided into two well-defined parts by a mountain range, which forms part of the backbone of the North Island. At its northern end this range—there known by the name of Ruahine, and averaging a height of about 4,000 ft.—divides Wellington from Hawke's Bay; but after passing the point where it is intersected by the Manawatu River, the range takes the name of Tararua for many miles, until, at about forty miles from the termination on the shores of Cook Strait, it divides into two main ranges, known respectively under the general names of Rimutaka and Tararua, both ranges averaging from 2,500 ft. to 3,500 ft. in height, the highest point being Mitre Peak, 5,154 ft. Parallel to the main range, and divided from it by the Wairarapa Plain and the undulating country to the north, is a series of ranges at a few miles inland from the East Coast, known as the Puketoi, Taipo, Maungaraki, and Haurangi Ranges. Lying on the northern border of the district are the Kaimanawa Ranges, offshoots from the Ruahine. They are for the most part open and grass-covered, rising to a mean height of about 4,500 ft. Westward from the latter mountains, and divided from them by a deep, broad valley, in which flow the Waikato and Wangaehu Rivers, is the volcanic chain of mountains containing Ruapehu, 9,008 ft., and Ngauruhoe, an active volcano, 7,515 ft. high. The long sweeping curve of Cook Strait, forming the south-western limit of the district, is bordered, from the Putea River to within thirty miles of Wellington, by a comparatively level and undulating country, now nearly all under cultivation, having an average width of about fifteen miles. This is one of the finest parts of the colony, and is celebrated for its stock-raising capabilities. It was originally in a great measure open, though the southern part, where the plain is narrowed in between the sea and the Tararua Range, has a good deal of forest on it, now fast disappearing under the axe of the settler.

Inland of this coastal plain, at varying distances from the sea, the country gradually rises to a mean height of about 1,500 ft. to 1,800 ft., and becomes a good deal broken in character. It was originally forest-clad almost throughout. It is much cut up by rivers and streams flowing from the interior to the sea, of which the principal, commencing from the north, are these: The Waitotara, the Wanganui, the Wangaehu, the Rangitikei, the Oroua, the Pohangina, and the Manawatu, which last, after leaving the gorge in the Ruahine Ranges, runs through level land to its mouth in Cook Strait. This broken country, being everywhere composed of papa, or marly formation, which takes grass excellently, promises in the near future to be a large sheep-carrying district.

At about fifteen miles south of the volcanic peaks of Ruapehu Mountain the papa country terminates in a fairly well-marked escarpment, giving place to a more level and undulating country formed of volcanic matter, the greater portion of which is forest-clad, though on the south-east, east, and west sides of that mountain there are open grassy plains, of no great fertility, but yet suited to pastoral pursuits.

To the eastward of the main range formed by the Rimutaka and Tararua Ranges is the great depression known at its southern end as the Wairarapa Plain, which gradually rises northwards from the lake of that, name into wooded, somewhat broken country, of no great height, at a distance of some forty-five miles from the sea. From here the country falls again slightly to the Upper Manawatu River, the depression in this part being marked by the extensive flats in the neighbourhood of Pahiatua, and by the shallow valleys of the Mangahao, Mangatainoko, and Tiraumea Rivers and their branches. For thirty miles from the sea this great valley is mostly open, with patches of forest here and there, but becomes more plentifully wooded at the base of the Rimutaka and Tararua Ranges. The quality of the soil varies from light and stony, on the Wairarapa Plains proper, to rich papa country, as the northern end is approached. The southern end of this country is watered by the Ruamahanga River and its tributaries. Generally the district is a pastoral one, though agriculture is also pursued successfully. The neighbourhood of the Puketoi Ranges is in many places composed of limestone, and promises in the future to become a very rich pastoral district, such as will carry a considerable population. In the forks formed by the Tararua and Rimutaka Ranges the Hutt River takes its rise, and runs in a southerly direction through an undulating or level country, finally falling into Port Nicholson. The valley contains some very fine land, generally held in small holdings.

Plains

The two most important of these have already been mentioned. On the eastern side of the main range the Wairarapa extends northward from the lake of that name for about forty-seven miles, with an average width of about nine miles. In some parts, especially on the flats along the Ruamahanga River, the soil is alluvial and rich; in others, though stony and unfit for cultivation, it is nevertheless grassed, and carries stock well in the winter and rainy seasons. The plain is watered by the Waiohine, Waingawa, and Ruamahanga Rivers, and contains altogether about 200,000 acres, much of which is good agricultural land. On the other side of the district, west of the Tararus and Ruahine Ranges, there is a large block of land so nearly level that it may be called a plain, extending from Paikakariki (thirty miles from Wellington) to Marton (a few miles north of the Rangitikei River), and contains about half a million acres. Starting as a narrow strip between the hills and the sea, the plain widens out by degrees until at Fielding it is at least twenty miles in breadth. Along the beach runs a fringe of sandhills, but behind this is to be found some of the best farming and grazing land in the colony. There are two plains inland—Murimotu and Waimarino—both lying some 2,200 ft. above sea-level, in the neighbourhood of Mount Ruapehu, the former to the south and the latter to the north-west of the mountain. The soil is covered with a coarse native tussock, and, though capable of carrying stock, is of a light porous nature, and cannot be classed as agricultural land.

Rivers

First among these is the Wanganui—“the Rhine of New Zealand”—with a length of over 110 miles from its source, near Mount Tongariro, to its outlet. The Rangitikei, the next in size, rises in the Ruahine Mountains, and flows through the Awarua country, where it is joined by the Hautapu and other large tributaries. After a course of over a hundred miles it reaches the sea some little distance below the Township of Bulls, on the West Coast. The Manawatu is third in importance. Rising in the Ruahine Range, it flows through the picturesque Manawatu Gorge, joining the sea at the port of Foxton. Lesser rivers on the West Coast are the Waitotara (north of Wanganui), the Wangaehu (which takes its rise in Mount Ruapehu, and from its source to its mouth is so strongly impregnated with sulphur that fish cannot live in it), the Turakina, and the Otaki. The only other rivers of any size are the Hutt (Heretaunga), emptying itself into the Wellington Harbour, the Ruamahanga, flowing through the Wairarapa Valley and lakes into Palliser Bay, and on the East Coast the Pahaoa, Aohanga, and Akitio.

Lakes

The only lake of any size in the Wellington District is the Wairarapa, lying between the Rimutaka and Haurangi Ranges, towards the southern end of the Wairarapa Valley. It is about twelve miles long and four broad, and is connected by the Ruamahanga River with Onoke, a small lake separated from Palliser Bay by a narrow shingle spit only. A passage through the spit is opened from time to time when the lake rises above its natural level and overflows the low-lying flats along its margin. Water-fowl of every kind—among them numbers of black swans—are to be found round about these lakes.

Scenery

The views obtained from the railway-line in the ascent and descent of the Rimutaka Range are among the best in the neighbourhood of Wellington, and the road through the Forty-mile Bush was long considered one of the most beautiful drives in the North Island; but much of its pristine beauty has been destroyed by the felling of the bush consequent on the increase of settlement. The same may be said of the Manawatu Gorge, famed in the old coaching days for its lovely scenery, but now sadly marred by the construction of the railway-line. The most beautiful drive now left is through the Awarua Bush, from Ohingaiti to Moawhango. From this road, as it winds round the spurs, most charming glimpses are obtained of the Rangitikei River and the blue hills beyond, and at other points the traveller looks up deep ravines where the graceful fern-tree stands out in bright relief against the dark green of the native bush. Another road from Pipiriki, on the Wanganui River, to the Murimotu Plain, traverses one of the most magnificent forests in the North Island. Here the bushman's axe has felled only the timber standing on the road-line, and the track runs beneath the shade of the largest and stateliest maire and rimu known. Beautiful as these drives are, the scenery on the Wanganui River is still more lovely. A few miles below Taumaranui the river enters a series of gorges, shut in by high precipitous cliffs. Sometimes the canoe glides slowly through quiet reaches, sometimes shoots rapids which make the traveller hold his breath till they are passed, and then again traverses places where the water is ever in turmoil, boiling and eddying in whirlpools, taxing the energies of the most skilful Native steersman, and testing the nerve of the most courageous tourist. These experiences, with the views obtained of the banks, densely wooded even where the papa rock rises almost straight from the water's edge, make the eighty miles journey from Taumaranui to Pipiriki an event not easily effaced from the memory. Between Pipiriki and Wanganui excellent steamers are now running, so that the beauties of the lower part of the river may be seen by all without trouble or discomfort.

Forests

The Wellington District is essentially a forest country, for out of the 6,810,958 acres contained within its borders 3,400,000 are still under bush. By far the largest forest is the Waimarino, having an area of at least three-quarter million acres, a large portion of it being nearly level land, containing magnificent timber, principally totara, maire, matai, rimu, and other pines. This forest is as yet hardly touched, though one sawmill has lately been started at Raetihi to cut timber for the settlers now making their homes in the neighbourhood. The distance from the settled districts or any port will render the timber in this part useless as a marketable commodity until the country is opened up by the proposed Auckland Main Trunk Railway.

The next in size is the Rangitikei-Hautapu Forest, containing an area of about 400,000 acres, a considerable portion in the Awarua Block being first-class milling timber, which will be available as soon as the extension of the Hunterville Railway-line taps it. Between this and the Waimarino Forest there is a large extent of bush-land, drained by the Turakina, Mangamahu, and Wangaehi, Rivers, extending up to the Wanganui River, and containing about 350,000 acres. Very little of this, from its inaccessibility, will be utilised for sawmilling purposes, but a great deal of it, together with a further block of 230,000 acres on the west side of the Wanganui River, will be cleared by the settlers and sown down with grass. A further block of about 100,000 acres of forest-land lies in the Pohangina Valley and on the slopes of the Ruahine Range. A large portion of this has been taken up and is now being settled.

The forest-land on the West Coast extends from Pukerua to the Manawatu Gorge, on the west side of the Tararua Range, and contains an area of about 380,000 acres, the bulk of it being fit only for turning into pasture. The most available part of it, alongside the Wellington–Manawatu Railway, is being extensively cut into by sawmillers at Levin and other places on the line.

After this in size is the forest commonly known as the Forty-mile Bush, containing 260,000 acres. It lies immediately north of Masterton, and is tapped by the Wairarapa Railway and the extension to Woodville. It is at present being quickly denuded of timber by the sawmills established at Eketahuna and Pahiatua, and by the increasing number of settlers. A tract of fully 100,000 acres lying to the east of the Puketoi Range cannot be utilised for milling purposes, as it is not tapped by any branch railway-line, and its distance from the main line would render the business unprofitable. Nor are there any suitable ports along the coast where timber could be shipped.

The other forests are, one near Lake Taupo, the Wairarapa–Tararua Forest on the east side of the Tararua Range, and its continuation on both sides of the Rimutaka Range, and the Haurangi Forest on the east side of the Wairarapa Lake. These consist for the most part of birch-covered hills, and cannot be considered as valuable for milling purposes.

Soil

It may be said that the Wellington Land District contains within its borders a greater quantity of good land than any other in the North Island, very little, except the mountain-tops, being unfitted for use, while some of it is of very superior quality, suited for the growth of the productions of every temperate climate. As much of it is still forest-clad, settlers must look forward to having to make their farms by felling and burning the bush before grass can be sown, and, as it takes from ten to fifteen years before the plough can be used in bush-land, grazing, for which the climate and soil is admirably adapted, will be the principal industry for some time-to-come. It is generally calculated that the cost of felling and burning ordinary bush varies from 25s. to 35s. an acre. To this must be added about 20s. for seed and fencing. It is no uncommon thing for a return to be received at from twelve to eighteen months after felling. The usual practice is to put sheep on to the new lands soon after the grass has obtained a good hold. The process of improving the lands by the gradual “logging up” and burning of the fallen tree-trunks is a long one, but it pays in the end, for in this way fine pasture-lands are obtained on the hills, and agricultural lands on the flats.

Climate

The climate of Wellington District is healthy and mild, the mean annual temperature (in the city) being 55.4, whilst the mean rainfall is 48.49 in. per annum. The rainfall differs, however, according to locality. Inland and near the ranges it is much greater. The top of Ruapehu Mountain is covered with perpetual snow, which lies also on the tops of Kaimanawa, Ruahine, and Tararua in the winter. Frosts are heavy in the interior.

Harbours and Ports

The coasts of Wellington are not so well supplied in this respect as are some other parts of the colony; but what is lost in number is made up in a great measure by the excellence of the chief haven—Port Nicholson—which, from the position it occupies, at the meeting-point, as it were, of the coastal traffic of both Islands, and from its sheltered position and depth of water, may be considered one of the most convenient harbours in the world. The Wanganui River, which has been considerably improved by artificial means, is the second port in the district, and has a considerable trade carried on by coastal steamers. Patea and Manawatu Rivers are also used by coastal steamers, whilst several other places along the shore afford shelter and stopping-places, according to the direction of the wind. The extension of railways along both coasts has, in a large measure, done away with the inconveniences arising from want of harbours.

Towns

The capital of the colony—Wellington—is situated in the south-west angle of Port Nicholson, on Lambton Harbour. The wharfage accommodation here is second to none in the colony, and the wharves present always a busy scene of life with the numerous steamers and sailing-vessels continuously loading or discharging. As many as four ocean-going steamers are not unfrequently seen alongside, loading with wool, frozen meat, and other products, for conveyance to Europe. The port possesses a patent slip at Evans' Bay, within a short distance of the city. Founded in 1840 by the New Zealand Company, the city occupies the flats skirting the original shore-line, long since obliterated by the reclamation of the foreshore, which is now mostly covered with fine buildings. Rising close behind the old shore-line is a range of hills, the lower parts of which are all built over. The population of the city at the present time is about 42,600. Being the seat of Government, it contains the residence of the Governor and the headquarters of the Government departments, which are placed in what is said to be the largest wooden building in the Southern Hemisphere. There are several noticeable public buildings, amongst which must be mentioned the Parliamentary Buildings, containing a valuable library, General Post Office, Government Life Insurance Offices, Public Library, School of Art, and Harbour Board Offices. The Colonial Museum, under the management of Sir James Hector, and the Botanical Gardens, are also worthy of notice. The city is lighted by electricity, and its streets are well kept and clean, whilst an excellent supply of water is obtained from the Wainui-o-mata River, on the other side of the harbour. The principal industries are represented by iron- and brass-foundries, factories, sawmills, soap-and-candle works, boot-factories, aërated water, meat-freezing works, coach-building, rope-and-twine works, sash-and-door factories, brick-, tile-, and pottery-works, besides a match-factory and innumerable other smaller works of various kinds. The city is increasing with rapid strides; its excellent position, together with the fine back-country, places it in the front rank of New Zealand towns. Its principal suburbs are Onslow, Melrose, and Karori, each containing from 1,000 to 2,500 inhabitants.

The Township of Petone is situated near the mouth of the Hutt River, seven miles from Wellington, on the railway-line. It has a population of 3,200, and is a rising township, containing the Government Railway Workshops, a woollen factory, and a meat-freezing establishment. The Lower Hutt, almost immediately adjoining, has also a large population, and some well-built residences with beautiful gardens. The Upper Hutt, situated at the head of the valley, has many small farms, owned by some of the very early settlers. The railway here starts the ascent of the Rimutaka Range.

Featherston, situated at the foot of the Wairarapa Valley, fifty-one miles by rail from Wellington, is a small township, with butter- and cheese-factories in the neighbourhood. Roads lead from it to Martinborough and the East Coast, and also down the Wairarapa Valley to Palliser Bay.

Greytown North is situated three miles off the main line of railway, and near the middle of the Wairarapa Valley, fifty-three miles from Wellington. The chief industries are saw milling and coach building. The population is 1,100 persons.

A few miles further north is the Town of Carterton, where are to be found timber-mills, cheese-factories, &c., and a population of 1,300 persons. There is some splendid farming land in this locality on the banks of the Ruamahanga River.

Masterton is situated at the head of the Wairarapa Valley, on the Wellington–Eketahuna Railway, sixty-seven miles from the capital. It is the centre of an agricultural and pastoral country, and has a population of 3,800. It is lit by gas, and has several industries, such as fellmongery, rope-making, flax-mills, coach-factory, &c., and, in addition, has some excellent fish-breeding ponds, from which many of the rivers in the colony have been supplied with trout. An important-coach-road leads from here through a fine pastoral district to Tinui, and on to Castlepoint on the East Coast, where a large quantity of wool is annually shipped to Wellington for export.

North of Masterton is the Opaki Plain, and beyond is the entrance of the Forty-mile Bush, which is now fast becoming a thriving pastoral, agricultural, and dairying district. Butter-factories have been established at Hastwell and Mauriceville, where a large number of Scandinavians are settled, forming hard-working and thriving communities.

Eketahuna is, by rail and road, ninety-four miles from Wellington. From there a main road leads to Alfredton, and up the Tiraumea Valley. The road is in process of extension through the East Puketoi country, now being opened up in farm-homestead settlements, and will eventually lead to Weber and Dannevirke, on the Napier Railway-line.

Pahiatua, a rising township about fifteen miles beyond Eketahuna, has a resident population of 1,200. It is the county and market-town of a large and improving district, and will probably also become the centre of a large dairying industry. Several branch roads run from Pahiatua into the adjoining country, the principal one leading to Makuri through a beautifully-wooded gorge. From there another branch road passes over the Makuri saddle into the East Puketoi country.

On the West Coast, Pahautanui, at the head of the Porirua Harbour, is the centre of a small agricultural community of early settlers, the old coach-road to Paikakariki running through it; and there is a branch-road leading over to Hayward's in the Hutt Valley. Paikakariki, twenty-seven miles from Wellington, may be considered the commencing-point of the West Coast settlements, which are springing up in every available valley along the coast. At Otaki, forty-seven miles from Wellington, by rail and road, there is a small township, and a large Native settlement. At Manukau, Levin, and Shannon, small townships have arisen since the Manawatu Railway Company opened up the land round about, much of it being rich farming and grazing country. Between Shannon and the Manawatu River there is a large raupo or flax swamp, named Makurarua, containing at least 15,000 acres of fine alluvial soil, which is being gradually drained by the company, and will probably at some future period become grazing-land.

Foxton, a township at the mouth of the Manawatu River, is a small shipping port, containing about 1,100 inhabitants. It is connected with Palmerston North by a branch railway, and is the outlet for a large area of good agricultural land.

Palmerston North is an inland town at the junction of the Wellington–New Plymouth and the Palmerston-Napier Railways, situated on a fine plain in the midst of a most excellent farming district at a point eighty-eight miles from Wellington, and 110 miles from Napier. Its population is now upwards of 6,200. It is lit with gas, and has a good water-supply. A fine bridge across the Manawatu River connects it with the Fitzherbert Block, a tract of rich agricultural land. Nine miles from Palmerston is the Township of Ashhurst, at the mouth of the Pohangina Valley, up which settlement has now extended for a distance of twenty-two miles. Several large farm-homestead association blocks have been selected up this valley.

Feilding, 104 miles from Wellington by rail, with a population of 2,150, is becoming one of the most important towns on the West Coast, as it is the centre of a very line locality, and the outlet for a large tract of inland country, the forest on which is fast being felled. A coach-road connects it with Birmingham (Kimbolton) and Pemberton, about thirty-two miles distant. On the seaward side for a distance of twenty miles there is also much good agricultural land, extending on the north-west to the Rangitikei River, and including the Township of Halcombe. There are several dairy factories established in the neighbourhood.

Marton, 123 miles from Wellington by rail, with a population of 1,200, one of the earliest of the West Coast settlements, is also the centre of an agricultural country. The Township of Bulls, on the north side of the Rangitikei River, lies between Marton and the coast. From Marton Junction the southern part of the North Island Main Trunk Railway extends up the Rangitikei Valley to Hunterville, a good-sized township in the centre of a grazing district, and from thence as far as Mangaonoho, twenty-three miles from Marton; from there a coach-road has been made to Ohingaiti, beyond the Makohine where a image viaduct has to be built before the railway-line can be continued. From Ohingaiti the coach-road has been made to Turangarere, and from thence to Tokaanu, on Lake Taupo, in the Auckland District.

Wanganui, situated near the mouth of the river of that name, is the oldest town after Wellington, from which it is 151 miles by rail—the distance by sea being only a hundred and twenty miles. It is the centre of an excellent farming district, and has a considerable trade, and several manufactories. Near the mouth of the river are freezing-works, the meat from which is conveyed by lighters to the large English steamers lying off the mouth of the river. The town is lit with gas, and has a good water-supply. Not far from it are some extensive railway workshops. Altogether it is a thriving place, with a population of about 6,400. The Wanganui River is navigable for a light-draught steamer up to Pipiriki, a distance of fifty-six miles, and for canoes a further distance of eighty miles to Taumaranui. A branch road extends from Pipiriki through the Waimarino Forest to Ohakune, and on to Karioi on the Murimotu Plains, thence by way of Turangarere and Moawhango to Napier.

Crown or Native Lands available for Future Settlement

Kaitangata, Te Mara, and Kaiparoro Blocks.—These blocks, containing about 58,000 acres of second-class pastoral country, were opened for sale in September, 1893. The lower portions have been taken up and are being settled on, but the balance of the blocks, to the extent of about 35,000 acres, has lately been withdrawn from sale, with the object of having this area more fully explored, back lines laid off, road access provided for, &c. The remaining unsold portions of these blocks will be re-offered when a new scheme of subdivision has been approved by the Land Board.

Tauakira Block.—Situated near Athens, on the Wanganui River; about 26,700 acres. This consists chiefly of country suitable for second-class pastoral occupation, in areas of from, say, 1,000 acres and upwards.

Mangapapa Block.—This block is situated on the east side of the Waitotara River, and contains land suitable for pastoral purposes. An area of about 800 acres will shortly be offered.

Town Land.—Further sections in Raetihi, Ohakune, Taihape, Makuri, and Levin Townships will probably be opened for sale at Wanganui, Pahiatua, and Wellington on dates due notice of which will be given in the local papers.

About 20,000 acres, known as the Retaruke Block, on the Wanganui River. It is proposed to open this under the small grazing-run system during next summer.

Awarua Block.—Portions of this block are now under survey, and will probably be offered for selection in a few months.

Forfeited Farm-homestead Sections.—A number of farm - homestead sections which have reverted to the Crown in the different Association Blocks in the Wairarapa North and South, Rangitikei, Wanganui, and other counties, are now being prepared for sale, and will be re-offered at early dates under the optional systems of the Land Act.

Due notice of these dates will be given in local papers, and sale lithos, with full particulars, will be published.

Improved-Farm Settlement Lands

All the available land suitable for holding under the improved-farm conditions has now been allotted, but if any of the sections now held under this system should be forfeited, they will probably be ballotted for amongst applicants in the district who are known to be of good character and likely to make good settlers. If further blocks of suitable land for this system are found, they will be cut up and opened on the same conditions.

Lands Open and Available for Ordinary Selection

Awarua Block.—Out of the Awarua Block, lying north of Ohingaiti, several blocks, containing over 140,000 acres, have been purchased from the Natives by the Crown. A great deal of this land is of first-class quality, though other parts will be treated as second-class land only—not that the soil is inferior, but because the land is too broken to be worked otherwise than as pastoral country in good-sized holdings. Several blocks have been surveyed; one of 15,000 acres west of Mangaweka, or Three-Log-Whare Township, was opened for sale in 1895, and subsequently another, of 7,500 acres, between the Hautapu and Rangitikei Rivers. A further sale of quarter-acre sections in the Mangaweka Township has taken place, and the Taihape Township has been subdivided into town or suburban lots, of which some have been offered for sale. A block of 12,500 acres lying south-east of Moawhango was opened for application, and this has all been taken up. Further purchases in the Awarua Block, to the extent of about 97,000 acres, have been made, and the surveys are being put in hand.

North of the Kawatau, on the east side of the Rangitikei, a block of 17,173 acres of second-class pastoral country was opened for selection, 2,366 acres of which are still open for sale.

Waitotara.—The Te Ngaue Block, 1,546 acres of second-class pastoral land, is now open for selection.

Waimarino.—Three blocks, containing about 10,000 acres, have had road-lines laid out through them, and are now open for application. A further block of about 46,550 acres, on the Retaruke, Oio, and Kaitieke Rivers, has had roads surveyed through it, and is now open for selection. There is an additional block of 27,000 acres, which is being surveyed, and will be offered as grazing-runs. 32,000 acres at the head of the Retaruke and Makino Streams have also been roaded. The rest of the Waimarino country, containing about 250,000 acres, is more or less broken, and will probably be opened as second-class pastoral country or small grazing-runs, to enable it to be taken up in larger sections.

Rangiwaea No. 2 Block.—Seven sections of an area of 3,193 acres are open for selection in this block, which is situated between Upper Wangaehu and Turakina Rivers.

A large number of forfeited Farm-homestead Sections are now open for selection in the following blocks: Gladstone, Hunterville Nos. 2, and 3, Sommerville, Palmerston North Knights of Labour, Marton Nos. 1, 2, and 3, Pohangina and Umutoi, Delaware, Onslow, Pahiatua Nos. 1, 2, and 4, Masterton Reform, Christchurch, Woodville, Mecalickstone, Waiwera, Waimarino, and Dannevirke Centennial.

Pipiriki Township.—Leases of forty-nine allotments for the term of twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term of twenty-one years, are open for application by tender.

Tokaanu Township.—Leases of one hundred and seven allotments for the term of twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term of twenty-one years, are open for application by tender.

Wharangi (Foxton Sanatorium).—Leases of twenty-three allotments for the term of fourteen years are open for application by tender.

Paparangi Settlement (Johnsonville).—Leases of four allotments are open for selection.

Tongariro, Rangipopo, and Kaimanawa Blocks.—105,000 acres have been acquired by the Crown, but none of it is likely to be taken up for settlement for a long time to come.

“Crown Land Guides” and sale lithographs, giving full particulars of lands open for selection in this Land District, will be forwarded to any one on application to the Commissioner of Crown Lands, Wellington.

Native Lands

Townships are now surveyed at Pipiriki and Tokaanu, sections in which are open for leasing under “The Native Townships Act, 1895.”

The allocation of the Crown's purchases in the Raetihi Tauakira, Maungakaretu, Mangapapa, Raketapauna, Rangiawaea, Ngaurukehu Motukawa Nos. 1 and 2, Te Tuhi Nos. 2 and 4, and Kahakaha Blocks, has been made by the Land Court; and the surveys of the land allotted are in hand, and they should be available for settlement soon after the surveys are completed.

The blocks under lease to Europeans contain about 475,000 acres, the principal being the Murimotu, Rangipowaiau, Owhaoko, Mangohane, and Ruanui, occupied by Mr. Studholme; and the Oroumatua, leased to Mr. Birch. Of others passed through the Native Land Court there are about 526,000 acres which are fit for settlement, the principal being the balance of the Awarua and the Motukawa, Raketapauna, Te Tuhi, and Rangiwera Blocks in the central district, Raetihi in the Waimarino district, Tauakira, and Ohotu, on the Wanganui River. Those not suitable for settlement at present are the Te Hautu, Ohuanga, and Kaimanawa, on the east side, and the Oahukura on the west side, of Tongariro Mountain, containing an area of about 345,000 acres.

The Native lands which have not passed the Native Land Court contain an area of about 140,000 acres, the principal being the Tupapanui, Mairekura, Tawhitinui, and Papahaua Blocks, on and between the Wangaehu and Wanganui Rivers, and some others on the west side of the latter river.

Pastoral and Agricultural Industries

The pastoral industry is by far the more important, the total area in grass in 1899 being 2,307,820 acres as compared with 105,690 acres under crop. Of the area in crop, 18,668 acres were in wheat, 22,603 in oats, and 38,367 acres in turnips or rape, the rest being in potatoes or other crops.

The following figures will show the average return per acre of grain, for the year 1899: Wheat, 29.48 bushels; oats, 33.94 bushels; barley, 36.19 bushels.

The area in sown grass now exceeds that in any other district in the colony, though the area under crop is very small as compared with either the Otago or Canterbury Districts. In April, 1898, there were 4,054,075 sheep; and in November, 1898, the cattle numbered 238,483, and horses 39,870. The total area in gardens is given as 2,348 acres; in orchards, 3,816 acres; and in plantations, 3,198 acres.

Dairy Industry

Both soil and climate are well adapted for the production of butter and cheese, and hence we find creameries and butter factories increasing in number very considerably each year, and the export constantly augmenting.

Eighteen butter- and cheese-factories were returned in April, 1896, as at work in the Wellington Provincial District.

Phormium Tenax

The principal flax-mills working are at Featherston, Carterton, and Martin-borough, in the Wairarapa, and at Foxton on the West Coast. This industry fluctuates greatly, in accordance with the price ruling for the dressed article. In 1896 thirteen mills were at work, employing 207 men and 35 boys; the machines driven by water-wheel or engine working up to 124-horse power.

Timber Industry

Sawmills are to be found in different parts of the district where the means of communication are sufficient, the timbers cut being principally totara and red pine, both of which are largely used in house construction and other works. Others of the native woods are very beautiful, but are utilised only to a small extent.

The principal mills are at Pahiatua, Eketahuna, Masterton, and Carterton, in the Forty-mile Bush and Wairarapa districts, and at Levin on the West Coast, besides which there are several mills in Wellington for dressing the rough material. In the whole district there were in 1896 sixty-four mills, of an aggregate of 1,117-horse power, engaged in this industry, employing 975 hands, the output of sawn timber being 34,605,504 ft., and the total value, including posts and rails, resawn timber, doors, sashes, &c., £157,107, which, next to Auckland, is the highest for any provincial district in the colony.

Chapter 75. THE MARLBOROUGH LAND DISTRICT

C. W. Adams, Chief Surveyor

Boundaries

The Marlborough Land District, occupying the north-east corner of the Middle Island, and containing about 2,635,000 acres of land, is bounded generally on the north and east by Cook Strait and the East Coast as far as the Conway River; thence by that river to near its source; from this point, by straight lines, rivers, and the summits of watersheds to the western side of Tennyson Inlet, Pelorus Sound. From the Conway to Pelorus Sound it abuts on the Land District of Nelson.

The widest part of the district is from Cape Campbell to Tophouse, a distance of about sixty-seven miles, and the extreme length from Cape Jackson to the Conway is 120 miles.

Physical Features

The district throughout is generally mountainous, but none even of the highest peaks are covered with perpetual snow, although Tapuaenuku, the highest of the Inland Kaikouras, attains an altitude of 9,462 ft. Of the Seaward Kaikouras, or Looker-on Mountains, the highest points are Kaitarau and Whakari, which are 8,700 ft. and 8,500 ft respectively. There are several lesser peaks, from 4,000 ft. upwards.

The view from Kahautara Bluff, south of Kaikoura Settlement, looking northwards, when the Looker-on Mountains are snow-capped, is said to be one of the finest in New Zealand.

Geologically, the district may be briefly described as follows: North of the Wairau River the rocks belong chiefly to the Upper and Lower Devonian series, with a belt of Silurian between them, embracing the country along the west of Queen Charlotte Sound to Cook Strait. Within these series auriferous deposits are found, and at present worked at Mahakipawa, Wakamarina, and Wairau Valley. In Endeavour Inlet an antimony-mine has been worked for some time. The country south of the Wairau River may be said to belong chiefly to the Carboniferous Age, with patches, along the coast and up the Clarence Valley, of Cretaceo-Tertiary and Lower Green-sand formations; while along and between the Awatere and Clarence Rivers volcanic formation and numerous intrusive dykes occur. The Red Hills also, at the head of the Wairau Valley, are of volcanic origin.

Coal has been discovered in the neighbourhood of Picton, and in the Clarence Valley, but none has been as yet successfully worked within the district. A narrow belt of Tertiary limestone, suitable for building purposes, extends, with small interruptions, from Cape Campbell to the boundary of the Canterbury Provincial District. The Marlborough land may be divided into three classes: Open land, generally covered with associated grasses; forest-land; and intermediate, or land partly forest, partly covered with scrub, fern, or other rank vegetation. This original condition of the soil naturally gave rise to a localisation of industries, and a very unequal distribution of settlement. Thus the open country was taken up for pastoral purposes; in the forest country the timber industry was developed, and the intermediate land passed into the hands of farmers. Though agriculture is now extending into the pastoral and forest country, and considerable areas of forest-land have been cleared and laid down in grass, the portions of the district characterized by these respective industries are still well defined.

In the northern part of the district, bounded by Cook Strait, numerous deep fiords and bays run far into the land. The principal of these are Pelorus and Queen Charlotte Sounds, Tory Channel, Port Underwood, and Port Gore.

These Sounds are very picturesque, but the hills surrounding them are not so rugged and precipitous as are those of the thirteen celebrated Sounds on the west coast of Otago and Southland.

Though generally steep, the land is not too rough to be used for pastoral purposes, and nearly all the land in the Sounds is occupied by thriving settlers.

Pelorus Sound, the most extensive and picturesque, is thirty-four miles long, following the course of the main channel, with the Town of Havelock at its head. There are many bays and inlets branching off in all directions; the largest of these is Kenepuru Sound, fourteen miles long. Pelorus Sound, including its branches, has a shore line of over 300 miles in length, not counting islands.

Queen Charlotte Sound is the next in length, being twenty-eight miles from its entrance to its head; it also has many bays and inlets, one of which is Picton Harbour, twenty-five miles from the entrance.

Tory Channel is ten miles long, and forms the most direct line of communication between Picton and Wellington. The distance from Wellington Wharf to the entrance of Tory Channel is about forty miles, and about twenty more to Picton.

The shore-line of Queen Charlotte Sound and Tory Channel is over 200 miles in length. The entrance of Queen Charlotte Sound is about twenty miles distant from that of Pelorus Sound, and this latter is about twelve miles from the French Pass. Generally there is deep water in all the sounds and bays; and good anchorage can be found near the shore. The country is hilly everywhere in the neighbourhood of the Sounds, the highest point being Mount Stokes, 3,943 ft. above sea level.

Rivers

Four considerable rivers, the Wairau, Awatere, Clarence, and Conway, rise towards the western boundary of the district; the two former, running east and north, fall into Cook Strait; the two latter, taking a southerly and easterly course, discharge into the sea on the eastern side of the Island. These rivers water large and fertile valleys, but none can be entered by vessels except the Wairau, which is navigable for small steamers for about ten miles from its mouth.

Plains

The Wairau Plain, containing about 65,000 acres, on which stands Blenheim, the capital of Marlborough, is the principal block of agricultural land within the district. The soil, generally good, is, on the lower or seaward side of the plain, extremely fertile, especially in the neighbourhood of Tua Marina, Spring Creek, and near Blenheim, which is surrounded by numerous gardens, with rich deep mould, and well sheltered with trees. The average yield of wheat for the plain is about 25 bushels per acre; of oats and barley, 35; of peas, 30; and of potatoes, 10 tons per acre. Hops have been successfully grown for many years in the neighbourhood of the town, but, owing to the high price of labour, their cultivation has not extended. The plain, traversed in all directions by good macadamised roads, and dotted over with numerous comfortable homesteads, standing in clumps of trees amidst well-cultivated fields, has already an old-world appearance. More than half the population of the Marlborough Land District—12,677, according to the last census—is centred in the Town of Blenheim and on the Wairau Plain. Besides this plain there are several thousand acres of terrace flats and valleys along the larger rivers, notably at Starborough, on the Lower Awatere, all suitable for closer settlement, and capable of sustaining a large population.

Lakes

There are not any lakes worthy the name. The largest is Kapara te Hau, more familiarly known as Grassmere, situate on the coast between the Awatere River and Cape Campbell. It is about three miles in diameter, and very shallow, being, indeed, no more than a lagoon, as during a dry season there is little or no water in it.

There are two other lakes of small size, viz.,—Lake Ellerwater, four miles south of Lake Grassmere, and Lake McRae, situate in the open country between the Awatere and the Clarence Rivers.

Forests

The portion of Marlborough north-west of the Wairau River, extending to the boundary of the Nelson Land District, and including the County of Sounds, in all about 280,000 acres, was originally covered with dense forest. In the valleys and on the lower hill-slopes, rimu, kahikatea, matai, totara, miro, and tawa were the principal forest-trees. The higher portion of the hills and steep spurs are clothed with the various species and variety of birch (beech), to which along the shores of the Sounds were added pukatea and kohekohe, the latter locally called cedar.

Since 1860 sawmills have been at work in various parts of the district. Thirty-two mills have been erected, and have worked for longer or shorter periods. Have-lock, on the Pelorus Sound, is at present the headquarters of the timber trade.

The hills along the shores of the Sound will, for many years, furnish birch sleepers. There are other timbers left in places, but nowhere sufficient to justify the erection of a mill, unless pukatea wood, hitherto neglected, could be utilised. It is a light, tough timber, well adapted for boat-building and for packing-cases. The quantity of pine timber remaining in the Kaituna and Onamalutu Valleys is small, but there is a good supply of birch and other wood, suitable for fencing and firewood. On these valleys the Wairau Plain is mainly dependent for timber.

The Pelorus Valley, with its tributaries the Wakamarina, Rai, Ronga, and Opouri Valleys, still contain about 300,000,000 ft. of convertible timbers, exclusive of the birch, of which there is a large amount of the best quality on the hills and terraces. The Wairau, Blenheim, and other districts extending southwards must depend for the future on this source for all their building material.

In the neighbourhood of Kaikoura, along the base of Mount Fyffe, and in the Hapuku Valley, there is another small block of forest-land in which three small sawmills have been erected. The quantity of timber suitable for sawmill purposes in this block is very limited, but it will furnish the neighbouring country with firewood and fencing for many years.

Soils and their Uses

The Wairau Plain, which is the principal block of agricultural land, has been already dealt with. The second agricultural centre is in the neighbourhood of Kaikoura. The land extending along the base of Mount Fyffe, between the Kohai and Hapuku Rivers, about 13,000 acres in extent, is held in small or moderate-sized farms; the soil is good, the block known as “The Swamp,” between Mount Fyffe and the Peninsula, being particularly rich. In the Pelorus, Kaituna, and Onamalutu Valleys, and in the Sounds, settlers following in the wake of the sawmills have already converted much of the land worked over into grazing-farms. The land is of three descriptions—alluvial flats, terraces, and hill-sides. On the flats in the larger valleys the soil is rich, producing heavy crops of oats, peas, beans, and potatoes, wherever it has been brought into cultivation. The terrace-land varies much in quality, but generally grows good grass, as do also the hills on which tawa formerly grew; the birch country being very barren. On the small bush-farms cattle-grazing is the chief pursuit. Out of 14,000 head kept in Marlborough, 7,000 belong to the forest country.

Grazing

About 1,680,000 acres of the Marlborough Land District are at present devoted to keeping sheep. The leaseholds in the northern parts of the district contain a large extent of scrub- and fern-covered country, now producing little or no food for sheep, but capable of improvement. The total number of sheep depastured is 849,738, distributed as follows amongst the counties into which the land district is divided: Marlborough County, 515,437; Sounds County, 145,726; Kaikoura County, 188,575. On the natural pasture of the open country merino sheep are kept almost exclusively, the land carrying from half to one sheep per acre. In the forest country, on sown grass, the land keeps from two to four crossbred sheep per acre. Along the shores of the Sounds large areas of hill-land have been taken up on lease, and are now being cleared and laid down in grass expressly for keeping sheep, but generally throughout the forest country the holdings are small or of moderate size, hence this is, after the Wairau Plain, the most populous portion of the district. The export of wool during last year amounted to about 12,000 bales.

Industries

Gold-mining has been carried on for some years, principally at Mahakipawa, Wakamarina, and Wairau Valley. At present not much gold is being obtained, although there are now strong indications of a great improvement in the gold-mining industry.

There are two dredges at work in the Wakamarina River, results not yet known. Several companies have taken up dredging claims on the Wakamarina and Pelorus Rivers. Operations on the Canvastown Flat have been tried by prospecting only.

Seven sawmills are at work within the district: one at Kaikoura, and the others in the Pelorus, Kaituna, Onamalutu, and Pukaka Valleys, and in the Pelorus and Queen Charlotte Sounds. The principal one is Messrs. Brownlee and Co.'s, in the Pelorus Valley, the output last year being about 3,700,000 ft. Messrs. Brownlee and Co. have forty-seven men employed, and keep two vessels running between Havelock and Lyttelton.

During the year there has been a revival of the flax industry. Fourteen mills have been started or reopened. The quantity of hemp shipped during the year was 2,843 bales and 344 bales tow.

In connection with one of the mills, a rope-factory has been established, in which binder-twine made of short flax or tow is the main product.

There are two flour-mills at work—one at Spring Creek, near Blenheim, owned by Messrs. Redwood Bros. This is a complete roller-mill, driven by water-power, and can turn out about 14 tons of flour in twenty-four hours. It is electric-lighted, and the sack-working machinery is driven by electric motor. The other mill, which is also worked by water-power, is Mr. T. Carter's, at Blenheim. The output of the two mills last year was 1,170 tons of flour and 430 tons of bran and sharps.

There is a dairy factory at Spring Creek which contains all the latest improvements in machinery; 11 1/2 tons of butter were produced in 1898.

There is a first-class cheese-factory at Tua Marina. The output last season was 61 tons, but the factory is capable of turning out 80 tons. There is also a good cheese-factory at Kaikoura.

Climate

Marlborough possesses one of the finest climates in the world; and at Blenheim it is fine weather nearly all the year round. There is almost a total absence of the boisterous winds that so frequently visit Wellington.

The original distribution of the open and forest lands was entirely due to climatic causes. At Cape Campbell, one of the barest places in the district, the annual rainfall is only 23.25 in.; in the Pelorus Valley, the centre of the forest country, it is over 65 in. This difference between the climates of the north-western and south-eastern portions of the district explains why the artificial pasture-land, when compared with the natural pasture, supports such a large amount of stock. Winter and spring are the wettest seasons, hence the dry climate is not unfavourable for agriculture. Wherever the soil is suitable, crops sown in winter and harvested in early summer can be successfully grown. Everywhere near the coast the range of temperature, considering the latitude, is very small. The thermometer seldom falls below 30 deg., or rises above 78 deg. Along the shores of the Sounds the mildness of the winter, owing to the curious distribution of land and water, allows lemons, oranges, passion-fruit, figs, and other sub-tropical fruits to be grown in favourable situations. On the lower hills and terraces of the forest country the chestnut (Castanea vulgaris) grows rapidly, and commences to bear fruit in five or six years. A few trees planted in the Pelorus Valley some twenty years ago are now yielding annually about 2 cwt. of nuts a tree. In all parts of the low country the common English fruit-trees—apple, plum, pear, cherry, &c., yield abundantly, the fruit, owing to the clearness of the atmosphere, being of excellent quality. In the high country, where snow falls occasionally during winter, red, white, and black currants can be produced in such quantities that with little labour they might be made an article of export to the warmer parts of Australia.

Towns

The chief town, Blenheim, is situate on the Wairau Plain, at the junction of the Opawa and Omaka Rivers—a third river, the Taylor, would join at about the same point were it not that when not in flood it disappears beneath the surface, about three miles south of the town. Blenheim has been termed a miniature Christchurch, doubtless from its extreme flatness. Considering this, its streets are not so straight and wide as they should be. The Government Buildings, which comprise the Post and Telegraph Offices, Lands and Survey Offices, Courts of Justice, &c., form a handsome edifice in the centre of the town, which is well planted with deciduous and evergreen trees. It is about eighteen miles and a half from Picton by rail, and about nine miles from the sea by the Opawa River, which is navigable for small steamers. Blenheim is lit with gas, and supplied with water, principally by artesian wells. The population is about 3,200.

The next town in importance is Picton, the principal port, only fifty-three miles by sea from Wellington. This little town, both in position and appearance, may be said to be the antithesis of Blenheim, being most picturesquely situated at the head of Queen Charlotte Sound, and nestling among hills, some of the higher ones still densely covered with birch and other forest. There is frequent communication with Wellington and Nelson by steamers averaging 500 tons, and vessels of 1,200 tons can lie at the wharf at low-water, where there is a depth of 25ft. Vessels of the largest tonnage can approach within half a mile. The direct exportation of frozen meat from Picton commenced in 1892, when 16,433 carcases were shipped. Last year the Wairau Freezing Company exported from Picton for the year ended 31st March, 1899, mutton, 15,572 carcases, and lambs, 14,067 carcases. Picton possesses a malting establishment also, producing for export, as the excellent quality of the barley grown on the Wairau Plain insures a ready market. A small quantity of oysters, mostly procured in Queen Charlotte Sound, is annually exported from Picton; with culture the supply might be almost indefinitely increased, many of the sheltered bays in both sounds being well adapted for the purpose. What is now being done along the Marlborough coast is a mere trifle compared with what might be accomplished if capital and knowledge were brought to bear on the fishing industry. Around the whole coast, from the mouth of the Conway to near the French Pass, the sea abounds in fish. Within the Sounds and amongst the islands of Cook Strait, hapuku, snapper, moki, barracouta, raturi, kahawai, and rock-cod are extremely plentiful. Immense shoals of the southern herring (Clupea sagax) and of anchovies (Engranlis encrasicholus) frequent the inlets at certain seasons of the year, and quantities of fresh fish are exported from thence to various places within the colony. As steamers arrive at and leave Picton almost daily, shipments can be made without delay to all parts. Picton possesses a good gravitation water-supply. Its population is about 800 persons.

Havelock, situate at the head of Pelorus Sound, is, as has been already stated, the present headquarters of the timber trade, Messrs. Brownlee and Co.'s steam sawmill, at the mouth of the Pelorus River, being only a mile or so from the town. Between Picton and Havelock there is a mail service twice a week, viâ Cullensville, on the Mahakipawa Gold-fields. The population of Havelock is about 400 persons.

The Town of Kaikoura, the greater part of which is built on a raised shingle-beach, is situate at Kaikoura Peninsula, near the southern boundary of the district. The town, with the adjoining settlement of small farms, forms one of the most picturesque spots in New Zealand, lying as it does under the Seaward Kaikouras, or Looker-on Mountains. At the back of the town the peninsula, which is composed of Cretaceo-tertiary limestone, rises abruptly for about 100 ft., and affords splendid sites for dwelling-houses. Kaikoura is connected with Blenheim by a weekly coach service, the distance being about ninety-five miles. There is also direct steamer communication with Wellington and Lyttelton. The population of the town is about 400.

Roads and Railways

The only railway is that between Picton and Blenheim, about eighteen miles and a half in length. The train, starting from Picton, runs twice a day. The railway has been completed for a distance of three miles south of Blenheim, and it is in contemplation to extend it as far as the Awatere River, which is shortly to be bridged with a railway and traffic bridge at a cost of £22,500, a tender being accepted, which will be a very great boon to the district.

The Main North Road to Nelson, distant seventy-eight miles, is a good metalled road nearly the whole way. It runs up the Wairau Valley from Blenheim for about six miles, crosses the Wairau River into the Kaituna Valley, which it follows as far as Havelock—about twenty-eight miles. It then runs up the Pelorus and Rai Valleys, and ascends by easy gradients to the Brown Saddle, where it crosses the boundary into Nelson. An excellent coach-service—probably the best in the colony—has been established for some years, the coach running to and from Nelson on alternate days, covering the distance in eleven hours, and another bi-weekly coach-service has lately been established between Blenheim and Havelock.

The Main South Road, running over the Taylor Pass into the Awatere Valley, and through the Starborough, Flaxbourne, Kekerangu, and other properties, connects Blenheim with Kaikoura and the south, and is a good road during dry weather, although it might be much improved in places.

The portion between the Clarence River—over which a fine bridge was built some years ago—and the Hapuku River, runs along the coast under steep and picturesque hills covered with forest. During the last two years a road has been in course of construction to the south of Kaikoura, between the Kahautara and Conway Rivers. This road will be completed within the next few months, and when finished will form part of the main Cheviot-Kaikoura Road, and, besides its great usefulness in opening up the country through which it passes, will also become a favourite route for tourists, as in many places it passes through most picturesque scenery.

A good road has been formed up the Wairau Valley, passing through the Bank-house, Erina, Lansdowne, Hillersden, and Birch-hill properties, and connecting with Tophouse, just outside the boundary, and distant fifty-six miles from Blenheim. At Tophouse there is an hotel and a telegraph-station, and from thence a good road leads to Belgrove, the present terminus of the Nelson Railway.

A coach runs twice a week between Blenheim and Wairau Valley—twenty-five miles—where there is an hotel, a post- and telegraph-office, and one or two stores.

There is also a good cart-road running up the Awatere River—which it crosses and recrosses several times—as far as Molesworth Station, about seventy miles from Blenheim. Between these points there is a weekly coach- and mail-service.

There are other minor roads and bridle-tracks throughout the district too numerous to specify.

Crown Lands

The area of Crown lands at present available for settlement is about 200,000 acres, but of this area 135,000 acres are of very poor quality, being chiefly the summits of high, rugged country. The balance of available area lies principally in the Pelorus, Rai, and Wakamarina Valleys, and in the Sounds, and will doubtless be readily taken up when thrown open for selection.

Chapter 76. THE NELSON LAND DISTRICT

T. Humphries, Chief Surveyor

General Physical Description

The Nelson Land District comprises the north and north-western portion of the Middle Island, the greater part being high and mountainous, and on the western and inland ranges covered with dense forest to the bush-limit, at from 4,000 ft. to 4,500 ft. Cape Farewell, the northernmost point, is situated at the western entrance of Cook Strait, on the south side of which lie Golden or Massacre Bay, and Tasman Bay, more commonly called Blind Bay. The former derives its name from the massacre of a boat's crew belonging to Tasman, who visited it on the occasion of his discovery of New Zealand in 1642. At the head of the latter, which has a depth of fifty-four miles from its entrance, stands the town of Nelson. From Separation Point, on the western side of Blind Bay, a range of mountains from 3,000 ft. to 4,000 ft. in height extends southward to Mount Murchison. It consists of a granitic formation, with slate, limestone, and sandstone belts. From Pelorus Sound, on the east, commences another range—a portion of which is serpentine, forming a mineral belt immediately south of Nelson City. It reaches an elevation of 6,000 ft., and runs in a south-westerly direction to the St. Arnaud Range, terminating in the Spencer Mountains, a large central mass attaining a height of 8,000 ft. above the sea-level. To the westward of the Spencer Ranges and those on the further side of Blind Bay are the Brunner, Lyell, Marine, and Tasman Mountains, from 5,000 ft. to 6,500 ft. in height. Still further westward along the coast are the Paparoa, Buckland Peaks, and Papahaua Mountains, about 4,500 ft. at their highest point, and the Whakamarama Range, extending from Rocks Point to Cape Farewell. There are also a number of isolated mountain-masses here and there through the district.

The inland Spencer Mountains are the source of the principal rivers of the district south of the Buller River, and are thus described by Sir Julius von Haast: “On the southern slopes of this wild alpine-stack we find the principal sources of the Grey, or Pohaturoha; on its north-east side the sources of the Wairau; on its eastern side those of the Acheron and Clarence; and in the deep recesses of these snow-clad giants those of the Waiau-ua, or Dillon: so we may say that, with the exception of the Takaka and Aorere, which fall into Massacre Bay, the Wangapeka and Motueka, which run into Blind Bay, the Karamea and smaller streams, which reach the sea on the West Coast to the north of the Buller River, all the rivers of any size in the northern part of this island take their rise in this magnificent chain.”

Rivers

The Buller River (Kawatiri) has its source at a point about sixty miles south-west from Nelson, where it flows out of the beautiful alpine lake Rotoiti, lying 1,800 ft. above sea-level at the foot of the lofty St. Arnaud Range. This river breaks through the massive mountain chains of the interior in a transverse or easterly direction, forming, where it receives no tributaries, a succession of magnificent rocky gorges, and, after a course of about one hundred miles, finally discharges its waters into the ocean on the West Coast. The Gowan River, a tributary, has its source in another exquisite lake, Rotoroa, 1,623 ft. above sea-level. Other tributaries of the Buller are: the Matakitaki, Maruia, Owen, Matiri, and Inangahua, all of which take their rise in the snowy ranges.

The Grey River (Mawhera), also discharging its waters on the West Coast, takes its rise in Lake Christabel, near the western flank of the Spencer Range. It has a very large basin, and numerous tributaries, of which the Ahaura is the chief.

The rivers on the eastern side, named above as taking their rise in this district, flow for the most part through mountain ranges and open valleys utilised as pastoral land.

Lakes

The lakes of the district are alpine in character, surrounded by grand mountain and bush scenery. The principal are: Rotoiti, lying east, and Rotoroa south-east, of Mount Murchison; Matiri, to the west of Owen Range, 980 ft. above the sea; Lakes Tennyson, 3,614 ft., and Guyon, 2,658 ft., on the eastern flank of the Spencer Mountains; Lake Christabel, on their western flank; Lake Hochstetter and Lake Sumner, the latter 1,725 ft. above sea-level, lying under Mount Emerson (6,000 ft.).

Plains

The plains of this district are limited in extent, the principal being the Amuri, in the valleys of the Hurunui and Waiau-ua, in the centre of which rises a partly isolated mass of hills called the Percival Ranges, the highest peak of which is Mount Percival, 5,335 ft. These plains, being well covered with native tussock-grass, were either purchased or taken up with pre-emptive rights as pastoral land very soon after the commencement of the settlement. The Waimea Plains, near Nelson, with the Lower Motueka, Riwaka, and Takaka Valley lands, formed part of the original settlement of the New Zealand Company, and are occupied mostly by small settlers. Inland are the Tiraumea Plains, 1,100 ft. above sea-level, and the Maruia, 1,300 ft. These are, together, about 30,000 acres in extent. They are surrounded by high mountains heavily timbered, and the land is of only second-rate quality. On the West Coast. the level lands are Totara Flat and Ikamatua Plains, in the Grey Valley, Mawhera-iti, and Inangahua Valleys, lying on the eastern flanks of the Paparoa coastal range. There are also open pakihis at Addison's Flat, on the south side of the Buller, and low swampy lands on the north side; northward is the heavily timbered country of the special settlement at the mouth of the Karamea.

Forest

The area of the district is estimated at about 7,000,000 acres, of which the area of open land under 2,000 ft. n altitude is, approximately, 1,835,000 acres; the area of forest-land under 2,000 ft., about 1,745,000 acres; open land over 2,000 ft., about 1,470,000 acres, including summits. The forest-lands may be approximately estimated at 3,290,000 acres, including good forest, mountain-forest, timber patches in gullies, &c. Of this area probably about 1,000,000 acres would be the utmost available for clearing. The timber on the western side consists of red-and whitepine, matai (or black-pine), totara, kawhaka (or cedar), rata, and occasional silverpine, besides black-and red birch (Fagus fusca). These varieties are also found, but in smaller areas, on the eastern side; birch preponderating. A large amount of timber is used in the mining industry for props and planking, and throughout the districts generally for shingles, fencing, firewood, sleepers, &c. There are forty-two sawmills at work, with an output of about 12,000,000 superficial feet per annum.

Agricultural

Nelson has little land suitable for agriculture, most of it already taken up. On the Waimea Plains is grown excellent barley, a small quantity of which is exported. Oats and chaff are sent in large amounts to the West Coast and elsewhere. Hops also form one of the chief exports. Wheat, maize, rye, and root-crops of most varieties are grown, and fruit is plentiful. The weekly wage of a farm-labourer is 20s. with board; without board he would receive 5s. a day. Ploughmen can get 20s. per week with board; without, 7s. 6d. a day.

Pastoral

The total area of pastoral lands held under the Crown by 114 tenants on the 31st March, 1899, amounted to 938,586 acres. As the agricultural land is limited, settlers are turning their attention to the timbered mountain-slopes for grazing purposes. These, when the timber is felled and burnt, and the ground sown with suitable grass, will, after three to four years, carry about two sheep to an acre on fair soil, and more on the limestone country. The cost of felling and burning green timber is from 15s. to 20s. per acre; cost of mixed grass-seeds and sowing, about 15s. per acre; and a good paling-fence on ordinary bush-lands with double No. 8 wires at top and bottom, with 1/2 in. palings and 7 in. posts sunk 2 ft. in the ground, can be erected at about 12s. per chain.

Mining

The western side of the Nelson District was a terra incognita till about the year 1863, when gold was first discovered in large quantities. Miners flocked in at first from the other goldfields in New Zealand, then from Australia, California, and other parts of the world, until in 1865 the whole coast-line was peopled from Broken River in the north to Jackson's Bay in the south. Mining, at first altogether alluvial, developed into quartz-reefing, and hydraulic-sluicing of large areas. The agricultural lands about the Grey and Inangahua were taken up and cultivated; and, as mining became a more settled industry, the miners occupied and tilled the nonauriferous alluvial flats in the many valleys: hence at the present time a number of homesteads are scattered throughout the district.

Reefton and its neighbourhood forms one of the chief quartz-mining districts in New Zealand; and the West Coast, including Westland, has produced about 45 per cent. of the total gold raised in the colony. The oldest alluvial field is at Collingwood. Among other minerals found in the district are: silver, copper, chrome, antimony, manganese, and hæmatite. Extensive deposits of coal are found on the West Coast, within the areas of the Grey and Buller Coalfields Reserves. Coal is also found in Collingwood, in Blind Bay, and in West Wanganui Inlet; and there are numerous smaller areas of coal-bearing strata here and there throughout the district. The output from the mines at work within the district during the year ending 31st December, 1898, was 465,253 tons, of which 456,493 tons were shipped, 340,193 tons from Westport and 116,300 tons from Greymouth Copper-ore is found in a serpentine rock-formation Nelson, but the companies which have worked the ore have not hitherto been successful—the last, one, “The Champion,” failing from want of sufficient capital. Deposits of chrome-ore are also found here. Silver-ore has been worked in the Collingwood District; and at Parapara, in Blind Bay, there are widespread deposits of hæmatite iron-ore, combined with limestone and coal, waiting only for capital to develop them. There is also a small industry in flax. It will be readily gathered from the above brief description that mining is the chief industry of the Nelson District. A great impetus has been given to the mining industry on the West Coast, in a manner similar to that which has taken place on the Auckland goldfields. In the Reefton district a large English syndicate has bought out several properties of quartz-mining companies, which have been paying concerns, although worked with limited capital and old-fashioned machinery, with the view of introducing the newest methods of working and the most improved gold-saving appliances. A number of wealthy syndicates are now in the field, and a great revival has taken place in prospecting for new reefs, and in developing numbers of others known to be auriferous, the working of which has hitherto languished for the want of capital to develop them.

The timber industry on the West Coast has now become a very important trade. During the past year about 11,000,000 ft. of various kinds of wood, principally red and black pine, have been cut in this district alone for export, and silver-pine has been largely in demand for railway-sleepers for home consumption.

Towns

The chief town is Nelson, situated at the head of Blind Bay, in 41° 16' S., and surrounded on all sides, except the north, by mountains reaching an elevation of 3,500 ft. With a mean temperature of 54.8° Fahr. it possesses a climate almost unequalled for its beneficial effects on invalids suffering from pulmonary diseases. There are many picturesque spots in the suburbs, and the town itself, with its cleanly-looking buildings and well-kept gardens, is one of the most charming spots in New Zealand. There is an old-established Boys' College, and a High School for Girls, besides Government and other schools. The Anglican Pro-Cathedral, built on the summit of a central hill, memorable as being the site of fortifications erected in the early days of the settlement for defence against an expected attack of the Natives, is a striking feature. The Roman Catholic Church, Convent, and school-buildings cover a large extent of ground. There is also at Stoke, a small village three miles from Nelson, a central Catholic Orphanage, surrounded by grounds of considerable area. There is a good supply of excellent water from a reservoir in the hills at the back of the town, and the streets are well lighted with gas. The several Government departments are housed in one roomy building, containing a large hall used for Supreme Court sittings and other public purposes. Nelson has a small natural harbour, formed by a boulder-bank running for eight miles parallel to the shore, deep enough at high tide to admit vessels of 1,000 tons burden. It is a port of call for the Union Steamship Company's coastal steamers, and has a small local fleet plying between the West Coast, Blind Bay, Picton, and Wellington. The town is reached from the eastward by a good main road from Marlborough. A railway-line has been constructed up country to the southward for thirty miles, passing through the farming villages of Stoke, Richmond (borough), Brightwater, Wakefield, Foxhill, and Belgrove. Leaving for the West Coast by a good main road, the traveller starts from the Belgrove Station on one of Cobb and Co.'s coaches, crosses Spooner's Range, the Clarke and Hope River saddles, and enters the Bullor Valley at the junction of the Hope, about sixty-seven miles from town. He then enjoys a succession of views of mountain-gorge scenery, and, after traversing a gorge of seventeen miles in length, arrives at the Lyell, 107 miles from his starting point. This is an alpine township, in a small quartz-mining neighbourhood. Here is a fine cast-iron girder bridge, spanning a rocky gorge of the Buller, and springing boldly from a bluff on the northern side. At 116 miles the junction of the Inangahua with the Buller is reached, the main road continuing to Reefton, with a branch road twenty-eight miles to Westport, which for twelve miles passes through some of the grandest river-gorge scenery in New Zealand.

Westport, the town next in importance to Nelson, is situated at the mouth of the Buller River. The harbour is sheltered from southerly gales by Cape Foulwind and its outlying rocks, and is accessible in nearly all weathers. A large sum has been spent on a system of harbour-works, designed by the late Sir John Coode. Westport is the place of shipment for the coal-mines lying northward as far as the Mokihinui River. The character of this coal for steam purposes stands almost unrivalled. The long line of coal-staiths on the northern bank of the river, with a fleet of steam-colliers loading alongside, does not fail at once to impress a visitor with a sense of the importance of the trade. Though much has already been done, yet the industry, from the extent of the coal-bearing strata, is capable of much larger expansion when the necessary capital can be found. The Westport-Ngakawau Railway to Mokihinui, connects with the mines and conveys the coal to the port. At the foot of the Mount Rochfort plateau, nine miles from Westport, is Waimangaroa, and on the plateau itself is Denniston—both coal-mining villages. The latter, built at an elevation of 1,960 ft., is said to be the highest township in New Zealand. On a clear day it is well worth a visit, for the sake of enjoying the magnificent panoramic view of the southern Alps, which reach their highest point in Mount Cook, 12,349 ft. high, about 100 miles south. South of Westport are the alluvial gold-mining centres of Addison's Flat, Croninville, Nine-mile Beach, and Charleston.

From the Inangahua Junction, the main road continues southward through the Inangahua Valley, passing through cultivated lands, which are being gradually won from the heavy bush, and at a distance of 136 miles from Nelson reaches the township of Reefton. Here, as at Westport, are good hotels, and, as in every one of the larger coast towns, a hospital receiving a Government grant-in-aid. This town was the first in New Zealand to be lighted by electricity. Through the Midland Railway Company's extension of the Grey-Brunner Government line, Reefton is now connected by rail with Greymouth, from whence it is for the most part supplied. About two miles inland from Reefton is Black's Point mining township, with several batteries at work in and about the place, a visit to which is generally paid by tourists wishing to see something of the gold-mining industry. Other small mining townships are: Boatman's, Capleston, Antonio's, Noble's, Orwell Creek, Hatters', Nelson Creek, and Twelve-mile.

Hawk's Crag, Buller Gorge.

Leaving Reefton by rail, and passing into the Grey Valley through a short tunnel, and by a bridge over the Grey River, Totara Flat is reached, nineteen miles distant. Here there is a considerable area under cultivation. Seven miles farther on is the decayed mining township of Ahaura. Small townships are springing up along the railway-line, and several large sawmills are working.

At the Grey River Gorge, eight miles from Greymouth, we enter the Borough of Brunner. This place is the oldest centre of coal-mining in the district. Owing to the effect of the coal-smoke from the coke-ovens on the surrounding cliffs and bush, and the appearance of the numerous miners' cottages nestling on the mountain-slopes, it has the look of a veritable “Black Country,” such as may be seen in some coal-districts in England.

Several large sawmills are at work between this place and Greymouth, which we reach at a distance of 180 miles from Nelson, the centre of the Grey River from its junction with the Arnold being the southern boundary of the district at this part. The Midland Railway line, to connect with Canterbury by way of Arthur's Pass in the Otira Gorge, has been constructed on the Westland side of the Arnold River to Lake Brunner, the eastern shores of which it skirts for some distance, and from thence to the Teremakau River.

The town of Greymouth is situated on the south bank of the Grey River, in the Westland District, and is the shipping-port for the products of the coal-basin included within the area of the Grey Coalfields Reserve, the larger portion of which lies on the north bank of the river in the Nelson District.

The small town of Cobden is situated opposite the town of Greymouth, and is connected with it by a substantial bridge.

Roads, Tracks, &c

Situate on the coast, fifty miles north of Westport, is the Karamea Special Settlement, principally settled from the Nelson and Motueka Valley districts. This part of the district contains some excellent but heavily-timbered land, and is reached from Westport by a good road, connecting with the Westport-Ngakawau Railway at the Mokihinui River. A bridle-track, also, connecting with Collingwood and Golden Bay, is nearly completed by the Government. This track passes along the coast northwards, thence up the Heaphy Valley to the Golden Downs, and down the Aorere Valley to Golden Bay. Here again is another coal-basin, which, though of inferior value to the older deposits on the western side, is likely to become of importance, having at the present time one mine in full work. Another coal-basin exists at West Wanganui and Pakawau.

In the Aorere Valley, of which Collingwood is the port, alluvial mining is still found to be payable, and the country contains some valuable timber in the upper part not yet utilised. Nineteen miles south, in Blind Bay, lies the small port of Waitapu, from which a considerable amount of sawn timber is exported, drawn from the Taka Valley, and brought down by a steam tramway from the upper mills. From the head of this valley the main road is carried over a pass in the Pikikirunga Range, 3,476 ft. high, through the villages of East and West Takaka, Riwaka, Motueka, and Moutere to the town of Richmond, eight miles from Nelson. Inland are also the villages of Ngatimoti, Dovedale, Tadmor, and Sherry, each the centre of a number of small farms, and all connected by fairly-good dray-roads.

An inland road, partly bridle-track and partly dray-road, has been made from Nelson to Canterbury, by way of Tophouse, Wairau Gorge, Tarndale, Clarence Valley, Jollie's Pass, and the Waiau Plains. On the Hanmer, a tributary of the Waiau-ua, is a Government Sanatorium, at an elevation of 1,000 ft. above sea level, and among hills 6,000ft. high. Here there are hot mineral springs, much visited by persons suffering from rheumatism and skin-diseases. It is reached by coach and rail from Christchurch in ten hours. The main-trunk railway-line is constructed to Culverden, twelve miles north of the Hurunui, the southern boundary of the district. From Culverden a good coach-road passes through Rotherham and Waiau-ua to the East Coast at Kaikoura, connecting with Blenheim and Nelson.

Crown Lands

About 3,000,000 acres of Crown lands still remain unoccupied in the northern part of the Nelson District; they consist principally of high bush-country, with occasional patches of good valley-lands, the greater part being classed as second class land. Of these, the area open for selection to date comprises 25,148 acres of surveyed lands, and 265,254 acres unsurveyed lands, of which the location, nature of soil, &c., have been briefly described in the foregoing pages.

Chapter 77. THE WESTLAND LAND DISTRICT

W. G. Murray, Chief Surveyor

The Westland District occupies the central portion of the western watershed of the Middle Island, joining Canterbury on the east; its north and south boundaries with Nelson and Otago being the Grey, Arnold, and Awarua Rivers. The mean length is .200 miles, and its average width 24 miles. The area is 4,759 square miles, composed, for the most part, of the great central snow-clad mountain chain and its out-running ranges, intersected by narrow bush-clad valleys, and subsiding westward into undulating plateaux, river-straths, and shelving coasts.

Physical Features.—Mountains

The great dividing range which constitutes the eastern boundary from Harper's Pass to Mount Aspiring presents a magnificent façade of snow- and ice-clad summits, representing every aspect of mountain grandeur, such as spires and battlements of rock protruding from ice and snow; precipices of enormous height, with cascades; drifted expanses of snow-fields, feeding glaciers; cañons, and ravined foot-hills covered to the top with forest.

Rivers

A few of these lead from the foot-hills, and are of small volume; the others are snow-born streams descending from the central range, at first in narrow gorges amongst the mountains, but spreading widely on reaching the sea-board country. They are shallow shingly streams in winter, but swift deep rivers in summer. In the northern district all the larger rivers are bridged; and southward, ferries are placed on all the main streams, which, from the melting of the snow, are practically unfordable from September to January.

Forests

Generally speaking, the whole of the district is covered with dense forest, from the sea-beach to the grass-grown tops of the high ranges, even the gaunt, broken mountain-faces being wrapped with exuberant foliage. The varieties of trees differ considerably according to soil and altitude. Kamahi and rata are the chief timbers, very useful for firewood, and, spread over the whole country, constitute an almost inexhaustible supply. Rimu is the chief milling timber, and this also is widely distributed from the sea-board to the interior uplands. Valuable stretches of white-pine belt the low-lying depression of the coastal lands, and the same may be remarked concerning the imperishable silver-pine. Clumps of black-pine of good quality are met with, also rarer patches of marketable totara; while serviceable cedars are scattered along the flanks of the inland ranges and all over the lower hills and plateaux. The approximate area of forest equals 2,394,951 acres, of which about 940,500 acres carry timber fit for the sawmill, and some 903,785 acres dwarfed alpine varieties.

Lakes

A considerable and varied number are dotted over the district, no two being alike, but varying in character: comprising mountain tarns; coastal tidal lagoons; shallow reedy sheets; deep mountain-girt waters—all more or less forest-locked, and presenting every form of lacustrine beauty. In conjunction with their effluents they form valuable water-ways for light transport to adjacent districts.

Soils

The high pastoral uplands have a coating of rich moulds, and this continues fairly good down to the heavy timber lands. The alpine forest is readily cleared, burns clean, and imported grasses grow luxuriantly, cocksfoot being the best, as it withstands fire and frosts. The lower flanks of the mountains hold a thinner soil, which at present hardly repays the heavy labour of felling; while the lower heights are somewhat abrupt and unfitted for cultivation. A margin, varying in width, of fertile slopes and fans fringes the bases of the hills, and, having a natural drainage, constitutes an area of excellent agricultural land.

The upland soils of the coastal undulations and terraces are light loams of moderate fertility, which rest upon transported gravels, the drifted accumulations of eroded hills. On these plateaux are numerous “pakihis,” or natural clearings, which are mostly extensive tracts of swampy lands, with a peaty soil resting on thin layers of impervious clay, and non-porous gravels, or, in a few cases, on impacted glacial moraines: these formations all overlying loose drifts. The reclamation of these areas is only a matter of time, as the bulk of them are quite drainable.

Stretches of good alluvium border the rivers, streams, and sea-coast, and form the favourite location for settlers.

Climate

The climate is equable and temperate, remarkably free from storms and fogs and immediately after bad weather the clouds roll inland, and there is a prevailing clearness of sky. The rain-bearing winds are mostly from the north-west and northeast. The southerly winter gales usually coat the great ranges with snow, which, however, rarely falls below 2,000 ft.

Pastoral Lands

The total area of pastoral lands amounts to 2,002,577 acres, 103,801 of which constitute high mountain grass districts, the balance, 1,898,776 acres, comprising the ordinary bush-clad country, much of which is quite inaccessible to stock. All over the coastal lands, along the slopes of the lower hills and in the bottoms of the valleys, large herds of cattle are bred and fattened on the dense undergrowth of the forest. The tussock herbage of the high lands is being gradually used by sheep-farmers, and in the near future these natural pastures will support large flocks.

Agricultural Lands

The agricultural lands comprise some 307,344 acres of forest and 16,440 acres of open surface, such as swamps, grass-grown river-beds and fringes, &c. The bulk of these lands, when cleared of bush, grow abundance of root-crops, especially turnips, which are much used for fattening purposes. The even and moist temperature encourages the almost uninterrupted growth of grass and clover, which are very luxuriant, and favour stock-raising. Oats are also grown abundantly for local consumption, and for the most part are cut into chaff. Year by year the imports of potatoes, fruits, butter, and fat stock are decreasing, owing to increased local production.

Means of Communication

The district is fairly well provided with means of communication. The railway now extends from Hokitika, viâ Greymouth, to Reefton, branching at Stillwater to Jackson, in the Upper Teremakau; and a further extension to Otira is now being constructed. Coaches twice a week connect with Canterbury, viâ Arthur's Pass and ply daily between Ross, Hokitika, Kumara, Greymouth, and the neighbouring towns: while once a week a mail is conveyed on horseback southward to Gillespie's Beach, and once a fortnight to Jackson's Baj. A subsidised steamer runs between Hokitika and the numerous southern ports as far as Jackson's Bay, plying every two months, thus enabling settlers to obtain supplies and to ship their cattle and produce to market. The Government steamer also calls at Big, Jackson's, and Bruce Bays on her quarterly trips from Dunedin. Steamers also trade regularly Between Hokitika and Greytmouth, and other parts of the colony. The Main South Road, which for many miles skirts the foot of the main range, has been so greatly improved of late years that the traveller can now ride comfortably and safely viâ Haast Pass right through into Otago. Numerous bridle-tracks branch from the trunk line to various points, while the large open river-beds likewise give access to the country on either hand. From Jackson's Bay horse-tracks have been made, viâ Cascade River and Barn Bay. to open up the southernmost country. Sundry cols, varying in height from 1,800 ft. to over 7,000 ft, leading down the central range, have been explored, mapped, and during the summer months are crossed from time to time by experienced mountaineers. Of these depressions, the only sub-alpine saddle is Haast Pass, all the others being liable to blocks by winter snows. A coach-road over Arthur's Pass and a horse-track through Haast Pass have been made. Another bridle-road is also in course of construction across Whitcombo's Pass, but between these points no trans-insular road exists. Tracks have also been constructed giving easy access to the Franz Josef and Fox glaciers, and in the future, as population increases, doubtless tourist and stock tracks will be constructed along many of the intervening routes. From Okarito northward the district is in direct telegraphic communication with the rest of the colony.

Harbours and Ports

The harbours and ports of Westland are the following:—

Greymouth, twenty-four miles north-east of Hokitika: Extensive harbour-works have been carried out. A breakwater or sea-wall extends some 3,392 ft. seaward from the mouth of the river on the south side, and on the north side 1,125 ft., with internal half-tide training walls, the result being an average depth of water on the bar of 20.9 ft. at high water and of from 8 ft. to 16 ft. at low water. Vessels of 1,000 tons can now come alongside the wharf. There is berthage accommodation of 1,824 ft., with a minimum depth of 12 ft to 16 ft. at low water. The principal exports are gold, coal, coke, and timber. The number of vessels that entered the port during the year 1898 was: 485 steamers, tonnage 149,400; 29 sailing-vessels, tonnage 4,375: being a total tonnage of 153,775 for the year. The train runs down the wharf, and the coal-trucks, specially made for the purpose, are lifted and emptied into the vessel's hold by means of powerful cranes, of which there are six, with capacities of from 1 1/2 tons to 12 tons, so that every encouragement is given to quick despatch. 116,300 tons of coal and 12,065,000 superficial feet of sawn timber were exported during the year.

Hokitika: Two training-walls have been constructed, the one on the north side being about 2,000 ft. long, while that on the south is 670 ft. The bar is one of shifting sand, and the depth at high water varies from 9 ft. to 15 ft., while inside the depth is from 6 ft. to 22 ft. for three-quarters of a mile up from the entrance. For ten months out of the twelve the port is usually safe for vessels drawing 8 ft. to 10 ft. of water. The berthage space amounts to 1,000 ft., with from 18 ft. to 22 ft. of water. The principal exports are gold and timber.

Okarito, fifty-five miles south-west of Hokitika: A bar harbour, sometimes completely blocked by a high send-bank thrown up by heavy seas. When open, the entrance is good, with a maximum depth of 10 ft. There is a small jetty about half a mile from the entrance.

Bruce Bay, ninety-five miles south-west of Hokitika: An open roadstead, well sheltered from the south and south-westerly winds by Heretaniwha Point, which juts out fully a mile to the northward. Good anchorage in 18 ft. of water opposite the Green Rock, which stands up out of the water. Good boat-landing with above winds on a smooth sandy beach.

Paringa River, 104 miles south-west of Hokitika: Open roadstead. Vessels coming in and out should give Hauata Reef (off the north head) a wide berth.

There is also a sunken reef, awash at low water, in the middle of the bay, and a dangerous sunken rock just off the south head, two or three chains away, facing a small sandy bay, and right abreast of the trig. station. Vessels lie inside and a little to the northward of this rock, about a quarter of a mile from shore, and are quite safe with southerly winds.

Haast River, 118 miles south-west of Hokitika: A constantly-shifting bar at entrance, which is nearly opposite and a little to the southward of the Alhambra Rock. This rock stands well out of the water, and vessels entering can go on either side with safety. Average depth of water on bar from 6 ft. to 8 ft.

Okuru and Turnbull Rivers, 138 miles south-west of Hokitika: These river join just inside the entrance Good, straight channel; average depth, 8 ft. to 10 ft. The port is well sheltered by Open Bay Islands, which lie about three miles away, just opposite the entrance, bearing a trifle west of north. A dangerous reef lies about two miles and a half from the south-west point of the smaller island, and immediately to the north-west of a line drawn from the last-named point to the extreme end of Jackson's Head.

Jackson's Bay, 153 miles south-west of Hokitika: Good shelter and anchorage, open only to north-east, with 12 ft. of water within a few chains of shore. Jackson's Head runs out about one mile and a half in a north-easterly direction from the southern end of the bay. This is the only ocean harbour on the cost of Westland, and could be converted into a first-class port at comparatively small cost. No doubt Jackson's Bay will eventually form a great coal port, as indications of coal are found from the bay to Tauperikaka, a distance of thirty miles. Moreover, the recent discovery of a practicable pass through the main range, viâ the Waiatoto and Axius Rivers, will make it in the near future the natural outlet for the Lake Wanaka country.

Big, or Awarua Bay, 200 miles south-west of Hokitika: At the extreme southwest corner of Westland. An open roadstead, sheltered from east and south-west winds; 24 ft. of water on south side anchorage and 30 ft. on north side, just opposite Crayfish Rock, in a spot sheltered from northerly winds.

Steamers have also, in past years, entered the Teremakau, Waitaha, Wataroa, Wanganui, Waiatoto, and Arawata Rivers, all of which have bar-entrances. The Cascade River is likewise navigable, though no steamer has as yet been in; and goods and passengers are also landed at the roadsteads of Saltwater, Gillespie's Beach, and Abbey Rocks.

Towns

Brunnerton: A borough of about 1,200 inhabitants; is a coal-mining centre. Coke and fire-clay bricks are also manufactured. Railway communication with Greymouth Port, Reefton, and Upper Teremakau.

Greymouth Borough: Population, 3,345; the shipping port for Grey Valley. Railway communication with Reefton, Upper Teremakau, and Hokitika. Railway workshops, foundry, and quarries. The principal business portion of the town is built on Native land, rents being paid to the Public Trustee, who distributes them to Natives entitled thereto.

Kumara: Borough, of 1,150 inhabitants. This is a brisk mining town, and is probably the largest hydraulic-slurring mining centre in New Zealand. It has two suburbs—Dillmanstown and Larrikin's—with populations of 467 and 162 respectively.

Hokitika: Borough, of 2,494 inhabitants. This is a pretty town, the political capital of Westland, the port for shipping and centre of supply for a number of little townships, and for the whole district south of Teremakau.

Ross: Borough, population 750. A clean and neat little town, the centre of a considerable mining district, with a few good sluicing claims on a large scale.

In addition to the above, there are several small mining centres, such as Stafford, Kanieri, Woodstock, Rimu, Blue Spur, Okarito, and Gillespie's.

Mining and Minerals

The District of Westland contains the greatest area of alluvial auriferous ground on the West Coast.

All the Westland rivers carry more or less gold, but the two great golden rivers are the Arahura and Waiho, the bars and ripples in which appear to be replenished with fresh deposits of gold after each flood. Standing on the summit of Mount Turiwhate, the ancient beds of the Arahura can be easily traced northward to the Kumara and southward to the Rimu diggings. Similarly the Waiho has, in olden times, flowed both northward down the course of the Okarito River aim southward to the Omoeroa River, the lateral terraces in both directions being well defined and gold-bearing.

There are three main gold-bearing deposits in Westland: the first, which may be called riverine leads, run generally westward. These are ancient river-beds, often lying at considerable elevations, of which the bulk has been washed away, leaving detached portions, as at Kumara and Rimu; the second are beach leads, both those along the present coast-line, and others running parallel thereto at distances varying from one-quarter to four miles inland, and at levels from a few feet below to a couple of hundred feet above sea-level; the third are extensive masses of gravel, &c., occurring in large isolated patches, as at Big Dam Hill, Humphrey's Gully, and Bald Hill, north of the Haast. These drifts have all one notable peculiarity, viz., that they invariably coat the seaward faces of the hills, and neither gold nor drift is to be found on the inland slopes. Gold-bearing fans from Mount Greenland have been found at different levels on Ross Flat, having probably been deposited in deep water by successive land-slides.

Hydraulic sluicing on a large scale is successfully carried on in various portions of the northern district, and is rapidly being extended to many other localities. Kanjeri Lake is being re-utilised, and an abundant quantity of water is now available for the sluicers in the Kanieri Valley. The extension, now proposed, of that race to Back Creek would develop a very large field. The tapping of the Arahura River will, when completed, enable the miners at Blue Spur to obtain an unfailing supply of water, and command a large area of auriferous country, at present unworkable from want of water at a sufficient altitude. Numerous and costly experiments have been made with dredges of different types in the endeavour to work economically the gold-bearing sands which lie along the sea-beaches for a distance of over 140 miles; but none have proved a success as yet. A considerable number of miners (black-sanders) work on some of these beaches, and seem to make a fair living, many of them having been so employed in one neighbourhood for over twenty years.

Gold-bearing quartz has been found throughout the district, the most promising finds being at Taipo Range, Browning's Pass, and Cedar Creek. Silver ores, associated with gold, have also been found, notably at Rangitoto. Copper lodes have also been discovered throughout the country, the finest outcrop being on the western slopes of the Matakitaki Range, with good seams and beds of coal and limestone adjacent.

Chapter 78. THE CANTERBURY LAND DISTRICT

Sidney Weetman, Chief Surveyor

Boundaries—Physical Features

The Land District of Canterbury comprises the central portion of the Middle Island, and lies between the Conway River, Barefell Pass, and Mt. Franklin on the northward; the Spenser Mountains, Travers Peak, Mt. Barron, the Amuri, Hope, and Hurunui Passes, the summit of the Southern Alps, and the western watershed of the River Hopkins and Lake Ohau on the westward; the Rivers Ohau and Waitaki on the southward; and the South Pacific Ocean on the eastward. It lies between south latitudes 42° 5' and 44° 55', and east longitudes 169° 45' and 173° 30'. The length of the district north-east and south-west is about 220 miles; the breadth W.N.W. and E.S.E., from the summit of the Alps to the sea, averages seventy miles. The sea-board has a length of about 300 miles, consisting generally of low-lying beaches, broken by the projection eastward of Banks Peninsula, which contains the only large natural harbours. That portion of the district which fronts the ocean between the Ashley and Opih: Rivers is flat land, about 2,500,000 acres in extent; north and south of those limits the plain is interspersed with undulating and hilly country.

This great plain stretches westwards, rising and merging into downs and hills, which again extend westward and merge into the Southern Alps and the offshoots therefrom. Banks Peninsula, which has an area of about 250,000 acres, is wholly composed of ridges and hills, deeply intersected by basins and gullies, the result of volcanic action.

The Southern Alps, which form the backbone of the island, are a continuous chain of mountains, with a succession of magnificent peaks, attaining their culminating point in Mount Cook, or Aorangi, 12,349 ft. above sea-level; there are, besides, numerous peaks ranging in altitude between 7,000 ft. and 10,000 ft. Offshoots, extending to great distances eastward and south-eastward from the main range, attain elevations of 6,000 ft. to 9,000 ft. On these mountain-ranges are numerous and extensive glaciers, from which emanates the river-system of the district, comprising the Waiau-ua, about 100 miles in length; Hurunui, 85 miles; Waimakariri, 90 miles; Rakaia, 85 miles; Ashburton, 64 miles; Rangitata, 74 miles: the Waitaki and its main feeders, 140 miles. These rivers rush down from the mountain-gorges, through the intervening ranges and hills, and traverse the plains to the sea. The channels on the plains are shallow, and extend in some instances over a mile in width.

These rivers serve as outlets for a portion of the Lake system of the Middle Island, Lake Sumner being connected with the Hurunui, Lakes Coleridge and Heron with the Rakaia, and the Mackenzie Country lakes—Tokapo, Pukaki, and Ohau—with the Waitaki. Another important lake is that known as Lake Ellesmere, west of Banks Peninsula; it is separated from the ocean by a narrow shingle-spit only 5 chains across at one point, through which, at certain seasons, the flood waters force a channel to the sea.

Climate

The climate of Canterbury is well suited to Europeans. It resembles that of Great Britain, but on the plains is far more equable, the mean daily range of temperature being 17.10° Fahr. Observations taken at Lincoln (fourteen miles from Christchurch) for a period of ten years, ending December, 1892, give the following results: Barometer, reduced to 32° Fahr. and sea-level, 30.06 in; mean maximum daily temperature, 61.47°; mean minimum daily temperature, 43.27°; mean average temperature, 52.37°. The extremes of temperature were 92° and 22° Fahr. The rainfall for the same period averaged 26.809 in. per annum, the extremes being 35.287 in. in 1886 and 14.836 in. in 1890. The average annual number of days on which rain fell was 123, the extremes being 149 in 1887 and 98 in 1891. Snowfalls are very light on the plains, but in the high uplands the climate is much colder and more severe. The changes of weather and temperature are sudden, calms and gales, rain and sunshine, heat and cold alternating. The prevailing winds are north-east, south-west, and north-west—the last a hot wind. The climate, as a whole, is splendidly healthy, bracing, and most enjoyable.

Foundation and Settlement

The district was occupied, in the first instance, by settlers sent out by the Canterbury Association, which was formed in 1848, and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1849, under the auspices of prominent men in England, including the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Lyttelton. The step was not taken until after due inquiry as to the most suitable part in which to establish a settlement. Captain (afterwards Sir George) Grey, at that time Governor, recommended the Wairarapa, but it was finally decided to take over from the New Zealand Company a tract of the Canterbury Plains, in the neighbourhood of Port Cooper. Captain Thomas, the agent of the association, who had advised the selection, superintended the surveys and the preparations for receiving intending settlers. The original intention of the founders was that the settlement should be independent and complete in itself, and should embrace only such persons as were members of the Church of England and were approved of by the association. This was frustrated by the influx of numbers of persons of all classes and beliefs. The first body of emigrants arrived at Port Cooper on the 16th December, 1850, and the settlement remained under the control of the association, as directed by a committee of management in England, and under the active personal supervision of Mr. John Robert Godley, until 1853, when the whole of Canterbury became a province of New Zealand by the provisions of “The Constitution Act, 1852.”

Thenceforward the control of the settlement was vested in the Superintendent and the Provincial Council. The first Superintendent was Mr. James Edward FitzGerald, who held office till 1857; he was followed in succession by Mr. William Sefton Moorhouse, 1857–1863; Mr. Samuel Bealey, 1863–1866; Mr. Moorhouse again till 1868; and Mr. William Rolleston till the abolition of the provinces in 1876, when the district came directly under the control of the General Government.

Internal Communication

In no part of New Zealand are the means of communication better than in Canterbury. The natural facilities of the country have been abundantly supplemented by railways and roads. Lyttelton. the chief port, is connected by rail with Christchurch, the heart and centre of the whole district. From Christchurch the main line extends northwards to Culverden, a distance of 69 miles; southward the main trunk line runs to Waitaki, 138 3/4 miles. These lines tap and serve the whole coastal district, and the lands adjoining on the western side. As feeders to these trunk lines, eight branch lines have been constructed westward, avid two lines south-eastward; the former, in most instances, extending to the foot of the hills.

Combined with the railway system is a complete network of main, district, and subsidiary roads, extending into all parts of Canterbury. The total length of railways is 455 miles, and the roads probably exceed 10,000 miles in the aggregate. The completion of this splendid system is due, partly to the foresight of the original settlers, partly to the exertions of the Provincial Government, and partly to the railway and public-works policy of the late Sir Julius Vogel.

Geological Formation

According to Sir James Hector, the main western ranges are composed of Upper Palæozoic rocks, having at their base extensive plains of Tertiary fluviatile formation, with occasional protruding ridges of Upper Mesozoic, forming low mountain-ranges subordinate to the main axis. Banks Peninsula consists of basic volcanic rocks.

Area, Nature, and Disposition of Lands

The area of the Canterbury Land District is 9,604,045 acres, of which the estimated area of forest-land is 516,030 acres. Forest-lands are found in Banks Peninsula and in the Mount Peel and Waimate districts, where the timber consists chiefly of rimu, totara, and matai; at the sources of the Waiau-ua, Ashley, Waimakariri, Rakaia, and Hopkins Rivers, at Lakes Ohau and Sumner, and near Springfield and Methven, the timber in these localities being mostly native beech; and near Oxford, where the beech is interspersed with rimu, totara, matai, &c.

The lands of Canterbury may be classed approximately as follows: First class, 2,046,071 acres; second class, 5,207,173 acres; third class (barren lands and lands of small value), 2,350,801 acres: total, 9,604,045 acres.

      The disposition of lands was in 1899 as follows:—No. of Holders.Area in Acres.
1. Crown lands disposed of for cash (including land granted under Midland Railway Act, 398,475 acres, but deducting lands repurchased for settlement—101,417 acres)    …    3,881,175
2. Lands held on deferred payments    40    13,182
3. Lands held on perpetual lease    137    16,129
4. Lands held as leaseholds in perpetuity    884    175,835
5. Lands held in occupation with right of purchase    18    1,412
6. Lands held as village-homestead special settlements    358    11,876
7. Lands held as small grazing-runs    66    138,698
8. Lands held as grazing-farms (on Cheviot Estate)    41    45,691
9. Pastoral licenses    112    3,422,153
10. Special-settlement associations    37    4,433
11. Reserves and Crown lands held under temporary occupation licenses (area, 91,230 acres, included in 12 and 16)    457    …
12. Area of land reserved and granted under various Acts (exclusive of Midland Railway land, included in 1)    …    769,716
13. Land purchased and disposed of under Land for Settlements Acts (included in 4, 7, 10, and 11; 600 holders, 94,160 acres)    …    …
14. Crown lands open for selection    …    12,025
15. Crown lands being prepared for selection    …    …
16. Barren lands, and lands for future disposal    …    1,111,720
                    Total    2,150    9,604,045

In explanation, it may be noted that No. 1 comprises the freehold lands conveyed, and that tenants of Nos. 2, 3, and 5 have the right of acquiring the freehold, which is not the case with tenants of Nos. 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, and 13. Crown lands proper are: 14, open for selection; 15, being prepared for selection.

Soils

The Southern Alps and mountains adjoining are, owing to their great altitude, subject to disintegration, and form for the most part rocky barren wastes.

The lower ranges and hills, the high tablelands, and the light stony portions of the plain form the pastoral areas.

In the northern and southern districts and in the great central plain are the agricultural areas. This latter class of land comprises rich alluvial tracts about Cheviot, Rangiora, Kaiapoi, Lincoln, Ellesmere, Longbeach, Temuka, and Waimate, and the splendid plain- and down-lands which extend from Cheviot to the Waitaki.

Banks Peninsula, where the soil is of a rich volcanic nature, though exceedingly hilly, has alluvial areas in the valleys and about the bays.

Pasturage and Crops

Below a certain level, the mountainous and hilly regions, and the high upland country in the western and northern part, are covered by native grasses, with an admixture of English forage-plants where the character of the soil and other circumstances are favourable.

The pasturage, which is very suitable for sheep-farming, is taken full advantage of by the pastoral tenants of the Crown, and is used to some extent by freeholders. The light stony portions of the plain also contain native grass lands, well adapted to merino sheep.

The lower hills, downs, and better kinds of plain-country have been widely cultivated, and have proved well fitted for the production both of cereals and of grasses.

The chief crops grown in Canterbury Provincial District are wheat, oats, barley, turnips, rape, clover- and grass- seed; while amongst other crops produced are maize, rye, peas, and beans.

Of the cereals, wheat is the most largely grown, and was for many years a large item of export. In the season 1898–99 the area under crop for threshing was 249,852 acres, yielding an average of 33.65 bushels per acre, or 8,409,166 bushels in all, equal to nearly two-thirds of the whole yield for the colony.

Oats also are very successfully grown, the figures for the same period being 142,748 acres, which yielded 5,890,132 bushels; or an average of 41.26 bushels per acre, or over one-third of the total yield for the colony.

Barley of superior quality is also produced, the figures being 14,600 acres, 675,931 bushels: average per acre, 46.29 bushels, or more than one-third of total yield.

Grass-seeds are abundantly grown, cocksfoot mainly on the splendid Banks Peninsula country, and ryegrass throughout the land district.

Potatoes, which yield crops of excellent quality, were grown in 1898–99 on 12,432 acres; turnips and rape were grown on 207,407 acres, and the combined area of other crops grown, including rye, peas, beans, mangolds, beet, carrots, and onions, was 12,806 acres. The area of wheat, oats, and barley for fodder was 61,342 acres. The area ploughed and laid down in English grasses was 1,312,494 acres. Surface sown lands comprised 342,317 acres. The total area under crop was 699,681 acres, and the area broken up but not in crop, 8,602 acres. Plantations, exclusive of private gardens, occupied an area of 21,736 acres.

Stock

The pastoral and agricultural lands provide grazing and fodder for a large number of sheep, cattle, horses, and other stock. Of late years the value of the plains has been much enhanced and the carrying-capacity thereof greatly increased by the water-race system, which supplies water throughout the length and breadth of the dry areas, and enables the country to be occupied in smaller holdings than would otherwise be possible.

The following table shows the extent, cost, and other particulars regarding the water-race system in the several counties in 1899:—

County.Area watered.Miles of Races.Total Cost.Cost per Acre watered.Amount of Water distributed every Twenty-four Hours.Annual Charge for Use of Water.
 Acres. £  s.  d.Gal. 
Selwyn326,3881,08467,679  4  1 3/470,940,9608s.    4d. to £1 5s. per 100 acres.
Ashburton586,0001,22027,500  0  11 1/278,000,000About £3 per mile of race.
Geraldine71,2122609,010  2  6 1/229,520,000About 7d. per acre, including a rate for payment of principal and interest on loans, and a rate for maintenance.
Waimate35,7001578,125  4  78,500,000Races are maintained by an annual charge on the value of lands watered.

The sheep in the Provincial District of Canterbury, in April, 1898, numbered 4,072,687. In November, 1898, there were 45,487 horses, 87,471 cattle, and 29,915 pigs.

The district has a well-deserved reputation for the classes and splendid quality of its sheep. On the mountains and higher lands the merino still predominates; but on the richer low-lying ranges, hills, and plains the prevailing types are crosses between the merino and Leicester, Lincoln, Romney Marsh, and other breeds. In proof of the superior character of the flocks, pasturage, and climatic conditions in the Middle Island, the following percentages of lambing returns are quoted—these are “fair average returns, but much higher might have been exhibited”: Mountain native pasture—pure merino, 75.36; pure merino and Border Leicester, 88.94: English-grass pasture—crossbred and Border Leicester, 80.8; half-bred Border Leicester, 82.79; Border Leicester, 90.77; Lincoln, 88.08; Romney Marsh, 111.46; English Leicester, 93.34; Shropshire, 97.41; Southdowns, 96.87. It must be borne in mind that the flocks and herds are supported by the natural and artificial pastures without housing.

Owing to the development of the frozen-meat trade a great impetus has been given to sheep-breeding. The bulk of the primest meat exported from the colony is supplied by this district, with Marlborough, and commands the highest price in the London markets. In the year ended 30th April, 1899, the number of carcases frozen was 1,339,933, valued at £858,083. There were also produced preserved meats to the value of £19,298; 7,353 casks of tallow, valued at £56,874; 4,100 tons of bonedust and manures; besides neatsfoot-oil, oleo, &c.

The total quantity of frozen meat exported from Canterbury during the year ended 31st March, 1899, was 544,468 cwt., valued at £652,654. At Belfast, Fairfield (near Ashburton), Islington, and Timaru, freezing-works are established, each containing a complete plant for carrying on the industry, as well as departments for curing, preserving, boiling-down, tallow rendering, fellmongering, and the manufacture of manures. The Belfast Freezing Works, owned by the Canterbury Frozen Meat, and Dairy Produce Export Company, contain engines of 710-horse-power, and employ 300 men. They have storage for 90,000 carcases, and can put through 5,000 carcases in a day. The same company has recently established a new factory at Fairfield (near Ashburton), where 40,000 carcases can be stored and 2,200 dealt with in a day. The Islington and Timaru works, which are owned by the Christchurch Meat Company, employ in all about 590 men, and have engines representing 430-horse-power. The former can put through 4,000 to 6,000 carcases per diem, and have storage for 75,000 carcases. The latter can deal with 3,000 to 4,000 carcases in a day, and have storage for 75,000 carcases. At Hornby there has been established by Messrs. Nelson Brothers (Limited) a well-equipped factory for freezing only, with engines of 300-horse-power, and a capacity of dealing with 1,000 sheep per diem. The factory has storage-room for 50,000 sheep.

Wool

During the year ended 31st March, 1899, there were shipped at Lyttelton and Timaru 31,082,211 lb. wool, valued at £1,053,273; and to this must be added the amount (about 1,000,000 lb.), bought for manufacture by the woollen-mills in the district. The staple of the New Zealand wool, especially the long-wool and crossbred, is remarkable for its freedom from breaks and other imperfections. The average clips are approximately as follows: Merino, 41b. to 7 lb.; quarrel-breds. 8 1/2 lb.; half-breds, 7 1/2 lb.; three-quarters, 8 1/2 lb.; Leicesters, 10 1/2 lb.; Lincoln, 11 lb. From special flocks clips up to 25 lb. and 30 lb. are obtained.

Butter and Cheese

Banks Peninsula and the rich tracts of country previously mentioned are excellently suited for dairy farming. The pasturage and climatic conditions are favourable, and a great increase in the production of butter and cheese may be looked for, more especially as housing and hand-feeding are in some districts unnecessary. A central co-operative dairy factory has been established at Addington, served by twelve creameries, situate at Marshlands, Oxford, Halswell, Springston, Doyleston, Little River, Ladbrooks, Lakeside, Kaiapoi, Green Park, Brookside, and Ashburton, each capable of dealing with the milk of 10,00 cows. There are also very complete dairy factories at Taitapu, Sefton, Temuka, Southbrook, Belfast, Tin-wald, and Le Bon's Bay, as well as a cheese-factory at Flemington.

In 1895 the production of butter at the Canterbury factories alone amounted to 1,213,942 lb., and of cheese to 582,400 lb.

Timber

The sawmilling industry finds its development chiefly in the Oxford, Little River, Mount Somers, and Waimate districts. The number of mills in Canterbury in 1896 was twenty-two, employing 232 hands, the horse-power being 318. The output in 1895 was 3,697,230 ft., valued at £17,608. The timber comprises birch, totara, red-and white-pine. The first-named is used chiefly for sleepers and fencing, the totara and pine for building purposes. Including the work done by the planing- and moulding-mills the value of all the manufactures under this head was £26,154.

Fruit

The district is eminently adapted for the growth of a large variety of fruits, especially all that flourish in Great Britain. Attention has recently been directed to landing supplies of fruit in London; the attempts so far have proved satisfactory, and point to the possibility of a large trade being established.

Coal

Brown coal is found at the Malvern Hills, Homebush, Whitecliffs, Springfield, Mount Somers, Albury, and various other places. Lignite is also commonly distributed. For the year 1898, the output from 15 collieries, employing about 50 hands, was 13,347 tons, bringing the total amount raised from 24 collieries up to the 31st December, 1898, to 365,689 tons. The seams worked vary from 16 ft. to 2 ft. 3 in., the average width being 8 ft. At Acheron, near Lake Coleridge, a true anthracite is found, the other pits in the district being of brown coal or lignite.

Building-stones

The building-stones of Canterbury comprise some excellent varieties. The Halswell quarries produce an exceedingly hard and close-grained stone of a dull leaden-grey colour. Granular trachytes are obtained from Governor's Bay, Lyttleton; porphyrites at Malvern Hills; good limestone at Malvern Hills, Waikari, Mount Somers, and various other places; bluestone rock is found at Timaru suitable for millstones. There is abundance of limestone in North Canterbury, Mount Somers, Castle Hill, and various other parts, which is well adapted for making lime.

Fisheries

Deep-sea fishing is carried on from Lyttelton and Akaroa, the kinds of fish chiefly caught being groper (hapuku), ling, conger, moki, butterfish, barracouta, soles, whiting, red-cod, herrings, and garfish. From Lake Ellesmere and the river estuaries excellent flounders are obtained. In 1896 there were employed on the lake and along the coast 68 boats, manned by 105 men.

Trout thrive amazingly in the rivers and fresh-water lakes, affording excellent sport.

Manufactories

Excluding mines and quarries, the total number of manufactories in Canterbury in 1896 was 448, employing 4,944 males and 1,110 females.

The total value of manufactures for 1895 was £2,629,822, and the value of land, machinery, and buildings was £1,178,112. Included in the above were 20 printing, 9 agricultural-implement, 27 coach-building and - painting, 29 fellmongering, tanning, currying, and wool-scouring establishments, 5 ship- and boat-building works, 12 sail- and oilskin-factories, 3 woollen-mills, 5 clothing, 17 boot-and-shoe factories, 4 rope-and-twine works, 5 flax-mills, 5 boiling-down, meat-preserving, and freezing works, 14 cheese- and butter-factories, 32 grain-mills, 3 fruit- and jam-making works, 16 breweries, 10 malt-houses, 30 aerated waters and cordial works, 6 sauce- and pickle-making factories, 5 soap- and candle works, 22 sawmills and sash-and-door factories, 4 gasworks, 15 brick, tile, and pottery manufactories, and 10 iron- and brass-foundries.

At the date of the last census, in 1895, the value of land, machinery, and buildings was £1,178,112, and the total value of manufactures was £2,629,822.

Libraries and Churches

As an indication of the progress of the district, it may be noted that there were in April, 1896, seventy-three public libraries, mechanics' institutes, and scientific institutions, with a membership of 3,647; and 277 churches or chapels, attended by 42,615 persons.

Educational Institutions

Primary Schools.—The district is divided into two parts, termed North and South Canterbury, each presided over by an Educational Board. Under the control of the Boards schools have been established throughout the whole country wherever population warrants their erection.

The number of children attending the public primary schools in Canterbury, on 31st March, 1899, was 25,923. Average daily attendance, 21,077. Number of teachers—males, 285; females, 416: total, 701. Number of schools, 270.

There is a Normal School at Christchurch for the training of teachers.

Secondary Education.—For the further education of children ample provision has been made by the establishment of secondary schools. The principal schools of this class are the Boys' and Girls' High Schools at Christchurch, Rangiora, Ashburton, Timaru, Waimate, Akaroa, and Temuka. For more advanced students Canterbury College, Christchurch, is available. This institution was founded and endowed by the Provincial Government in 1873. It is presided over by a Board of Governors. The teaching staff comprises eight professors and three lecturers, and the number of students attending lectures is over 300.

It should be recorded here that the Provincial Government of Canterbury was fully alive to its duties as regards higher education. It made reserves for the purpose of endowment for the following objects: (1) College, 101,640 acres, reserved June, 1873; (2) technical science, 103,000 acres, reserved July, 1873; (3) School of Agriculture, 100,950 acres, reserved June, 1873; (4) Boys' High School, 9,220 acres, reserved at various dates; (5) Classical School, 8,953 acres, reserved at various dates. To these were subsequently added the following: (6) Girls' High School, 2,578 acres, reserved January, 1878; (7) Medical School, 5,000 acres, reserved December, 1877.

Primary Schools.—There are numerous private schools, independent of the State, the chief amongst them being Christ's College, Christchurch, connected with the Church of England. The Roman Catholics support schools of their own in Christchurch, Pleasant Point, Lyttelton, Timaru, Addington, Papanui, Ashburton, Akaroa, Rangiora, Temuka, Leeston, and Waimate. There are besides, in Christchurch, some excellent private boarding- and day-schools for both boys and girls.

Other Institutions

Canterbury has the advantage of possessing many flourishing public institutions. The School of Art, Christchurch, was established by the College Governors in 1882; the Art Gallery owes its origin to the Art Society, the site being the gift of the Government. The Canterbury Agricultural College, Lincoln, also founded by the College Governors, is surrounded by 660 acres of land. The commodious buildings, which cost over £20,000, provide accommodation for the Director and teaching-staff, and for forty-five students. The fees are on a low scale. The farm buildings are complete, and include a well-equipped dairy. Instruction is given in agriculture, chemistry, botany, mechanics, physics, surveying, &c.

The Public Library, Christchurch, under the control of the College Governors, contains reading-rooms, a circulating library of 18,160 books, and a reference library of 11,869 volumes. Numbers of magazines and newspapers are provided. The number of subscribers is 1,800, and the average daily attendance between 700 and 800.

The Museum, Christchurch, is a handsome pile of stone buildings; the collections are large and varied. They are separated into two groups: (1) Those from New Zealand; (2) those from foreign countries. In the New Zealand department the skeletons of whales and moas, as well as the collections of shells (tertiary and fossils) and rocks, are specially good; and the Maori collection, exhibited in a Maori house, is also of considerable interest. In the foreign department, the geological, mineralogical, and ethnological collections are the most extensive, but there is also a good illustrative series of Egyptian and Roman antiquities, as well as of the remains of prehistoric man in Europe and America.

This institution owes its origin and success to the foresight, skill, and energy of the late Sir Julius von Haast, and to the munificence of the Provincial Government.

The philanthropic institutions embrace the Christchurch, Akaroa, Ashburton, Timaru, and Waimate Hospitals; the Sunnyside Asylum for the Insane; the Rhodes Convalescent Home; the Memorial Home for the Aged at Woolston; the City Mission and Destitute Men's Home, Christchurch; the Deaf-and-Dumb Asylum at Sumner; the Orphanage, Lyttelton; the Industrial School at Burnham; and the Mount Magdala Asylum, Samaritan Home, and St. Mary's Home, in the vicinity of Christchurch.

Towns

Christchurch, the capital city of the Canterbury District, is situated on the plains. It is practically level, laid out in rectangular form, two miles by one mile and a quarter, and is intersected diagonally by a street. The streets are 66 ft. in width. There are numerous open spaces, including the Cathedral Square in the centre, and Cranmer and Latimer Squares. The Avon, a pretty stream, overhung by willows, runs through the town, presenting from all points charming vistas. The city is surprisingly English in its appearance, architecture, and surroundings. The central portion, where stands the Cathedral, Government offices, and other substantial structures, has a handsome, well-built look. Other parts contain fine public buildings, such as the Museum, Canterbury College, High Schools, &c. The whole is admirably set off by Hagley Park, 400 acres in extent, the Domain and Botanical Gardens, 79 acres, Lancaster Park, the Town Belts, and other public and private gardens and plantations. The suburbs can show many handsome houses and beautifully kept grounds.

The city is surrounded by the populous boroughs and districts of Sydenham, St. Albans, Linwood, Papanui, Woolston, &c. The population of the city was at the last estimate (March, 1899) 18,085, in about 4,000 houses; including the adjacent boroughs and other suburbs the population amounts to about 54,500. Tramways connect the city with the suburbs of Addington, Sydenham, the Port Hills, and Papanui, and with the seaside villages of New Brighton and Sumner. The city has been drained at considerable expense, the sewage being conveyed three miles and discharged on the sand wastes near the sea. A pure and copious water-supply has been provided by nature, and is obtained by artesian wells. The affairs of the municipality are controlled by the City Council, presided over by the Mayor. Christchurch is the centre of trade and commerce for the North Canterbury agricultural and pastoral country, and the headquarters of many manufacturing industries, including carriage, boot, and clothing-factories, flour-mills, breweries, meat-preserving and -freezing, biscuit, planing and moulding, bicycle, and other works.

There are large and well-equipped show-grounds at Addington.

Recreation and amusement are provided for by the Theatre Royal, Opera House, and various public halls, the famous Riccarton racecourse, the numerous cricket and football grounds, &c., while boating men have the River Avon and the Heathcote estuary.

Christchurch is connected with the outside world by Port Lyttelton, seven miles distant. The railway-tunnel of 1 1/2 miles in length, through the Port Hills, is on this line. Christchurch is not only the centre of the splendid Canterbury Plains, but is also one of the chief railway centres of the colony. Addington railway-workshops are extensive and fully equipped.

Lyttelton, the chief port of the district, is situated on the northern shores of the inlet, of that name, sometimes called Port Cooper. The surrounding country consists of high precipitous hills, which separate the harbour from Christchurch and the plains; but by the construction of the railway and tunnel the natural difficulties have been overcome, with the result that the whole of the imports and exports of northern and central Canterbury pass through Lyttelton. The origination and accomplishment of this great engineering work is due to the late William Sefton Moorhouse, at that time Superintendent of the Province. The natural advantages of the port have been enhanced by reclaviation and harbour-works, which include two breakwaters, 2,010 ft. and 1,400 ft. in length respectively, extending from Officer and Naval Points, enclosing about 107 acres; long lengths of wharf accommodation, 10,041 ft.; a patent slip for ships up to 400 tons; and a splendid graving-dock 450 ft. long, width on top and bottom 82 ft. and 46 ft. respectively, the entrance being 62 ft. wide, well equipped with machinery and all requisites for repairs. Ships drawing up to 25 ft. can berth alongside the spacious wharves and sheds. The railway, electric-light, machinery, and appliances are available throughout, which renders loading and unloading practicable both by day and by night. As an indication of the volume of trade dealt with at the port, it may be noted that for the year ended March 31, 1899, the imports were valued at £1,335,387 and the exports at £1,873,427. The town nestles on the side of the range, the streets being generally steep, flanked by solid stone buildings; and a background of green spurs and bold rocky faces gives to the whole a charming and picturesque appearance. The water supply is obtained from artesian wells on the Christchurch side of the hills. To Christchurch there is a bridle-track over the range, and a carriage-road viâ Sumner. The harbour is well defended by fortifications and batteries on Ripa Island and the mainland. The population in 1898 was 4,053, with 780 houses.

The Museum, Christchurch.

Timaru, the third town in importance, is situated on the coast and railway line between Christchurch (100 miles) and Dunedin (131 miles). The boundaries of this borough were extended in 1898, the estimated area, including town belt, being now 1,100 acres. It has a well-constructed artificial harbour, the port of shipment for the agricultural and pastoral districts of Geraldine, Timaru, and Waimate. The harbour is enclosed by a breakwater built of blocks of concrete; a rubble wall—the North Mole–starts from the shore a quarter of a mile away to the north, and extends easterly to a point 350 ft. from the breakwater. The enclosed space is 50 acres. During the year ended March 31, 1899, the value of goods imported here was £111,436 and of produce exported £520,291. The town is picturesquely situated on rolling hills overlooking the sea. The streets are irregular, but the public and commercial buildings, churches, and private houses are generally well and handsomely built of stone. The chief industries are meatfreezing, saw-milling, flour-milling, &c. The town has a good high-pressure water-supply, and is connected by well-made roads with the surrounding districts, and by rail with Fairlie, the route to the Mackenzie Country and Mount Cook. The population in 1898 was 5,702, with 1,139 inhabited houses.

Of other towns in Canterbury the following deserve mention: Rangiora, population, 1,871, with 390 houses, twenty miles from Christchurch by northern line of railway, is situated in the centre of a fine farming country, and possesses manufactories, including seven flax-mills, flour-mill, and brewery. The town and neighbourhood are much benefited by plantations.

Kaiapoi, on the Waimakariri, population 1,880, about fourteen miles from Christchurch by the northern railway-line, lies in a rich farming country, rendered pleasing and attractive by the extent and variety of plantations and gardens. There are factories and various industries, including ham- and bacon-curing, sawmills, brewery, and agricultural-implement works. Here also is the famed Kaiapoi Woollen-mill, which employs 600 hands when trade is brisk. The Waimakariri is navigable for small vessels to the centre of the town.

Ashburton, the newest of the towns, has a population of 2,100, with 485 houses, and is fifty-three miles from Christchurch on the southern trunk line. It is a well-built town, with extensive and beautiful recreation-grounds and gardens. It owes its existence to the settlement of the plains, the surrounding country being well adapted for farming. There are two breweries, a cordial-factory, three flour-mills, gasworks, ironworks, woollen-mill, brickworks, &c.

Geraldine, population 850, is situated on the Waihi River, four miles from Orari Railway-station, about eighty-six miles south-west from Christchurch. It is a neat and pretty town, in a first-class farming district, and has a beautiful park of native forest-trees.

Temuka, eighty-eight miles from Christchurch, on the southern railway-line, is a well-built town, with good agricultural land all round. It possesses three flour-mills, a butter- and cheese-factory, brewery, foundry, fellmongery and paper-mill. There is a beautiful park and domain. The population, with that of Arowhenua, is 1,450 persons.

Waimate, population 1,500, is situated on the Waihao Forks Railway, about four miles from Studholme Junction, some 111 miles from both Christchurch and Dunedin. This town is the centre for an extensive back-country, and a splendid agricultural area. It owes its origin to the sawmill industry of the Waimate bush. Industries: saw-milling, flour-milling, &c.

Akaroa, population 630, situated on the noble harbour of that name, was founded in 1840, in the first instance by the French. It is a quiet, picturesque little place, much patronised by Christchurch residents and others as a summer resort and watering-place. It was here that Captain Stanley hoisted the British flag on 11th August, 1840, when he took possession of the Middle Island on behalf of the Crown, forestalling the French by a few hours only.

Chapter 79. THE OTAGO LAND DISTRICT

J. P. Maitland, Commissioner of Crown Lands.

John Hay, Chief Surveyor

Boundaries and Area

The Otago Land District lies between the 44th and 47th parallels of south latitude, and extends from 167° 20' to 171° 10' of east longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Canterbury Land District; on the south-east and south by the ocean; on the west and south by the Waikawa, Mokoreta, Slopedown, Waikaka, Chatton, Wendon, Waikaia, Gap, Rockyside, and Kingston Survey Districts, the western and southern shores of Lake Wakatipu, the Mid-Wakatipu, Mavora, Swinton, Eglinton, Arran, and Doon Survey Districts, and a straight line from the north-east corner of the last-mentioned district to the nearest arm of George Sound, and by George Sound to the ocean; and on the north-west by the ocean to Big Bay.

The district measures about 160 miles from Milford Sound on the west coast to Waikouaiti Bay on the east coast, and the same distance from north to south. Its area is 9,004,800 acres.

Physical Description

The country generally is mountainous, the highest land being to the north-west, and culminating in Mount Aspiring, 9,960 ft. above the level of the sea.

The west coast mountains are remarkably rugged and grand; and of the thirteen sounds that pierce this coast, three are within the limits of the Otago Land District, the remaining ten being on the west coast of the Southland District. These three are Milford Sound, Bligh Sound, and George Sound. Milford Sound, though only eight miles in length, contains some of the grandest scenery in the world; and fourteen miles inland from its head is the great Sutherland Waterfall, 1,904 ft. high, possibly the highest waterfall known. Bligh Sound is smaller than Milford, and not nearly so interesting; but George Sound is larger, and very picturesque.

A tourist track has been opened from the head of Te Anau Lake to Milford Sound, and a practicable route has also been discovered, and a track formed, from the north-west arm of the middle fiord of Te Anau Lake to the head of George Sound.

Te Anau Track.—A guide works on this track from December to April. He carries a fortnightly mail between Lake Te Anau and Milford Sound, and also meets each trip of the “Waikare.” There is ample accommodation for tourists who wish to make the journey in short stages, as there are huts erected at six different places on the track.

For nearly one hundred miles inland from the west coast the country is very mountainous, but at a distance of sixty or seventy miles from the south-east coastline it begins to get gradually lower, taking the form of rolling hills and downs along the sea-shore.

Rivers and Lakes

The largest rivers are the Clutha, Taieri, and Waitaki: the first-named drains Lakes Wakatipu, Wanaka, and Hawea; the last, Lakes Ohau, Pukaki, and Tekapo, in the Canterbury District. Te Anau, the largest lake in the Middle Island, lies partly in the Otago and partly in the Southland District. The dimensions of these lakes are as follows:—

Lakes.Length in Miles.General Breadth in Miles.Area in Square Miles.Height above Sea-level in Feet.
Te Anau38    1 to 6    132    694
Wakatipu50    1 to 3 1/2    114    1,069
Wanaka29    1 to 3    75    928
Hawea19    3    48    1,062
Ohau11    1 to 3    23    1,720
Pukaki11    2 1/2 to 5    31    1,588
Tekapo15    1 to 3 1/2    32 1/2    2,325

These lakes are situated in mountainous country; they are of glacial origin, and all very deep.

The Clutha River is the largest in New Zealand, and is estimated to discharge over 1,000,000 cubic feet per minute. It has a rapid current, but is navigable for small steamers for a distance of forty miles from its mouth. The Waitaki is not a navigable river. For some seventeen miles from its mouth the Taieri River is affected by tides, which run up one branch into Waihola Lake, and up the other branch as far as Allanton (Greytown).

There is a small steamer on Waihola Lake, and another on the Taieri River at Henley. During the summer season both run excursion trips to the mouth of the river when required. The distance in each case is about eight miles.

Plains

There are some considerable areas of tolerably level land in the interior, the largest being the Maniototo Plains, the Idaburn, Manuherikia, and Upper Clutha Valleys. Their dimensions are approximately as follows: Maniototo Plains, length, twenty-eight miles; average breadth, ten miles; Idaburn Valley, twenty-five miles by four miles; Manuherikia Valley, thirty-five miles by four miles; Upper Clutha Valley, thirty-three miles by five miles.

The Taieri Plain, nearer the coast, is about the same size as the Idaburn Valley, and is very fertile. Other plains are the Waitaki in the north, the Tokomairiro, the Strath-Taieri, the Tapanui, and the fertile Inch-Clutha, lying between the two branches of the Clutha River, and consisting entirely of alluvial deposit. There is also a good deal of low country, chiefly rolling downs, on the south-west side of the Clutha near the sea.

Forests

The forest-land lies mostly along the sea-coast, the largest area of bush being Tautuku Forest, about forty miles in length and fifteen miles in breadth. The western part of this forest is in the Southland District. The other principal forest areas are in the following localities, viz.: north of Dunedin, east of the Tapanui mountains, in the upper valley of the Waikaia River, and towards the north-west coast.

The forests of Otago contain a large variety of useful timber, both hard and soft wood; some being suitable for building purposes, while other varieties are highly ornamental, and much prized for cabinet-work.

Building Stones

Building-stones of good quality are found in various places throughout Otago. The Port Chalmers quarries afford an inexhaustible supply of bluestone, a basaltic stone of great hardness and durability; and the neighbourhood of Hindon furnishes a bluestone of superior quality. A hard freestone of excellent quality is found at Waikawa, where there is a large hill of it close to the water's edge. Blocks of very great size can be obtained. There is also a freestone of superior quality on the late Hon. W. J. M. Larnach's property on the Peninsula. A dense dark granite is obtainable on Ruapuke Island; specimens, both tooled and polished, may be seen in the base and pilasters of the new Government Life Insurance Buildings at Dunedin. A soft white building-stone—the well-known Oamaru limestone—is found in large quantities along the railway-line near Oamaru, from whence a good deal is exported to other parts of New Zealand and to the neighbouring colonies. A similar kind of stone is found at. Otekaike, about two miles from the railway-station, and it may be interesting to note that during the years 1891–93 about 3,000 tons of stone were sent from the Otekaike quarries to form the facings of the Melbourne Fish-market.

Limestone for Burning

Limestone is found in the following places: Oamaru, Otekaike, Otepopo, Waihemo, Maniototo Plains, Waikouaiti, Lower Harbour, Peninsula, Waihola, Millburn, and Wakatipu.

The Millburn Lime and Cement Company burn large quantities of lime at their Millburn works, from whence it is sent to all parts of Otago, for building purposes, gasworks, &c. It is also largely used in farming, and the productiveness of the Tokomairiro Plain has been greatly increased of late years by its application to the soil. Large cement-works belonging to the same company have been open for some years on the reclaimed land in Otago Harbour, near Dunedin. The cement manufactured at these works is considered fully equal, if not superior, to the best imported, and is largely used in building and other constructive works.

Coal and Lignite

No first-class coals have yet been discovered in Otago suitable for ocean-going steamships. In the southern portion of the district and in part of Southland thin seams of coal or a bituminous character exist, but so far nothing of a commercial character has been found. These coals are of Mezzozoic age. First-class brown coals are worked in several parts of Otago and Southland, the principal seats of the industry being Shag Point, Green Island, Kaitangata, and Nightcaps.

Beds of lignite are also found in numerous localities, chiefly round the margins of the old lake-basins and along the courses of the older river-valleys, and are worked on a small scale to supply local demands.

The output of coal and lignite in Otago and Southland for 1898 was 280,043 tons.

Climate

The climate of Otago varies greatly in different neighbourhoods, and sometimes a distance of a few miles only separates districts very dissimilar in this respect. A large area in the interior of Otago has what may be called a dry climate. This area includes the Maniototo Plains, the Idaburn and Manuherikia Valleys, and extends to Lakes Wakatipu, Wanaka, Hawea, and Ohau on the west and north, and to the Waitaki River on the north-east. From Oamaru the direction would be across country to the Lammerlaw Ranges, and thence to Mount Benger and the southern end of Lake Wakatipu. This part of the country is well adapted for sheep of all kinds, especially merinos. Some of the runs in the hilly country are capable of carrying 20,000 sheep.

West Coast

In marked contrast to central Otago is the West Coast District, which may be described as having a wet climate. Not that the number of wet days in the year is very great, but it is subject to very heavy rains from the north-west, the fall generally exceeding 100 in. per annum. But, although wet, the climate is mild, and the vegetation is consequently luxuriant. The only settlers of this part of the country are Mr. and Mrs. Sutherland, who keep a house of accommodation for tourists at the head of Milford Sound. There are very few visitors to the Sounds during winter, but in summer the tourist traffic is considerable. Towards the south-east and south coasts of the district the climate is moist, being somewhat similar to that of Dunedin, where the average rainfall is 35 in., distributed over 163 days in the year.

Fruit

There are some fine fruit-growing districts in the valley of the Clutha, from below Roxburgh right up to Lake Wanaka. The summers are dry and warm, and the soil suitable. Apricots, peaches, &c., come to maturity fully a month before they do at Dunedin, and grapes ripen in the open air. There is a great future for this neighbourhood in the growing of those varieties of fruit which agree with and thrive in a dry climate. The grape might be cultivated either for wine-making or for the table, and some varieties could be made into good raisins. The dryness of the atmosphere is favourable for preserving all kinds of fruit, while the Otago Central Railway will bring the neighbourhood into direct communication with a market.

Crops

Cereals of all kinds do very well over nearly the whole of the provincial district, which includes Southland. The following are the agricultural statistics:—

Total area under cultivation in the provincial district, including sown grasses and fallow land, 2,253,569 acres. Corn crops sown or intended to be sown this season for threshing, comprising wheat, oats, barley, rye, maize, peas, beans, 336,076 acres; land broken up and grassed, 1,323,342 acres, and 2,083 acres in clover, while 292,097 acres have been surface-sown with grass without the land being first broken up; green-crops, comprising potatoes, turnips, mangolds, rape, beet, carrots, &c., 270,494 acres; plantations, &c., including private gardens, market gardens, orchards, and vineyards of a quarter-acre and upwards, 10,928 acres, and 29,477 acres ploughed but not planted. The area in tussock, or native grass, is 8,034,122 acres.

 Acres.Estimated Yield per Acre.Total.
Wheat for threshing   99,752   33.37 bushels     3,329,660 bushels.
Oats for threshing  220,4274  39.80 bushels     8,774,770 bushels
Barley for threshing  14,063  31.30 bushels     440,191 bushels
Rye for threshing  1,720  22.90 bushels     39,388 bushels

Stock

The total number of sheep in Otago Provincial District, which includes Southland, on the 30th April, 1898, was 3,961,459, of which number about 700,000 were merinos. On an average, about one-third of the flocks consist of breeding ewes. The shearing is mostly done by hand, but the Wolseley shearing-machines have been introduced on about ten stations, the number of machines in each wool-shed varying generally from ten to fifteen, though there is one shed at Benmore, near Lake Ohau, where there are twenty-eight machines driven by a turbine.

The above-mentioned district had also, in November last, 53,742 horses; 17 mules and asses; 189,249 cattle; and 24,013 pigs.

The rabbit-pest is still a severe tax on the stock owners; the number of skins exported last year for the whole colony being 6,607,934, nearly the whole of which—namely, 6,139,442—came from Otago; the monetary values being respectively £51,607 and £48,913.

Freezing Establishments

There are nine meat-freezing and preserving-works in Otago. The principal freezing establishments are at Oamaru, at Burnside, and at Port Chalmers. At Oamaru there are two Bell-Coleman machines, and a 60-ton Hercules refrigerator, capable of freezing 1,200 sheep a day, and there is storage-room for 20,000 carcases. At Burnside there are two Haslam machines, both driven by steam. One can supply 40,000 cubic feet of cold air per hour, and the other 60,000. Also a 70-ton Hercules machine, capable of freezing 2,000 carcases per day, and having storage-room for 30,000 carcases. The Port Chalmers freezing-works, erected in 1896 by the Otago Dock Trust, cost £4,500. They are used principally for the storage of butter prior to shipment, but the freezing-chambers have also been used for sheep, rabbits, and fish. The refrigerating machinery includes a 12-ton Hercules refrigerator. The capacity of the building is 30,000 cubic feet, and 50 tons of butter can be handled per week. The capacity has lately been nearly trebled, at an additional cost of £8,500. These additions include a 35-ton Hercules refrigerator.

Woollen-mills

There are five woollen-mills at work in Otago, employing some 800 hands. The amount paid in wages is about £51,300 per annum, and the machinery is 800-horse-power. £64,000 worth of wool and other materials are used per annum, and the turn-out of manufactured goods exceeds £140,000 yearly. The woollen industry in Otago is of greater magnitude than in any other district of New Zealand.

Besides supplying local needs Otago Provincial District exported last year 9,757,597 lb. of wool, having a value of £310,512.

Clothing-factories

In clothing-factories, also, Otago takes a prominent place, having nine, employing 700 hands, whose wages amount to £28,000 per annum.

Dairy Factories

Otago still takes a fair position in the dairying industry, more particularly in cheese. There are now fifty-three dairy factories, and by next spring some more will be added. This season over 500 tons of butter were shipped at Port Chalmers for London, and at Bluff and Port Chalmers about 2,000 tons of cheese for London and Australia. A considerable quantity of butter goes also to Australia. Farmers having so many other pursuits which are profitable, such as frozen mutton, grain, &c., dairying is not increasing so rapidly as in other parts of New Zealand, where it is the mainstay of farmers; but the quality of the cheese and butter in Otago and Southland is second to none in New Zealand, and the industry must steadily increase with settlement. Several new factories are contemplated, and some have started in the newly-settled bush districts, from Owaka to Fortrose, and are found of great assistance to new settlements.

Gold Production

Otago produces about one-third of all the gold taken out in New Zealand. The number of Europeans engaged last year was 3,849, and number of Chinese, 964.

Gold is found very generally distributed throughout Otago, except in the southern portion of the district. The principal localities are: Clutha Valley, Tuapeka, Shotover, Cardrona, Tinker's, St. Bathan's, Mount Ida, Nevis, Bannockburn, and Maerewhenua.

Last financial year the Otago Provincial District produced 78,289 oz, of gold, having a value of £315,306.

Chief Towns

The following are the chief towns of Otago, with their population, including all having 1,000 inhabitants and upwards: Dunedin, and suburbs, 49,492; Oamaru, 5,372; Port Chalmers, 2,100; Mosgiel, 1,450; Milton, 1,300; Kaitangata, 1,400; Lawrence, 1,010.

City of Dunedin

Dunedin, the capital city of Otago, is situated at the head of Otago Harbour, which is divided into two parts—the upper and lower. The lower harbour is six miles long from Taiaroa Heads to Port Chalmers. The upper harbour, from Port Chalmers to Dunedin, is seven miles in length. Dunedin and Port Chalmers are also connected by railway.

Although the hills surrounding Dunedin are rather tame in character and outline, the city itself is picturesquely situated. The business part of it is on level land near the harbour, and the residences occupy the sloping hills which rise on the west side of the city. The city proper is about two miles and a half long by seven-eighths of a mile wide, and is bounded on the land side by what is called the Town Belt. This reserve averages one-fifth of a mile in width, and comprises 500 acres, a great part of which is virgin bush. A pretty road, called the Queen's Drive, has been laid out through the Belt from end to end, from which many fine views of the town and harbour can be obtained.

It is thirteen miles down the harbour to the Heads in a north-easterly direction, but the Ocean Beach, lying to the south-east, is only two miles from the centre of the city, and the favourite seaside resort—St. Clair—is about three miles. Trams run to both these places at short intervals. The city is also connected with the suburban boroughs, lying on the hills overlooking the town, by excellent cable-tramways. The Botanical Gardens to the north of the city are well laid out, the native bush contrasting with the cultivated parts. The Reservoir also, which is within easy walking distance, and the drive to Blueskin Bay, have many beauties.

Dunedin is well supplied with elementary schools, there being six large schools in the city proper, with an attendance of 3,979 pupils, and eight more in the suburbs, with 3,742 pupils.

There is also in Dunedin a training-college for teachers. The students in training number nine men and forty-one women. They devote every fifth week during the session to practice in teaching and management of classes in the ten associated schools of the city and suburbs.

The School of Art and Design is in the same building as the Normal School, and has a staff of five teachers and a pupil-teacher. In 1898 there were 402 students in attendance.

The Otago Boys' High School stands on a commanding plateau 300 ft. above the business part of the city and the harbour. The school was opened on the 3rd August, 1863, in the building in Dowling Street now occupied as the Girls' High School. The new buildings were opened by the late Sir William Jervois, Governor, in February, 1885. The teaching staff, including the Rector, numbers ten; the attendance is 206.

The Otago Girls' High School was opened on the 6th February, 1871, with a roll of 78 pupils. The present attendance is 123, with a teaching staff of nine. Otago holds the proud distinction of having established the first Girls' High School in the Australasian Colonies. Among the earnest band of workers who laboured to establish this first High School for girls the name of Miss Dalrymple stands preeminent, and will ever be held in grateful remembrance by the people of Otago.

The Otago University was founded in 1869, and opened in 1871. It is well housed in a handsome pile of buildings in the domestic Gothic style. There are four separate faculties in the University—viz., arts and science, law, medicine, and mining. The School of Medicine provides the full course for a medical degree of the University of New Zealand. There is a Medical Museum in the University buildings containing anatomical, pathological, and other preparations and models. The teaching staff numbers at present twenty-six professors and lecturers. The School of Mines occupies a separate (temporary) building. There are at present about sixty students going through the prescribed courses for the diplomas and certificates in the Mining, Metallurgical, Geological, Mine and Land-surveying and the Assaying Divisions. Of undergraduates keeping terms there are 247—viz., 217 men and 30 women. The University Library contains over 5,000 specially selected volumes, and is open to the public under certain conditions for purposes of reference. The Chemical and Physical Laboratories are well fitted up, and furnished with all necessary instruments and appliances. There are six scholarships tenable at the University, ranging in value from £15 to £30 per annum.

The public Museum, of which the Professor of Biology is Curator, is under the control of the University Council. It is situated in Great King street, about five minutes' walk from the University. There is an art gallery attached, which contains some good works of art. Up to the present time only the central portion of the original design for the Museum building has been erected.

The Dunedin Athenæum and Mechanics' Institute possesses a fine library of over 17,000 volumes, and a membership of over 950 subscribers. Besides the Circulating Library there is a Reference Library, and two good reading-rooms, well supplied with newspapers and magazines.

There are some fine specimens of architecture in Dunedin, the buildings for the most part having an air of permanence and solidity. Some of the churches are very handsome. The First Church, in Moray Place, and Knox Church, in George street, are both handsome stone structures, and St. Joseph's Cathedral (Roman Catholic) is built of stone in the decorated Gothic style. The portion at present constructed will seat 1,000 persons, and has cost £23,000.

The Cargill Monument, which was erected to the memory of the late Captain Cargill, the founder of the Otago settlement, stands in the Triangle, between the Customhouse and the Bank of New Zealand. It is an ornate specimen of early decorated Gothic.

Towns and Surrounding Country

Port Chalmers (eight miles from Dunedin) situate on Otago Harbour, midway between the Heads and Dunedin, has a population of 2,100 inhabitants. It is the chief port of Otago, and possesses every accommodation for Home vessels, including dry dock, 80-ton sheer-legs, steam-hammer, and other appliances, besides several private foundries, cool-storage chamber, &c. The Port Chalmers graving dock is described in the article on page 55.

Leaving Dunedin by the northern railway, winding in and out through the hills which surround the town, and skirting the precipitous cliffs of the coast-line, the first station of importance reached is Waitati, a favourite seaside resort in Blueskin Bay; distance, seventeen miles. Fifteen miles beyond is Waikouaiti; population, 760; pleasantly situated on the Hawksbury lagoon, the centre of a flourishing farming country. The next place of note is Palmerston, forty-one miles from Dunedin, with 775 inhabitants. A branch-line leaves Palmerston and runs nine miles up Shag Valley to Dunback. Six miles further on the main line there is a branch to Shag Point, a coalfield, with two pits being actively worked.

Oamaru (seventy-eight miles) is the second town in Otago, having a population of 5,400. It is the centre of a large farming district, and has a good harbour, formed by a concrete breakwater, for the reception of ocean-going ships. The chief exports are wool and grain. A branch-line runs from the junction near Oamaru up the Waiareka Valley to Ngapara, seventeen miles, and Tokaraki, twenty-six miles from Oamaru, and another seven miles by road brings us to Livingstone.

Starting from Oamaru, and proceeding to Central Otago, viâ the valley of the Waitaki River, the first part of the journey is accomplished by rail across the fertile Papakaio Plains to Awamoko (ninety-six miles), and thence following up the Waitaki River past Duntroon to Kurow (120 miles). At Kurow the traveller leaves the railway and follows the course of the Waitaki through pastoral country to Rugged Ridges Station (133 miles); a little beyond Rugged Ridges the road leaves the Waitaki River, and crossing the Ahuriri Pass (141 miles), strikes the Ahuriri River, which it follows up past Omarama Station (158 miles) to the junction of Longslip Creek; it then ascends this creek until Lindis Pass saddle is reached (172 miles), at a height of 3,185 feet. Here begins the descent to the Clutha Valley viâ Morven Hills Station (181 miles) and Tarras Station (200 miles). From Tarras Station the road runs through settled farming country up the Clutha River, which is crossed by means of a punt at Newcastle (219 miles); and four miles more brings the traveller to Pembroke, on the southern shore of Lake Wanaka.

From Dunedin the main trunk railway runs southward to Invercargill, a distance of 130 miles. Passing through the Caversham Borough and tunnel the traveller reaches Burnside (five miles) and Abbotsford (six miles), industrial centres, with coal-mining, tanning, iron-smelting, and other works. Farther on is Wingatui, the junction of the Otago Central Railway; and ten miles from Dunedin is Mosgiel, a rising township with 1,450 inhabitants, noted for its woollen-mills. The railway-line now skirts the Taieri Plain, an alluvial flat eighteen miles long by five miles broad; the most fertile portion of Otago. A branch-line from Mosgiel junction runs to Outram (nineteen miles), on the farther side of the Taieri Plain. Passing the smaller Townships of Allanton (Greytown) and Henley, and Lakes Waihola and Waipori, the line strikes Milton (thirty-six miles). Milton, in the middle of the Tokomairiro Plain, is a town of 1,300 inhabitants, with flour-mill, dairy factories, flax-mill, pottery works, and tannery. The next place of importance is Balclutha (fifty-three miles), on the banks of the Clutha River, with flax-mills, dairy factories, and chicory works; population about 925. Kaitangata, situated lower down the Clutha River, and connected by a branch-line, has extensive coalfields, and a population of 1,400. Leaving Balclutha, the main line runs through the Clutha downs, passing the small centres of Waitepeka, Warepa, Kaihiku, and Waiwera, and reaches Clinton (seventy-three miles), on the Waiwera stream, a favourite resort of anglers. The next station of note beyond Clinton is Waipahi Junction (eighty-three miles), on the Waipahi River, likewise a favourite fishing-ground. Further on is Gore (ninety-nine miles), on the Mataura River, in the Southland District. Gore is a fast-rising township of 2,500 inhabitants, with paper-mill, flour-mill, freezing-works, dairy factory, coal-mines, &c.

A branch-line from Waipahi follows up and crosses the Pomahaka River and connects Tapanui (ninety-six miles), Kelso (ninety-eight miles), and Heriot (one hundred and two miles).

The Otago Central Railway starts from Wingatui, crosses the Taieri Plain, and then winds round to the Taieri River, which it follows up to the present terminus at Hyde. In its course along the river it runs for some distance through a rocky gorge, but after crossing the Sutton Stream enters Strath-Taieri—a comparatively flat, open country. Near Hindon Station (twenty-five miles), in the Taieri Gorge, and Barewood (thirty-six miles), there are quartz-reefs being worked. In traversing the Strath-Taieri the line passes the Blair-Taieri Village Settlement (forty-four miles), Middlemarch, a rising township (forty-eight miles), and reaches Hyde (sixty-four miles), the present limit, although the formation is well-advanced as far as Hamilton's. When this section is complete the Maniototo Plain will be tapped, and the extension of the line to Clyde presents no engineering difficulties. Central Otago has a great future before it, as in the opinion of experts it is naturally adapted for producing fruit of all kinds in perfection.

Another means of access to Central Otago is by the Clutha Valley.

Two miles beyond Milton the Lawrence branch leaves Clarkesville Junction, runs up the Tokomairiro River and the gorge of Manuka Creek, and down to Waitahuna (fifty-three miles), and Lawrence (sixty miles), gold-mining centres, with an aggregate population of 1,500. Gold was first discovered here in 1861, and the mines are still yielding freely. From Lawrence a coach runs to Beaumont (seventy-two miles), on the Clutha River. Crossing the Beaumont Bridge the road follows the west bank of the Clutha, passing numerous dredging-claims. At eighty-nine miles is Ettrick, and seven miles further on is Roxburgh—the Teviot—(ninety-six miles), a town of 450 inhabitants. Recrossing the Clutha River by the Roxburgh Bridge, and proceeding up the east bank, the traveller reaches Alexandra South (124 miles), at the junction of the Manuherikia River with the Clutha, and Clyde—the Dunstan—(130 miles), the chief town of Vincent County. The next place of importance is Cromwell (143 miles), at the junction of the Kawarau River with the Clutha. Cromwell is a small town of 550 inhabitants, and has a good bridge over the Clutha River. If the traveller wishes to pursue his journey farther he can either follow the road up the Clutha to Newcastle and Pembroke, on Lake Wanaka, or take the Kawarau Gorge road by way of the Crown Terrace to Queenstown, on Lake Wakatipu.

Queenstown, a picturesque township situated on the shores of Lake Wakatipu, has a population of 750, and is the centre of a large gold-mining district. The chief feature of Queenstown is the grand mountain and lake scenery in the neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers of tourists every year. There are two ways of reaching Queenstown—the one by the Clutha Valley and Kawarau Gorge, as above described, and the other by rail to Kingston, at the foot of Lake Wakatipu, and thence by steamer, which runs to suit the trains.

The Tautuku bush, in the south of Otago, has only lately been opened up, but already a large number of settlers are making their homes there. Starting from Balclutha the Catlin's River branch-line runs southwards to Romahapa (sixty miles) on the crossing of the main road to Port Molyneux, thence to Glenomaru (sixty-four miles), and Owaka (seventy miles from Dunedin), is nearly complete. The Catlin's-Waikawa main road is formed the whole way through, as are also numerous district roads, and the adjacent lands are being taken up as fast as they are thrown open.

Railways

The principal lines are as follows: (1.) The main trunk line from Dunedin to Christchurch, with branches from Oamaru to Hakataramea, forty-three miles; and Oamaru to Ngapara and Tokoraki, twenty-five miles; also, Palmerston to Dunback, nine miles. (2.) The main trunk line, Dunedin to Invercargill, with branches, Mosgiel to Outram, nine miles; Milton to Lawrence, twenty-four miles; Stirling to Kaitangata, five miles; Balclutha to Owaka, eighteen miles; and Waipahi to Heriot, twenty miles. (3.) The Otago Central, from Wingatui to Ranfurly, seventy-seven miles eighteen chains, and formation is under way to Wetherburn, eighty-five miles fifty-three chains.

Statistical

The total estimated population of the Otago Provincial District on the 31st December, 1898, was 172,162.

Area of Otago Land District: Open land below 2,000 ft., 5,252 square miles; forest-land below 2,000 ft., 1,919 square miles; open land above 2,000 ft., 6,480 square miles; forest-land above 2,000 ft., 419 square miles; area of lakes, &c., 275 square miles: total, 14,345 square miles.

The following table shows the disposition of the land in the Otago District on 31st March, 1899:—

 Holdings.Acres.
1. Lands finally alienated, comprising freehold land and vested reserves2,692,005
2. Lands held on deferred payment, rural8721,617
3. Lands held on perpetual lease, rural36771,681
4. Lands held under occupation-with-right-of-purchase clause10317,134
5. Lands held on lease in perpetuity, ordinary Crown lands, rural566149,391
6. Lands held under agricultural lease on goldfields20637
7. Lands held under Mining Districts Land Occupation Act963,807
8. Lands held under village settlement, deferred payment5188
9. Lands held under village settlement, perpetual lease42934
10. Lands held under village settlement, lease in perpetuity1291,959
11. Lands held under village-homestead special settlement, perpetual lease841,341
12. Lands held by special-settlement associations, lease in perpetuity152,955
13. Lands held as improved-farm settlements739,879
14. Lands held as small grazing-runs239479,844
15. Lands held under pastoral license, not including bush2444,068,424
16. Lands held under lease and license for miscellaneous purposes, exclusive of gold-mining420163,226
17. Lands acquired and disposed of as lease in perpetuity under Land for Settlements Act, rural29434,841
18. Lands acquired and disposed of as small grazing-runs under Land for Settlements Act33,667
19. Lands acquired and disposed of as miscellaneous licenses under Land for Settlements Act36431
20. Crown lands open for selection (including 380 acres under Land for Settlements Act)136,247
21. Crown lands being prepared for selection (including 11,392 acres under Land for Settlements Act)18,217
22. Land open for application under pastoral licenses15123,788
23. Lands held by aboriginal natives16,140
24. Balance of Crown lands, including mining reserves, public reserves not vested, bush-lands, roads, barren country, &c.986,447
25. Lakes, and Clutha and Taieri Rivers176,000
Total area of district (14,345 square miles), 9,180,800

Tenants of lands included in 2 and 4 have the right of acquiring the freehold, as have tenants of 3 up to twelve years from the date of issue of the lease, and of 6 in the case of leases issued prior to the Act of 1891. There is no right of acquiring the freehold for tenants of lands included in 5, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, and in the case of No. 13 the right of acquiring freehold applies to portions only.

Local Industries

There is not space to give in detail particulars of the various local industries throughout Otago and Southland, but amongst others may be noticed the following: There are four bone-mills and artificial-manure factories, where substances that might otherwise go to waste, or pollute the air and water, are turned to profitable account, and made to increase the fertility of the soil. The lime- and cement-works at Dunedin have already been mentioned. There are thirty brick-, tile-, and pottery-manufactories, the largest pottery-works being at Milton, where all kinds of useful household crockery-ware are made. Twelve agricultural implement factories are in operation, and turn out annually a large supply. There are fourteen boot- and shoe-factories; six boat-building, eighteen coach-building, twenty-eight fell-mongering, tanning, and wool-scouring establishments; twenty-two aërated-water and cordial manufactories, seventeen breweries, five coffee and spice works, three fruit- and jam-factories, one ink-making establishment, three paper-mills, six rope- and twine works, one soap- and candle-making establishment, six gasworks, and fifty-one sawmills and door- and sash-making factories. There are also twenty-four foundries, including brass-founders and coppersmiths, beside stove and range manufactories, iron-rolling works, and works for making every description of engineering and mining machinery and appliances; and there is a piano manufactory in Dunedin, which has been open for the last twelve years. The types manufactured are cottage pianos and upright grands, at prices ranging from thirty to sixty guineas. The present output is from twenty-five to thirty per annum.

Besides the above there are eighteen bacon-curing establishments, eight fish-curing and preserving works, two rabbit-preserving works, twenty-three grain mills, six sugar-boiling and confectionery works, six malt-houses, two colonial wine-making establishments, three sauce and pickle factories, one vinegar works, one glue factory, two boiling-down works, three cooperages, four woodenware factories, six chaff-cutting establishments, one paper-bag and -box factory, one tobacco-pipe factory, six tinware factories, twenty-nine printing offices, four basket and perambulator factories, two brush and broom factories, one cutlery factory, four cycle factories, two saddlery and harness factories, one portmanteau factory, eight sail and oilskin factories, thirteen furniture factories, four Venetian-blind works, two starch manufactories, four chemical works, one hæmatite paint factory, one sheep-dip factory, one match factory, two flock-mills, three cleaning- and dyeing-works, two waterproof factories, three hat- and cap- factories, three stocking-weaving factories, one bag- and sack- factory, seven flax-mills. Also the following, which have been more fully described in preceding paragraphs—namely, nine meat-freezing and -preserving works, four woollen-mills, nine clothing factories, forty-four butter- and cheese-factories: making a total of 516 industrial establishments, employing 7,055 persons. Approximate value of manufactures yearly, £2,153,473.

Chapter 80. THE SOUTHLAND LAND DISTRICT

D. Barron, Chief Surveyor

Physical Features

The Southland District, comprising the Counties of Southland, Wallace, Fiord, and Stewart Island, bounded on the north and east by the Otago District, and on the south and west by the Tasman Sea, may be roughly said to lie between south latitudes 45° and 47° and east longitudes 166° 15' and 169° 15'. For administrative purposes, however, the Snares, Auckland, Enderby, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty, and all other islands within the limits of the colony south of the 47° parallel of south latitude are included in it.

Area, Nature, and Disposition of Lands

The total area of the district, including Stewart Island, but exclusive of Solander, Ruapuke, and the other small islands enumerated above, is 6,966,592 acres, of which 500,000 are covered with bush. The bulk of the bush-land lies between the lakes and the south and west coasts, in the neighbourhood of Forest Hill, Hokonui, Waikawa, &c. The timbers of commercial value are totara, rimu, miro, matai, rata, and kamahi, in mixed bushes; but Fagus fusca and other beeches predominate on the high lands between the lakes and the fiords on the west coast.

The open land in its natural state carries tussock and snow-grass, fern, flax, and manuka, &c., and there is a very considerable area of marsh-land, interspersed here and there with peat bogs.

The disposition of the land is as follows:—

 Acres.
Crown lands alienated to date1,561,619
Lands held on deferred payment24,285
Lands held on perpetual lease27,032
Lands held on lease in perpetuity66,710
Lands held in occupation with right of purchase22,288
Land held under “The Mining Districts Land Occupation Act, 1894”1,336
Village-homestead special settlements604
Improved-farm special settlements4,978
Small grazing-runs61,906
Pastoral runs1,250,795
Endowments and miscellaneous purposes622,527
Open for selection167,692
Under preparation for settlement23,600
Pastoral runs open for lease1,337,169
Held by aboriginal natives11,890
Lands of small value not open for sale428,951
Barren mountain-tops, &c.1,353,210
                Total area6,966,592

The most striking feature of this district is the number of well-defined rivers and valleys, the latter often widening out to such an extent as to form very extensive plains. Commencing with the eastern side, the Mataura, Oreti (or New River), Aparima (or Jacob's River), and Waiau are the most prominent illustrations of this; but these rivers by no means exhaust the list, as they all have numerous tributaries, which exhibit the same features on a smaller scale.

Speaking generally, the watersheds of these rivers do not attain any great height until followed far inland, and near the great lakes to be presently noticed. From what has been said above it follows that the extensive plains and valleys referred to are of alluvial formation, in many places of very rich and fertile quality, and capable of raising crops of every known product, subject, of course, to climatic limitations. Generally these plains and valleys rise from the river-levels in a very gradual slope, sometimes into a series of terraces from 10ft. to 50ft. in height, and sometimes into undulating hills, intersected at frequent intervals by lateral gullies, affording natural drainage and an abundant supply of water.

These hills are covered with an indigenous growth, consisting of tussock and other grasses, fern, flax, &c., and even in their native state afford excellent grazing for sheep.

Near the large lakes, such as Wakatipu, Te Anau, Manapouri, Hauroto, and others, and between these and the West Coast, the country becomes very high, often reaching 5,000ft. and 6,000ft. above sea-level, with very steep and rugged spurs and ravines, these in most cases being covered with a dense growth of timber, principally of the birch or beech tribe, for two-thirds of their height: the tops, however, often carry tussock and other herbage, affording admirable pasture for sheep in summer; but stock have to be removed from April to October, during which period this country is generally covered with snow.

Southland does not contain so much forest as most of the North Island districts, nevertheless there is a very considerable quantity in the eastern, southern, and western parts, and a large export trade is done in the different kinds of pine and other timbers used for building, engineering, furniture-making, &c.

From what has been said of the river systems it will be evident that the country is well supplied with water, although none of the rivers can be used for purposes of internal communication; but the plains are traversed by railways for considerable distances from the principal towns, and where the railways end communication is continued by good roads, so that there is probably no part of the colony so well off for means of transit.

Agriculture

Having already touched on the character of the soil, it only remains to say that the plains, terraces, and lower hills are well adapted for raising wheat, oats, and other cereals, turnips, mangolds, beets, and the various other crops common to temperate climates. Wheat is not so widely grown as it might be, for the reason, probably, that the pastoral branches of farming receive more attention than the agricultural, and wheat is not required for these; whereas oats are largely grown to feed sheep in the form of chaff; turnips also are much cultivated for winter food. Where wheat is grown the yields are very satisfactory, ranging from 40 to 60 bushels per acre, while oats frequently give 80 to 100 bushels.

Linseed is now receiving some attention from farmers, as they find ready sale for it to the manufacturing chemists at remunerative prices, a fair crop yielding over £5 per acre.

Dairy-farming, &c

Dairy-farming is becoming a very important industry, and is rapidly expanding under the impetus it has received through improved appliances and the favourable state of the Home markets. There are a number of cheese- and butter-factories, and one for preserving milk on the Swiss system. One firm makes Stilton cheese, which is considered to be equal to cheese of the same kind made in England.

Sheep-farming

By far the most important industries are those connected with the raising and export of mutton and wool. Some years ago sheep-farming was much hindered by the inroads of rabbits; but owing to the repressive measures adopted there has been a marked abatement of the pest, even on high back-country, and thus it has come to pass that country which a few years ago was absolutely denuded of vegetation now shows unmistakable signs of recovery. The hill-country, although it does not carry a large proportion of stock to area, is eminently healthy. The average carrying-capacity over the whole district would probably be under one sheep to the acre. Until within the last few years most of the runs were stocked with merinos, but owing to the decline in price of merino wool, and to the carcase being unacceptable to the European market, these sheep have, generally speaking, been replaced by Leicesters, Lincolns, Romney Marsh, Cheviot, and crossbreds of various kinds, better suited to the existing demands. Large establishments for slaughtering and freezing sheep are at work. The latest of these, erected near the Bluff Harbour, is considered to be the most complete in the colony, being provided with all possible labour-saving machinery and appliances for working up the by-products into articles of commerce.

Coal and Gold

Extensive seams of coal and lignite are distributed over the district, and in many places the annual output is considerable. Peat is also found in some up-country neighbourhoods, and is used for fuel where wood and coal are scarce. Gold is found all over the district, and a large number of persons are engaged in obtaining it either by sluicing or dredging. A considerable amount of capital has been invested in beach-dredges worked by steam. Not long ago gold-bearing reefs, reported to be of great richness, were discovered at Wilson's River, near Preservation Inlet.

Fish

Salt-water fish abound in great quantities in the waters surrounding Stewart Island, and oysters are found on banks between that island and the Bluff. All the large rivers, and many of the tributaries, are well stocked with trout, and one river—the Aparima—had salmon-spawn put into it some years ago.

Fruit

The small English fruits, such as gooseberries, currants, raspberries, strawberries, etc., grow in great profusion, as do also apples. Stone-fruits are not so common, although peaches, nectarines, apricots, &c., do well when trained against nursery-walls in favourable aspects.

Climate

The climate is bracing in winter, and warm and genial in spring and summer. The old residents state that there has been a marked decrease in the rainfall within the last decade. No regular observations have been recorded for the last few years, but it is believed that the average is about 30 in. a year. It may, however, be observed that more rain falls near the coast than inland, and also that the rainfall is more evenly distributed throughout the year than is the case in the northern part of the colony. The temperature varies from 40° in winter to 70° in summer.

Towns

Invercargill, the chief town, was from the first well laid out with wide streets, and liberal reserves in the town belts for recreation purposes. The Corporation exercises a paternal care in providing water, gas, and in disposing of sewage, &c., for the citizens; and the streets are well lighted, paved, and maintained. Artesian water is pumped to the top of a handsome brick tower—which, by the way, is a very conspicuous landmark—and stored there in a tank, from which most of the houses within the town boundaries are supplied. The population, including suburbs, is nearly 10,000. All religious denominations are represented. There are rope-and-twine, carriage- and implement-factories, flour- and saw-mills, fellmongeries, brick- and pottery-works, iron-foundries, and various other industries. Exceptionally good beer is brewed here, and there are three first-class hotels. The Government Buildings, lately enlarged, are on a scale not often seen in a town of the same size. A clock and chimes of New Zealand make have been placed in the central tower. Although the Bluff is the principal port, Invercargill is provided with a second harbour for smaller vessels, in the New River Estuary, where there is a jetty with appliances for handling and receiving goods within the town boundaries.

The Bluff Harbour, which is connected by rail with Invercargill, does a very large shipping business, and derives additional importance from being the first and last port of call for steamers trading with Victoria and Tasmania.

Next in size to Invercargill is the Town of Gore, situated on the Mataura River, and at the junction of the trunk railway with the Waimea Plains Branch. Owing to this fact, and to the fertility of the land in the neighbourhood, Gore is rapidly growing in size and importance.

Riverton is a pretty little town, about twenty-five miles from Invercargill, with which it is connected by rail, and is situated on the estuary of Aparima or Jacob's River. This is the oldest settlement in Southland, and was a great resort for whalers in former years. The harbour is available for coasting-vessels, but the principal carrying-trade is done by rail. There are several sawmills in the neighbourhood.

The Town of Winton is on the Invercargill-Kingston Railway, about twenty miles distant from the latter, and is the centre for a good farming, sawmilling, and coal-mining district.

Lumsden is the junction of the Kingston and Waimea Plains lines. Coaches starting from this place take passengers and mails to the Lake country.

East of Invercargill is Fortrose, on the estuary of Mataura River, which can be entered by coasting-steamers. This place is surrounded by an exceptionally fertile agricultural and pastoral country.

Eastward of Fortrose and about midway between that place and Catlin's River is Waikawa, a newly-settled township with a first-class harbour for coasters, and a very large area of Crown land around it available for settlement. Steamers trading with Dunedin and Invercargill call here and at Fortrose at regular intervals.

Crown Lands for Disposal

There remains for disposal a very large area of Crown land, probably more than 500,000 acres, but this can be estimated only roughly, because much of the district west of Waiau River is practically unexplored. It is true that this is chiefly forest-land, but it is beginning to be recognised here, as in the North Island, that when such land is once cleared and laid down with grass it is distinctly superior to most open country for grazing purposes; and grazing is and will long remain the principal industry of the colony. The land referred to lies around Waikawa Harbour, along the Waikawa–Catlin's Road, between the Jacob's and Waiau Rivers, and to the west of the Waiau. Stewart Island also contains a wide extent of Crown lands, mostly forest-clad. There are also considerable areas of open hilly country, carrying natural grasses, still in the hands of Government. These are to be found in various parts of the district, but are being rapidly taken up.

Appendix A. PRINCIPAL EVENTS

DATES OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

Dec. 13, 1642.—Discovery of New Zealand by Abel Jansen Tasman.

Oct. 8, 1769.—Captain Cook landed at Poverty Bay on his first visit.

June 30, 1788.—Macauly and Curtis Islands, of the Kermadec Group, discovered by Captain Sever, of H.M. transport “Lady Penrhyn.”

Nov. 29, 1790.—Chatham Islands discovered by Lieutenant Broughton, in H.M.S. “Chatham.”

Nov. 17, 1793.—Captain d'Entrecasteaux, with the “La Recherche” and “L'Espérance,” discovered Raoul or Sunday Island. (The latter name was given by Captain Raven, of the transport “Britannia,” who visited the island 6th Nov., 1796.)

Nov., 1793.—Lieutenant-Governor King's (Norfolk Island) visit to Doubtless Bay.

1795.—The ship “Endeavour,” Captain Bampton, sunk at Facile Harbour, Dusky Sound.

1800.—Antipodes Island discovered by Captain Pendleton.

1807.—Defeat of Hongi and Nga-Puhi tribe at Moremonui, 10 miles south of Maunganui Bluff, Kaipara.

1806.—Auckland Isles discovered by Captain Briscow, ship “Ocean,” one of Enderby's whalers.

1806.—Ship “Venus” visited East Coast of New Zealand. She was taken by convicts at Port Dalrymple, Tasmania. Their visits gave rise to the Nga-Puhi southern expedition.

1809.—The taking and burning of the transport “Boyd” at Whangaroa.

1810.—Campbell Island discovered by Captain F. Haselburg, of brig “Perseverance.”

1814.—First arrival of the Rev. Mr. Marsden at Bay of Islands, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, oxen, sheep, and poultry first brought to the colony.

Aug., 1815.—Attempted capture of the “Trial” and “Brothers” at Kennedy Bay.

1818.—Hongi's and Te Morenga's great expedition to East Cape.

1819–20.—Patuone, Nene, and Te Rauparaha's raid on Taranaki and Port Nicholson.

1820.—Hongi visited England; returned to New Zealand July, 1821.

1820.—H.M. store ship “Coromandel” visited Coromandel.

1820.—Rev. S. Marsden travelled from Wai-te-mata viâ Kaipara to the Bay of Islands—the first white man to do so.

Aug., 1820.—The “Prince Regent” entered Auckland Harbour—the first vessel to do so.

Nov., 1821.—Fall of Mauinaina Pa, Auckland Isthmus, to Hongi.

Nov., 1821.—Ngati-Toa migration from Kawhia to Otaki under Te Rauparaha.

Dec., 1821.—Fall of Te Totara Pa, Thames, to Hongi.

May, 1822.—Fall of Matakitaki Pa, Waikato, to Hongi.

May, 1823.—Fall of Mokoia Pa, Rotorua, Lake, to Hongi.

1823, 1828.—Acts passed by the Imperial Parliament extending the jurisdiction of the Courts of justice in New South Wales to all the British subjects in New Zealand.

1824.—Fall of Te Whetumatarau Pa, near East Cape, to Pomare.

1825.—First attempt at colonisation by an expedition under the command of Captain Herd, who bought two islands in the Hauraki Gulf.

Feb., 1825.—Great defeat of Ngati-Whatua at Te Ikaaranganui, Kaipara, by Hongi.

1827.—Destruction of mission-station at Whangaroa by Hongi's forces.

Feb., 1827.—Admiral (then Captain) Dumont D'Urville anchored in Auckland Harbour.

1828.—Hongi died at Whangaroa, from wounds received at Hokianga.

1828.—The “Maquarie,” Captain Kent, the first vessel to enter Kawhia.

March, 1829.—Brig “Hawes” captured at Whakatane by Maoris.

1830.—Battle of Taumata-wiwi, near Cambridge.

1830.—Fall of Kaiapohia Pa, Canterbury.

March 6, 1830.—Battle of Kororareka, between two Nga-Puhi tribes.

Dec., 1830.—Death of Tama-i-hara-nui at the hands of Te Rauparaha's people. He was brought from Port Cooper by Captain Steward, brig “Elizabeth.”

1831.—Tory Channel whaling-station established.

1831.—Application of thirteen chiefs for the protection of King William the Fourth.

Dec., 1831.—Pukerangiora Pa, Waitara, fell to Waikato.

Feb., 1832.—Repulse of Waikato at Nga-motu Pa, under Dicky Barrett.

1833.—Mr. Busby appointed British Resident, to live at the Bay of Islands.

1834.—Battle of Haowhenua and Pakakutu, near Otaki.

1834.—Bishop Williams's first visit to East Cape.

April 29, 1834.—“Harriet” wrecked at Cape Egmont.

Oct. 1, 1834.—H.M.S. “Alligator” shelled and took Waimate Pa, near Opunake. First occasion of H.M. troops being employed in New Zealand.

1835.—Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with the title of “The United Tribes of New Zealand.”

Nov. and Dec., 1835.—Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered the Chatham Islands.

March 28, 1836.—Maketu Pa, Bay of Plenty, fell to Waikato.

May 9, 1836.—Te Tumu Pa, Bay of Plenty, fell to Te Arawa.

Aug. 5, 1836.—Battle at Matai-puku, Rotorua—Waikato beat Te Arawa.

Oct.. 1836.—Siege of Toka-a-kuku, Te Kaha, Bay of Plenty.

1838.—The Roman Catholic Bishop Pompallier, with several prieats, arrived at Hokianga.

Sept. 1, 1838.—H.M.S. “Pelorus” discovers Pelorus Sound.

April, 1839.—Taking of the French whaler “Jean Bart” at Chatham Islands by Maoris.

May 12, 1839.—Departure of the preliminary expedition of the New Zealand Company from England.

June, 1839.—Issue of Letters Patent authorising the Governor of New South Wales to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand.

Sept. 16, 1839.—First body of New Zealand Company's emigrants sailed from Gravesend.

Sept. 20, 1839.—Arrival in Port Nicholson of the preliminary expedition of the New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield.

Oct. 16, 1839.—Battle of Te Kuititanga, Otaki.

Jan. 20, 1840.—First steamer arrived in New Zealand.

Jan. 22, 1840.—Arrival of first body of immigrants at Port Nicholson.

Jan. 29, 1840.—Captain Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands. On the following day (Jan. 30) he hoisted the Union flag, and read the commission, under the Great Seal of the United Kingdom, which extended the boundaries of the Colony of New South Wales so as to embrace and comprehend the Islands of New Zealand; also his own commission as Lieutenant-Governor over territory that might be acquired in sovereignty.

Feb. 5, 1840.—Treaty of Waitangi signed.

May 21, 1840.—Date of Proclamations of sovereignty over the Islands of New Zealand.

June 17, 1840.—The Queen's sovereignty over the Middle Island formally proclaimed at Cloudy Bay, by Major Bunbury, H.M. 80th Regiment, and Captain Nias, R.N.

Aug. 11, 1840.—The British flag hoisted at Akaroa by Captain Stanley, R.N., and British authority established. The French frigate “L'Aube” arrived there on the 13th August, and the vessel “Comte de Paris,” with fifty-seven immigrants, on the 16th August, in order to establish a French colony.

Sept. 18, 1840.—The British flag hoisted at Auckland. The Lieutenant-Governor's residence established there.

1840.—Formation of Wanganui settlement under the name of “Petre.”

Feb. 12, 1841.—Issue of charter of incorporation to the New Zealand Company.

Mar. 31, 1841.—Arrival of first New Plymouth settlers.

May 3, 1841.—New Zealand proclaimed to be independent of New South Wales.

Oct., 1841.—Selection of site for settlement at Nelson.

Feb. 1, 1842.—Settlement founded at Nelson.

May 29, 1842.—Arrival of Bishop Selwyn in the colony.

Sept. 10, 1842.—Death of Governor Hobson. Lieutenant Shortland, R.N., Colonial Secretary, became Acting-Governor until the arrival of Captain Fitzroy.

June, 1843.—Affray with Natives at the Wairau, and massacre by Rangihaeata of Captain Wakefield, R.N., agent at Nelson of the New Zealand Company, and others, who had surrendered.

Dec. 1, 1843.—Arrival of Captain Fitzroy, R.N., as Governor.

July 8, 1844.—The Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

March 10, 1845.—Attack on and destruction of Town of Kororareka by Heke.

Oct. 1, 1845.—Receipt of despatch notifying recall of Governor Fitzroy.

Nov. 14, 1845.—Arrival of Captain Grey, as Lieutenant-Governor of the colony, from South Australia.

Jan. 11, 1846.—Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka, Bay of Islands, and termination of Heke's war.

Mar. 3, 1846.—Commencement of Native hostilities in the Hutt Valley, near Wellington.

May 16, 1846.—Attack by Natives on a military outpost in the Hutt Valley.

July 23, 1846.—Capture of Te Rauparaha at Porirua, near Wellington. He was detained for a year as a prisoner on board a ship of war.

Aug. 28, 1846.—The New Zealand Government Act passed by the Imperial Parliament, under which a charter was issued dividing the colony into two provinces, and granting representative institutions.

May 19, 1847.—Attack by Natives on settlement of Wanganui.

Jan. 1, 1848.—Captain Grey sworn in as Governor-in-Chief over the Islands of New Zealand, also as Governor of the Province of New Ulster and Governor of the Province of New Munster.

Jan. 3, 1848.—Major-General Pitt appointed by Governor Grey to be Lieutenant-Governor of the Province of New Ulster.

Jan. 28, 1848.—Assumption by Lieutenant-Governor E. J. Eyre, at Wellington, of the administration of the Government of the Province of New Munster.

Feb. 21, 1848.—Peace ratified at Wanganui.

Mar. 7, 1848.—Suspension by Imperial statute of that part of the New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions.

Mar., 1848.—Otago founded by a Scotch company under the auspices of the Free Church of Scotland.

Oct., 1848.—Severe earthquake at Wellington.

July, 1850.—Surrender of the New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests in the colony reverting to the Imperial Government.

Dec., 1850.—Canterbury founded by the Canterbury Association in connection with the Church of England.

Jan. 8, 1851.—Death of Major-General Pitt, Lieutenant-Governor of the Province of New Ulster.

April 14, 1851.—Lieutenant-Colonel Wynyard appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Province of New Ulster.

1852.—Discovery of gold at Coromandel by Mr. Charles Ring.

June 30, 1852.—The Constitution Act passed by the Imperial Parliament, granting representative institutions to the colony, and subdividing it into six provinces.

Jan., 1853.—Promulgation of the Constitution Act.

Mar. 7, 1853.—Assumption by Sir George Grey, K.C.B., of the duties of Governor of the colony, in terms of the appointment after the passing of the New Zealand Constitution Act, and cessation of the duties of the Lieutenant-Governors of New Ulster and New Munster.

Dec. 31, 1853.—Departure of Governor Sir George Grey.

Jan. 3, 1854.—Lieutenant-Colonel Wynyard assumed the administration of the Government.

May 27, 1854.—Opening at Auckland of the first session of the General Assembly by Lieutenant-Colonel Wynyard, Administrator of the Government.

Jan., 1855.—Very severe earthquake on each side of Cook Strait.

Sept. 6, 1855.—Arrival of Governor Colonel T. Gore Browne, C.B.

Nov. 12, 1855.—First members elected to House of Representatives under system of Responsible Government.

Aug. 8, 1835.—General Assembly opened.

Sept. 15, 1855.—General Assembly prorogued.

May 7, 1856.—Appointment of the first Ministry under the system of Responsible Government, under Mr. Sewell, Colonial Secretary.

May 14, 1856.—Defeat of Mr. Sewell's Ministry.

May 20, 1856.—Appointment of a Ministry under presidency of Mr. W. Fox, as Attorney-General.

May 28, 1856.—Defeat of Mr. Fox's Ministry, by a majority of one, on a direct vote of want of confidence.

June 2, 1856.—Appointment of a Ministry under the presidency of Mr. E. W. Stafford.

1857.—First payable goldfield in the colony opened at Collingwood, in the Nelson Province.

Nov. 1, 1858.—Establishment of the Province of Hawke's Bay.

March, 1859.—Te Teira offered land at Waitara for sale to the Government.

Nov. 1, 1859.—Establishment of the Province of Marlborough.

Mar., 1860.—Commencement of hostilities against Wiremu Kingi te Rangitake at Waitara.

Mar. 18, 1860.—Capture of Maori pa at Waitara.

Mar. 28, 1860.—Engagement at Waireka.

June 27, 1860.—Engagement of Puketakauere at Waitara.

Nov. 6, 1860.—Defeat at Mahoetahi, with heavy loss, of a force of Waikato Natives, who had crossed the Waitara River to join Wiremu Kingi.

Dec. 31, 1860.—Capture of the Matarikoriko Pa, and defeat of a large body of Waikato Natives.

Jan. 23, 1861.—The Natives made a determined attack on the redoubt at Huirangi occupied by Imperial troops, and were repulsed with heavy loss.

April 1, 1861.—Establishment of Province of Southland.

May 21, 1861.—A truce agreed to.

May, 1861.—Discovery of gold at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

July 5, 1861.—Defeat of Mr. Stafford's Ministry, by a majority of one, on a vote of want of confidence.

July 12, 1861.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. Fox.

July 29, 1861.—Incorporation of the Bank of New Zealand.

Sept. 26, 1861.—Arrival of Sir George Grey, K.C.B., at Auckland, from the Cape Colony, to succeed Governor Gore Browne. Sir George Grey was sworn in as Governor on the 3rd October.

Oct. 2, 1861.—Departure of Governor Gore Browne.

June 28, 1862.—Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield.

July 28, 1862.—Defeat of Mr. Fox's Ministry by the casting-vote of the Speaker, on a proposed resolution in favour of placing the ordinary conduct of Native affairs under the administration of the Responsible Ministers.

Aug. 6, 1862.—Appointment of a Ministry under the leadership of Mr. Alfred Domett.

Feb. 7, 1863.—Wreck of H.M.S. “Orpheus” on Manukau Bar; 181 lives lost.

Feb. 26, 1863.—Definite relinquishment by the Imperial Government of control over administration of Native affairs.

May 4, 1863.—Treacherous assault near Tataraimaka by Natives on a military escort. Murder of Lieutenant Tragett, Dr. Hope, and five soldiers of the 57th Regiment.

June 4, 1863.—Defeat of Natives at Katikara, by a force under Lieut.-General Cameron.

July 17, 1863.—Action at Koheroa, in the Auckland Province. Commencement of the Waikato War.

Oct. 27, 1863.—Resignation of the Domett Ministry, in consequence of difficulties experienced in connection with arrangements for finding a fitting representative of the Government in the Legislative Council.

Oct. 30, 1863.—Appointment of the Ministry formed by Mr. Fox, under the premiership of Mr. F. Whitaker.

Nov., 1863.—Acceptance by the General Assembly of colonial responsibility in Native affairs.

Nov. 20, 1863.—Battle of Rangiriri. Defeat of Natives and unconditional surrender of 183.

Dec. 1, 1863.—The first railway in New Zealand opened for traffic by W. S. Moorhouse, Superintendent of Canterbury. The line was from Christchurch to Ferrymead Junction.

Dec. 3, 1863.—The New Zealand Settlements Act passed, giving the Governor power to confiscate the lands of insurgent Natives.

Dec. 8, 1863.—Occupation of Ngaruawahia. The British flag hoisted on the Maori king's flagstaff.

Feb. 11, 1864.—Engagement with Natives on Mangapiko River. Major (then Captain) Heaphy, of the New Zealand Forces, won the Victoria Cross for distinguished bravery on this occasion.

Feb. 22, 1864.—Defeat of Natives at Rangiaohia.

April 2, 1864.—Attack on and capture of pa at Orakau, Waikato.

April 21, 1864.—Engagement near Maketu, Bay of Plenty. Tribes of the Rawhiti defeated by Arawa Natives, under Captain McDonnell.

April 29, 1864.—Assault on Gate Pa, Tauranga, Bay of Plenty, and repulse of large British force by the Maoris. The pa was abandoned by the Natives during the following night.

April 30, 1864.—Repulse of attack by rebel Hauhau Natives on redoubt at Sentry Hill, Taranaki.

May 14, 1864.—Battle of Moutoa, an island in the Wanganui River, between friendly and rebel Hauhau Natives. Complete defeat of rebels.

June 21, 1864.—Engagement at Te Ranga, near Tauranga, by Lieut. Colonel Greer, 68th Regiment. Severe defeat of the Natives.

1864.—Discovery of gold on the west coast of the Middle Island.

Sept. 10, 1864.—Escape of Maori prisoners from Kawau.

Oct. 3, 1864.—Wellington chosen as the seat of Government.

Nov. 24, 1864.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. F. A. Weld, the Whitaker-Fox Ministry having resigned during the recess.

Dec. 17, 1864.—Confiscation of Native lands in Waikato by Sir George Grey.

Feb., 1865.—Removal of the seat of Government to Wellington.

March 2, 1865.—Barbarous murder of the Rev. Mr. Volkner, a Church of England missionary, at Opotiki, by Hauhau fanatics, under Kereopa.

June 8, 1865.—Submission of the Maori Chief Wiremu Tamihana te Waharoa (William Thompson).

June 17, 1865.—Murder of Mr. Fulloon, a Government officer, and his companions, at Whakatane, by Hauhau fanatics.

July 22, 1865.—Capture of the Wereroa Pa, near Wanganui.

Aug. 2, 1865.—Assault and capture of the Pa Kairomiromi, at Waiapu, by Colonial Forces under Captain Fraser, and Native Contingent under the chief Te Mokena. Eighty-seven rebels killed.

Sept. 2, 1865.—Proclamation of peace issued by Governor Sir George Grey, announcing that the war, which commenced at Oakura, was at an end.

Sept. 30, 1865.—Murder by Hauhaus, at Kakaramea, of Mr. Broughton, when sent as friendly messenger to them by Brigadier-General Waddy.

Oct. 12, 1865.—Resignation of Mr. Weld's Ministry, on account of a resolution adverse to the Government policy, having been defeated only by the casting-vote of the Speaker.

Oct. 16, 1865.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. E. W. Stafford.

Dec. 25, 1865.—Defeat of rebel Natives at Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, by Colonial Forces and Native Contingent.

Jan. 4, 1866.—Defeat of Natives at Okotuku Pa, on the west coast of the North Island, by force under Major-General Chute.

Jan. 7, 1866.—Assault on and capture of Putahi Pa, by force under Major-General Chute.

Jan. 13, 1866.—Assault on and capture of Otapawa Pa, by force under Major-General Chute.

Jan. 17, 1866, to Jan. 25, 1866.—Period of Major-General Chute's march through the bush to New Plymouth.

Jan., 1866.—Escape of a large number of Native prisoners from the hulk at Wellington; many were drowned in trying to swim ashore.

March 29, 1866.—Submission of the rebel chiefs Te Heuheu and Herekiekie, of Taupo district.

Mar., 1866.—A detachment of Maori prisoners sent to the Chatham Islands.

June 15, 1866.—Commencement of Panama steam mail-service.

Aug. 26, 1866.—The Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

Oct. 2, 1866.—Engagement with rebel Natives at Pungarehu, West Coast, by Colonial Forces, under Major McDonnell.

Oct. 8, 1866.—First Act passed to impose stamp duties.

Oct. 12, 1866.—Defeats of rebel Natives at Omaranui and at Petane, Hawke's Bay, by Colonial Forces.

Oct. 10, 1867.—An Act passed to establish an institute for the promotion of science and art in the colony.

Oct. 10, 1867.—An Act passed for the division of the colony into four Maori electorates, and the admission of four Maori members to the House of Representatives.

Jan., 1868.—Establishment of the County of Westland.

Feb. 5, 1868.—Arrival of Governor Sir George F. Bowen, G.C.M.G.

July 4, 1868.—Seizure by Maori prisoners, under the leadership of Te Kooti, of the schooner “Rifleman,” and their escape from the Chatham Islands.

July 12, 1868.—Night attack by Natives on redoubt at Turuturu Mokai. Sub-Inspector Ross and seven Europeans killed. Natives driven off by the arrival of a force under Major Von Tempsky.

Aug. 8, 1868.—Pursuit by Lieut.-Colonel Whitmore of escaped Chatham Island prisoners, and indecisive engagement in the gorge of the Ruake Ture.

Aug. 21, 1868.—Attack on Ngutu-o-te-Manu by force under Lieut.-Colonel McDonnell. Defeat of Natives; four Europeans killed and eight wounded.

Sept. 7, 1868.—Engagement in bush at Ngutu-o-te-Manu. Major Von Tempsky, Captains Buck and Palmer, Lieutenants Hunter and Hastings, and fourteen men killed.

Oct. 19, 1868.—Bishop Selwyn left New Zealand.

Nov. 7, 1868.—Attack on Moturoa. Repulse of Colonial Forces, with severe loss.

Nov. 10, 1868.—Massacre of thirty-two Europeans at Poverty Bay by Te Kooti's band of Natives, who had escaped from the Chatham Islands.

Nov. 24, 1868, Dec. 3, 1868, Dec. 5, 1868.—Engagements between friendly Natives and rebels under Te Kooti, at Patutahi, Poverty Bay district.

Jan. 5, 1869.—Assault on and capture of Ngatapa Pa, Poverty Bay district, after a siege of six days, by the Colonial Forces of Europeans and friendly Natives. Dispersion and pursuit of Te Kooti's band. More than 136 rebel Natives were killed.

Feb. 13, 1869.—Treacherous murder of the Rev. John Whitely and seven other Europeans at the White Cliffs, Taranaki.

Feb. 18, 1869.—Attack by rebel Natives on a foraging-party at Karaka Flat; one sergeant and six men killed.

Mar. 3, 1869.—Termination of Panama mail-service.

Mar. 13, 1869.—Attack on and defeat of Titokowaru's force at Otauto.

April 10, 1869.—Native pa at Mohaka taken by Te Kooti, who killed forty friendly Natives and several Europeans in the neighbourhood.

April 12, 1869.—First arrival of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh in Welling ton, in H.M.S. “Galatea.”

May 6, 1869.—Surprise and capture of Ahikereru and Oamaru Teangi Pas, Waiwera country. Defeat of Te Kooti.

June 13, 1869.—Surrender to Major Noake and Mr. Booth, R.M., of the chief Tairua, with 122 men, women, and children of the Pakakohe Tribe, near Wanganui.

June 24, 1869.—Defeat of Mr. Stafford's Ministry on a want-of-confidence motion.

June 28, 1869.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. W. Fox.

Sept. 3, 1869.—An Act passed providing Government life insurance and annuities.

Oct., 1869.—Seventy-four prisoners from the bands of Te Kooti and Titokowaru sentenced to death, after trial, for treason. The sentences of seventy-three were commuted to penal servitude for various terms.

Oct. 4, 1869.—Pourere Pa stormed and taken by Liaut.-Colonel McDonnell, with a mixed force of Europeans and Natives.

Jan., 1870.—Three hundred friendly Natives under Topia, and three hundred under Major Kepa (known as Kemp), started up the Wanganui River in pursuit of Te Kooti, who retreated into the Urewera country.

Jan. 25, 1870.—Capture of Tapapa Pa, occupied by Te Kooti.

Feb. 24, 1870.—The last detachment of the Imperial troops left the colony.

Mar. 25, 1870.—Major Kepa, with Native force, captured the position held by Te Kooti at Maraetahi, in Urewera country; nineteen rebels killed and seventy-three of Te Kooti's men taken prisoners. Te Kooti escaped with twenty followers.

Mar. 26, 1870.—Commencement of San Francisco mail-service.

June 28, 1870.—Enunciation in the House of Representatives of the publicworks policy by the Colonial Treasurer; Mr. Vogel.

July, 1870.—Thirty prisoners of Te Kooti's band sentenced to death. The sentences were commuted to penal servitude.

Aug. 27, 1870.—Arrival in Wellington of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh in H.M.S. “Galatea.” Second visit.

Sept. 12, 1870.—An Act passed to establish the New Zealand University.

Sep. 12, 1870.—The Land Transfer Act passed, to simplify the title to land and dealings with real estates.

Oct. 6, 1870.—Southland Province reunited with Otago.

Dec. 5, 1870.—Honiani te Puni, the chief of the Ngatiawas, a staunch friend of the Europeans, died at Pitone, near Wellington, aged ninety years.

Mar., 1871.—Commencement of railway-construction under the publicworks policy.

Aug. 4, 1871.—Death of Tamati Waka Nene, the great Ngapuhi chief and friend of the Europeans.

Nov., 1871.—Capture of the notorious rebel Kereopa, the murderer of the Rev. Mr. Volkner, by the Ngatiporous.

Jan. 5, 1872.—Execution of Kereopa at Napier.

Jan., 1872.—Remission of sentences on fifty-eight Native prisoners then undergoing imprisonment for rebellion.

Feb. 22, 1872.—Visit of William King, the Maori chief of Waitara, to New Plymouth, and resumption of amicable relations with the Europoans.

May 9, 1872.—A general thanksgiving-day for the recovery of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales.

Sept. 6, 1872.—Defeat and resignation of Mr. Fox's Ministry.

Sept. 10, 1872.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of the Hon. E. W. Stafford.

Oct. 4, 1872.—Defeat of the Stafford Ministry on a vote of want of confidence moved by Mr. Vogel.

Oct. 11, 1872.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of the Hon. G. M. Waterhouse, M.L.C.

Oct. 11, 1872.—First appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to be members of the Legislative Council.

Oct. 25, 1872.—The Public Trust Office Act passed.

Jan., 1873.—Establishment of the New Zealand Shipping Company.

Mar. 3, 1873.—The Hon. W. Fox appointed Premier on the resignation of that office by the Hon. G. M. Waterhouse, the other members of the Ministry being confirmed in their offices.

Mar. 19, 1873.—Departure of Governor Sir G. F. Bowen, G.C.M.G.

Mar. 21, 1873.—Assumption of the Government by Sir G. A. Arney, Chief Justice, as Administrator.

April 8, 1873.—Resignation of the premiership by the Hon. W. Fox, on the return of the Hon. J. Vogel, C.M.G., from Australia. Appointment of Mr. Vogel as Premier, the other Ministers being confirmed in their offices.

June 14, 1873.—Arrival of Governor Sir J. Fergusson, P.C.

Aug. 22, 1874.—The Imprisonment for Debt Abolition Act passed.

Nov. 27, 1874.—Sir James Fergusson left New Zealand.

Dec. 3, 1874.—Arrival of Governor the Marquis of Normanby, P.C.

1874.—31, 774 immigrants were introduced this year under the immigration and public-works policy.

Jan. 3, 1875.—Visit of Sir Donald McLean to the Maori king; resumption of amicable relations.

July 6, 1875.—Resignation of the Ministry, in consequence of the absence of Sir J. Vogel, K.C.M.G., in England, and his being unable to attend the session of Parliament. Reconstitution thereof, under the premiership of the Hon. Dr. Pollen, M.L.C.

July, 1875.—Establishment of the Union Steam Shipping Company of New Zealand.

1875.—18, 324 immigrants were introduced this year under the immigration and public-works policy.

Oct. 12, 1875.—The Abolition of Provinces Act passed.

Feb. 15, 1876.—Resignation of the Hon. Dr. Pollen's Ministry, and reconstitution under the premiership of Sir J. Vogel, K.C.M.G.

Feb. 18, 1876.—Completion of the work of laying the telegraph cable between New Zealand and New South Wales.

June, 1876.—Death of Dr. Isaac Earl Featherston, while acting as Agent-General for the colony in England. He was the first to hold that office, and had previously been Superintendent of the Province of Wellington from the time of the first establishment of provincial representative institutions.

Sept. 1, 1876.—Resignation of Sir J. Vogel's Ministry in view of the appointment of Sir J. Vogel as Agent-General. Formation of a Ministry under the premiership of Major Atkinson.

Sept. 13, 1876.—Resignation of Major Atkinson's Ministry in consequence of doubts being entertained as to the constitutional position thereof. Reconstruction of the Ministry under the premiership of Major Atkinson.

Nov. 1, 1876.—“The Abolition of Provinces Act, 1875,” came into full operation. Complete abolition of provincial institutions. The colony subdivided into counties and municipal boroughs.

Oct. 8, 1877.—Defeat of the Atkinson Ministry on a vote of want of confidence moved by Mr. Larnach.

Oct. 15, 1877.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Sir George Grey, K.C.B.

Nov. 29, 1877.—The Education Act, providing for the free and compulsory education of children, passed.

April 11, 1878.—Bishop Selwyn died, in England.

Feb. 29, 1879.—Departure of Governor the Marquis of Normanby, P.C.

Mar., 1879.—Removal of surveyors from the Waimate Plains by Natives acting under Te Whiti's orders.

Mar. 27, 1879.—Arrival of Governor Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, G.C.M.G.

May 25, 1879.—The Natives from Parihaka, by order of Te Whiti, began ploughing up lands occupied by Europeans.

June, 1879.—Arrest of 180 of these Natives for causing disturbances.

July 29, 1879.—Defeat of the Grey Ministry on an amendment to the Address in Reply, moved by Sir William Fox, followed by a dissolution of Parliament.

Oct. 3, 1879.—Defeat and subsequent resignation of Sir George Grey's Ministry.

Oct. 8, 1879.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of the Hon. John Hall.

Dec. 19, 1879.—An Act passed to assess property for the purpose of taxation.

Dec. 19, 1879.—The Triennial Parliament Act passed.

Dec. 19, 1879.—An Act passed to qualify every resident male of twenty-one years of age and upwards to vote.

June, 1880.—First portion of the Maori prisoners released by the Government.

July 9, 1880.—Bounty Island taken possession of by Captain George Palmer, H.M.S. “Rosario.”

Sept. 8, 1880.—Departure of Governor Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, G.C.M.G.

Oct. 1880.—Release of the last portion of the Maori prisoners.

Oct. 26, 1880.—Sir Francis Dillon Bell appointed Agent-General.

Nov. 29, 1880.—Arrival of Governor Sir A. H. Gordon, G.C.M.G.

April 29, 1881.—“Tararua,” steamer, wrecked; 130 lives lost.

June 26,1881.—Severe earthquakes in Wellington.

Nov. 5, 1881.—March of force of Constabulary and Volunteers on Parihaka, and arrest of Te Whiti and Tohu, without bloodshed.

Feb. 15, 1882.—First shipment of frozen meat made from Port Chalmers. (See Year-book, 1893, p. 192.)

April 21, 1882.—Resignation (during the recess) of the Hon. J. Hall's Ministry, and its reconstruction under the premiership of the Hon. F. Whitaker, M.L.C.

June 23, 1882.—Departure of Governor Sir A. H. Gordon.

June 24, 1882.—Assumption of the Government by Sir J. Prendergast, Chief Justice.

Jan. 20, 1883.—Arrival of Governor Sir W. F. D. Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B.

Jan. 26, 1883.—Adirect line of steam-communication between England and New Zealand inaugurated by the New Zealand Shipping Company.

Feb. 13, 1883.—Proclamation of amnesty to Maori political offenders.

Feb. 19, 1883.—Liberation of Te Whiti and Tohu.

Sept. 25, 1883.—Resignation of the office of Premier and his seat in the Ministry by the Hon. F. Whitaker, and the appointment of the Hon. Major H. A. Atkinson to be Premier, the members of Mr. Whitaker's Ministry being confirmed in their offices.

June 11, 1884.—Defeat of Major Atkinson's Government.

June 27, 1884.—Dissolution of the General Assembly.

Aug. 16, 1884.—Resignation of Major Atkinson's Ministry in consequence of the result of the general election. Formation of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. Robert Stout.

Aug. 20, 1884.—Defeat of Mr. Stout's Ministry by an amendment, expressive of want of confidence, to the Address in Reply being carried.

Aug. 28, 1884.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Major Atkinson.

Aug. 29, 1884.—Defeat of Major Atkinson's Ministry on a vote of want of confidence.

Sept. 3, 1884.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Mr. Robert Stout.

Nov. 8, 1884.—An Act passed to enable certain loans of the New Zealand Government to be converted into inscribed stock and the accrued sinking funds released.

Aug. 1, 1885.—The New Zealand Industrial Exhibition opened at Wellington.

June 10, 1886.—Volcanic eruptions at Tarawera, and destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces; 101 lives lost.

May 28, 1887.—Defeat of Sir Robert Stout's Ministry.

July 15, 1887.—Dissolution of the General Assembly, after prorogation, on the 10th June.

July 21, 1887.—A Proclamation issued declaring the Kermadec Islands to be annexed to and form part of the Colony of New Zealand.

Aug. 17, 1887.—Kermadec Group annexed to New Zealand. Flag hoisted and proclamation read at Sunday Island.

Oct. 8, 1887.—Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of Major H. A. Atkinson, Sir Robert Stout's Ministry having resigned in consequence of the result of the election.

Dec. 19, 1887.—An Act passed to reduce the number of members of the House of Representatives, after the expiration of the General Assembly then sitting, to seventy-four, including four Maori representatives.

Dec. 23, 1887.—The Australian Naval Defence Act, being an Act to provide for the establishment of an additional naval force on the Australian station, at the joint charge of the Imperial and the several Colonial Governments, was passed by the New Zealand Legislature.

Oct. 27, 1888.—Formal Proclamation of British Protectorate of Cook group of islands, by Captain Bourke, R.N., of H.M.S. “Hyacinth.”

Mar. 22, 1889.—Departure of Governor Sir W. F. D. Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B.,. from the colony.

Mar. 23, 1889.—Assumption of the Government by Sir James Prendergast.

May 2, 1889.—Arrival of the Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G.

Sept. 2, 1889.—Electors prohibited by statute from voting in respect of more than one electorate at any election for the House of Representatives.

Nov. 26, 1889.—Opening of South Seas Exhibition, Dunedin.

Dec. 5, 1890.—First election of members of the House of Representatives under a practical manhood suffrage, and on the one-man-one-vote principle.

Jan. 24, 1891.—Notification by Governor of acceptation of resignation (during the recess) of the Hon. Sir H. A. Atkinson's Ministry. Appointment of a Ministry under the premiership of the Hon. John Ballance.

April 22, 1891.—Proclamation by Governor of New Zealand to inhabitants at Rarotonga of appointment of British Resident for the Protectorate of the Cook Islands.

May 25, 1891.—Adhesion of Australia to Postal Union.

Aug. 19, 1891.—Labour-laws: Passing of Employers' Liability Act 1882 Amendment Act.

Aug. 29, 1891.—Labour-laws: Passing of Truck Act, to prohibit payment of wages in goods or otherwise than in money.

Sept. 8, 1891.—Passing of Land and Income Assessment Act for purposes of taxation, and repeal of property-tax.

Sept. 21, 1891.—Labour laws: Passing of an Act for supervising and regulating of factories and workrooms. [Repealed by Act of 1894.]

Jan. 19, 1892.—Electoral districts of the colony based on population as ascertained by the results of the census of 1891 proclaimed.

Feb. 2, 1892.—Departure of Governor the Earl of Onslow.

Feb. 25, 1892.—Assumption of the Government by Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice.

June 7, 1892.—Arrival of Governor the Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.

June 28, 1892.—Death of Sir H. A. Atkinson, K.C.M.G., Speaker of the Legislative Council, and previously four times Premier.

Oct. 1, 1892.—Labour-laws: Passing of Contractors' and Workmen's Lien Act.

October 8, 1892.—Passing of Dairy Industry Act. [Repealed by Act of 1894.]

Oct. 11, 1892.—Passing of first Land-tax and Income-tax Act on the basis of the Assessment Act of previous year.

Oct. 11. 1892.—“Land Act, 1892”: Lease in Perpetuity without revaluation system introduced: occupation with right of purchase: optional method of selection: small farms associations.

Oct. 8, 1892.—“Land for Settlements Act, 1892,” authorising purchase of lands from individuals for purposes of subdivision. [Repealed by Act of 1894. See post.]

April 19, 1893.— Cheviot Estate taken over by Government under the Land and Income Assessment Act.

April 27, 1893.—Death of Hon. John Ballance, Premier of New Zealand.

May 1, 1893.—Resignation of the Ministry in consequence of the death of the Hon. John Ballance, and appointment of a new Ministry under the premiership of the Hon. R. J. Seddon.

June 23, 1893.—Death of Sir William Fox, K.C.M.G.; four times Premier of New Zealand.

Sept. 2, 1893.—Passing of Bank-note Issue Act, to make bank-notes a first charge on assets and to enable the Government to declare them to be a legal tender, &c.

Sept. 8, 1893.—The Legislative Council of New Zealand passed, by a majority of two, the Bill conferring the franchise on women.

Sept. 14, 1893.—Banks and Bankers Act Amendment Act passed, to permit of increase of capital by issue of new shares.

Sept. 19, 1893.—“The Electoral Act, 1893,” extending franchise to women.

Oct. 2, 1893.—Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act passed: New licenses to be granted subject to the votes of the electors: reduction or abolition of licenses if desired.

Oct. 6, 1893.—Passing of “Criminal Code Act, 1893.”

Oct. 6, 1893.—Labour-laws: Passing of “Workmen's Wages Act, 1893.”

Oct. 6, 1893.—Native Land Purchase and Acquisition Act.

Oct. 20, 1893.—Sir James Prendergast appointed temporarily Deputy of the Governor.

Nov. 28, 1893.—A general election took place, being the first occasion on which women exercised the franchise.

Dec. 28, 1893.—Death of Right Rev. Dr. Henry John Chitty Harper, formerly Bishop of Christchurch and Primate of New Zealand.

Mar. 19, 1894.—Sir James Prendergast appointed temporarily Deputy of the Governor.

June 30, 1894.—Passing of Act to extend operation of Bank-note Issue Act, and another Act to control the transfer of bank shares.

June 30, 1894.—“Bank of New Zealand Share Guarantee Act, 1894,” to guarantee special issue of shares to amount of £2,000,000, and purchase of Assets Estates Company by Assets Board. [Amended on July 20.]

July 20, 1894.—Passing of an Act to limit number of bank directors and power of shareholders to transfer their shares.

Aug. 21, 1894.—Labour-laws: Passing of Conspiracy Law Amendment.

Aug. 31, 1894.—Labour-laws: Passing of an Act to encourage the formation of industrial unions and associations, and to facilitate the settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration.

Oct. 18, 1894.—“New Zealand Consols Act, 1894.”

Oct. 18, 1894.—“Government Advances to Settlers Act, 1894,” for relief of settlers burdened by high charges of interest, &c.

Oct. 18, 1894.—Passing of “Land for Settlements Act, 1894,” authorising acquisition of private lands for purposes of settlement, with compulsory powers, and repealing Act of 1892; also “Lands Improvement and Native Lands Acquisition Act, 1894.”

Oct. 18, 1894.—Labour-laws: Passing of “Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1894,” for limiting hours of business in shops.

Oct. 23, 1894.—Passing of “Banking Act, 1894.”

Oct. 23, 1894.—Dairy Industry Act, to regulate manufacture of butter and cheese, with inspection and grading for export, and provide for purity of milk.

Oct. 28, 1894.—Wreck of s.s. “Wairarapa” at Great Barrier Island; 135 lives lost.

Mar. 29, 1895.—Death of Right Reverend Andrew Burn Suter, D.D., formerly Bishop of Nelson, and Primate of New Zealand.

May 27, 1895.—Government assumed management of the Midland Railway.

Aug. 3, 1895.—Death of C. W. Richmond, Puisne Judge of Wellington.

Aug. 20, 1895.—Trustees cemeteries authorised to provide for cremation of dead.

Sept. 4, 1895.—“Bank of New Zealand and Banking Act, 1895,” providing for writing off paid-up capital with proceeds of first call on reserve liability. Also for new capital and Assets Realisation Board, &c. Also to purchase business of any other bank.

Sept. 20, 1895.—Labour-laws: Passing of an Act to regulate attachment of wages.

Sept. 20, 1895.—Labour-laws: Passing of Servants' Registry Office Act.

Sept. 20, 1895.—“Family Homes Protection Act, 1895,” to secure homes for the people and to prevent them from mortgage or sale for debt.

Oct. 18, 1895.—Amended tariff passed.

Oct. 31, 1895.—Bank of New Zealand and Banking Act Amendment Act: Sale of Colonial Bank business to Bank of New Zealand.

Dec. 20, 1895.—Appointment of Sir P. A. Buckley, K.C.M.G., as a Judge of Supreme Court.

Jan. 10, 1896.—Hon. W. P. Reeves appointed Agent-General in London.

Mar. 26, 1896.—Brunner Mine explosion; sixty-seven deaths.

April 12, 1896.—General census of colony taken for Sunday night.

May 18, 1896.—Death of Sir Patrick Buckley, K.C.M.G.

July 11, 1896.—Appointment of Mr. W. B. Edwards as a Judge of the Supreme Court.

July 19, 1896.—Death of Hon. Robert Pharazyn, M.L.C.

Aug. 2, 1896.—Death of James Edward FitzGerald, C.M.G., Controllor and Auditor-General.

Oct. 16, 1896.—Land for Settlements Act amended: Special provision made for disposal of highly improved lands acquired: preference given to landless people: Boards may select applicants, &c.

Oct. 17, 1896.—Alteration of franchise by abolition of non-residential or property qualification.

Oct. 17, 1896.—Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

Dec. 4, 1896.—General election of members of House of Representatives for the new districts as fixed by the Representation Commissioners on basis of Census, 1896.

Feb. 6, 1897.—Departure of the Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.

Feb. 8, 1897—Sir James Prendergast Administrator of Government.

June 22, 1897.—Diamond Jubilee of reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria. Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier of New Zealand, called to Privy Council, on accasion of his visit to England with contingent New Zealand Forces.

July 29, 1897.—Wreck of s.s. “Tasmania” at Mahia Peninsula; ten lives lost.

Aug. 10, 1897.—The Earl of Ranfurly assumed office as Governor.

Dec. 22, 1897.—Act to establish at Wellington the Victoria College, in connection with the New Zealand University.

July 15, 1898.—Hon. Sir Francis Dillon Bell, K.C.M.G., C.B., died.

1898.—Death of Sir George Grey, K.C.B.

1898.—Death of Bishop Selwyn, of Melanesia.

Oct. 15, 1898.—The Municipal Franchise Reform Act passed.

1898.—The Divorce Bill passed both Houses. Her Majesty's assent thereto gazetted 13th April, 1899.

Nov. 1, 1898.—An Act to provide for Old-age Pensions passed.

March 13, 1899.—Sir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G., died.

April, 1899.—Victoria University College opened in Wellington.

May 25, 1899.—Resignation of Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice.

June 22, 1899.—Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G., appointed Chief Justice.

GENERAL INDEX

Acclimatisation. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 431.)
Accumulation, Prices and Wages Development of Banking 289
Acres and Yield in Corn-crops 345
Acres of Land under Crop 346
Administration of Land-laws, &c. 389
Advances to Settlers 402
Loans for 403
Table showing how repaid 405
Titles eligible 403
Valuation-fees 403
Agents for the Colonies, Crown 26
Agents General in London 25
Ages at Death 117
Ages at Death Average 117
Average, of Persons married 110
of Prisoners 176
Agricultural College, Lincoln 155, 645
Agricultural Statistics 344–357
Agriculture 344, 439
Acreage under Wheat, Oats, &c., in Provincial Districts 345
Artificial Manures 448
Barley 354, 445
Cape Barley and Winter Oats 451
Cattle 330, 460
Cereals 345, 443–446
Consumption of Wheat 351
Cost of growing Oats 445
Cost of working a Farm 454
Dairy Industry, The 461
Dairy Stock 331, 461
European Flax 451
Exporting Apples 464
Fertilisers 448
Fruit Industry, The 463
Gardens and Orchards 355
Grass-seeds 355, 449
Hops 355
Horses 332, 454
In Middle Island 440
In North Island 439
Irrigation 453
Lambing Returns, Averages 330
Maize 353
Oats and Barley 445
Pigs 333, 455
Potatoes 354, 446
Remarks on Cereals 446
Root-crops 446
Seeds 355, 419
Sheep 327, 455
Sizes of Holdings 321, 322
Statistics 344–357
Stock 325–333
Sugar-beet 452
Tree-planting 465
Turnips 354, 447
Wheat-crop of Australian Colonies 351
Wheat-crop of the World, 1893 and 1897 351
Wheat for Threshing 350
Wheat held by Farmers, 1898 350
Wheat, Varieties of 444
Wheat, Yield per Acre 345
“Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1896” 368
Alcoholic Liquors, Consumption of, 1883 to 1898 225
Alcohol, Craving for, cured 576
Aliens, Nationality of 106
Aliens Naturalised 105
Alluvial Mining 339
Alpine Literature 558
Animals 325, 454
Live-Stock
Antipodes Islands 6
Apples, Export of 464
Appendix—
Dates of certain Principal Events in the History of New Zealand 662
Apprehensions and Summonses 171
Area of Forest Land 473
Area of New Zealand 7
Of North, Middle, Stewart, Chatham, and other Islands 7
Of United Kingdom compared with New Zealand 7
Areas of Australasian Colonies 6
Compared with European Countries 7
Area under Cultivation in Counties 347
Arbor Day, Tree-planting 465
Arms, Ordnance, &c. 50
Arrests for Drunkenness 173
Arrivals and Departures 94
Chinese 95
Departures, how Numbers ascertained 95
Excess of Arrivals over Departures 96
Articles on Special Subjects 389
Artificial Manures 448
Artillery, Naval, Field, and Garrison 50
Assembly, General 28
Assets Realisation Board 293, 381
Associations, Special-Settlement 398
Assurance, Industrial Life 298
Asylums, Benevolent 132
Lunatic 133
Orphan 133
Auckland Docks 52
Graving-dock Charges 52, 55
Auckland Islands 6, 14
Auckland Land District—Introductory, Physical Features, Plains, Lakes, Forests, Soils; Rainfall; General Products and Industries; Chief Towns; Crown or Native Lands available for Future Settlement 594
Auckland Provincial District, Progress of Seven Years 385
Auckland Sailors' Home 132
Australasian Railways 284
Australasian Stock, Prices of 376
Australian Colonies, Area of 6
Debt of 377
Live-Stock in 327
Oat-crop of 353
Population 93
Taxation in 384
Trade 268
Wheat-crop of 351
Average Quantity of Milk to 1 lb. Butter 461
Average Yield of Butter 461
Bachelors and Spinsters in New Zealand 107
Banking, Development in 289
Banking Legislation, Special 291
“Bank Directors and Shares Transfer Act, 1894” 292
“Bank-note Issue Act, 1893” 291
Bank of New Zealand and Banking Act, 1895 and 1898 292, 293
“Bank of New Zealand Guarantee Act, 1894” 291
“Banks and Bankers Act Amendment Act, 1893” 291
“Bank Shareholders Act, 1894” 292
Bankruptcy 168
Petitions, &c., Five Years 169
Private Deeds of Assignment 169
Transactions in 1897 168
Bank of New Zealand Assets Realisation Board 293, 381
Banks of Issue—
Advances and Discounts 290
In all Classes of Banks, Average per Head 295
Deposits, Withdrawals, Open Accounts, Amounts to Credit 294
Securities held 294, 295
Deposits, Withdrawals 295
Assets and Liabilities 289
In all Classes of Banks, Average per Head 295
Deposits, Withdrawals, Open Accounts, Amounts to Credit 294
Securities held 294, 295
Deposits, Withdrawals 295
Deposits 289
In all Classes of Banks, Average per Head 295
Deposits, Withdrawals, Open Accounts, Amounts to Credit 294
Securities held 294, 295
Deposits, Withdrawals 295
Notes in Circulation, &c. 289
Deposits, Withdrawals, Open Accounts, Amounts to Credit 294
Securities held 294, 295
Deposits, Withdrawals 295
Post-Office Savings 294
Deposits, Withdrawals, Open Accounts, Amounts to Credit 294
Securities held 294, 295
Deposits, Withdrawals 295
Private Savings 295
Deposits, Withdrawals 295
Barley, Acreage and Actual Yield of, in Provincial Districts 345
Yield in Bushels 345
Export of 253, 254
Battle of Orakau 523
Battle of Rangiriri 520
Beech District, The 473
Beer, Consumption of, per Head, Five Years 173, 224
Beer, Excise Duty on 80
Beet-sugar 452
Benevolent Asylums and Charitable Institutions 132
Birth-rates per 1,000 of Population in Australasian Colonies 101
Decline of, in New Zealand 100
Births 100
Excess of, over Deaths 102
Illegitimate 103
Illegitimacy in Australasian Colonies 102
In Australasian Colonies, Proportion of Illegitimate 102
Legitimation Act 104
Of Twins 102
Proportion to Population, 1882–98 100
Rates in Australian Colonies 101
To Marriages, Proportion of 100
Blind, The 136
In Australasian Colonies 137
Institution for 136, 165
Occupations of 137
Proportion of 136
Boroughs—
Expenditure of 190
Auckland, with suburbs 86
Christchurch, with suburbs 86
Dunedin, with suburbs 86
Wellington, with suburbs 86
In Colony 85, 196
Auckland, with suburbs 86
Christchurch, with suburbs 86
Dunedin, with suburbs 86
Wellington, with suburbs 86
Indebtedness of 192
Population of 85
Revenue of 190
Value of Rateable Property in 194
Value of Land and Improvements in 184
Boundaries and Area of the Colony 5
Bounty Island 6
Breadstuffs in various Countries and Colonies, Consumption of 351
Building Societies 296
Amounts deposited with 296
Income, Assets, Liabilities, Reserve Funds 296
Bush Land, Cost of Clearing 597
Butter and Cheese 254, 356, 461, 462
Export to United Kingdom, Eleven Years 254
Factories and Creameries 331, 357
Grading 357, 462
Industry 254, 356, 461
Packing Butter 462
Cadet Corps 50
Campbell Islands 6
Cancer, Deaths from 127
Increase in 128
Proportion of Deaths per 10,000 of each Sex, 1886–98 128
Canterbury Agricultural College 155, 645
Canterbury Land District—Boundaries and Physical Features, Seenery, Climate; Internal Communication; Geological Formation; Area, Nature, and Disposition of Lands; Soils; Pasturage and Crops; Stock, Wool, Butter and Cheese, Timber, Fruit; Coal, Building-stones; Fisheries; Manufactories; Libraries and Churches; Educational and other Institutions; Towns 638
Canterbury Provincial District: Progress of Seven Years 387
Cape Barley and Winter Oats 451
Capital City, Population of 86
Capitation to Efficient Volunteers and Cadets 51
Carrots 448
Yield of 448
Cattle 325, 330, 460
In Provincial Districts 331
Causes of Death 120
Cancer 127
Developmental Diseases 128
Local Diseases 129
Measles 123
Old Age 129
Percentage of Deaths from each 118
Phthisis 126
Typhoid Fever 123
Violence 130
Cavalry Volunteers 49
Cereals 443
Charges, Survey, on Unsurveyed Lands 401
Charitable Institutions, Benevolent Asylums and, &c. 131
Chatham Islands 6, 13
Cheese and Butter 254, 356, 461, 462
Factories, Number of 331, 357
Cheviot Estate. (See Year-book, 1895, p. 264.)
Children to a Marriage, Number of 100
Chinese—
Conjugal Condition 98
Immigration and Emigration of 98
Number in Colony 81
Occupations of 98
Poll-tax on 97
Christchurch to West Coast 548
Churches 165
Attendance at 166
Denominations of 166
In Provincial Districts 167
Schoolhouses and Dwellings used as 166
Cities 86
Civil Cases 168
Civil Establishment at Seat of Government 33
“Civil Service Insurance Act, 1893” 58
Classification of Lands, &c. 396
Clearing Bush Lands, Cost of 597
Climate—
Temperature in New Zealand, Australia, and other British Possessions 316–320
Clips, Average Wool 456
Clothing, Imported 221
Coal 340
Consumption of 340
Export of 340
Found in Colony, Analysis of 342
Import of 340
Output of 340
“Coal-mines Act, 1891” 310
Colleges and University 159
Colonial Office, The 26
Colonies, Area of the Australian 6
Colonisation of New Zealand 3
Colony, Boundaries and Area of the 5
Crown Agents for the 26
Population of the 81
Progress of, Seven Years 385
Comparison of Total Results, Manufactories, &c., 1896, 1891, and 1886 272
Comparison with Industries in New South Wales and Victoria 280
Communication and Transport 281
Consols, New Zealand 368, 436
“Conspiracy Law Amendment Act, 1894” 312
Constitution 14
Government 15
Consumption of Beer 173, 224
Principal Articles of 303
Consuls, Foreign (see also Addenda) 24
Convictions 171
For Drunkenness 172
Summary 171
Of Maoris 174
Cook Islands, Description of. (See Year-book, 1895, p. 456.)
Cook, Mount, and the Hermitage 554
Cook Strait 10
Corn-crops, Acreage, and Actual Yield of 345
Cost of Living in New Zealand 302
In Various Countries 302
Management of Local Governing Bodies 188
Working a Farm in New Zealand 454
Cost of Railways 282, 285
Council, Executive, 1843–56 20
Council, Executive, April, 1899 28
Legislative, Roll of Members of the (see also Addenda) 29
Successive Speakers of the Legislative 23
Counties, Population of 84
Land under Cultivation in 347
Value of Land and Improvements in 182
Court, Validation 36
Courts, Bankruptcy 168
Civil Cases, Supreme and District 168
Charges for Offences before 171
Committals 171
Summary Convictions before 171
Divorce and Separation 169
Charges for Offences before 171
Committals 171
Summary Convictions before 171
Magistrates', Civil Cases 168
Charges for Offences before 171
Committals 171
Summary Convictions before 171
Supreme and District, Convictions 171
Cows, Average Annual Yield of Milk 461
Tuberculosis in 462
Treatment of 462
Creameries and Butter Factories 331, 357
Crime, Law and 168
Criminal Cases 171
Before Magistrates 171
Cross-breeding of Sheep 455
Crown Agents for the Colonies 26
Crown Lands alienated 358
Made of acquiring 396
Crown Lands of New Zealand 358, 389
Cultivation
Barley 354, 445
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Cereals, Remarks on 446
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Cost of Working a Farm 454
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
European Flax 451
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Extent of Land in 344–356
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Fertilisers 448
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Gardens and Orchards 355
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Holdings over One Acre occupied 321, 322
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Hops 355
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Irrigation 453
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Land in Sown Grasses in Australasian Colonies 356
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Under Crops in Provincial Districts 345, 346
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Oats 345, 353, 445
In Australasian Colonies 353
In Australasian Colonies 351
Orchards 355, 463
In Australasian Colonies 351
Pens and Beans 354
In Australasian Colonies 351
Potatoes 354, 446
In Australasian Colonies 351
Root-crops 446
In Australasian Colonies 351
Rye 354
In Australasian Colonies 351
Seeds and Sown Grasses 355,449
In Australasian Colonies 351
Sugar-beet 452
In Australasian Colonies 351
Tobacco 355
In Australasian Colonies 351
Turnips 354, 447
In Australasian Colonies 351
Wheat 350, 443
In Australasian Colonies 351
Customs Duties, Rates levied 66
Revenue from 243
Proportion of Taxation in Australasian Colonies derived from, 1897–8 384
Cutting-out of Timbers 498
Cyanide Process, The 337
Cyanide Process Gold-extraction Act 339
Dairy Factories 331, 357
Dairy Industry 254, 356, 461
Government Aid to 357
Produce, Export of 248, 254
Stock 325, 331, 461
Dates of Principal Events 662
Deaf and Dumb, Number of 134
In Australasian Colonies 135
Numbers at last Census 134
Occupations of 135
Deaf-mutes, Institution for 165
Death, Average Age at 117
Causes of 118
Death-rates in various Countries and Colonies, 1890–98 112
From Cancer 127
Congenital Defects 128
Nervous Diseases 129
From Phthisis 126
From Typhoid Fever 123
In Four Principal Cities 112
In Principal Cities of Australasia 116
Deaths 117
At various Age-periods 117
Inquests on 178
Number of, in 1898 111
Of Infants 117
Of Infants to every 100 Births 118
Of Publicans, &c. 125
Violent 130
Debt, General Government 370
Of Local Bodies 192, 193
Deceased Persons'Estates 299
Defences, Military and Naval—
Administration; Artillery, Permanent Militia; Cadet Corps, Volunteers; Capitation; Cavalry, Volunteers; Engineers, Volunteers; Enrolment, &c.; Expenditure and Maintenance; Field Artillery, Volunteers; Instructors; Militia and Volunteer Districts; Mounted Rifles, Volunteers; Naval Artillery, Volunteers; Ordnance, Arms, &c.; Rifle Corps, Volunteers; Torpedo Corps, Permanent Militia 49
Deferred-payment System, Land taken up on 358–361, 390
Degree of Education 153
Demand for Wood-paving, &c. 500
Departures, Arrivals and 94
Deposits in Banks 289, 290
Depots for Shipwrecked Mariners 52
Description of New Zealand Forest Trees 478
Details of Principal Industries 277
Diarrhœal Diseases, Deaths from 123
Digest of the Land-laws 395
Diphtheria, Deaths from 123
Discovery and Early Settlement 2
Of Gold in New Zealand. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 343.)
Diseases, Various, Deaths from 118
District Court, Civil Cases 168
District, Mount Cook 554
Districts, Militia and Volunteer 49
Divorce, Petitions and Decrees, 1887–1897 170
Divorce and Separation 169
Grounds for 169
Proportions of, in different Countries 170
Docks, Graving, and Patent Slips 52
Drainage Board, Revenue, Expenditure, and Loans 190, 191
Dredging, Gold-, History, &c., of 509
Drunkenness 172
Convicted of 173
Dumb, Deaf and 134
Duties and Functions of Representation Commisions 144
Early Settlement, Discovery and 2
Earnings of the People 301
Wages 306, 308
Ecclesiastical 47
Education (see Public Instruction, also Schools) 153
School of Engineering and Technical Science 155
Technical 155
Universities and Colleges 159
University, New Zealand 159
Victoria College 159
Education Boards, Income and Expenditure of 162
Education, Degree of 153
Improvement in 153
Egmont, Mount 9
Election, General.
Representation
Electoral.
Representation
“Electoral Act, 1893,” extends Franchise to Women 16, 144
“Electoral Act Amendment Act, 1896,” abolishes property qualification 16, 144
Electric Telegraph 288
Emigration.
Immigration and Emigration
“Employers' Liability Act, 1882” 311
Engineering, School of 155
Engineers, Volunteers 50
Enrolment of Permanent Militia 51
Estates of Deceased Persons, Value of 299
Estates offered for Selection under Land for Settlements Act, during Year 1898–99 361b
European Population of Colony 81
Excise Duty on Beer 80
Executive Council, 1843–56 20
Executive Council, 1898 28
Expenditure, Revenue and 362
Charges of Public Debt 373
General Government 362
Local Bodies 188
On Railways 282, 366, 379
On Reproductive Public Works 378
Out of Public Works Fund by General Government 365
Exports, Imports and 219, 245
Butter and Cheese to United Kingdom, for Eleven Years 254
Quantity, Seventeen Years 253
Value, Eleven Years 249
Of Australasian Colonies 268
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Coal 257, 340
Quantity, Seventeen Years 253
Value, Eleven Years 249
Of Australasian Colonies 268
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
From different Ports 255
Quantity, Seventeen Years 253
Value, Eleven Years 249
Of Australasian Colonies 268
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
From United Kingdom to various Countries and Colonies 270
Quantity, Seventeen Years 253
Value, Eleven Years 249
Of Australasian Colonies 268
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Frozen Meat 253
Quantity, Seventeen Years 253
Value, Eleven Years 249
Of Australasian Colonies 268
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Gold, Silver, and other Minerals to 31st December, 1898 334
Of Australasian Colonies 268
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Gold, 1898 253
Of Australasian Colonies 268
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Grain 253
Of Australasian Colonies 268
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Home Produce 245
Of Australasian Colonies 268
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Increase and Decrease on Principal Articles 248
Of Australasian Colonies 268
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Kauri-gum 255
Of Australasian Colonies 268
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Phormium 255
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Quantities of Principal Articles, 1897 and 1898 247
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Rabbitskins 252
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Re-exports, exclusive of Specie 250
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Of New South Wales compared with New Zealand 250
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Sheepskins and Pelts 252
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Tallow 252
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Timber 245, 476
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
To United States 267
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Value of, from different Ports 255
Principal Articles of New Zealand Produce 245
Wool, Eleven Years 251
External Trade of Australasia 269
Factories 277
Butter and Cheese 357
Dairy Factories
Factories Act, 1894 311
Factories Acts (See Year-book, 1894, p. 220.)
Farming, Dairy 461
Farming, Ostrich 517
Farm in New Zealand, Cost of Working 454
Features of the Middle Island, Physical 10
Of the North Island 7
Felling Bush, Cost per Acre 597
Fencing, Cost of 631
Finance 362
Revenue and Expenditure
Fire Inquests 179
Fish Acclimatised. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 431.)
Fish and Fisheries. (See Year-book, 1895, p. 373.)
First Offenders' Probation Act 178
Flax, European 451
Export of 255
Flocks of Sheep, Number and Size of 251
Foreigners Naturalised during last Seventeen Years, Number of 106
Foreign Consuls (see also Addenda) 24
Forest-trees and Timber Industry 470
Export Trade, Value of 245, 476
Forest Timbers, Varieties of 476
Strength of New Zealand Timbers 478
Forests, Suggestions for Management of 497
Foveaux Strait 13
Franchise 15
Municipal 195
Freezing Establishments in the Colony. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 314.)
Friendly Societies 296
Lodges, &c., Assets, Receipts of Sick and Funeral Funds, Expenditure, Sick Pay, Management Expenses 296
Frozen-meat Industry (see also Year-book, 1894, p. 311) 253
Fruit Culture 463
Drying 464
Industry, The 463
Fungus, New Zealand, Export of 245, 247
“Gaming and Lotteries Act, 1881,” Permits issued under 388
Gaols, Prisoners in 175
Gardens, Plantations, and Orchards, Total Acreage in 349
General Assembly, The 28
General Election, 1896 144
Representation
Glaciers in Middle Island 11
Glaciers of Mount Cook 554
Gold, Coal, and other Minerals 334
Coal 340
Composition of 342
Consumption of 340
Output of 340
Total Quantity and Value entered for Exportation 253, 336
Gold exported 253, 336
Total Quantity and Value entered for Exportation 253, 336
Gold produced 334, 336
Gold Produced in Australia 336
Gold Production of the World 337
Gold-dredging Industry 509
Description of Dredge 512
Dimensions and Cost of some Dredges 515
History of 509
Operations of some Dredges 516
Returns from some Dredges and Dividends paid 517
Gold-mining, Result of—Hands, Output, &c. 334–340
Remarks on 335
Saving Gold by Cyanide Process 337
Waihi Company 338
Governing Bodies, Local 186
Government Aid to Dairy Industry 357
Government Advances to Settlers 402
Advances authorised 407
Business of Office 402
Conditions of Advance 404
Costs and Fees 403
First Meeting of Board 407
Fixed Loans 406
Half-yearly Repayments, Table of 405, 406
Instalments of Loans payable at Post-offices 407
Instalment Mortgages 406
Officials bound to Secrecy 407
Terms of Loans 404
Titles eligible for Advances 403
Government Aid to Dairying 357
Government Life Insurance Department 298, 417
Accumulated Funds 422
Assets 423
Assignment and Mortgage of Policies 431
Civil Service Insurance 429
Claims under Policies 422
Conditions of Policies 420
Division of Profits 423
Expenses of Management, How paid 419
Interest earned 422
Investment of Funds 424
Lost or destroyed Policies, Provision for 433
Method of Business 420
New Business 422
Payments without Probate 435
Postage Stamps 430
Premiums received 422
Protection of Policies 434
Surrender Values 421
Synopsis of Laws Relating to 417, 430
Temperance Section 424
Tontine Savings Fund System 428
Total Revenue 422
Government Schools 154
Government, the Seat of 16
Government Valuation of Land and its Improvements 180, 412
Capital Values, North and South Islands 181
Comparison of Capital Values, 1888 and 1898 181
Cost of making Valuation, How Borne 180, 412
Increase in Values 182
Objection, Right of 180, 412
Purposes for which Valuation-rolls used 180, 412
Values in Boroughs 184
Values in Counties 182
Governor of New Zealand 27
Governors, Successive 17
Grading of Dairy Produce 357
Grading Sheep in Canterbury 459
Grain exported 253
Grown in each Provincial District 345
Cultivation
Grass Lands, Acres of 346, 355
In Australasian Colonies, 1898 356
Grass-seed 449
Sown, per Acre 356
Graving-docks and Patent Slips 52
Auckland Docks 52
Lyttelton Dock and Patent Slip 54
Port Chalmers Dock 55
Nelson Cradle 56
Timaru Slip 56
Wellington Patent Slip 55
Grazing-runs, Small 358–361, 399
Green Crops, Acreage under, in Provincial Districts 346
Gum, Kauri 255, 501
Area of Fields 501
Earnings of Diggers 507
Export of 255, 343, 501
Number of Diggers 501
Price of 501, 507
Remarks on 501
Hands employed in Manufactories 272
Hands employed at Principal Works 273
Hanmer Thermal Springs 559
Accommodation, &c. 560
Analysis of Springs 562
Benefit Derived from using Springs 563
Charges, &c. 562
Climate 559
Directions for using Baths 563
Journey to Hanmer 560
Life at Hanmer 562
Masseuse available 561
Medical Attendance 561
Tourist Season 562
Harbour Boards Revenue, Expenditure, and Loans 191, 192
Harbours. (See Year-book, 1894, pp. 389–408.)
Hawke's Bay Land District—General Description; Communication; Pastoral Industries; Agricultural Pursuits; Dairying; Timber and other Industries; Climate; Towns; Crown Lands; Native Lands 611
Hawke's Bay Provincial District: Progress in Seven Years 386
Hay, Acres in 346, 349
Heir of the Moa 517
Hemp, New Zealand (Phormium tenax) exported 255
Hermitage, The 557
Holdings, Number of occupied 321
Hollerith Electrical Tabulating Machine 98
Home Produce exported 247
Honours held by Colonists 26
Hops, cultivated, imported and exported 355
Horse-breeding 460
Horses in New Zealand, Number of 325, 332
In Provincial Districts 332
Horse-power employed in Manufactories 272, 277
Hospitals 131
Accommodation and Indoor Patients 132
General Management 131
Number of Districts 131
Outdoor Relief 132
Revenues of Boards, how raised 131
Hot Springs 559, 564
Thermal Springs
House of Representatives (see also Corrigenda) 15, 30
Speakers of the 24
Houses, Licensed 213
Illegitimate Births in Australasian Colonies 102
Immigration and Emigration 94
Each Australian Colony 97
From United Kingdom, Australian Colonies, and other Places 95
Gain by net Immigration from United Kingdom in Seven Years 96
Nominating Immigrants discontinued 94
Of Chinese 95
Poll-tax on Chinese 97
To United Kingdom, Australian Colonies, and other Countries 96
Imports and Exports 219, 245
Each Australian Colony, 1897 268
Imports—
Beer, Spirits, and Wine, Consumption of 173, 224
United Kingdom 225
United Kingdom to Australasia 270
United States, Ten Years 268
Consumption of, per Head of Population 224
Per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 266
Clothing, &c. 221
United Kingdom 225
United Kingdom to Australasia 270
United States, Ten Years 268
Consumption of, per Head of Population 224
Per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 266
Coal 222, 340
United Kingdom 225
United Kingdom to Australasia 270
United States, Ten Years 268
Consumption of, per Head of Population 224
Per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 266
From different Countries, 1897 and 1898, Values of 226
United Kingdom 225
United Kingdom to Australasia 270
United States, Ten Years 268
Consumption of, per Head of Population 224
Per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 266
Inclusive and exclusive of Specie, Eleven Years 219
Consumption of, per Head of Population 224
Per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 266
Into Australasia 268
Consumption of, per Head of Population 224
Per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 266
Per Head of Population 266
Consumption of, per Head of Population 224
Per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 266
Spirits 173, 224
Consumption of, per Head of Population 224
Per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 266
Sugar and Tea, Imports of 223, 224
Consumption of, per Head of Population 224
Per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 266
Tobacco, Consumption of 225
Per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 266
Value of, inclusive and exclusive of Specie, for Eleven Years 219
Per Head of Population, Australasian Colonies 266
Improved-farm Settlements 358–361, 399
Improvement in Education of the People 153
Income-tax, Land and 408
Exemptions 408
Rates of Tax 411
Yield of Tax 411
Income-tax levied 382, 409
Land and 382, 408
Incomes and Earnings 301
Indebtedness of the Australasian Colonies 377
Of Local Bodies 190–193
For Eighteen Years 187
To Persons outside Colony 193
Industrial Schools 163
Industrial Life Assurance 298
Industries, various, as in 1895–96
Manufactories and Works, p. 271.
Inebriates Institutions Act 174
Influenza, Deaths from 123
Inquests, Death 178
Nature of Verdict on 178
Fire 179
Instruction, State 153
Insurance, Government Life 298, 417
Insurance, Life 297
Companies in New Zealand 298
Government Life 298, 417
Interchange, Trade and 219–270
Introductory 1
Area of the Australasian Colonies 6
Colony of New Zealand 7
Middle Island 10
Boundaries and Area of New Zealand 5
Middle Island 10
Colonisation 3
Middle Island 10
Constitution 14
Middle Island 10
Cook Strait 10
Middle Island 10
Discovery and Early Settlement 2
Middle Island 10
Foveaux Strait 13
Middle Island 10
Glaciers in Middle Island 11
Middle Island 10
Government 15
Middle Island 10
Maoris, The 4
Middle Island 10
Outlying Islands 13
Middle Island 10
Physical Features of the North Island 7
Middle Island 10
Public Works 17
Seat of Government 16
Iron, Machinery, &c., imported, Value of 221
Irrigation 453
Islands, Description of the—
Antipodes 6
Auckland 6, 13
Bounty 6
Campbell 6
Chatham 6, 13
Cook. (See Year-book, 1895, p. 456) 6
Kermadec 6, 13
Middle 6, 10
North 5, 7
Stewart 6, 13
Jubilee Institution for the Blind 165
Judges, Supreme Court 19
Kauri District 471
Kauri-gum Digging 501
Area of Fields 501
Earnings of Diggers 507
Number of Diggers 501
Remarks on 501
Kauri-gum (Exported) 255, 501
Average Price of 255, 501, 507
Quantities and Values exported 255, 502
Kermadec Islands 6, 13
Labour—
In New Zealand. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 362.)
Prices of Provisions, Live-stock, &c., 1898 303–305
Wages, Average Rates of 306–309
Labour-Laws. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 220.)
Labour Legislation—
Acts of Parliament composing 310
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration 311
Coal-mines Act 312
Conspiracy Law 312
Employers' Liability 311
Factories Act 311
Master and Apprentice 312
Servants' Registry Offices 312
Shipping Acts 312
Shops and Shop-assistants 311
Trades-Union Act 312
Wages Attachment 312
Remarks on 310
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration 311
Coal-mines Act 312
Conspiracy Law 312
Employers' Liability 311
Factories Act 311
Master and Apprentice 312
Servants' Registry Offices 312
Shipping Acts 312
Shops and Shop-assistants 311
Trades-Union Act 312
Wages Attachment 312
Lakes 9, 12
Lambing Averages 330, 455
Land—
Acreage of, under Crop 345–349
Graduated 382, 411
And Income-tax 382, 408
Graduated 382, 411
Crown, open for Selection (See Land Districts)
Graduated 382, 411
Fit for Agriculture and Pasture 8
Graduated 382, 411
Government Valuation of 180, 412
Graduated 382, 411
Grass-sown 345–349
Graduated 382, 411
Held as Pastoral Runs 358, 359
Graduated 382, 411
Held as Small Grazing-runs 358–361, 399
Graduated 382, 411
Held under Pastoral and Miscellaneous Leases 358, 359
Graduated 382, 411
Holdings in Provincial Districts 324
Graduated 382, 411
Holdings taken up, Ten years 361
Graduated 382, 411
Holdings taken up, Sizes of 321, 322
Graduated 382, 411
Improved Farm Settlements 358–361, 399
Graduated 382, 411
Occupation of 321, 358, 389
Graduated 382, 411
On Perpetual Lease, Lease in Perpetuity, and Occupation with Right of Purchase 358–361, 397
Graduated 382, 411
Rating on Unimproved Value 195, 413
Graduated 382, 411
Revenue from 363
Graduated 382, 411
Sold for Cash 358–361, 397
Graduated 382, 411
Sold on Deferred Payments 358–361, 397
Graduated 382, 411
Taken up under various Tenures, Ten years 360, 361
Graduated 382, 411
Taken up in each Land District 361a
Graduated 382, 411
Tax 382, 408
Graduated 382, 411
Village Settlements, Land held 358–361, 399
Village Settlements, sold on Deferred Payments and for Cash 358–361, 399
Land and Improvements, Government Valuation of 180, 412
Land Districts in the Colony, Description of—Auckland, 594; Canterbury, 638; Hawke's Bay, 611; Marlborough, 623; Nelson, 629; Otago, 648; Southland, 658; Taranaki, 602; Wellington, 614; Westland, 634.
Land for Settlements Acts 361b
Annual Rental under 361c
Estates offered for Selection during Year ended 31st March, 1898 361b
Transactions under 361b
Land-Laws, Digest of 395
Administration 395
Cash Tenure 397
Leases in Perpetuity 397
Occupation with Right of Purchase 397
Classification of Lands, &c. 396
Cash Tenure 397
Leases in Perpetuity 397
Occupation with Right of Purchase 397
Grazing-runs, Small 399
Cash Tenure 397
Leases in Perpetuity 397
Occupation with Right of Purchase 397
Improved-farm Settlements 399
Cash Tenure 397
Leases in Perpetuity 397
Occupation with Right of Purchase 397
Land Districts and Principal Land Offices 395
Cash Tenure 397
Leases in Perpetuity 397
Occupation with Right of Purchase 397
Mode of Acquiring Crown Lands 396
Cash Tenure 397
Leases in Perpetuity 397
Occupation with Right of Purchase 397
Optional System of Selection 397
Cash Tenure 397
Leases in Perpetuity 397
Occupation with Right of Purchase 397
Pastoral Runs 400
Residence and Improvements 397
Special-settlement Associations 398
Survey Charges on Unsurveyed Lands 401
Village-homestead Settlements 399
“Land Settlements Act, 1896, Aid to Public Works and” 368
Land System of New Zealand 389
Land-tax 382, 408
Lands—
Native, Purchase of, by Government 394
Survey Charges on Unsurveyed 401
Land under Cultivation in Counties 347, 348
Land, Valuation of—
In Boroughs 184
In Colony 181
In Counties 182
Land-values—
Results of Assessments, 1888 and 1898 181
Total Valuations in Counties and Boroughs 182
Law and Crime 168
Laws, Difference of, between England and New Zealand. (See Year-book, 1896, p. 281.)
Legend, Maori 546
Legislation, Special Banking 291
Legislative Council 28
Native Members of the 15
Roll of Members of the (see also Addenda) 29
“Legitimation Act, 1894” 104
Letters delivered and posted 285
Libraries, Public 167
Licenses and Licensed Houses 213
Licenses—
Issued under “Gaming and Lotteries Act, 1881” 388
Number and Fees paid 213
Proportion to Population 213
Licensing Laws 215
Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act 215
Annual Fees 214
Result of Polls taken in December, 1896 216
Revenue from Licenses 213
Life Insurance (see also State Insurance), Year 1897 297
Lighthouses, Names and Number of, Colour, Order, &c. 56
Lincoln Agricultural College 155, 645
List, Official 33
Literary and Scientific Institutions 167
Live-stock. (See also Sheep and Cattle) 325, 454
Average Prices of 304
Export of 246, 248
In Australasian Colonies 327
In each County 325
Living, Cost of 302
Average Consumption per Head of Foods, &c. 303
In various Countries 302
Loans—
Expenditure, 1898–99 365
Public Debt
For Advances to Settlers 367
Public Debt
General Government 370
Public Debt
Of Local Bodies, Outstanding, at various Rates of Interest 193
Of Local Bodies, Net Indebtedness 192
Local Bodies—
Cost of Management 188, 190
Eighteen Years 187
Expenditure of 188, 190
Eighteen Years 187
Indebtednes 191
Eighteen Years 187
Number of 186
Outstanding Loans at various Rates of Interest 193
Property in, Value of 194
Rates collected in Eighteen Years 187
Revenue and Expenditure of Boroughs, Counties, Drainage Board, Harbour Boards, River Boards, Road Boards, Town Boards 190, 191
Taxation by 188, 384
Local Option Poll (1896) 216
Lucerne 451
Lunacy 134
Lunatic Asylums 133
Lunatics, Proportion of 134
Magistrates' Courts, Apprehensions, Convictions, &c. 171
Mail-services between England and New Zealand, Cost of 287
Maize, Area under 345
Management of Forests, Suggestions for 497
Manawatu–Wellington Railway 284
Mangolds and Carrots 448
Manufactories and Works—
Comparison of Total Results, 1896, 1891, and 1886 271
Comparison with Industries in New South Wales and Victoria 280
Details of Principal Industries 277
Hands employed 272
Horse-power employed 272, 277
Increase in Annual Value 272
In Provincial Districts 276
Number of Establishments 277
Total Approximate Value of all Manufactures and Products 272
Value of Land, Buildings, and Plant 272
Value of Most Important Manufactures 275
Wages paid 272
Manures, Artificial 448
Maoris, The 138
Ages of, compared with European Population 143
Charged with Offences 174
Children attending Schools 154
Contribute towards Revenue 383
Convicted of Offences, 1887–97 174
Distribution of 143
Enumeration of 140
Half-castes 142
Health of 141
Legend 546
Morioris 142
Objection to Enumeration 140
Population at Last Census 81, 142
Probable Origin and Numbers 138
Representation 15, 30, 144
Result of Researches as to Origin 138
Urewera Country 546
Marlborough Land District—Physical Features: Rivers, Plains, Lakes, Forests, Soils, Grazing; Industries; Climate; Towns; Roads and Railways; Crown Lands 623
Marriage, Births to every 100
Decrees for Dissolution of 170
Decrees for Judicial Separation 170
Rates in New Zealand, Australian Colonies, and European Countries 106
Marriages 106
Ages at which Marriage may be contracted 110
Ages of Persons Married 109
Of Aborigines 107
Percentage of Persons under 21 Years 111
Proportion by each Denomination 109
Proportion of each Sex signing Register by Mark 109
Marlborough, Nelson, and Westland Provincial Districts: Seven Years' Progress 387
“Master and Apprentice Act, 1865” 312
Measles, Deaths from 123
Meat, Export of 253
Frozen, Total Export of 253
Medical Practitioners 131
Medicine, School of, Otago 653
Members of House of Representatives, Roll of (see also Corrigenda) 31
Legislative Council, Roll of (see also Addenda) 29
Metals and Minerals 334
Meteorological Observations 316–320
Miasmatic Diseases, Deaths from 120
Midland Railway 284
Miles of Railway open for Traffic 283
Military and Naval Defences 49
Milk—
Average Yield of Butter from 461
Average Yield per Cow 461
Minerals, Gold, Coal, and other 334
Mineral Waters of New Zealand 559, 564
Principal Springs 562, 570
Mines, Schools of 155
Mining Produce 334
Remarks on 335
Ministers, Officiating, under Marriage Act 111
Ministers, Cabinet 28
Ministries, Successive 22
Money-orders and Postal-notes 286
Mortality in Liquor Trade (England) 125
Mortgages 296
Amounts borrowed at various rates of interest 297
Mountains 9, 10
Mount Cook District 554
Mount Cook 10, 554
Egmont 9
Ruapehu 9
Tongariro 9
Mounted Rifles, Volunteers 49
“Municipal Franchise Reform Act, 1898,” Qualifications for Enrolment under Mutton. (See Frozen Meat.) 195
Consumption per head. (See Year-book, 1898, p. 289.)
Native Lands purchased by Government 394
Native Schools 162
Naturalisation 105
Nelson Land District—General Description; Rivers, Lakes, Plains, Forests; Agricultural, Pastoral, Mining; Towns; Railways, Roads, Tracks, &c.; Crown Lands. 629
Nelson, Marlborough, and Westland Provincial Districts: Seven Years' Progress 387
Nervous System, Diseases of, Deaths from 120
Newspapers 59
Posted 285
New Zealand—
Abolition of Provincial Governments in 15
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Alpine Literature 558
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Area of, Boundaries and 5
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Arrival of Missionaries in 3
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Captain Cook's Visits to 2
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Colonisation of 3
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Colony divided into Six Provinces 15
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Company 3
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
County Government in 15
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Discovery and Early Settlement of 2
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Electoral Division of 144
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
General Assembly of 28
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
General Election 145
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Government Advances to Settlers 402
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Government Life Insurance 298, 417
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Governor of 27
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Governors of, Successive 17
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Land System of 389
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Lieutenant Hanson's Visit to 3
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Made a Separate Colony 4
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Management of Forests, Suggestions for 497
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Manufactories and Works 271
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Newspapers 59
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Permanent Militia 49
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Premiers of 23
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Provincial Governments abolished 15
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Progress, Seven Years 385
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Rainfall in 316–320
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Representative Government granted in 14
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Settlement at Port Nicholson 3
Canterbury 4
Nelson 4
New Plymouth 4
Otago 4
Sovereignty of Queen proclaimed 3
Stock, Quotations of (Eleven years) 376
Surville, and Marion du Fresne, Visits of 2
Tasman's Visit 2
Temperature 316–320
Treaty of Waitangi 4
University of 159
New Zealand Consols—
Currency of Deposits 437
Forms of Application 437
Rate of Interest 437
Regulations 436
The purpose of 436
Ngauruhoe 529
Number of Miles travelled by Trains 284
Oats—
Acreage and Actual Yield in Provincial Districts 345
Cost of growing 445
Export of 248, 253
Varieties of 445
Oat-crop of Australasian Colonies, 1898 355
Occupation of Land 321
Offences—
Charges for, before Magistrates'Courts 171
Convicted before Supreme and District Courts 171, 175
Smmarily convicted 174
Committals for 171
Convicted before Supreme and District Courts 171, 175
Smmarily convicted 174
Convictions for 171
Convicted before Supreme and District Courts 171, 175
Smmarily convicted 174
Maoris charged with 174
Convicted before Supreme and District Courts 171, 175
Smmarily convicted 174
Office, The Colonial 26
Official List 33
Officiating Ministers 111
Old Age 129
Old-age Pensions—Page
Amount of Pension 416
Applications, how made 416
Deductions 416
How, when, and where paid 417
Number granted to 31st March, 1899 417
Qualifications 415
Optional System of selecting Land 396
Orchards 355,463
Total Acreage of 346–349
Orphan Asylums 133
Ostriches, Management of 517
Value of Product 518
Ostrich-farming in New Zealand 517
Otago Land District—Boundaries and Area; Physical Description; Rivers and Lakes, Plains, Forests; Building-stones, Coal, Limestone; Climate; West Coast; Fruit, Crops, Stock; Freezing Establishments, Woollenmills, Clothing-factories, Dairy-factories; Gold Production; Chief Towns; City of Dunedin; Towns and surrounding country; Railways; Statistical; Local Industries 648
Otago Provincial District: Seven Years'Progress 387
Outlying Islands of New Zealand 13
Parcels Post 285,286
Value of Imports by 243
Parliament, Members of (see also Corrigenda) 29
Parliaments, Successive 21
Passengers, Railway 283
Pastoral Leases—
Lands held under 358, 359, 400
Receipts from 359
Tenants of 358, 359
Patent Slips and Graving Docks 52
Pensions, Old-age 416
Permanent Militia (Artillery) 49
Submarine Miners 49
Permits issued under “The Gaming and Lotteries Act, 1881” 388
Perpetual-lease System, Land held under the 358–361
Perpetuity, Leaseholds in 358–361
Petroleum 606
Phormium tenax (New Zealand Hemp) 255
Export of 255
Phthisis, Death-rates from 126
Deaths from, 1889 to 1898 126
Physical Features of the North Island 7
Middle Island 10
Pigs 333,463
In Counties 325
In Provincial Districts 333
Plantations, Gardens, and Orchards, Acreage in 346–349
Ploughing, Cost of 444
Population of New Zealand 81
Arrivals and Departures 94
From and to United Kingdom 95, 96
Of Chinese 95
Chinese 81
European 81
Increase in each Quarter, 1898 81
In adjacent Islands 92
In Principal Cities and Suburbs 86
In Provincial Districts 82
Maori 83
Of Australasian Colonies 93
Of Boroughs 85
Of Capital City 86
Of Counties 84
Of Town Districts and Small Centres 87
Of Townships, Villages, &c. 88
Post-offices 285
Average Number of Days within which Mails from London delivered 288
Books and Parcels, &c. 285
Increase of Correspondence 285
Letters posted, per Head of Population 285
Mail-service, England and New Zealand, Cost of 287
Money-orders 286
Newspapers 285
Parcels 285,286
Postal Notes 286
Post-cards 285
Savings-banks 294
Securities 294
Potatoes, Acreage under 354
Cost of Growing 446
Cultivation of 446
Export of 263
Seed per Acre 446
Yield of 446
Practitioners, Medical 131
Premiers of Successive Ministries 23
Preserved Meats exported 246, 248
Prices and Wages 304–309
Prices of Australasian Stock 376
Prices of Provisions, Averages, 1878, 1888, and 1898 303
Prices of Provisions, Live-stock, &c., Averages 304, 305
Prices on the Goldfields 304, 305
Principal Events, Dates of 662
Prisoners in Gaol—
Ages of Distinct, convicted 176
Birthplaces of 176
Convicted, Number of 175
Cost of maintaining 177
Distinct convicted, Classified 176
New Zealand-born, convicted, 1897 177
Previously convicted 175
Religious Denominations of 176
Private Railways, Length, Cost, Revenue, and Expenditure 284
Private Schools 160
Private Wealth, Increase of 299–301
Probation Act, First Offenders treated under 178
Probate, Estates admitted to 299
Produce, Agricultural, Pastoral, and Dairy 331, 344–357
Average Prices of 304, 305
Mining 334
Progress of New Zealand, Seven Years 385
Property, Private 299
Property, value of, Rateable 194
Property-tax repealed 408
Prospects of Small Farmers 468
Provincial Districts, Manufactories and Works in 276
Provincial Districts, Progress for Seven Years 385–388
Provisions, Live-stock, &c., Prices of 304,305
Public Debt 370
Annual Charge 371–374
Securities in which invested 374
Comparison with Past Years 375
Securities in which invested 374
Conversion Account 366
Securities in which invested 374
Details of Loans 371
Securities in which invested 374
Increase in 375
Securities in which invested 374
Net Indebtedness 375
Securities in which invested 374
Of Australasian Colonies 377
Securities in which invested 374
Old Provincial Loans 379
Securities in which invested 374
Purposes of Money composing Debt 378
Securities in which invested 374
Rates of Interest on 373
Securities in which invested 374
Sinking Fund accrued, Amount of 372
Securities in which invested 374
Stock Quotations 376
Public Libraries 167
In Provincial Districts 167
Members and Books 167
Public Property, Value of 301
Public Schools 154
Secondary Schools 159
Technical Schools 155
Public Trust Office. (See also Year-book, 1898, p. 454.) 299
Number and Value of Estates administered 299
Public Works 17, 368, 378
Expenditure on 365, 368, 379
Public Worship, Places of 165
Accommodation in 166
Denominations 166
In Provincial Districts 167
Purchase, Occupation of Land with Right of 358–361, 397
Purchase of Native Lands by Government 394
Quartz-mining 339
Quotations, New Zealand Stock 376
Railway 282,378
Australasian Colonies, Miles of, in 285
Length and Cost 282
Particulars of Revenue from 284
Passengers 283
Profit on Working 283
Revenue and Expenditure 284
Train-miles 283
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 283
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 284
Comparison of Traffic, Revenue, and Expenditure for Ten Years 283, 284
Length and Cost 282
Particulars of Revenue from 284
Passengers 283
Profit on Working 283
Revenue and Expenditure 284
Train-miles 283
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 283
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 284
Cost of Maintenance 284
Length and Cost 282
Particulars of Revenue from 284
Passengers 283
Profit on Working 283
Revenue and Expenditure 284
Train-miles 283
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 283
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 284
Government, Goods and Live-stock carried 283
Length and Cost 282
Particulars of Revenue from 284
Passengers 283
Profit on Working 283
Revenue and Expenditure 284
Train-miles 283
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 283
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 284
In New Zealand, their History and Progress (See Year-book, 1894, p. 377.)
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 284
Midland Railway 284
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 284
Private 284
Cost of Construction, Revenue, and Working Expenses 284
Wellington-Manawatu Railway 284
Rainfall in New Zealand 316–320
Raising Young Stock 461
Rape and Turnips, Acres under 354
Cultivation of 417, 448
Rateable Properties in Boroughs 194, 196
In Counties 194, 209
In Road Districts 194, 201
Outlying Districts 194
Town Districts 200
Rates collected by Local Bodies, Eighteen Years 187
Rates of Wages, Average in Provincial Districts in 1898 306–309
Rating on Unimproved Value 195, 413
Interpretation 413
Method of preparing Valuation-roll 413
Method of taking Poll 413
Ratepayers may demand Poll to be taken 413
Rating Powers 195, 413
Result of Polls taken by Local Bodies 195, 414
System Optional 195, 413
Receipts, Expenditure, and Loans of Local Bodies 189–191
Real Property, Value of 181, 194
Remarks on Labour Legislation 310
Repayments of Advances to Settlers 405, 406
Representation, and the General Election of 1896 144
Duties and Functions of Representation Commissions 144
Electors on Rolls in each Electoral District 146
Electors on Rolls, and Votes recorded, in Four City Electorates 147
Females registered as Electors 146
Males registered as Electors 146
Population (estimated) in each Electoral District 146
Proportion of Electors who voted, 1893, 1896 145
Females who voted 146
Males who voted 145
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896 145
Total Votes recorded for Defeated Candidates 150
Votes recorded in each Electoral District 148
Recorded for each Candidate 148
Electoral Districts 144
Proportion of Population who voted 151
Votes recorded 151
Maori 16
“Electoral Act, 1893” and Amendment Act, 1896 16
Electors on Rolls in each Electoral District 146
Electors on Rolls, and Votes recorded, in Four City Electorates 147
Females registered as Electors 146
Males registered as Electors 146
Population (estimated) in each Electoral District 146
Proportion of Electors who voted, 1893, 1896 145
Females who voted 146
Males who voted 145
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896 145
Total Votes recorded for Defeated Candidates 150
Votes recorded in each Electoral District 148
Recorded for each Candidate 148
Electoral Districts 144
Proportion of Population who voted 151
Votes recorded 151
Maori 16
Electoral Acts 144
Electors on Rolls in each Electoral District 146
Electors on Rolls, and Votes recorded, in Four City Electorates 147
Females registered as Electors 146
Males registered as Electors 146
Population (estimated) in each Electoral District 146
Proportion of Electors who voted, 1893, 1896 145
Females who voted 146
Males who voted 145
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896 145
Total Votes recorded for Defeated Candidates 150
Votes recorded in each Electoral District 148
Recorded for each Candidate 148
Electoral Districts 144
Proportion of Population who voted 151
Votes recorded 151
Maori 16
Electoral Divisions of the Colony 144
Electors on Rolls in each Electoral District 146
Electors on Rolls, and Votes recorded, in Four City Electorates 147
Females registered as Electors 146
Males registered as Electors 146
Population (estimated) in each Electoral District 146
Proportion of Electors who voted, 1893, 1896 145
Females who voted 146
Males who voted 145
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896 145
Total Votes recorded for Defeated Candidates 150
Votes recorded in each Electoral District 148
Recorded for each Candidate 148
Electoral Districts 144
Proportion of Population who voted 151
Votes recorded 151
Maori 16
General Election of 1896, European Representatives 145
Electors on Rolls in each Electoral District 146
Electors on Rolls, and Votes recorded, in Four City Electorates 147
Females registered as Electors 146
Males registered as Electors 146
Population (estimated) in each Electoral District 146
Proportion of Electors who voted, 1893, 1896 145
Females who voted 146
Males who voted 145
Persons registered as Electors, 1893, 1896 145
Total Votes recorded for Defeated Candidates 150
Votes recorded in each Electoral District 148
Recorded for each Candidate 148
Electoral Districts 144
Proportion of Population who voted 151
Votes recorded 151
Maori 16
General Elections for European Representatives from the Year 1853 152
Electoral Districts 144
Proportion of Population who voted 151
Votes recorded 151
Maori 16
Maori Members, Election of 151
Electoral Districts 144
Proportion of Population who voted 151
Votes recorded 151
Maori 16
Qualifications of Electors, European 16
Maori 16
Representation Commissions 144
Woman's Franchise 144
Residence and Improvements on Crown Lands 397
Revenue and Expenditure 362
From Government Railways 362, 363
From Land-tax and Income-tax 362, 363
General Government (Ordinary and Territorial) 364, 365
Loan Expenditure, 1898–99 365
Local Government 186–191
Of Boroughs, Counties, Drainage Boards, Harbour Boards, River Boards, Road Boards, and Town Boards 189–191
Ordinary and Territorial 364, 365
Ordinary Revenue 363
Ordinary Revenue Expenditure 364
Territorial Expenditure 365
Territorial Revenue 363
Rifle Corps, Volunteer 50
Rimu (Red-pine), The 472
River Boards, Revenue of 189, 190
Rivers 8, 12
Road Boards, Revenue 189, 190
Districts, Value of Property in 201
Roll of Members of the House of Representatives (see also Corrigenda) 31
Legislative Council (see also Addenda) 29
Roman Catholic Schools 160, 161
Roct-crops 354, 446
Ruapehu Mountain 9, 529
Sailors'Home, Auckland 132
Sanatorium, Hanmer 559
Rotorua 564
Savings-Banks, Post-Office 294
Private 295
Scholarships 163
Schools, Blind 165
Deaf and Dumb 165
Cost of 164
Inmates, 1896 and 1897 164
Industrial 163
Cost of 164
Inmates, 1896 and 1897 164
Engineering 155
Mines 155
Native 162
Primary or Public 154
Private 160
Roman Catholic 161
Secondary 159
Technical 155
Scientific and Literary Institutions 167
Seeds, Grass- 355, 449
Selections, Number and Acreage of 358–361a
Septic Diseases, Deaths from 120
“Servants' Registry Offices Act, 1895” 312
Settlement, Discovery and Early 2
Settlements, Land for 361b
Acquisition of Land under 361b
Annual Rental under 361c
Estates offered for Selection during Year 1898–99 361c
Expenditure authorised 361b
Government Aid to Settlers 393
Interest payable on Money borrowed 361c
Preference given to Landless People 393
Process of Acquisition 392
Special Provisions for Workmen's Homes 393
Summary of all Transactions 361d
Transactions of Board for Year 1898–99 361b
Settlers, Advances to 402
Sheep 327, 455
Grading in Canterbury 459
In Colony, Thirteen Years 328
In Counties 325
In Provincial Districts, April, 1897 and 1898 329
Number and Size of Flocks 251, 328
Numbers in North and Middle Islands, Thirteen Years 328
Sheep-farming 455
Clips, Average Weight of 456
Cost of Management 330
Cross-breeding of Sheep 455
Grass-seed sown per Acre 356
Lambing Returns 330, 455
New Zealand Flock-book 457
Shearing, Price of 330
Shipping 281
Coastwise, Inwards 282
Coastwise, Outwards 282
Inwards and Outwards, Ten Years 281
Laws 310
Registered Vessels 282
Vessels and Tonnage 281
Shipwrecked Mariners, Depots for 52
“Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1894” 311
Silver Produced 334
Sinking Fund 370
Public Debt
Sinking Funds—
Amounts paid for interest and 373
Securities of 374
Sitting-days of House of Representatives 31
Legislative Council 29
Slips, Patent 52
Small Centres, Populations of 88
Small Farmers, Prospects of 468
Small Grazing-runs 358–361, 399
Small-pox, Remarks on 124
Soils, Description of, in various Land Districts 594
Sounds, West Coast 11
Southern Alps 554
Southland Land District—Physical Features; Area, Nature, and Disposition of Lands; Agriculture, Dairy-farming, Sheep-farming; Coal and Gold; Fish, Fruit; Climate; Towns; Crown Lands for Disposal 658
Sown Grasses, Extent of 346–349
In Counties 347
New Zealand, compared with Australia 356
Speaker of House of Representatives 31
Legislative Council 29
Speakers of the House of Representatives, Successive 24
Legislative Council, Successive 23
Special Settlement Associations 358–361, 398
Spinsters and Bachelors in New Zealand 107
Spirits, Consumption per Head 173, 225
Springs, The Thermal 559, 564
State Instruction 154
Schools
Statistical Information 81
Statistical Synopsis: Progress of Colony Broadsheets
Stewart Island 6, 12
Stipendiary Magistrates' Courts, Apprehensions, Convictions, &c. 171
Civil Cases 168
Stock in New Zealand, Live- 325, 454
In Australasian Colonies 327
Raising Young 461
Successive Governors 17
Ministries 22
Premiers 23
Sugar-beet, Cultivation of 452
Sugar, Consumption of 224
Suggestions for Management of New Zealand Forests 497
Sunday Schools, Numbers attending 165
Supplementary Statistics 385
Supreme Court, Civil Cases 168
Judges, Past and Present 19
Survey Charges on Unsurveyed Lands 401
Sutherland Waterfall, The 648
Tallow exported 252
Taranaki Land District—Physical Features; Soils; Dairying, Grazing, &c.; Mining; Climate; Towns; Roads and Railways; Crown Lands 602
Taranaki Provincial District: Progress for Seven Years 386
Tares, Cultivation of 451
Tariff, Customs 66–80
Taxation by General Government 382
By Local Bodies 188, 384
Graduated 382, 411
Deductions and Exemptions under Land- and Income-tax 382, 408
Graduated 382, 411
Incidence of Land- and Income-tax 382, 408
Graduated 382, 411
Income-tax 382, 409
Graduated 382, 411
Land-tax (ordinary) 382, 408
Graduated 382, 411
Per Head in New Zealand, for Six Years (excluding Maoris) 383
In Australasian Colonies 384
Proportion derived from Customs, 1898–99 383
Rate of, per Head, including Maoris 383
Rates of Land-tax 382
Yield of Tax 382, 408
Tea, Consumption of 224
Te Aroha Mineral Springs. (See Year-book, 1896, p. 427.)
Technical Education 155
Agricultural, Art, Engineering and Technical Science 155
Medicine, Otago 653
Mines, Otago 155, 653
Canterbury Agricultural College 155, 645
Medicine, Otago 653
Mines, Otago 155, 653
Examinations 156
Medicine, Otago 653
Mines, Otago 155, 653
Expenditure on 157
Medicine, Otago 653
Mines, Otago 155, 653
General Description 157
Medicine, Otago 653
Mines, Otago 155, 653
Metallurgy 155
Medicine, Otago 653
Mines, Otago 155, 653
School of Engineering and Technical Science 155
Medicine, Otago 653
Mines, Otago 155, 653
Telegraphs—
Messages transmitted 288
Miles of Line 288
Receipts 288
Telephone Exchanges 288
Temperature and Rainfall 316–320
At different Stations of New Zealand 316–319
Highest and Lowest in Shade, in New Zealand, the Australian Colonies, and other British Possessions 320
Tenure of Occupied Lands 323
Thermal-springs District and Sanatorium at Rotorua 564
Accommodation at Rotorua 593
Varieties of 566
Analyses of Five New Springs 575
Varieties of 566
Analysis and Action of the Waters 570
Varieties of 566
Area of Thermal-springs District 566
Varieties of 566
Benefits realised, Permanent 586
Varieties of 566
Cases suitable for Treatment 580
Varieties of 566
Climate of Rotorua 564
Varieties of 566
Comparison of Rotorua Springs with European 588
Varieties of 566
Craving for Alcoho cured 576
Varieties of 566
Curative Effects of Mineral Waters 585
Varieties of 566
Hospital, The (at Rotorua) 568
Varieties of 566
Massage 587
Varieties of 566
Mineral Waters, Curative Effects of 585
Varieties of 566
Names of the Principal Baths 566
Neuralgia 584
Paraplegia cured 580
Peripheral Neuritis cured 584
Permanent Benefits derived 586
Physical Features 566
Properties of the Principal Bath Springs 570
Regulations and Tariff 568
Resources, Magnitude of 588
Rheumatism, Skin-diseases, and Gout 581
Rotorua and its Surroundings 590
Rotorua Basin 592
Rotorua Sanatorium 566
Routes from Australian Colonies 593
Sciatica cured 584
Skin-disease, Great Success in 582
Tarawera 591
Treatment, Cases Suitable for 580
Ulcerated Throats 585
Varieties of Waters 566
Whakarewarewa Baths 578,592
Tenures, the Three under Land Act 390
Timbers, Cutting-out of 498
Timber exported 245,247,476
Timber Industry 470
Area of Forest Land 473
Average Wages paid 475
Beech District 473
Capital invested in 475
Character of the Forest 470
Exploitation and Conversion 473
Export of Timber 476
Kauri, Description of the 471
Kauri District 471
Labour employed in Sawmills 470,475
Rimu (red-pine) 472
Sawmills and Machinery 470,475
Totara, Description of 472
Totara District 471
Varieties of Trees 476
Tobacco, Consumption of 225
Cultivation of 355
Tokaanu 529
Tongariro Mountain 9
Total Approximate Value of Manufactures or Produce 272
Totalisator Permits issued during Year 388
Totara, The 471
Town Districts. Value of Property in 200
Local Bodies
Towns, Principal, and Suburbs 86
Towns, Villages, &c., Populations of 88
Trade 219–270
Australasian Colonies as Markets for Great Britain, Importance of 270
In Australasian Colonies 269
Imports
Shipping
Per Head of Population, Thirteen Years 266
Imports
Shipping
With Atlantic and Pacific Ports of United States, Ten Years 268
Imports
Shipping
With Australia 267
Imports
Shipping
With India 268
Imports
Shipping
With United Kingdom 267
Imports
Shipping
External, Total Value of 265
In Australasian Colonies 269
Imports
Shipping
Per Head of Population, Thirteen Years 266
Imports
Shipping
With Atlantic and Pacific Ports of United States, Ten Years 268
Imports
Shipping
With Australia 267
Imports
Shipping
With India 268
Imports
Shipping
With United Kingdom 267
Imports
Shipping
Of Australasian Colonies, Value of, per Head 269
Imports
Shipping
Of Australasian Colonies with United Kingdom 270
Imports
Shipping
(See Exports.)
Imports
Shipping
“Trade-Union Act, 1878” 312
Transport and Communication 281
Electric Telegraph 288
Australasian 285,380
Cost of 285,379
Number of Miles travelled 283
Private Lines, Length, Cost, and Revenue 284
Revenue and Expenditure for Ten Years 284
Traffic for Ten Years 283
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 283
Mail-services 287
Australasian 285,380
Cost of 285,379
Number of Miles travelled 283
Private Lines, Length, Cost, and Revenue 284
Revenue and Expenditure for Ten Years 284
Traffic for Ten Years 283
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 283
Postal and Electric Telegraph 285
Australasian 285,380
Cost of 285,379
Number of Miles travelled 283
Private Lines, Length, Cost, and Revenue 284
Revenue and Expenditure for Ten Years 284
Traffic for Ten Years 283
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 283
Railways 282,378
Australasian 285,380
Cost of 285,379
Number of Miles travelled 283
Private Lines, Length, Cost, and Revenue 284
Revenue and Expenditure for Ten Years 284
Traffic for Ten Years 283
Traffic in Local Products for Ten Years 283
Treaty of Waitangi 4
Tree-planting 465
Trout in New Zealand, Introduction of. (See Year-book, 1894, p. 431.)
Trust Office, Public (see also Year-book, 1898, p. 454) 299
Tuberculosis in Cattle 462
Tuhoeland 546
Turnips, Acreage under 447
Cost of growing 354
Seed Sown per Acre 447
Yield per Acre 447
Typhoid Fever, Deaths from 123
Unimproved Value, Rating on 195,413
United States, Trade with 268
University of New Zealand 159
Graduates 159
Students 160
Undergraduates 159
Urewera Country 546
Vaccinations, Successful, Numbers and Proportions 124
Valuation of Land, Government 181,412
Value of Home Produce exported 245
Value of Land, Buildings, Machinery, and Plant of Manufactories 272
Value of Land, Increased 181,194
Value of Real Property 181,194
Vessels 281
Shipping
Victoria College 159
Village Settlements 399
Vine-growing 464
Violent Deaths 130
Vital Statistics 100
Vital Statistics, Australasian Capitals, 1897–98 116
Volunteers 49
Votes and Voters at General Election 146
“Wages Attachment Act, 1895” 312
Wages in each Provincial District 306–309
Aggregate Amount paid 272
Paid at Manufactories and Works 277
Waihi Gold-mining Company 338
Waikato District and through to Wanganui 520
Battle of Orakau 523
Battle of Rangiriri 520
Waitangi, Treaty of 4
Wanganui River—Tokaanu—Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe 529
Wanganui to Waikato 520
Water-races, Canterbury 642
Wealth, Private 299
Calculated from Probate Returns 300
Of Australasia 301
Wealth, Public 301
Wellington Land District—Physical Features; Plains, Rivers, Lakes, Scenery, Forests, Soil; Climate; Harbours and Ports; Towns; Crown Lands; Industries, &c. 614
Wellington-Manawatu Railway 284
Wellington Provincial District: Seven Years' Progress 386
West Coast to Christchurch 548
Westland Land District—Physical Features, Mountains, Rivers, Forests, Lakes, Soil, Climate, Lands, Harbours, Towns, Mining and Minerals, &c. 634
Westland, Marlborough, and Nelson Provincial Districts: Seven Years' Progress 387
Wheat, Amount held from Previous Season 350
Acreage and Actual Yield in Provincial Districts 345
Annual Average, Principal Countries 351
Area under, and Produce, Ten Years 350
Annual Average, Principal Countries 351
Consumption of, in New Zealand 351
Annual Average, Principal Countries 351
Crops of Australasian Colonies 353
Crops of the World 351
Export in 1898 246,248,350
Seed Sown per Acre 444
Varieties Grown 444
Yields in various Localities 444
Whooping-cough, Deaths from 123
Wine, Consumption of, per Head for Five Years 173
Winter Oats and Cape Barley 451
Yield per Acre 451
Women's Franchise 16,144
Wood-paving, &c., Demand for 500
Wool—
Exported 250
Increase in Production of, Eleven Years 251
Production, Increase in 251
Proportions of Greasy, Scoured, and Washed Wool exported, Three Years 251
Used at Local Mills 251
Woollen Manufactures exported 246
Works, Public 17,368,378
Works, Wheat-crop of the 351

Chapter 81. Synopsis of Statistics, showing Progress of Colony, 1840-98, and Results of Census, 1896

STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF THE COLONY OF NEW ZEALAND FOR THE YEARS 1840 to 1852 (INCLUSIVE).
Year.Population of European Descent (excluding the Military and their Families.)*Trade.Revenue and Expenditure.
Imports.Exports.Revenue from Customs.Revenue from Land Sales and Crown Lands.Revenue from Post Office, Fees, Fines, Licenses, and other Incidental Sources.Total Revenue from Previous Sources.Parliamentary Grant, or Receipts in aid of Revenue.Appropriations from the Commissariat Chest for Military and Naval Expenditure.†Total Expenditure.

*The Maori population was estimated at 56,400 persons in the year 1853.

†The data are drawn from several official sources, and the information is only approximate.

‡Raised by debentures at different issues.

The following are particulars respecting the European population, their cultivations, and live stock for the year 1851:—

Religious Denominations.—Church of England, 14,179 persons; Presbyterians, 4,124; Wesleyans, 2,529; Primitive Methodists, 226; Independents, 333; Baptists, 400; Unitarians, 74; Lutherans, 186; Quakers, 8; Protestants not specifically defined, 614; Roman Catholics, 3,473; Jews, 65; refused to state, 496.

Education.—Could not read, 7,818 persons; read only, 4,353; read and write, 14,536.

Land in Cultivation.—Acres—in wheat, 5,514; barley, 1,329; oats, 2,324; maize, 259; potatoes, 2,256; grass, 15,589; gardens or orchard, 1,188; other crops, 679: total under crop, 29,140. Acres lenced, 40,625.

Live Stock.—Horses, 2,890; mules and asses 60; cattle, 34,787; sheep, 233,043; goats, 12,121; pigs, 16,214.

 Persons.£££££££££
18402,050....926....926....926
18415,00085,06210,8366,40728,5402,44337,39043,34780481,541
184210,992166,78318,67018,56811,7232,29832,58917,4941,42651,509
184311,848191,20753,94516,2411,6133,54421,3989,5628,09339,053
184412,447111,61949,64711,0994052,44513,94930,815‡9,78254,546
184512,774116,98076,9118,8991553,84512,899..200,000212,899
184613,274155,47882,65621,3196154,71126,64535,673‡190,000252,318
184714,477202,35545,48536,4728355,95843,26537,752153,038234,055
184817,166233,84444,21538,3663, 3375,77947,48236,000155,653239,135
184919,543254,679133,66241,9313,6004,87750,40820,000151,455221,863
185022,108....43,6128,5597,12752,29841,730131,100232,128
185126,707....49,20812,2615,58067,04920,000110,600197,649
185227,633....50,52714,28110,95675,76410,00091,600177,364
STATISTICAL SUMMARY OT THE COLONY OF NEW ZEALAND FROM 1853 TO 1898 INCLUSIVE
For summary, Years 1840 to 1852, see separate sheet.
Year.Population (exclusive of Maoris) on 31st December.Births.Deaths.Marriages.Crown Lands.*
Males.Females.Totals.Waste Lands sold for Cash in each Year.Cash realised.Lands finally alienated under the Deferred-payment System.Free Grants.*Let on Perpetual Lease.Taken up during the Year.
Land taken up.In Occupation on December 31.Under Occupation with Right of Purchase.§On Lease in Perpetuity.§Improved Farms.§Special settlement Associate'ns.§

* The waste or Crown lands sold or granted in each year prior to 1856 cannot be accurately stated. The total gross quantity of land disposed by Crown grants up to the end of March, 1899, including both lands

grants for public purposes, Native reserves, and old land-claims; also, from the year 1872, grants to Natives under the provisions of the Native Land Acts. On 31st March, 1899, 11,114,012 acres, in 925 runs, were he

‡ Corrected by results of census taken in April, 1891.

§ Financial year ended 31st March of the year following.

|| The population of the colony (other than Maoris) according to the census of 12th April, 1896,

a Under deferred-payment system.

b Held under perpetual lease.

c Area included previously as held under lease in perpetuity, and occupation with right of purchase.

d New system; counted on

       Acres.£Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1853................................
185417,91414,64032,554..........................
185520,78116,41137,1921,460470406....................
185625,35620,185445,5401,72240640451,97233,156..14............
185727,60622,19649,8021,966434478141,15979,060..6,169............
185833,67925,73459,4132,272582534239,128150,839..6,277............
185941,10730,48671,5932,6747,094603477,021222,885..45,730............
186045,39434,31779,7113,1461,092690424,254204,113..47,016............
186161,06237,95999,0213,4411,109878449,358285,365..18,834............
186279,68046,132125,8124,0641,2311,091658,337506,657..40,335............
186279,068046,132125,8124,0641,2311,091658,337506,657..40,335............
1863105,97858,070164,0485,1151,0831,485529,437380,998..66,853............
1864106,58065,578172,1586,5012,9211,878691,174595,858..47,198............
1865117,37673,231190,6077,4902,7571,908503,112341,094..62,681............
1866125,08079,034204,1148,4662,5402,038603,406528,028..55,975............
1867131,92986,739218,6688,9182,7022,050288,917287,416..76,743............
1868134,62191,997226,6189,3912,6622,085199,309182,065..42,205............
1869140,11297,137237,2499,7182,7211,931112,211115,941..145,449............
1870145,732102,668248,40010,2772,7031,85176,76688,419..37,256............
1871156,431110,555266,98610,5922,6421,86492,642110,973..123,796............
1872162,404117,156279,56010,7953,1921,873338,516389,107..183,673............
1873170,406125,540295,94611,2223,6452,276790,245980,758..484,541............
1874194,349147,511341,86012,8444,1612,828648,800860,471..238,581............
1875213,294162,562375,85614,4385,7123,209318,682448,697..486,335............
1876225,580173,495399,07516,1684,9043,196497,416846,831..31,145............
1877227,681180,937408,61816,8564,6853,114777,8621,314,48079,32440,314............
1878240,627191,892432,51917,7704,6453,377642,6671,252,99379,32454,861..........
1879257,894205,835463,72918,0705,5833,35279,575146,73337,953............
1880268,364216,500484,86419,3415,4373,181131,798184,48818,97841,972............
1881274,986225,924500,91018,7325,4913,277235,815351,43039,949530,650............
1882283,303234,404517,70719,0095,7013,600138,512209,00427,487122,100............
1883294,665246,212540,87719,2026,0613,612113,500141,25124,229228,69826,78626,364........
1884306,667257,637564,30419,8465,7403,80096,267124,92840,023121,61120,97541,561........
1885312,125263,101575,22619,6936,0813,81359,61384,28234,637456,08024,44151,367........
1886317,646271,740589,38619,2996,1353,48839,96443,83629,292185,76450,329§93,868......43,873a
1887324,558278,803603,36119,1356,1373,56321,15425,33018,496316,48872,401§150,218......31,740a
1888324,948282,432607,38018,9025,7083,61764,89852,37923,630142,351205,371§312,495......19,905a
1889328,588287,464616,052‡18,4575,7723,63242,61747,95024,77360,708238,634§544,914......4,970a
1890332,557292,951625,508‡18,2785,9943,79798,479108,95946,808135,763289,871§798,571......71a
1891336,174297,884634,05818,2736,5183,80556,06053,56852,021209,432283,440§1,019,405......1,923b
1892345,146305,287650,43317,8766,4594,00233,65934,15641,726243,008125,194§1,188,07154,271212,705..157,381c
1893357,635314,630672,26518,1876,774,11526,27526,78644,779198,3233,854§1,100,537108,134252,798..68,852c
1894363,763322,365686,12818,5286,9184,17838,695§47,033§53,577§89,516§1,263§864,212§75,501156,9269,731c51,346c
1895369,725328,981698,706||18,5466,8634,11026,584§21,17§62,287§143,107§1,427§746,403§84,970198,30028,348c44,237c
1896376,987337,175714,16218,6126,4324,84328,489§21,117§62,287§143,107§1,427§746,403§84,970198,30028,348c44,237c
1897384,703344,353729,05618,7376,5954,92822,526§18,226§41,683§25,602§651§543,555§81,416128,8139,007c442c
1898392,124351,339743,46318,9557,2445,09137,430§26,829§39,506§438,257§640§440,089§109,952167,184,823c607c
 Occupied and Cultivated Holdings over One Acre in Extent.Land (including Sown Grasses) under Cultivation.Live Stock.†Postal.Electric Telegraph.Miles of Railway.
 Horses.Horned Cattle.Sheep.Pigs.Letters (received and despatched).Newspapers (received and despatched).Postal Revenue.Money Orders issued.Amount of Money Orders issued.Miles of Line.Number of Messages.Cash and Cash Values.Open for Traffic.Under Construction.Railway Receipts.
Small Grazing-runs and Grazing-farms.§

lands sold and lands disposed of without sale, was 22,584,517 statute acres. The figures under the head “Free Grants” representing in each year the total area of free grants to immigrants and naval and military settlers, are held from Government on depasturing licenses, and 1,107,809 acres, as small grazing-runs, by 602 persons.

† Prior to 1892 this information is given for the years in which a census of the colony was taken. 1896, was 703,360 at that date; the Maori population was 39,854.

¶ Information not similarly compiled by Department of Agriculture.

**Government Railways; there are, besides, 167 miles of private lines.

e Holdings of exactly one acre, besides certain Maori holdings, are included.

Acres.Number.Acres.    Number.Number.£Number.£  £  £
..............119,039177,583...... ..........
..............138,482201,381..................
..............171,407238,522..................
..............196,760271,254..................
....121,648........337,721498,163..................
....141,00714,912137,2041,523,32440,734482,856684,3486,024................
....156,940........707,870839,3857,812................
..............890,3691,029,35610,068................
....226,62128,275193,2852,761,38343,2701,236,7681,428,35114,108................
..............2,122,2322,064,12322,7101,4106,590............
..............3,403,2483,397,66932,32911,58655,703............
....382,65549,409249,7604,937,27361,2764,151,1424,306,01739,30216,59178,556............
..............4,443,4734,206,99246,47517,23678,576............
..............4,758,6444,373,03949,59822,710108,77969948,2319,114......
....676,90965,715312,8358,418,579115,1044,811,2403,060,88855,33124,473115,61071487,43614,295......
..11,932783,435........4,977,1993,283,61557,10725,854118,2111,471134,64726,224......
..1 3,476997,477........5,016,9593,563,14758,00728,427127,2181,611173,74632,649......
..10,2111,140,279........5,645,8793,889,66255,78031,864140,4541,887238,19527,422......
..14,8741,226,22281,028436,5929,700,629151,4606,081,6974,179,78470,24936,291157,3972,015369,08537,203......
..15,3041,416,933........6,958,5434,411,09194,73344,660191,0092,312491,20544,669......
..15,8831,651,712........7,915,9855,269,19594,70652,351219,2582,389637,94155,195145434..
..16,0921,943,65399,261494,11311,674,863123,7419,058,4566,306,692104,7162,712263,1642,632844,30162,32220962121,198
..17,2502,377,402........1,427,8516,811,277122,49673,027293,4813,156993,32374,42054246472,073
..18,7502,940,711........11,770,7377,962,748129,23680,255310,2683,1701,100,59980,841718427469,051
..20,5193,523,277........13,054,8708,066,311143,60090,672334,9733,3071,182,95585,5891,052251569,898
..21,0483,982,866137,768578,43013,069,338207,33715,524,7619,410,366158,998101,017368,2553,4341,260,32492,4331,089142758,096
..23,1294,506,889........20,957,81810,057,944141,448117,999428,6733,5121,448,943112,3511,171284762,572
..24,1474,768,192........22,824,46810,272,917149,517135,648465,4053,7581,304,712100,0231,288192836,077
..26,2985,189,104161,736698,63712,985,085200,08325,557,93112,248,043156,579135,556452,1823,8241,438,772101,5661,333187892,026
..27,3525,651,255........30,525,57913,313,099168,325148,162499,3683,9741,570,189102,3781,371171953,347
..28,5876,072,949........33,588,40813,030,563172,665172,556541,1334,0741,599,400102,9581,404224961,304
..29,8146,550,399........35,257,84614,093,742188,772186,052572,6664,2641,654,305101,4821,4791581,045,712
..31,7636,668,920........35,829,85514,233,878197,456188,622581,3954,4631,774,273112,7781,6131791,047,418
105,85733,3326,845,177187,382853,35816,564,595277,90138,084,59214,324,047206,029155,680547,7554,5461,836,266115,6661,721171998,768
1567,48234,7437,284,752........39,377,77415,381,323213,355159,579555,7444,6461,835,394116,2111,753169994,843
161,65235,7477,670,167........40,398,02016,202,849212,247162,387555,9964,7901,765,860104,1161,777163997,615
60,34038,1788,015,426........42,301,23316,721,016222,978172,076589,5454,8741,802,987106,4621,8091761,095,569
86,16138,0838,462,495........43,917,20017,912,734229,867176,427602,0775,0601,961,161110,6971,8421321,121,701
159,46441,2248,893,225211,040831,83118,128,186308,81247,612,86418,501,912245,395195,239651,9905,3491,968,264117,6341,8691701,115,432
92,92642,7689,713,745....18570,752..50,610,74218,557,565252,494199,438694,8475,4791,904,143103,8131,8861881,181,522
252,69345,29010,063,051..885,30519,380,369..52,085,44919,556,030253,457210,957750,9295,5132,069,791112,4661,9451481,172,792
117,84546,67610,128,076..964,03420,230,829..52,168,33619,271,590254,800222,678776,7835,8232,046,839114,5101,9931271,150,831
46,40710,698,809237,4181,047,90119,826,604239,77829,586,949d12,675,973d242,615243,497812,6046,2452,124,211123,1122,0141141,183,044
68,93458,904e11,550,075249,8131,138,57219,138,493209,85330,442,053d13,216,521d262,482269,566902,1606,2852,520,169129,635**2,0181241,286,158
149,45860,759e11,444,563252,8341,209,16519,687,954186,02733,030,095d14,261,345d270,627293,659970,8316,4842,696,233136,221**2,055921,376,008
77,63262,639e11,984,606258,1151,203,02419,673,725193,51235,654,947d15,095,487d295,065318,3701,029,2416,7362,960,738145,295**2,0901131,469,665
YearShipping.Exports (the Produce of New Zealand).Exports (the Produce of New Zealand).
Inwards.Outwards.Registered Vessels belonging to the Colony.Wool.Grain.Frozen Meat.Flax (Phormium).Gold.Gum (Kauri).Provisions, Tallow, Timber, &c.Total Value.
Number of VesselsTonnage.Number of Vessels.Tonnage.Number of Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Value.

* Post-Office Savings-Banks were first opened in 1867

† Statistics of schools and scholars not being complete for years prior to 1874, no figures are entered.

‡ Approximate.

|| There was in March, 1899, an accrued sinking fund amounting to £857,279, leaving a net indebtedness of £46,080,727.

¶ Excluding Maoris.

aFinancial year ended 31st March of year following.

b During these years the Public Works Fund was assisted by contributions from the revenue of the Consolidated Fund to the extent of £1,755,000;

Further receipts in aid have been given since the year 1870 by was of contributions of stamps duties, release of sinking funds, &c.

 lb.£Bushels.£cwt.£Tons.£Oz.£Tons.£££
185323865,50422962,891....1,071,34066,50759,95919,042....461,046....82915,971200,706303,272
185429374,83129376,718....1,254,41670,10393,70041,019....481,563....1,66028,864179,341320,890
185537888,61434179,825....1,772,34493,104150,35282,302....1504,674....3554,514181,273365,867
185632685,74832382,991....2,559,618146,07066,15024,932....22552....1,44018,591129,188318,433
185728978,30928376,5241866,6622,648,716176,57981,75729,676....3871010,43640,4422,52135,25086,737369,394
185833990,11832282,2931896,8523,810,372254,02271,40320,680....641,51613,53352,4431,81020,03685,252433,949
1859438136,580398120,3922137,8835,096,751339,779118,74039,016....771,5987,33628,4272,01020,77691,717521,308
1860398140,276398140,2932388,5276,665,880444,39255,68313,112....611,2404,53817,5851,0469,85162,953549,133
1861596197,986546205,3502529,1447,855,920523,7288,1182,518....243194,234752,6578569,88850,4071,339,241
1862813301,365783288,64728710,8259,839,265674,2266,6021,821....13261410,8621,591,3891,10311,1079,2162,358,020
18631,154419,9351,094394,66534315,18912,585,980830,4953,2381,160....13251628,4502,431,7231,40027,02752,2353,342,891
18641,117426,0041,089433,25342322,57316,691,6661,070,9973,580722....7170480,1711,857,8472,22860,59060,3083,050,634
1865862295,625783283,02046624,48419,180,5001,141,26125,4476,076....375574,5742,226,4741,86746,06082,9753,503,421
18661,019330,303986306,97949326,78722,810,7761,354,15232,6107,297....45996735,3762,844,5172,53570,572118,5564,396,090
1867944309,568950308,16936623,24027,152,9661,580,608158,81126,986....1264,256686,7532,700,2752,68577,49189,8484,479,464
1868851277,105873287,71037224,53928,875,1631,516,548632,556114,125....5348,137637,4742,504,3262,69072,49353,1334,268,762
1869764250,731771247,76438125,99027,765,6361,371,230520,55696,441....2,02845,245614,2812,362,9952,850111,307102,9164,090,134
1870756273,151766265,40738426,74337,039,7631,703,944854,399141,135....5,471132,578544,8802,157,5854,391175,074234,3664,544,682
1871729274,643709265,61837127,10737,793,7341,606,1441,032,902164,087....4,24890,611730,0292,787,5205,054167,958354,7845,171,104
1872775300,302743285,36636423,96341,886,9972,537,9191,058,480178,886....3,98599,405445,3701,730,9924,811154,167405,8175,107,186
1873739289,297704281,84741130,03541,535,1852,702,471598,431136,832....6,454143,799505,3371,987,4252m83385,816421,6275,477,970
1874856399,296822385,53347138,93546,848,7352,834,6951,162,782291,103....2,03837,690376,3881,505,3312,56879,986403,3385,152,143
1875926416,727940417,82050242,02554,401,5403,398,1551,276,927231,417....63911,742355,3221,407,7703,230138,523288,2375,475,844
1876878393,180866393,33453844,40159,853,4543,395,8162,172,098337,878....89718,285318,3671,268,5592,888109,234359,1295,488,901
1877812388,568848400,60953342,47964,481,3243,658,9381,323,910276,452....1,05318,826366,9551,476,3123,632118,348509,8416,058,717
1878926456,490886428,49354146,96559,270,2563,292,807,112,214508,767....62210,666311,4371,244,1903,445132,975595,2145,784,619
1879894473,940908475,75256364,45762,220,8103,126,4393,470,344660,557....4457,874284,1001,134,6413,228147,535486,4095,563,455
188073039,675786424,04155966,31666,860,1503,169,3005,540,445898,997....89415,617303,2151,220,2634,725242,817555,3066,102,300
1881765420,134762413,48757272,38759,415,9402,909,7605,815,960986,072....1,30826,285250,683996,8675,460253,778589,4885,762,250
1882795461,285769438,55158476,19665,322,7073,118,5544,310,984907,96115,24419,8392,04041,955230,893921,6645,533260,369983,5036,23,350
1883805494,926851507,56557984,90368,149,4303,014,2116,723,3031,286,72487,975118,3282,01336,761222,899892,4456,518336,6061,170,1696,855,244
1884852529,188872534,24258392,69681,139,0283,267,5275,489,635766,824254,069345,0901,52523,475246,392988,9536,393342,1511,208,4666,942,486
1885786519,700780513,00059795,88786,507,4313,205,2754,597,645513,697296,473373,8571,06316,316222,732890,0565,876299,7621,292,4986,591,911
1886725502,572707488,33157194,19690,853,7443,072,9713,523,324463,549346,055427,1931,11215,922235,578939,6484,920257,6531,209,7466,386,682
1887653489,754675493,58355794,02788,824,3823,321,0744,126,836443,780402,107455,8701,57825,094187,938747,8786,790362,4341,194,9516,551,081
1888683526,435701531,47852486,13283,225,7333,115,0085,101,167668,859552,298628,8004,04275,269229,608914,3098,482380,9331,471,9507,255,128
1889781602,634762593,25252087,411102,227,3543,976,3756,120,202985,224656,822783,37417,084361,182197,492785,4907,519329,5901,820,7739,042,008
1890744662,769745649,70552198,907102,817,0774,150,5998,287,0241,030,415898,8941,087,61721,158381,789187,641751,3607,438378,5631,648,4189,428,761
1891737618,515744625,807521102,068106,187,1144,129,6865,877,059676,3381,000,3071,194,72415,809281,514251,1611,007,1728,388437,0561,673,6049,400,094
1892766675,223689656,100491101,156118,180,9124,313,3076,625,525816,272869,6001,033,37712,793214,542237,393951,9638,705517,6781,518,7299,365,868
1893617615,604635642,466478100,388109,719,6843,774,7384,855,368583,397903,8361,085,16712,587219,375227,502915,9218,317510,7751,468,0708,557,443
1894609631,100614631,25047599,588144,295,1544,827,0162,434,295226,1831,025,2431,194,5454,67766,256221,614887,8658,338404,5671,478,7109,085,148
1895611672,951597648,946479100,988116,015,1703,662,1311,381,837215,7831,134,0971,262,7111,80621,040293,4931,162,1817,425418,7661,647,5418,390,153
1896589614,097592627,659492105,553129,151,6244,391,8482,941,821346,1971,103,3621,251,9932,96832,985263,6941,041,4287,126431,3231,681,5629,177,336
1897600686,899587675,333506119,713135,835,1174,443,1441,919,887235,4291,407,9211,566,2862,76930,674251,647980,2046,641398,0101,942,5209,596,267
1898620765,255622765,793518126,113149,385,8154,645,8041,045,980136,1201,551,7731,698,7504,85074,556280,1751,080,6919,905586,7672,102,30010,324,988
Coal-mines, Output from.Expenditure of General Government.Public Debt: Debentures and Stock in Circulation. (Prior to 1880 the figures are for Calender Years.)Debt of Local Bodies.Banks. (Average of Four Quarters.)Savings-Banks.*Insurances in Force in the Government Insurance Department at end of Year.Friendly Societies registered.Schools and Scholars.†Crime.Year.
Primary Schools.Private Schools.
Out of Revenue Account.Out of Loan Account.Deposits.Assets.Liabilities.Number of Depositors.Balance to credit on 31st Dec.No. of Policies.Sums Assured and Bonuses.No. of Lodges, 7c.No. of Members.Schools.Scholars.Schools.Scholars.Convictions in Superior Courts.¶Convictions in Magistrates' Courts.¶

§ addition to these there were in December, 1898, 2,972 children attending the Native schools, nearly all maintained by Government, 718 at industrial schools and orphanages, and 2,706 scholars at high schools.

Payments in each financial year were- in 1891-92, £30,000; in 1892-93; £200,000; in 1893-94, £250,000; in 1894-95, £250,000; in 1895-96, £150,000; in 1896-97, £150,000; in 1897-98, £300,000; in 1898-99, £425,000.

Tons.£££££££ £ £ 
....................................131,3731853
....................................211,9551854
....................................312,1541855
....................................282,0051856
..........343,316419,860432,494....................272,0101857
..........448,078705,738616,7697157,862................622,5891858
Prior to 1878, 709,931.........541,2131,003,584678,4748027,996................702,7491859
........644,521992,082801,5881,10412,450................912,9031860
........882,7541,235,9521,097,1621,14422,921................1003,4901861
....836,000..1,596,4462,691,1172,092,4971,49629,768................1456,3711862
....1,289,750..2,092,0904,028,7662,962,5852,37144,117................2349,2961863
....2,219,450..2,480,3035,063,4583,343,1724,66994,248................26211,3571864
....4,368,681..2,638,4145,455,2893,522,1464,30487,400................33210,1021865
....5,435,728..3,097,4735,891,5324,010,1104,51391,863................27711,0401866
....5,781,193..2,904,5945,947,1603,737,6956,579156,855................24011,2091867
....7,182,743..3,102,7275,734,7453,838,2208,121243,615................24810,9731868
....7,360,616..3,174,8316,231,4163,863,00610,103320,383................27711,6951869
....7,841,891..3,127,7696,315,3543,819,67012,137388,8045930,250............23111,9901870
....8,900,991..3,334,6725,871,8883,988,40014,275454,966454200,611............18011,5061871
......9,985,386..3,919,8385,429,7474,628,81917,289597,0021,689625,421............19010,8011872
......10,913,936..4,713,8067,267,7205,538,03021,807812,1442,634995,986............18911,9921873
..2,960,7102,725,89313,366,936..5,564,4349,954,2166,490,50427,215943,7533,9531,453,496....54438,2151888,23719413,7411874
..3,431,9723,107,86717,400,031..5,967,20510,987,1786,987,31830,310897,3264,9891,836,859....59945,5621827,31625717,1101875
..4,305,3372,066,10418,678,111..6,238,47111,776,0707,221,39932,577905,1466,1532,282,129898,56068051,9642449,35724915,9021876
..3,822,4251,827,90420,691,111..7,185,10612,992,1048,152,23035,709964,4307,1492,716,907888,82873056,2392529,99225016,1031877
162,2184,365,2751,287,86922,608,311..8,960,36915,393,63010,031,00939,9261,043,2048,7113,251,2201109,75974865,0402369,20629216,1191878
231,2183,845,0351,973,23923,958,311..8,020,07316,054,2959,057,46342,679990,33710,2233,726,33013813,16581775,55625710,23429615,8211879
299,9234,019,8502,228,99028,185,711..8,538,93514,220,2759,550,17747,4621,148,99211,6564,171,50417914,48483682,40127811,23833014,7781880
337,2623,675,7971,069,92728,479,1113,039,8079,069,37714,863,64510,083,18861,0541,549,51512,4114,471,18227218,63486983,5602669,98727013,7951881
378,2723,824,735821,97629,445,0113,277,5848,945,34617,162,23410,015,27368,3581,832,04715,8925,273,16431521,88291187,17926210,00226516,2201882
421,7643,924,0051,191,78431,071,5823,540,0468,659,47717,794,7619,706,70073,5461,784,63119,9175,992,11132323,10794392,47625711,25525816,5901883
480,8314,101,318a1,565,74832,195,4223,962,3309,643,21418,442,13910,691,59979,5141,926,75921,0036,224,57133423,500‡98797,23826512,20328717,6721884
511,0634,282,901a1,178,88433,880,7224,312,22310,083,29618,811,56711,130,24485,7692,142,56023,2186,552,24235825,000‡1,021102,40728011,98926617,5661885
534,3534,310,875a1,583,72335,741,6534,943,27010,579,71119,041,82711,603,19491,2962,133,86124,7157,053,27637225,300‡1,054106,32828812,49728616,4281886
558,6204,212,474a1,572,78636,758,4375,620,74711,031,61418,799,84711,995,49597,4962,407,77625,4397,136,94437225,500‡1,093110,91929913,41734715,2781887
613,8954,226,112a824,88038,375,0505,812,80311,155,77818,709,44412,108,353103,0462,691,69326,1687,362,48838726,200‡1,128112,68529913,89330814,2591888
586,4454,256,921a515,05838,667,9505,892,05011,528,42417,652,91512,486,717110,5662,858,64427,2187,600,53738726,700‡1,155115,45629313,45827613,8611889
637,3974,369,566a398,81738,830,3505,978,05912,368,61017,735,25913,356,598118,3443,137,02328,1027,807,79239028,000‡1,200117,91229813,62627013,8851890
668,7944,417,843a518,348ab38,713,0686,042,69312,796,09816,814,51813,820,458126,8863,406,94929,2268,390,80340028,250‡1,255119,52328114,14228313,0511891
673,3154,324,990a488,781ab39,257,8406,081,93413,587,06217,558,16814,623,335135,8273,580,54430,3168,580,81740329,000‡1,302122,62027414,45624113,2901892
691,5484,455,116a852,275ab39,826,4156,203,86914,433,77718,255,53415,489,633147,1993,966,84931,7098,821,25540930,500‡1,355124,69029914,92230413,4571893
719,5464,266,712a600,657ab40,386,9646,614,82413,927,21717,746,42114,930,791154,4054,066,59432,9079,232,54341131,000‡1,410127,30030214,62730012,6131894
726,6544,370,481a972,195ab43,050,7806,685,51013,544,41518,159,78114,491,627163,5134,620,69633,9689,345,22942431,200‡1,464129,85629814,65934413,0671895
792,8514,509,981a1,089,590ab44,366,6186,737,57814,490,82716,900,19915,520,431175,1735,065,86434,7729,415,69339231,8251,533131,037§28313,94729114,1491896
840,7134,602,372a1,134,812ab44,963,4246,793,39814,290,51217,276,77115,380,248187,9545,520,08036,1749,857,01038832,6701,585132,197§27814,44730314,8751897
907,0334,858,511a1,543,683ab46,938,006||6,834,36114,143,22917,013,40415,299,058199,4645,746,88737,84810,124,227....1,655131,621§29414,78235116,500‡1898
DISTRIBUTION OF EUROPEAN POPULATION.
Total (including Chinese and Half-castes).
Persons.Males.Females.

NOTE.—The Maori population of the colony (not included above) according to the result of a separate census taken in February, 1896, amounted to 39,854. Of these, 37,102 persons were found to be in the North Island, 2,207 persons in the Middle Island, 117 at Stewart Island, and 199 Maoris and Morioris at the Chatham Islands. There were 229 Maori wives of European husbands enumerated in the European census.

The total population of the colony (including Maoris) in April, 1896, was: Persons, 743,214, males 393,088, females 350,126; of these 3,711 were Chinese—3,685 males, 26 females.

Counties391,735218,385173,350
Borough307,294149,415157,879
Islands adjacent to New Zealand709402307
Chatham Islands234132102
Kermadec Islands743
On shipboard3,3813,077304
            Totals for colony703,360371,415331,945
North Island340,631181,089159,542
Middle Island362,236190,038172,198
Stewart Island252152100
Chatham Islands234132102
Kermadec Islands743
            Totals for colony703,360371,415331,945
AGES OF THE PEOPLE (INCLUSIVE OF CHINESE).
Numbers.Proportion per Cent.Proportions of Sexes in every 100 Persons.
Ages.Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.Males.Females.
All ages703,360371,415331,945..........
Specified ages702,518370,830331,688100.00100.00100.0053.0946.91
Under 1 year17,0708,7748,2962.432.372.5051.4048.60
1 year and under 2 years15,1927,6547,5382.162.062.2750.3849.62
2 years and under 3 years17,2408,7378,5032.452.362.5650.6849.32
3 years and under 4 years16,9518,5678,3842.412.312.5350.5449.46
4 years and under 5 years17,2068,7168,4902.452.352.5650.6649.34
5 years and under 6 years16,8518,5208,3312.402.302.5150.5649.44
6 years and under 7 years17,0908,6358,4552.432.332.5550.5349.47
7 years and under 8 years17,2828,8038,4792.462.372.5650.9449.06
8 years and under 9 years17,6508,8468,8042.512.392.6550.1249.88
9 years and under 10 years17,1528,7578,3952.442.362.5351.0648.94
10 years and under 11 years17,6668,8588,8082.512.392.6650.1449.86
11 years and under 12 years17,0198,5528,4672.422.312.5550.2549.75
12 years and under 13 years17,4668,8298,6372.492.382.6150.5549.45
13 years and under 14 years16,6288,3918,2372.372.262.4850.4649.54
14 years and under 15 years16,6888,4148,2742.382.272.5050.4249.58
15 years and under 20 years80,73440,36440,37011.5010.8812.1750.0050.00
20 years and under 21 years14,8507,5097,3412.112.032.2150.5749.43
21 years and under 25 years53,86626,75527,1117.677.228.1749.6750.33
25 years and under 30 years59,59530,60528,9908.488.258.7451.3548.65
30 years and under 35 years45,21323,74721,4666.446.406.4752.5247.48
35 years and under 40 years40,58722,50618,0815.786.075.4555.4544.55
40 years and under 45 years34,85419,99914,8554.965.394.4857.3842.42
45 years and under 50 years29,55516,83012,7254.214.543.8456.9443.06
50 years and under 55 years27,72616,20311,5233.954.373.4758.4441.56
55 years and under 60 years22,84914,2528,5973.253.842.5962.3737.63
60 years and under 65 years16,78210,5046,2782.392.831.8962.5937.41
65 years and under 70 years10,2406,4593,7811.461.741.1463.0836.92
70 years and under 75 years5,4243,2192,2050.770.870.6759.3540.65
75 years and under 80 years3,2311,8431,3880.460.500.4257.0442.96
80 years and under 85 years1,2656775880.180.180.1853.5246.48
85 and upwards years5963052910.080.080.0951.1758.83
Unspecified age, under 21 years442618..........
Unspecified age, over 21 years798559239..........
SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS OF THE CENSUS OF 12th APRIL, 1896.
BIRTHPLACES.
Birthplaces.Numbers.Proportions per Cent.Proportion of the Sexes in every 100 persons.
Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.Males.Females.
                  Total population703,360371,415331,945......52.8147.19
                  Totals for specified birthplaces702,756371,008331,748100.00100.00100.0052.7947.21
British—
     United Kingdom—
        England116,54166,59049,95116.5817.9515.0657.1442.86
        Wales2,1481,2908580.310.350.2660.0639.94
        Scotland50,43528,89021,5457.187.796.4957.2842.72
        Ireland46,03724,83521,2026.556.696.3953.9546.05
            Total United Kingdom215,161121,60593,55630.6232.7828.2056.5243.48
     Australasia—
        New Zealand441,661221,085220,57662.8559.5966.4950.0649.94
        Australia, Tasmania, Fiji21,78210,85410,9283.102.933.2949.8350.17
            Total Australasia463,443231,939231,50465.9562.5269.7850.0549.95
     Other British possessions3,7502,2011,5490.530.590.4758.6941.31
            Total British682,354355,745326,60997.1095.8998.4552.1347.87
Foreign—
     Austria-Hungry8817491320.130.200.0485.0214.98
     Belgium13891470.020.020.0165.9434.06
     Denmark and Possessions2,1251,3737520.300.370.2364.6135.39
     France and Possessions689942040.100.130.0670.7729.23
     Germany4,593  0.650.810.48659.5134.49
     Greece12795320.020.030.0174.8025.20
     Italy423338850.060.090.0379.9120.09
     Netherlands and Possessions132115170.020.030.0087.1212.88
     Poland10170310.010.020.0169.3130.69
     Portugal and Possessions173149240.020.040.0186.1313.87
     Russia and Possessions365330350.050.090.0190.419.59
     Spain and Possessions8863250.010.020.0171.5928.41
     Sweden and Norway2,7752,2025730.400.590.0779.3520.65
     Switzerland342258840.050.070.0375.4424.56
     Other European Countries3017130.000.000.0056.6743.33
     China3,7193,695240.531.000.0199.350.65
     Africa (various)13472620.020.020.0253.7346.27
     America (North America)9696203490.0140.170.1063.9836.02
     United States of America7805422380.110.150.0769.4930.51
     Other Foreign Countries4853331520.070.090.0568.6631.34
            Total Foreign19,08014,6164,4642.713.941.3576.6023.40
All Sea1,3226476750.190.170.2048.9451.06
Birthplaces not stated604407197..........
                  Allegiance
British subjects690,003360,238329,76598.1096.9999.3452.2147.79
Foreign subjects13,35711,1772,1801.903.010.6683.6816.32
RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS.
Religious Denominations.Numbers.Proportions per cent.Proportions of the Sexes in every 100 persons.
Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.Males.Females.
* Included United Methodist Free Churches and Bible Christians, which bodies were incorporated in the Wesleyan Methodist Church or 13th April, 1896.
                  Total population703,360371,415331,945......52.8147.19
                  Total for specified religions702,238370,637331,601100.00100.00100.0052.7847.22
Episcopalians—
      Church of England, and Episcopalians not otherwise defined281,166148,171132,99540.0439.9840.1152.7047.30
Protestants (undescribed)1,6439966470.230.270.1960.6239.38
Presbyterians159,95284,25975,69322.7822.7332.8352.6847.32
Methodists—
      Wesleyan Methodist*63,37331,48131,8929.028.499.6249.6850.32
      Primitive Methodists7,0413,4493,5921.000.931.0848.9851.02
      Methodists (undefined)2,8931,4761,4170.410.400.4351.0548.98
      Others6034260.010.010.0156.6743.33
Baptists16,0377,6908,3472.282.072.5247.9552.05
Congregational Independent3,493t6,7773,2840.970.891.0548.4651.54
Lutheran, German Protestant5,5383,5372,0010.790.950.6063.8736.13
Unitarians3752321430.050.060.0461.8738.13
Society of Friends3212001210.050.050.0462.3137.69
Church of Christ5,8592,7003,1590.850.730.9546.0853.92
Brethren5,0352,3592,6760.640.640.8146.8553.15
Believers in Christ7736410.010.010.0146.7553.25
Evangelists3323100.000.010.0069.7030.30
Nonconformists9559360.010.020.0162.1137.89
Salvation Army10,5325,2445,2881.500.411.5949.7950.21
Christadelphians9524854670.140.130.1450.9549.05
New Church191101900.030.030.0352.8847.12
Seventh-day Adventists7763164600.110.090.1440.7259.28
Students of Truth3401481920.050.040.0643.5356.47
Dissenters6532330.010.010.0149.2350.77
Christian Israelites, Israelites6127340.010.010.0144.2655.74
Other Protestants1,7108608500.240.230.2650.2949.71
Roman Catholics97,52550,34847,17713.8913.5814.2351.6348.37
catholics (undefined)1,27970457508180.190.1755.0444.96
Greek Church11699170.020.030.0185.3414.66
Catholic Apostolic2471181290.040.030.0447.7752.23
Other Denominations—
      Hebrews1,5498087410.220.220.2252.1647.84
      Mormons, Latter-day Saints2891621270.040.040.04756.0543.95
      Spiritualists3761961800.050.050.0552.1847.87
      Buddhists, Confucians, &c.3,3913,374170.480.910.0199.500.50
      Others187125620.030.030.0266.8533.15
No Denomination—
      Freethinkers3,9833,0769070.570.830.2747.2322.77
      Agnostics5624261360.080.120.0475.8024.20
      Deists, Theists463880.010.010.0082.6017.40
      No denomination3,8982,4101,4880.550.650.4561.8338.17
      Doubtful4631150.010.010.0067.3932.61
No religion—
      No religion1,4901,0894010.210.290.1273.0926.91
      Atheists11788290.020.020.0175.2124.79
      Secularists153112410.020.030.0173.2026.80
      Others (variously returned)11593220.020.030.0180.8719.13
Object to state15,96710,1415,8262.272.741.7663.5136.49
Unspecified1,122778344..........
CONJUGAL CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
Ages.Numbers.Proportion to every 100 living at each Age.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
Total.Unmarried.Husbands.Widowers.Not stated.Total.Unmarried.Wives.Widows.Not stated.Unmarried.Husbands.Widowers.Unmarried.Wives.Widows.
All ages367,730255,184102,7369,348462331,919213,583103,19315,0489569.4827.972.5564.3731.104.53
Specified ages367,201254,947102,6219,324309331,662213,495103,06215,0149169.4827.982.5464.3931.084.53
14 years and upwards246,576134,322102,6219,324309213,84995,682103,06215,0149154.5441.673.7944.7648.221.02
Under 14 years120,625120,625......117,813117,813..................
14 years to 15 years8,4138,413......8,2748,274..................
15 years to 16 years8,2178,217......8,2168,2106..........99.930.07..
16 years to 17 years8,2078,207......8,3358,31124..........99.710.29..
17 years to 18 years7,9797,9763....8,0327,97062....99.960.04..99.230.77..
18 years to 19 years8,0368,02016....7,9617,7192393..99.800.20..96.963.000.04
19 years to 20 years7,8927,867232..7,8247,3754472..99.680.290.0394.265.710.03
20 years to 21 years7,4867,37996..117,3386,5138202398.721.28..88.7911.180.03
21 years to 25 years26,65224,2962,281294627,10819,4377,585652191.328.570.1171.7628.000.24
25 years to 30 years30,32319,75210,3581585528,98711,88216,7543331865.2534.220.5341.0257.831.15
30 years to 35 years23,3099,44413,5512872721,4664,39516,4266351040.5658.211.2320.4876.562.96
35 years to 40 years21,9816,45314,9745292518,0802,11915,019934829.3968.202.4111.7283.115.17
40 years to 45 years19,3034,50214,1246433414,8541,17012,4251,254523.3673.303.347.8883.688.44
45 years to 50 years16,2343,36411,9998472412,72575410,3981,574220.7574.025.235.9081.7312.37
50 years to 55 years15,7513,25511,3261,1502011,5225748,9651,979420.6972.007.314.9877.84178
55 years to 60 years13,9972,70610,0311,242188,5973446,2492,000419.3671.768.884.0072.7223.28
60 years to 65 years10,3702,1546,7921,409156,2772814,0981,892620.8065.5913.614.4865.3530.17
65 years to 70 years6,4041,2853,9611,14993,7811592,0701,549320.0961.9417.974.2154.7941.00
70 years to 75 years3,2026431,797751112,2051059061,191320.1556.3123.544.7741.1454.09
75 years to 80 years88,841285895651101,38848418920215.5748.8835.553.4630.1666.38
80 years to 85 years67478295299258830113444111.6143.9044.495.1119.2575.64
85 years to and upwards30526991782291153823718.5832.6758.755.1713.1081.73
Unspecified5292371152415325788131344............
EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE (EXCLUSIVE OF CHINESE).
Ages.Numbers (excluding Chinese).Proportion to every 100 at each Quinquennial Age-period.
Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.
Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.Education unknown.Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.Education unknown.Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.Education unknown.Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.Read and Write.Read only.Cannot Read.
All ages561,77720,114115,1112,647296,8279,93859,4211,544264,95010,17655,6901,10380.602.8916.5181.062.7116.2380.093.0816.83
Specified ages561,24020,097115,0582,468296,4979,92859,3881,388264,74310,16955,6701,08080.592.8916.5281.052.7116.2480.083.0816.84
Specified ages above 5 years561,24019,62031,8912,468296,4979,72517,1531,388264,7439,89514,7381,08091.593.205.2191.693.005.3191.493.425.09
Under 5 years..47783,167....20342,235....27440,932....0.5799.43..0.4899.52..0.6699.34
      5 years to 10 years49,80012,20122,7601,25624,7016,44911,75565325,0995,75211,00560358.7514.4026.8557.5715.0327.4059.9713.7426.29
10 years to 15 years84,15855152922642,27032231513541,8882292149198.730.650.6298.520.750.7398.950.540.51
15 years to 20 years79,90918249011839,8441123007540,05701904399.170.220.6198.980.280.7499.360.170.47
20 years to 25 years67,82717646911233,6541242897134,173521804199.060.260.6898.90.360.8599.330.150.52
25 years to 30 years58,47820650612029,8261113147228,652951924898.800.350.8598.590.371.0499.010.330.66
8,65230 years to 35 years53,7883205788922,7151773595821,0731432193197.990.721.2997.700.761.5498.320.661.02
35 years to 40 years38,7144987519821,2422394415917,4722593103998.871.251.8896.891.092.0296.851.431.72
40 years to 45 years32,49867587810618,4562854966614,0423903824095.441.982.5895.941.482.5894.792.632.58
45 years to 50 years27,1867279598715,3452905475211,8414374123594.162.513.3393.831.793.3893.313.443.25
50 years to 55 years25,0929941,0998814,6943696365210,3986254633692.303.664.0493.602.354.0590.535.444.03
55 years to 60 years20,7498998955113,071376518327,678523377199,2043.993.9793.602.693.7189.516.104.39
60 years to 65 years15,019774808469,564295481305,4554793271690.474.664.8792.502.854.6587.137.655.22
65 years to 70 years9,113573468315,867225297153,2463481711689.755.654.091.833.524.6586.229.244.54
9770 years to 75 years4,668396325182,83917118571,8292251401186.627.356.0388.865.355.7983.3610.266.38
75 years to 80 years2,723268227111,58910314301,13416584584.628.337.0586.605.617.7982.0011.936.07
80 and upwards1,518180149118207777569810372682.199.748.0784.197.917.9079.9511.908.25
Unspecified age under 2111..21125..1476..7534.38..65.6226.32..73.6846.15..53.85
Unspecified age over 21526173216732510191492017131891.482.965.5691.812.825.3790.953.175.88
OCCUPATIONS.
Occupations (Classes and Orders).Numbers.Proportions per Cent.
Persons.Males.Females.Persons.Males.Females.
* Attention is called to the fact that the numbers in the various orders of the commercial class include dealers only, but not manufacturers or makers. These last are included in the orders of the industrial class.
                  Total population703,360371,415331,945100.00100.00100.00
Professional,—
      Persons engaged in Government (not otherwise classed), defence, law, and protection.3,5813,538430.510.960.10
      Persons ministering to religion, charity, health, science, education, and art15,6658,4617,2042.232.282.18
Domestic,—
      Persons engaged in the supply of board and lodging, and in rendering personal service for which remuneration is usually paid28,8105,88022,9304.111.596.93
Commercial,—*
      Persons performing offices in connection with the exchange, valuation, insurance, lease, loan, or custody of money, houses, land, or property-rights4,4604,0314290.641.090.13
      Persons dealing in art or mechanic productions in which materials of various kinds are employed in combination1,7801,5911890.250.430.06
      Persons engaged in the sale, hire, or exchange of textile fabrics and dress, and of fibrous materials4,1623,3088540.590.890.26
      Persons engaged in dealing in food, drinks, narcotics, and stimulants8,1817,4976841.172.020.20
      Persons engaged in dealing in and treating animals, and dealing in animal and vegetable substances (excluding dealers in food)1,7111,700110.250.460.00
      Persons engaged in dealing in minerals and other materials mainly used for fuel and light51050460.070.130.00
      Persons engaged in dealing in minerals other than for fuel1,0601,034260.150.280.01
      Persons engaged as general dealers, or in undefined mercantile pursuits10,6639,0691,5941.522.450.47
      Persons engaged in storage9169163250.130.250.01
      Persons engaged in the transport of passengers, goods, or communications16,93716,6124872.414.480.10
Industrial,—*
      Persons engaged in connection with the manufacture of, or in other processes relating to, art and mechanic productions in which materials of various kinds are employed in combination11,47210,98512,0501.642.960.15
      Persons engaged in connection with the manufacture of, or in repairs, cleansing, or in other processes relating to, textile fabrics, dress and fibrous materials19,8997,8492012.842.123.64
      Persons engaged in connection with the manufacture of, or in other processes relating to food, drink, narcotics, and stimulants5,6475,446180.801.470.06
      Persons (not otherwise classed) engaged in manufacture of, or in other processes connected with animal and vegetable substance4,5814,503170.651.230.01
      Persons engaged in the alteration, modification, or manufacture of, or other processes relating to, metals or mineral matters6,4576,440..0.921.740.00
      Persons engaged in the making or repairing of buildings, roads, railways, docks, earthworks, &c., in the disposal of silt, dead matter, or refuse, or in mechanical operations or labour the nature of which is undefined15,49015,48372.214.3180.00
      Industrial workers imperfectly defined18,26817,8054632.604.800.14
Agricultural, Pastoral, Mineral, and other Primary Producers,—
      Persons directly engaged in the cultivation of land, or in rearing or breeding animals, or in obtaining raw products from natural sources106,130103,0163,11415.1327.800.94
Indefinite,—
      Persons whose occupations are undefined, embracing those who derive incomes from sources which cannot be directly related to any other class6,5524,1642,4180.941.110.73
Dependents,—
      Persons dependent upon natural guardians402,927127,211275,71657.4234.3383.28
      Persons dependent upon the State, or upon public or private support5,8083,5182,2900.830.950.69
Occupations not stated1,693826869......